Rift propagation vs inherited crustal fabrics in the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt (Mexico): insights into geothermal investigations from analogue models Daniele Maestrelli, Marco Bonini, Giacomo Corti, Domenico Montanari, and Giovanna Moratti CNR-IGG The National Research Council of Italy, Institute of Geosciences and Earth Resources About the Authors

INTRODUCTION & AIMS ANALYSIS & RESULTS

STUDY AREA DISCUSSION SETUP COMPARISON WITH NATURE

EXPERIMENTAL SERIES NAVIGATION TOOLS

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This work is submitted to: (CC BY 4.0) INTRODUCTION & AIMS     becoming fact, inherited We geothermal volcanic We scale This Humeros forward This aimed therefore work work the be geothermal possible and systems preferential crustal therefore has is at energy) framed the Acoculco performed been fabrics definition interactions (e in target performed exploitation . in g the . pathways volcanic the . Los Structures analogue Trans for project of Humeros geothermal between the - complexes in Mexican (implementing for the role due models prone magma frame volcanic of and to Volcanic exploration . regional the to to of Acoculco be investigate necessity emplacement features the EGS Belt reactivated tectonics GEMex and . (TMVB) calderas, and to SGS) the - project investigate on tectonic . during and at role the two under . of volcanic possible GEMex elements extension sites rift also exploration propagation in aims at evolution localization, Mexico Bird’s . a might, regional to e ye push : Los for view vs of in of Iztaccíhuatl research Europe GEMex Geothermal Geothermal Systems and Superhot Geothermal (H2020 (H2020 and Project Popocatépetl Programme - - Mexico for development of Enhanced Cooperation volcanoes , Systems grant More about , in the TMVB (16 agreement in in Geothermal energy No. No. th 727550). 727550). October GEMex 2018) STUDY AREA from extension propagation inducing ( ) Cocos Ferrari, at slab plate 2004 surface - tearing TMVB of ) . subduction (modified crustal and THE TRANS the the rotational setup. ( ) Schematic) sketch showing - MEXICAN VOLCANIC BELT d • • • • tectonic This the Progressive upwelling volcanism Rivera In tectonic The some emplacement Trans process and setup feature models - (e Mexican Cocos being SE . g can . - ( , directed Ferrari, extending ) . ( plates of associated be Volcanic , large ) efficiently its 2004 slab and - e genesis scale through Belt ) tearing the . with volcano ( North simulated is , central slab has ; related f TMVB America and been detachment Mexico ) caldera in to is causing a our the plate, large for edifices interaction model a - propagating with scale, length and Maestrelli areas mark plate through TMVB ( ) Geodynamic by ( the . . consequent the NW The ) of and . reproducing between eastward the position more et two to (modified al ( crustal SE . ) North , insets submitted) than setting its trending of the asthenospheric propagation extension the extension ( 1000 America a , of subducting ) study from rotational in the volcano km . and of - STUDY AREA THE MORELIA (2019). collapse. ( ) The LH The ) (modified from Maestrelli(modified etsubmitted) al., Faults are from simplified - Ac Ac study yellowinherited structuresin area, showing that likely the caldera influenced - ACAMBAY FAULT SYSTEM AND LOS HUMEROS AND ACOCULCO CALDERAS Avellán a et al. (2019); b García - Palomo et al. (2018) and and (2018) et al. Norini et al. b • • ( systems to NE are The faults SE of The ) The Morelia ) The W - have