Notes

Introduction – The Approach Taken: Why Britain, and the ?

1. A. Williams, Liberalism and War: The Victors and the Vanquished (London: Routledge, 2006), pp. 32– 35. 2. S. Vucetic, The Anglosphere: The Genealogy of a Racialized Identity in International Relations (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2011). 3. Take for example Ricardo’s predictions of the future world economy; Scott Gordon points out that ‘Ricardo’s model of economic development failed on all its major predictions’ though ‘[historical prediction] is not important for neoclas- sical and Keynesian theory, which both focus upon short- run phenomena and have little, if anything, to say about the course of history’; S. Gordon, The History and Philosophy of Social Science (London: Routledge, 1991); ‘Classical Political Economy’, pp. 193– 194. 4. M. Thomas and A. Thompson, ‘Empire and Globalization: From “High Imperialism to Decolonization”’, International History Review, Vol. 36, No. 1, February 2014, pp. 142–170. 5. M. Macmillan, Peacemakers: Six Months that Changed the World (London: Hodder, 2003) and; E. Manela, The Wilsonian Moment:Self- Determination and the International Origins of Anticolonial Nationalism: Self- Determination and the International Origins of Anticolonial Nationalism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007). 6. F. Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (New York: Free Press, 1992). 7. A. Williams, Failed Imagination? The Anglo- American New World Order from Wilson to Bush, 2nd edn (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2007). 8. D. Long and P. Wilson (eds), Thinkers of the Twenty Years’ Crisis: Inter- War Idealism Reassessed (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995). 9. A. Williams, ‘Before the Special Relationship: The Council on Foreign Relations, The Carnegie Foundation and the Rumour of an Anglo- American War’, Journal of Transatlantic Studies, Vol. 1, No. 2, Autumn 2003, pp. 233– 251. 10. A. Williams, ‘Why Don’t the French Do Think Tanks? France Faces up to the Anglo- Saxon Superpowers, 1918– 1921’, Review of International Studies, Vol. 34, No.1, January 2008, pp. 53– 68. 11. T. Zeldin, France, 1848– 1945: Politics and Anger (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1979), pp. 3–10. 12. P. Braillard, Théorie des relations internationales (Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1977); M.- C. Smouts, Les nouvelles relations internationals: Pratiques et theo- ries (Paris: Presses de , 1998). 13. For example: B. Badie, La diplomatie de connivence: Les dérives oligarchiques du sys- tème international (Paris: , 2011); Le diplomate et l’intrus: L’entrée des sociétés dans l’arène international (Paris: Fayard, 2008); L’Etat importé: L’occidentalisation de l’ordre politique (Paris: Fayard, 1992), translated into English as: The Imported State: The Westernization of the Political Order (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2000). 14. P. Chabal and J.- P. Daloz, Africa Works: Disorder as a Political Instrument (Oxford: James Currey, 1999); and Culture Troubles: Politics and the Interpretation of Meaning (London: Hurst and Company, 2006).