inherited SW located area Morelia - . E trending trending (Campos played where ( - Acambay - structure, Acambay ; target a Los extensional inherited - Enriquez role (modified from(modified Maestrelli etsubmitted) al., Humeros of Faultsystem (MAFS) the centralin TMVB during Fault at GEMex structures, & places System faults Garduño (LH) the Project), and collapse reactivated which ( - ; Acoculo that Monroy, MAFS) shows are of are offset these as (Ac) is 1987 hypothesize NW composed strike calderas by - caldera ) SE . a NW - and slip - SETUP applied to monitor model deformation tomonitor model from applied Maestrelli(modified etsubmitted). al., ( ) The rotational) The tectonic setup this study.used in ( …INDUCING …INDUCING EXTENSION PROPAGATION ) Top) strategy photoacquisition view 3D and • • • • • gradient to We a A distribution The ( cut Brittle Montanari using An a PDMS Lower and induce Upper built through use 70 b discontinuities - corundum , of : Crust of up 30 with Crust deformation et a rift of a ( the % al basal rotational respect deformation (LC, . wt , UC propagation (LC, 2017 ) sand 1 Qz layer Rubber cm 1 ) to - simulating . Kfeldspar cm - observed mixture thick) tectonic the at - thick) ( Sheet various North , and layer ) . . in sand setup layer natural (RS) of nature reproduce trending is the simulated mixture is allowed ( model ) simulated faults . in angles order (see ; the are for by ) . SETUP AND EXPERIMENTAL SERIES model (modified from Maestrelli(modified model etsubmitted) al., ( ) Orientation respect of discontinuity sets with S2 of tothe and S1 the north …CUTTING …CUTTING DISCONTINUITIESBRITTLE • • deformation surface Sand the layer Brittle model, at was discontinuities and various then target model. ( to ) ) Example layer) discontinuity of setstwo UC cutting the S2 through and S1 of a ( . ) b . poured etter trending see simulating and angles whether scraped ( a natural discontinuities and ( 1 mm b , faults with thick) are respect are to cut reactivated flatten through to the the North the during model UC of EXPERIMENTAL SERIES etsubmitted) al., Orientation discontinuity of sets forS2andS1 eachfrommodel(modified Maestrelli 10 10 MODELS: DISCONTINUITIES VARIOUSLY TRENDING Model Model RP RP RP RP RP RP RP RP RP RP ------6b 6a 9 8 7 5 4 3 2 1 • provided reported with Model the Azimuth ( of S1Azimuth RP . the - 6 A same a same and third 90 75 60 45 45 15 30 30 / / setup result RP model - 6 a b ) [ as and showed ° Model ] (RP therefore Azimuth ( of S2Azimuth - 6 RP c), different - 6 not b . 180 105 120 135 135 165 125 125 are / / shown, results both b ) [ ° ] • • • more is other NB studies and frame between This trend parametrically We : addressed compare our have was . of at natural represented general the rift models done selected propagation end models prototypes tested in perspective, to of show by the 10 investigate this the to discontinuities models submitted similarities the and presentation! TMVB … and This specific crustal . the (out not aspect fabrics only paper relationships with natural with of 30 to further various many ; ) in apply case see that the MATERIALS AND SCALING Materials scalingand ratio adopted fromfor our models(modified Maestrelli etsubmitted). al., (simulates the Upper (~ (~ 1:1 weight) % in (80:20 (80:20 weight) % in PDMS Lower Crust Qz (simulates (simulates the - K Crust Crust Analogue material & parameter - feldspar sand mixture - Corundum - UC) Strain rate Velocity ‚v (m (m Velocity s ‚v - Gravity Gravity (m g s LU) Stress Length (m) l s ' (Pa) '

 Density Density r (kg m Viscosity h (Pa s)

 Density Density Thickness Thickness h (m) Internal friction Thickness h (m) Cohesion Cohesion c (Pa) ( coefficient coefficient m s - 2 - - 1 ) 1 ) ) r (kg m - 3 - ) MODEL 3 ) 5.55x10 5.55x10 1.69x10 Model 0.81 1440 9.81 0.01 0.01 1440 0.01 ~6 - 1 - - 6 4 : 5 …SOME …SOME PARAMETERS (=12.5 mm mm (=12.5 yr (uppercrust) 2.66 3.99 3.99 10 Nature ~1x10 15000 15000 ~2700 9.81 0.85 15000 ~2700 x10 10 NATURE 22 7 - 10 - 14 - 1 ) Model/Nature ratio v*= l*=14000 v*= e* l*=6.67 x l*=6.67 10 s h*=6.67x10 h*=6.67 h*=6.67 x 10 h*=1.69x10 *=3.53x10 = e*= e*= s*/h* c*=6x10 r 2.1x10 r m*~ m*~ 1 *~0.53 g*=1 *=0.53 = 10 - 7 - - - 7 - 7 7 17 - 7 1 cm 1 • • • • simulated ca In ( Montanari feldspar granular for (*) adopted experimental The mixture simulated An by A 2019 Lower . particular, a : denotes 6 a PDMS Upper . ) 7 . table given 15 km 15 . x Crust for material 15 10 sand using - et corundum the - Crust the km 7 parameter al the shows materials , (LC, . ratio such 70 in ( analogue mixture 2017 geometrical 1 : nature 30 (LC, represented cm between that sand ) ( the % . - and thick) and 1 Characteristics . wt 1 mixture models are Del cm ) characteristics cm the Qz model layer scaling - thick) Ventisette - derived Kfeldspar in by . scaling . The is the and the simulated ratio layer asterisk models of nature ratios Qz et from sand was the - al K of is - . ANALYSIS & RESULTS • • Distal area to represented create toward opposite Deformation discontinuity A REFERENCE MODEL (RP first ) . model the a to V the poles - by to shaped started (Model poles E be Propagation of extension - W of used trending rotation of in pattern RP as rotation) the - reference 1 ) distal (proximal graben was of - and 1) :NO DISCONTINUITIES run deformation area model systems continued with area) ( . ; Proximal area i no . to ( e . Poles of rotation ( to ) ) Top) evolutionview of reference RP Model (modified from(modified Maestrelli etsubmitted) al., - 1 ANALYSIS & RESULTS • • • surface the Profile from is throw density larger Interestingly deformation slope vertical rotation The REFERENCE MODEL (RP particularly proximal wedge model is analysis bulk a elevation throw ( is - smaller, ( a’ ) Top ) higher shows, DEM , ( and deformation, stage of steeper - ) its its analysis. ( slope ) area view interpretation view RP of Model DEM) on (superimposed of evident performed deformation incrementally . similar ( ( the  ( Closer ) d) in toward . ) scarps . faults of fact, comparing to about to this . the on a localize the These the gradual propagates (modified from Maestrelli(modified etsubmitted). al., 3 slope increases also the ) Trace of topographic( in profiles shown distal mm poles - observations 1) :NO DISCONTINUITIES topographic in DEM being (see of decrease the area, of the the section distal obtained rotation, toward the fault with number, of area area profiles are scarps a - elevation a a’ the supported for vertical as variation where in length result ( the obtained poles ) . ) . from fault fault final This of and - by 1 and of of a ) ANALYSIS & RESULTS submitted). toward the proximal areaRP of Model ( ) Graph showing the the decrease) Graphof showing of n. REFERENCE MODEL (RP - 1 (modified from 1 Maestrelli(modified et al., grabens - , their depth and width width and depth their , 1) :NO DISCONTINUITIES ( ) Topographic profiles RP across Model c • - 1. Locations are shown in previous slide. (modified from Locations previous 1. are(modified slide. in shown reduced and ( d progressively main propagation orthogonal, subsidence moving model Grabens - ) d’, . central Fault as are plate well in forming grabens density the . areas the ( as to decreases Topographic rotation, ), proximal shows graben . first in of the is the the higher Maestrelli etsubmitted). al., Graben to the and direction area in distal width model, be profile presence show profiles ( in created area ) and . the while number c a of - of c’ depth larger distal of b and it the rift six - by b’ is ANALYSIS & RESULTS MODEL RP - 2 to RP - 4: a =30; b =125 observed. (modified from from Maestrelli (modified observed. submitted). et al., set( discontinuity S2 structural a similar showing patterRP toModel ( ) Model RP ) Model • • • ( reactivated Interestingly, the fault metal model rotation proximal evolution In discontinuities sets Model a = these - 30 model) 2 ( 2 throw ° of . plates ) RP ) Model RP ) Model The discontinuities to area - discontinuities b models 2 of . =25 , and (red The form wedge . RP Model model ° of ; ; No reactivation redlines). of set ( S1 discontinuities trends - 3 fault average - lines the 3 and ( and 3 and a the tip “V model, number deformation RP in with RP - was general migrated shaped” ) Model RP ) Model - fault - 1 4 , , in angles ) ( observed showing which while trend (both