194 Notes 195

15. D. Haglund, ‘Devant L’Empire: France and the Question of “American Empire,” from Theodore Roosevelt to George W. Bush’, Diplomacy and Statecraft, Vol. 19, No. 4, 2008, pp. 746– 766. 16. F. McLynn, 1759: The Year Britain Became Master of the World (London: Pimlico, 2005). 17. M. Berman, All That Is Solid Melts into Air: The Experience of Modernity (London: Verso, 1983), p. 13. 18. T. Zeldin, An Intimate History of Humanity (London: Vintage, 1998), p. 8. 19. G. Sorel, Reflections on Violence (New York: Peter Smith, 1915) (first published in French in 1906), pp. 3– 4, ‘Letter to Daniel Halévy’. 20. J.- P. Sartre, Les mains sales (Paris: Gallimard, 1972) (first published 1948). 21. G. Sorel, Les Illusions du Progrès (Paris: Marcel Rivière, 2nd edn, 1911) (first pub- lished 1908). 22. Some of the key formulations of this can be found in R. Keohane and J. Nye, Transnational Relations and World Politics (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1973); S. Huntington, ‘Transnational Organizations in World Politics’, World Politics, Vol. 25, No. 3, 1973, pp. 333– 368. 23. J. Nye, Soft Power: The Means to Success in World Politics (New York: Public Affairs, 2004), p. x. 24. For one exploration of this see C. Murphy, International Organization and Industrial Change (Cambridge: Polity, 1994). 25. G. Hodgson, ‘The Establishment’, Foreign Policy, 1972–73, pp. 4– 5, quoted by: I. Parmar, Foundations of the American Century: The Ford, Carnegie and Rockefeller Foundations (New York: Columbia University Press, 2012), p. 17. 26. I. Parmar, Think Tanks and Power in Foreign Policy: A Comparative Study of the Role and Influence of the Council on Foreign Relations and the Royal Institute of International Affairs, 1939– 1945 (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004). 27. Parmar, Foundations of the American Century, p. 4. 28. D. Gorman, The Emergence of International Society in the 1920s (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012), p. 16. He is paraphrasing the Australian aca- demic Hedley Bull in his most famous book, The Anarchical Society (New York: Columbia University Press, 3rd edn, 2002) (first published 1977). 29. For a good summary of the origins of the ‘English School’ see: T. Dunne, Inventing International Society: A History of the English School (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 1998). See also, among other works and authors: I. Hall, The International Thought of Martin Wight (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006); A. Hurrell, On Global Order: Power, Values, and the Constitution of International Society (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008); R. Little, The Balance of Power in International Relations: Metaphors, Myths and Models (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007). 30. Gorman, The Emergence of International Society, p. 5. 31. Williams, ‘Why Don’t the French Do Think Tanks’, pp. 53– 68. 32. S. McClelland, The French Right: From de Maistre to Maurras (London: Jonathan Cape, 1970), p. 15. 33. S. Collini, Absent Minds: Intellectuals in Britain (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006), p. 1. 34. See A. Williams, ‘Waiting for Monsieur Bergson: Nicholas Murray Butler, James T. Shotwell and the French Sage’, Diplomacy and Statecraft, Vol. 23, No. 2, 1 June 2012, pp. 236– 253(18). 35. Zeldin, France, 1848– 1945, pp. viii– x. 36. A. Siegfried, Tableau des Parties en France (Paris: Bernard Grasset, 1930), pp. 1, 9. 196 Notes