to combination trending development - subsiding progressively 1 and clear 1 clear and reactivation of - ) of 4 topview evolution, showed were no progressively is larger a . N incipient = evidence 30 90 designed ° ° for with . (set wedge a or clear faults did a with S of normal =30 1 propagated one b ) to = reactivation in not and gradient ° 125 on ) was ) the test the by the ° b differ faulting opening = the 125 centre were distal one in toward role ° . from . of terms part clearly in of Tested of of set two the the the the the S of of 1 ANALYSIS & RESULTS observed reactivation ( to ) Model in MODEL RP Model of discontinuity RP - RP 5 - to 6 a,b Model ( - a 5 to RP = sets 45 RP ° ; S - b 1 9 = 135 and top - ; 9: view S 2 and (red a evolution and ) lines) (modified b is . No with visible from Reactivation Maestrelli in various Models is et RP visible al trend - . 7 , submitted) to in RP - Model 9 . Besides, . RP - 5 ambiguous ( a = 15 ° ; b = 165 reactivation ° ; ) . Clear is • • • ( for different Beside, figure) to trend clearly RP evidence While trending systematically These a = - RP 5 45 reactivation , - ° a reactivation 9 some . ; models ; = had b 15 see with = model of attempts 135 ° ; reactivation trends evidence respective b different ; = (RP tested 165 and of RP - (e 5 ° did unclear ; . sets - to g 6 discontinuities . ) of , . a not ) trends RP models (e showed some and S S . - 1 1 g show 9 evidence . , , and and b Model . in other RP to any the S S - in 2 7 2 ) DISCUSSION from displacement ( ) Two Maestrelli target (using top et al - view . , PIVlab submitted) photos software, (time . interval Thielicke 1200 & Stamhuis s) used GENERAL ASPECTS to , 2014 calculate ) (modified vector • • • • deformation “V overall al Nonetheless brittle rifting, ( analysis, This lower smaller distal The toward nature expected Distribution , - ( shaped” 2017 , gradient behaviour ) . deformation regions discontinuities of such surface the This , in marking the 2018 from distal poles system , as pattern and toward of modelling the of , deformation the is vertical the 2019 the in of chronology a role areas . models decreasing agreement of rotation the was adopted models ) in . of extensional setup Despite fault our adjacent rotation inherited observed by . compares experimental displacement of (where Zwaan implies modelling velocity with fault a poles to faults different fabrics in the et the cumulative formation a well . other gradient gradient al velocity with . rotation strategy, series was ( with is 2019 aim models also a also toward clear represents our ) pattern of is . deformation and The consistently poles, deformation in whereby addressed models, reproducing decreasing agreement modelling presence the highlighted which a poles as difference the is by higher both propagating of larger) gradient experience of setup, with Molnar rotational rotational inherited rotation by show in what DPIV . and the the of et a DISCUSSION EFFECT OF RIFT PROPAGATION ON INHERITED FABRICS in ( • • • ) Model Example trending This single for Angles ranging There RP reactivation, behaviour - of 3 one is tested (modified between reactivated a with clear (i . e . in an , Model relationship is Model from since angle a structures = confirmed 45 Maestrelli ° RP out a< RP and - 30 6 - of 6 a) acting ° b (i between and = the showed . by et e 135 . , al as b> set three the . ° , transfer submitted) are 135 S the slight 1 observation favourably ° models trending ( trend zones ) . reactivation . performed of a= oriented discontinuities that 45 • • • ° and propagation propagation, In faults Reactivated the Remarkable discontinuities rift Interesting . no - with other related set for reactivation rift to being S - 2 this shift related trending and models, is faults is structures of setup, reactivated the laterally them . the their rift has effect faults - (i effect related b= . two discontinuities reactivation e being 135 . been (yellow , acted of the were ( of during ° ) faults reactivated ) likely discontinuity . observed reactivated black as arrows not (e ( transfer represent their reactivated . ) lines g : . trending , only in for brittle in propagation, in as ) model set zones, . discontinuities discontinuities “limit ), highly S (crustal) 2 and to were trending RP forcing angles” low - only 8 dilatant ) influenced . - weak deflecting angle a the at - a zones propagation = structures, to 125 from ( ) by the Reactivated ° their in Maestrelli that the our direction interacted reactivation trajectory models inhibited of et rift angles al . - , related . of submitted) Many with (modified ( the rift of ) . . COMPARISON WITH NATURE study ( • • ) TMVB no Furthermore with Similarities areas NW and some . (modified - SE its trending major extension were , fault from also exceptions density structure Maestrelli through observed COMPARISON WITH THE TMVB is the represented are et higher al comparing North observed . , submitted) in America the by at extensional area ~N surface plate - S where - trending . The . This tectonic two crustal is structural insets in agreement extension structures, mark systems the was position with showing (e originated, the . g . of , a the pattern a the trend Colima while • of roughly deformation toward model, ( reaching thickness Ferrari Rift less ) . Such and parallel deformation the where et the the an doubles al area Penajmillo reproduced . maximum increase to analogue ( 2012 adjacent the is direction from ) observed was showed Graben value by crust to W our also the - NW of below thickness ; toward models how poles observed rift ) . toward propagation, Mexico the of SE, is rotation crustal higher where in E City - our SE, COMPARISON WITH NATURE • • submitted) central ( ) faults Fault ( which This discontinuities occasionally close Models The Garduño Morelia TMVB is reactivation are to has in RP - often Monroy the good - - 6 been Acambay (modified a,b be reactivated trending boundary reactivated showed agreement interpreted can et Fault al be from . , 2009 that b related system = of with 125 COMPARISON WITH THE MAFS by with Maestrelli ) as a . reactivation, extension ° discontinuity a (MAFS) a to are strike the reactivated rift invariably setting - et - related slip in propagation, the al component, . , and with of extensional fault reactivated the can b = system 135 MAFS, while a only which ° is faulting . may . offset Model the RP E - - 4 W (as a fault well pattern b as others, • • . azimuth b and corresponds trending S faults geographic we In ( show trending Miocene models shows The Garduño 2 = ) 135 order are e tested . have Morelia Models g ° is . evidence , dissected : in Model comparable of to - important a Quaternary - faults Monroy the N b rotated north compare system = - 150 in to Acambay RP 125 model RP ° - an of (yellow Model in 6 ° by ( - a,b et 3 nature) of ) azimuth ) right the . to our in al similarities older showed grabens The that (anisotropies roughly . that Fault , - 2009 models lateral lines RP model the trend . (~ correspond of - 4 N 30 System ) that . (white 140 discontinuities E in model (anisotropies - of Ma) reactivation with W to ° with inherited in the - ), trending trending lines (MAFS) NW fit nature) nature, which MAFS to that our - the SE in an COMPARISON WITH NATURE • • • (modified yellow area, ( likely )The process A WP that This values Applying COMPARISON WITH LH AND further showing 4 LH inherited influenced implies the Working - from Ac were for NW study the observation in Maestrelli producing structures that tested - SE counter Group, the trending in in this caldera et that - 2019 Model intersecting clockwise al based . area , submitted) faults ) . collapse RP the on - in 4 modelling rotation discontinuities , the active which Acoculco structures, showed of Ac results 15 ° CALDERA AREAS caldera trending to that is the which that discontinuity model system a around the provide b interaction ( show ), N 140 we favourable set the ° obtain : INSIGHTS : INSIGHTS S might 2 between highest was a have conditions reactivated = 30 a alteration rift ° been and - related INTO GEOTHERMAL ASPECTS • • b reactivated for = by permeability fluids systems the These 2018 al Enriquez observed discontinuities Humeros Inherited 135 produced . localising , crustal faults 2017 ° ) localization . for structures might . ; and . & discontinuities extension and Here, This Avellán at crustal by volcanic Garduño associated inherited circulation Acoculco Acocuclo result have striking magma may of et fabrics induced centres - Monroy, accords migrated have volcanic al on fabrics . with area S , and of 1 and 2019 average played . are and geothermal by the well ( Los 1987 may ; the associated ), and S reported exploiting existing García 2 where with , an Humeros N ; rift provide respectively 45 Carrasco caldera important propagation ° the - fluids Palomo and two structures in observation geothermal an secondary N - (Campos trends Núñez ( 140 complex the efficient Liotta . role et These ° . . are Los al of et in & . - , COMPARISON WITH NATURE Normalized regime ( • • ) Stress (e This can Even COMPARISON WITH LH AND . . g ( . represent ) , field observation if Carrasco T Standard D we for acting cannot Model - a stress Núñez on favourable RP is consider models - in 4 conditions , et calculated agreement al . . ( , condition the 2017 ) Theoretical assumed using Dilation ) that with FracPaQ for for might the tendency channelling stress Ac the hypothesis software have analysis CALDERA AREAS filed (T favoured inducing D (Healy upward ) of of that dilation a & structure Rizzo, a magma Los magmatic normal tendency Humeros 2017 