37. H. Sée, Evolution et Révolutions: Les revolutions anglaises du XVII siècle, la revolution américaine, la revolution française … (Paris: Flamarrion, 1929). There is a clear influ- ence of Sée’s thinking to be found in more recent analyses of France, for example by T. Skocpol, States and Social Revolutions (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979), esp. chapter 5. 38. H. Nicolson, Peacemaking 1919 (London: Grosset and Dunlap, 1933), Chapter VIII, p. 193. 39. H. Mackinder, ‘The Round World and the Winning of the Peace’, Foreign Affairs, Vol. 21, No. 4, July 1943, pp. 595– 605. Other references to UK- US- French coop- eration (as well as cooperation with the USSR) are scattered through the article. I would like to thank Luke Ashworth for this reference. 40. See (A. Léger) St- John Perse, Letters (trans. Arthur J. Knodel) (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1979). 41. D. Watson, ‘The Writer- Diplomat – Practices, Social Interactions, Influences, 19th to 21st Centuries’ [Report of a Colloquium held at La Courneuve, French Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 12– 14 May 2011] British International History Group, Newsletter, No. 18, Summer 2012, p. 3. This has now been published as L. Badel, G. Ferraqu et al., Ecrivains et diplomates: L’invention d’une tradition XIXe– XX1e siè- cles (Paris: , 2012). 42. B. Adams, The New Empire (New York: Macmillan, 1902), p. xv, quoted by N. Smith, American Empire: Roosevelt’s Geographer and the Prelude to Globalization (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004), p. 10. 43. Smith, American Empire, p. xvii. 44. Ibid., pp. 15– 16. 45. G. Lundestad, ‘Empire’ by Integration: The United States and European Integration, 1945–1997 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997). 46. Tacitus, The Agricola and the Germania (London: Penguin, 1971). 47. J. Reeves, Culture and International Relations: Narratives, Natives and Tourists (London: Routledge, 2004), p. 27. For the notion of a ‘standard of civilization’ see G. Gong, The Standard of Civilization in International Society (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1984). 48. L. Ashworth, A History of International Thought: From the Origins of the Modern State to Academic International Relations, Routledge, 2014 p. 3. 49. Ibid., quoting Q. Skinner, ‘Meaning and the History of Ideas’, History and Theory, Vol. 8, No. 1, 1969, p. 53. 50. J. Charmley, Churchill’s Grand Alliance: The Anglo- American Special Relationship, 1940– 57 (London: John Curtis/Hodder and Stoughton, 1995), p. 5. 51. D. Gilmour, The Long Recessional: The Imperial Life of Rudyard Kipling (London: John Murray, 2002); R. Kipling, Kim (London: Penguin, 2012). 52. L. Woolf, International Government (London: Hogarth Press, 1916), p. 8, quoted by Reeves, Culture and International Relations, p. 31. 53. For that I would refer the reader to the literature known as the ‘liberal peace’; cf. M. Doyle, Ways of War and Peace: Realism, Liberalism and Socialism (New York: Norton, 1997); S. Campbell, D. Chandler and M. Sabaratnam, A Liberal Peace? (London: Zed Books, 2011). 54. Zeldin, An Intimate History of Humanity, p. 14. 55. N. Rengger, Political Theory, Modernity and Postmodernity: Beyond Enlightenment and Critique (Oxford: Blackwell, 1995), p. 200; Z. Bauman, Postmodernity and Its Discontents (Cambridge: Polity, 1997). 56. R. Wickes, Modern French Philosophy: From Existentialism to Postmodernism (Oxford: One World, 2003), p. 6. Notes 197

1 The Anglo-Saxons and the French: The Build-up to the First World War

1. James Bryce to Seth Low, 6 July 1900, Special Collections, Butler Library, Columbia University. 2. For a discussion of the British nineteenth century view on this see: D. Bell, The Idea of a Greater Britain: Empire and the Future of World Order, 1860– 1900 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2007). 3. W.K. Hazelden, Daily Mirror, 4 July 1905: British Cartoon Archive, University of Kent, Canterbury. 4. A. de Tocqueville, The Ancien Regime and the French Revolution (London: Penguin, 2008). 5. E. Bloch, ‘Discussing Impressionism’ in Das Wort, in 1938, reprinted in R. Taylor (ed.) Aesthetics and Politics (London: New Left Books, 1977), p. 44; Z. Bauman, Modernity and the Holocaust (London: Polity, 1991), p. xiii. 6. For the United States’ imperial designs before 1900 see R. Kagan, Dangerous Nation: America and the World, 1600– 1898 (London: Atlantic Books, 2006); W. LaFeber, The American Age: United States Foreign Policy at Home and Abroad since 1750 (New York: Norton, 1989) and R. Van Alstyne, The Rising American Empire (Oxford: Blackwell, 1960). 7. J.A. Hobson, Imperialism: A Study (London: Nisbet, 1902); H.N. Brailsford, The War of Steel and Gold: A Study of the Armed Peace, 9th edition (London: Bell, 1917), pp. 29– 32. 8. G. Dangerfield, The Strange Death of Liberal England (London: Transaction Publishers, 2011) (first published 1935). 9. Quoted by R. Shattuck, The Banquet Years: The Origins of the Avant- Garde in France: 1885 to World War 1 (London: Jonathan Cape, 1969), p. xv. 10. Z. Sternhell, La droite révolutionaire: Les origines françaises du fascisme (Paris: Seuil, 1978), p. 15; M. Winock, La Belle Epoque (Paris: Perrin, 2003); M. Whalan, American Culture in the 1910s (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2010). 11. Shattuck, Banquet Years, p. 5; M. Barrès, Les déracinés (Paris: Bibliothèque Charpentier, 1897). 12. M. Winock, Edouard Drumont et Cie: antisémitisme et fascisme en France (Paris: Seuil, 1982). 13. R. Vinen, A History in Fragments: Europe in the Twentieth Century (London: Abacus, 2002), p. 17. 14. J. Baechler, J. Hall and M. Mann, Europe and the Rise of Capitalism (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1988), p. 2. 15. E. Gentile, L’Apocalypse de la modernité: La Grande Guerre et l’homme nouveau (Paris: Aubire, 2008). 16. F. Field, Three French Writers and the Great War: Barbusse, Drieu La Rochelle, Bernanos (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1975), p. 1. 17. M. Winock, Le siècle des intellectuels (Paris: Seuil, 1997). 18. A. J. Mayer, The Persistence of the Old Regime: Europe to the Great War (London: Croom Helm, 1981), p. 22. 19. The best introductions are by D. Judd, Empire: The British Imperial Experience, from 1765 to the Present (London: Fontana, 1997); R. Hyam, Britain’s Imperial Century, 1815– 1914: A Study of Empire and Expansion (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002) and B. Porter, The Lion’s Share: A Short History of British Imperialism 1850– 1990, 23rd edn (London: Pearson, 2004). 198 Notes

20. B. Nasson, Britannia’s Empire: A Short History of the British Empire (London: The History Press, 2006); T. E. Devine, To the Ends of the Earth: Scotland’s Global Diaspora, 1750– 2010 (London: Allen Lane, 2011). 21. J. Gallagher and R. Robinson, ‘The Imperialism of Free Trade’, The Economic History Review, Second series, Vol. VI, no. 1 (1953), pp. 1– 15. 22. T. Akami, Japan’s News Propaganda and Reuter’s News Empire in Northeast Asia, 1870– 1934 (Dordrecht: Republic of Letters, 2012), esp. Introduction and chapter 1. See also D. Read, The Power of News, The History of Reuters (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999). 23. I. Parmar, Think Tanks and Power in Foreign Policy, and ‘ Anglo- American Elites in the Interwar Years: Idealism and Power in the Intellectual Roots of Chatham, House and the Council for Foreign Relations’, International Relations, Vol. 16, No. 1, April 2002, pp. 53– 76. See also, for a Marxist interpretation of this phenom- enon: K. van der Pijl, Transnational Classes and International Relations (London: Routledge, 1998). 24. Quoted by P. Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers: Economic Challenge and Military Conflict from 1500 to 2000 (New York: Random House, 1987), p. 229, and P. Doerr, British Foreign Policy, 1919– 1939 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1998), p. 2. 25. For more on this, see Williams, Liberalism and War, pp. 32– 36. 26. D. Gorman, Imperial Citizenship: Empire and the Question of Belonging (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2006), p. 1. 27. I. Clark, Hegemony in International Society (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011), esp. chapter 5. 28. Mark Mazower, in a review of R. Holland, Blue-Water Empire: The British in the Mediterranean since 1800 (London: Allen Lane, 2012), Financial Times, 21/22 January 2012. 29. McLynn, 1759: The Year Britain Became Master of the World (London: Pimlico, 2005). 30. J. Parry, The Politics of Patriotism: English Liberalism, National Identity and Europe, 1830– 1886 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006). 31. For one seminal treatment of this see D. C. Platt, Finance, Trade and Politics in British Foreign Policy, 1815– 1914 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1968), and a review of this by Zara Steiner in The Historical Journal, Vol. XIII, No. 3, 1970, pp. 545– 568. 32. W.H. Parker, Halford Mackinder: Geography as an Aid to Statecraft (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1982); H. Mackinder, Our Own Islands: An Elementary Study in Geography (London: Philip, 1906); H. Mackinder, Distant Lands (London: Philip, 1910). See also D. Deudney, Bounding Power: Republican Security Theory from the Polis to the Global Village (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2007). 33. P.P. O’Brien, ‘Herbert Hoover, Anglo- American Relations and Republican Party Politics in the 1920s’, Diplomacy and Statecraft, Vol. 22, No. 2, 2011, pp. 200– 218, 201. 34. See also J.E. Moser, Twisting the Lion’s Tail: Anglophobia in the United States 1921– 1948 (London: Macmillan, 1999). 35. M. Carter, The Three Emperors: Three Cousins, Three Empires and the Road to World War One (London: Penguin, 2010), pp. 4, 16, 261– 3; M. Stibbe, German Anglophobia and the Great War, 1914– 1918 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006). 36. P. Kennedy, The Rise of Anglo- German Antagonism, 1860– 1914 (London: Ashfield, 1980). 37. J. Wright, Gustav Stresemann: Weimar’s Greatest Statesman (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), pp. 71, 80– 81, 106; For a recent appreciation of Stresemann and Notes 199

pre- 1945 Franco- German discussions about a united Europe see C. Fischer, ‘The Failed European Union: Franco- German Relations during the of 1929– 32’, The International History Review, Vol. 34, No. 4, December 2012, pp. 705– 724. 38. Balfour to Asquith, 14 October 1908, Add MS 49692, Balfour Papers, British Library. 39. For example: H. James, The Portrait of a Lady (London: Macmillan, 1881); E. Wharton, The House of Mirth (New York: Barnes and Noble, 2005) (originally published 1905). 40. S. Anderson, Race and Rapprochement: Anglo- Saxonism and Anglo- American Relations, 1895– 1904 (Rutherford, New Jersey: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1981), p. 12, quoted in J. Charmley, Churchill’s Grand Alliance: The Anglo- American Special Relationship, 1940– 57 (London: John Curtis/Hodder and Stoughton, 1995), p. 4. 41. Vucetic, Anglosphere. 42. Charmley, Churchill’s Grand Alliance, p. 4. 43. G. Bernstein, Liberalism and Liberal Politics in Edwardian England (London: Allen and Unwin, 1986), esp. chapter 8. 44. G. Scott- Smith, ‘Introduction: The Name Looms Large: The Legacies of Theodore Roosevelt’, Diplomacy and Statecraft, Vol. 19, No. 4, 2000, pp. 635– 638, p. 635. 45. A. Roberts, A History of the English- Speaking Peoples since 1900 (London: Weidenfield and Nicholson, 2006), p. 8. 46. D. Gilmour, The Long Recessional: The Imperial Life of Rudyard Kipling (London: John Murray, 2002), pp. 124– 126. 47. Reproduced in the Washington Post, 3 November 1902: R. J. Young, An American by Degrees: The Extraordinary Lives of Ambassador Jules Jusserand (Montreal and Kingston: McGill- Queens’ University Press, 2009), pp. 25– 26; R. and I. Tombs, That Sweet Enemy: Britain and France, The History of a Love– Hate Relationship (New York: Vintage, 2008). 48. D. Stevenson, French War Aims against Germany, 1914– 1919 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1982), p. 7. 49. E. Cahm, The in French Society and Politics (London: Longman, 1996); L. Derfler, The Dreyfus Affair (London: Greenwood, 2002); L. Begley, Why the Dreyfus Affair Matters (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2010); F. Brown, For the Soul of France: Culture Wars in the Age of Dreyfus (New York: Knopf, 2010). 50. Stevenson, French War Aims, p. 1. 51. J.J. Cooke, The New French Imperialism 1880– 1910: The Third French Republic and Colonial Expansion (Hamden, Connecticut: Archon Books, 1973), pp. 9– 11, 22. 52. Ibid., p. 13. 53. Stevenson, French War Aims, p. 3. 54. M. Barrès, Le Culte du Moi – I: Sous l’Oeil Des Barbares; II: Un Homme Libre; III: Le Jardin de Bérénice (Paris: Nouvelle Édition, 1910– 1911). My thanks to Maia Woolner for this insight. 55. Charles Maurras in 1897, cited in M. Barrès and C. Maurras, Le République ou le Roi: Correspondance inédite, 1888– 1923 (Paris: Plon, 1970), Frontispiece. 56. Sternhell, La droite révolutionnaire en France, p. 33. See also Z. Sternhell, Maurice Barrès, et le nationalisme français (Paris: Colin, 1972). 57. F. G. Stambrook, ‘“Das Kind” – Lord D’Abernon and the Origins of the Locarno Pact’, Central European History, Vol. 1, No. 3, 1968, pp. 233– 263. 58. D. Brown, ‘Palmerston and Anglo- French Relations, 1846– 1865’ and T. G. Otte, ‘From “War- in- Sight” to Nearly War: Anglo- French Relations in the Age of High 200 Notes

Imperialism, 1875– 1898’, Diplomacy and Statecraft, Vol. 17, No. 4, December 2006, pp. 675– 692; D. Bates, The Fashoda Incident of 1898: Encounter on the Nile (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1984). 59. C. Andrew, Théophile Delcassé and the Making of the Entente Cordiale: A Reappraisal of French Foreign Policy, 1898– 1905 (London: Macmillan, 1968), and P.J.V. Rolo, Entente Cordiale: The Origins and Negotiation of the Anglo- French Agreements of 8 April 1904 (London: Macmillan, 1969). 60. C. Geoffroy, Les coulisses de l’Entente cordiale (Paris: Grasset, 2004), pp. 10– 17. See also, on the Boer War, document 3.11 (the Boer War) on French reactions to it: W. Fortescue (ed.), The Third Republic and France, 1870– 1940: Conflicts and Continuities (London: Routledge, 2000). 61. P. Bell, ‘The Entente Cordiale and the Sea Serpent’, Diplomacy and Statecraft, Vol. 17, No. 4, December 2006, pp. 636– 637. 62. F. Winter, ‘Exaggerating the Efficacy of Diplomacy: The Marquis of Landsdowne’s “Peace Letter” of November 1917’, International History Review, Vol. 32, No. 1, March 2010, pp. 25– 46. 63. Memorandum by Mr. Eyre Crowe: Memorandum on the Present State of British Relations with France and Germany, Foreign Office, 1 January 1907, F.O. 371/257, in G. P. Gooch and H. Temperley (eds), British Documents on the Origins of the War, Vol. III: The Testing of the Entente, 1904– 1906 (London: H.M.S.O., 1928), Appendix A. 64. Various Confidential Print, Bowood Papers (Lansdowne), British Library Add MS 88906/22/15; see also I. Nish, The Anglo- Japanese Alliance: The Diplomacy of Two Island Empires, 1894– 1907 (London: Athlone Press, 1966). 65. Winter, ‘Exaggerating the Efficacy …’, p. 26; Z. Steiner, Britain and the Origins of the First World War (London: Macmillan, 1977), and (new edn) The Foreign Office and Foreign Policy, 1898– 1914 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), and W. Mulligan, ‘From Case to Narrative: The Marquis of Lansdowne, Sir Edward Grey and the Threat from Germany, 1900– 1906’, International History Review, Vol. 30, No. 2, 2008, p. 286. 66. Grey to Lansdowne, 11 April 1904. See also letters to Lansdowne from Lord Salisbury (9 April), Lord Morley (21 April), Lord Roberts (10 April), Bowood Papers, Add MS 88906/5/65/8. 67. L. Daudet, Hors du joug allemande: mesures d’après guerre (Paris: Nouvelle Librarie Nationale, 1915), pp. 7– 11. 68. Samuel to Morel, 3 October 1905, Morel Papers, BLPES, London, F8/125. See also E.D. Morel, King Leopold’s Rule in Africa (London: Heinemann, 1904); A. Conan Doyle, The Crime of the Congo (1908) (London: Amazon Publishing, Balefire, 2012); J. Conrad, Heart of Darkness (1902) (London: Penguin, 2007); N. Ascherson, The King Incorporated; Leopold II and the Congo (London: Granta, 1999). 69. E.D. Morel, ‘The “Truth” about the Franco- German Crisis’: A Reply to M. Philippe Millet’, Nineteenth Century and After, No. 425, July 1912, pp. 32– 43. 70. M.R. Biddiss, The Age of the Masses: Ideas and Society in Europe since 1870 (New York: Harper and Row, 1978). 71. A. Thorpe, A History of The British Labour Party (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2001). See also H. Pelling, The Origins of the Labour Party (London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd., 1954). 72. J. Edwards (ed.), The Labour Annual, 1900 (Brighton: The Harvester Press, 1971), p. 4. 73. Ibid., p. 17. 74. A.N. Lyons, Robert Blatchford: The Sketch of a Personality: An Estimate of Some Achievements (London: Clarion Press, 1910), pp. 97, 107– 108; R. Blatchford, Merrie England (London: Clarion Press, 1894). Notes 201

75. Clemenceau was not only friendly with ‘marginal and eccentric figures … extreme radicals’ as he also knew Joseph Chamberlain: D. R. Watson, ‘Clemenceau’s Contacts with England’, Diplomacy and Statecraft, Vol. 17, No. 4, 2006, pp. 715– 730, p. 716. 76. W. Kendall, The Revolutionary Movement in Britain, 1900– 21 (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1969). 77. E. Halévy, Histoire du socialisme européen (Paris: Gallimard, 1974), pp. 250– 251. 78. The best source for British syndicalism before 1914 is B. Holton, British Syndicalism, 1900– 1914 (London: Pluto Press, 1976). For Mann see A. Thompson, The Empire Strikes Back? The Impact of Imperialism on Britain from the Mid- nineteenth Century (London: Longman, 2005), pp. 67– 69 and C. Tsuzuki, Tom Mann, 1856– 1914: The Challenges of Labour (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991). 79. G. Haw (with an Introduction by G.K. Chesterton), From Workhouse to Westminster – The Life Story of Will Crooks M.P. (London: , 1907). 80. Webb Manuscript Diary, Vol. 21, 26 July 1901, p. 2088, 30 January and 19 March 1902, pp. 2121, 2132– 2133, Passfield Papers, BLPES. 81. M. Glasman, ‘Edmund Burke’, New Statesman, 3 October 2011, p. 26. 82. C. F. Brand, British Labour’s Rise to Power (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1941), p. vii. 83. R. Bellamy, Rethinking Liberalism (London: Continuum, 2000). 84. L. Menand, The Metaphysical Club: A Story of Ideas in America (London: Harper Collins, 2001). 85. D. Cortright, Peace: A History of Movements and Ideas (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), quoting James, p. 307. 86. D. Pick, War Machine: The Rationalisation of Slaughter in the Modern Age (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993), pp. 13– 17, quoting W. James, The Moral Equivalent of War (New York: American Association for International Conciliation, 1910), pp. 6– 8. 87. Menand, The Metaphysical Club, p. xi. 88. Cortright, Peace, p. 6; C. Chatfield, The American Peace Movement: Ideals and Activism (New York: Twayne Publishers, 1992). 89. Carnegie Endowment, The Other Balkan Wars: A 1913 Carnegie Endowment Inquiry in Retrospect with a New Introduction and Reflections on the Present Conflict by George F. Kennan (Washington DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1993). 90. T. J. Knock, To End All Wars: Woodrow Wilson and the Quest for a New World Order (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992). 91. Cortright, Peace, pp. 25– 26. 92. Kagan, Dangerous Nation, p. 416. 93. W. Millis, Road to War: America, 1914– 1917 (New York: Faber and Faber, 1935), p. 8. 94. Ibid., p. 5. 95. Williams, Failed Imagination? chapters 1 and 2. 96. M. Mandelbaum, The Ideas that Conquered the World: Peace, Democracy and Free Markets in the Twenty- first Century (Oxford: Public Affairs, 2002). 97. Kagan, Dangerous Nation; W.R. Mead, Special Providence: American Foreign Policy and How It Changed the World (London: Routledge, 2002). 98. Good overviews are: R. Zieger, American Workers, American Unions (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994); M. Dubofsky and F.R. Dulles, Labor in America: A History (8th edn) (London: Wiley- Blackwell, 2010). 99. Of which the most extensive history is by P.S. Foner, History of the Labor Movement in the United States, Vol. 4, The Industrial Workers of the World 1905– 1917 (New York: International Publishers, 1997). 202 Notes

100. R. Archer, Why Is There No Labor Party in the United States? (Princeton,NJ: Princeton University Press, 2007); J.H.M. Laslett, Labor and the Left; A Study of Socialist and Radical Influences