50 100 emplacement Pa as faulting ) : INSIGHTS : INSIGHTS . Pa a fluids, . direct ( and ) which • • • Acoculco proxy . with values discontinuities Nonetheless the trending As stretching a al tendency Fault . , may scaled expected, INTO GEOTHERMAL ASPECTS for 1999 imposed rift reactivation calderas sometimes permeability, in - ) related normal was turn ( imposed standard , to stress the tested localize T are of D faults ) faults . most set Normalized can being field bounded analysis by the on stress S model eruptive (marked 2 be dilatant which . the propensity > may 8 also ), faults by field especially shows deformation experience developed Dilation analysed by centres structures inherited of warm compatible of Model that a . tendency in structure colours in as some rectilinear the (T ( terms also RP a D , = direct area 1 - ) 4 . dilation ) with in , (T are by to reactivated of D of ; ) be applying effect . structures the Dilation Ferril linkage crustal opened (with W of et - E CONCLUSIONS • • Los • • • • • Humeros localizing Our and the Large Our ability Depending angle The thinning Our structures Our Morelia may analysis results models analysis parametric - ≥ scale power to 45 toward interact offset volcanic ° with on to similarities of plant Acambay reproduced confirms confirms the modelling their respect rift . study the Source with orthogonal centres propagation, orientation, pole Fault that rift : explored that can http to provide satisfactorily of - related the and, rift : be //www System reactivated rotation to orthogonal propagation found afterward, rift the reactivated generating new . gemex faults and propagation . relationships when Models insights rift - . the h structure 2020 to the propagation may comparing Los fault rift inherited . eu are migration into … SOME REMARKS Humeros control propagation . patterns comparable bear between the faults our reactivation in the both of and terms similar models geothermal potential a are (i the Acoculco in propagating . e general . often of , large to the to density of some the to initial - acting scale inherited areas fluids terms became Trans natural continental of and s . . as 3 Here, with - structures, axis) Mexican transfer local fabrics, preferential examples existing inherited was - scale rift Volcanic suggesting systematically faults number and deformation processes in discontinuities pathways the or the Belts, oblique TMVB and that existing described varied depth as for patterns . the - slip well magma reactivation are crustal paper! aspect many NB . faults of as in reactivated : grabens along to our the . discontinuities emplacement, the other These is models literature the addressed local , field and TMVB features natural as - scale is overall transfer show . delimited . . setting therefore have Trend in prototypes similarities crustal faults the the by of of submitted … with This OTHER COMPARISONS WITH NATURE • between In our submitted propagating paper rift we systems compare … SOME MORE EXAMPLES and our inherited models crustal to other fabrics natural … Gofa we Devana examples, province hope Chasma to show focusing you This work issubmittedto: this on the soon! interaction • Avellán, D. R., Macías, J. L., Layer, P. W., Cisneros, G., Sánchez-Núñez, J. M., Gómez-Vasconcelos, M. G., Pola, A., Sosa-Ceballos, G., García-Tenorio, F., Reyes Agustín, G., Osorio-Ocampo, S., García-Sánchez, L., Mendiola, I.F., Marti, J., López-Loera H., Benowitz, J. (2019). Geology of the late Pliocene–Pleistocene Acoculco caldera complex, eastern Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt (México). Journal of Maps, 15(2), 8-18. https://doi.org/10.1080/17445647.2018.1531075 • Campos-Enriquez, J., & Garduño-Monroy, V. H. (1987). The shallow structure of Los Humeros and Las Derrumbadas geothermal fields, Mexico. Geothermics, 16(5-6), 539-554. https://doi.org/10.1016/0375-6505(87)90038-1 • Carrasco-Núñez, G., López-Martínez, M., Hernández, J., & Vargas, V. (2017). Subsurface stratigraphy and its correlation with the surficial geology at Los Humeros geothermal field, eastern Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt. Geothermics, 67, 1-17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.geothermics.2017.01.001 • Del Ventisette, C., Bonini, M., Agostini, A., Corti, G., Maestrelli, D., & Montanari, D. (2019). Using different grain-size granular mixtures (quartz and K-feldspar sand) in analogue extensional models. Journal of Structural Geology, 129, 103888. Del Ventisette, C., Bonini, M., Agostini, A., Corti, G., Maestrelli, D., & Montanari, D. (2019). Using different grain-size granular mixtures (quartz and K-feldspar sand) in analogue extensional models. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Journal of Structural Geology, 129, 103888. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsg.2019.103888 • Ferrari, L. (2004). Slab detachment control on mafic volcanic pulse and mantle heterogeneity in central Mexico. Geology, 32(1), 77-80. Ferrari, L. (2004). Slab detachment control on mafic volcanic pulse and mantle heterogeneity in central Mexico. Geology, 32(1), 77-80. This work has been performed in the frame of the https://doi.org/10.1130/G19887.1 • Ferrari, L., Orozco-Esquivel, T., Manea, V., & Manea, M. (2012). The dynamic history of the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt and the Mexico subduction GEMex Project-Cooperation in Geothermal zone. Tectonophysics, 522, 122-149. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2011.09.018 • Ferrill, D.A., Winterle, J., Wittmeyer, G., Sims, D., Colton, S., Armstrong, A. & Morris, A.P. (1999). Stressed rock strains groundwater at Yucca energy research Europe-Mexico for development Mountain, Nevada. GSA Today, 9(5), pp.1-8. • García-Palomo, A., Macías, J. L., Jiménez, A., Tolson, G., Mena, M., Sánchez-Núñez, J. M., ... & Lermo-Samaniego, J. (2018). NW-SE Pliocene- of Enhanced Geothermal Systems and Superhot Quaternary extension in the Apan-Acoculco region, eastern Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, 349, 240-255. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2017.11.005 Geothermal Systems • Garduño-Monroy et al., 2009Garduño-Monroy, V. H., Pérez-Lopez, R., Israde-Alcantara, I., Rodríguez-Pascua, M. A., Szynkaruk, E., Hernández- Madrigal, V. M., ... & García-Estrada, G. (2009). Paleoseismology of the southwestern Morelia-Acambay fault system, central Mexico. Geofísica internacional, 48(3), 319-335. • Healy, D., Rizzo, R. E., Cornwell, D. G., Farrell, N. J., Watkins, H., Timms, N. E., ... & Smith, M. (2017). FracPaQ: A MATLAB™ toolbox for the quantification of fracture patterns. Journal of Structural Geology, 95, 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsg.2016.12.003 • Liotta, D., and WP4 Working Group, (2019). Final report on active systems: Los Humeros and Acoculco. Deliverable 4.1, GEMex project, European Union’s Horizon 2020 programme, 334 pp. • Maestrelli, D., Montanari, D., Corti, G., Del Ventisette, C., Moratti, G., Bonini, M. (submitted to Tectonics). Exploring the interactions between rift propagation and inherited crustal fabrics through experimental modelling. • Molnar, N. E., Cruden, A. R., & Betts, P. G. (2017). Interactions between propagating rotational rifts and linear rheological heterogeneities: Insights from three‐dimensional laboratory experiments. Tectonics, 36(3), 420-443. https://doi.org/10.1002/2016TC004447 • Molnar, N. E., Cruden, A. R., & Betts, P. G. (2018). Unzipping continents and the birth of microcontinents. Geology, 46(5), 451-454. https://doi.org/10.1130/G40021.1 • Molnar, N. E., Cruden, A. R., & Betts, P. G. (2019). Interactions between propagating rifts and linear weaknesses in the lower crust. Geosphere. https://doi.org/10.1130/GES02119.1 (Horizon 2020 Programme, grant agreement No. • Montanari, D., Agostini, A., Bonini, M., Corti, G., & Ventisette, C. (2017). The use of empirical methods for testing granular materials in analogue modelling. Materials, 10(6), 635. 727550). We kindly acknowledge the Europe-Mexico • Thielicke, W and Stamhuis, E J (2014) PIVlab – Towards User-friendly, Affordable and Accurate Digital Particle Image Velocimetry in MATLAB. Journal of Open Research Software, 2: e30, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5334/jors.bl consortium and all the GEMex parteners for providing • Zwaan, F., Schreurs, G., & Rosenau, M. (2019). Rift propagation in rotational versus orthogonal extension: Insights from 4D analogue models. support to this research.

Journal of Structural Geology, 103946. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsg.2019.103946 REFERENCE AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS DANIELE MAESTRELLI MARCO BONINI GIACOMO CORTI

CNR-IGG The National Research Council of Italy, CNR-IGG The National Research Council of Italy, CNR-IGG The National Research Council of Italy, Institute of Geosciences and Earth Resources, Institute of Geosciences and Earth Resources, Institute of Geosciences and Earth Resources, Florence, Italy Florence, Italy Florence, Italy

E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] DOMENICO MONTANARI GIOVANNA MORATTI • Daniele is a post-doc research fellow at the IGG-CNR, Florence.

• His interests are related to structural geology, analogue

ABOUT THE AUTHORS modelling, seismic

interpretation, mud volcanism CNR-IGG The National Research Council of Italy, CNR-IGG The National Research Council of Italy, and fluid migration. Institute of Geosciences and Earth Resources, Institute of Geosciences and Earth Resources, Florence, Italy Florence, Italy

E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected]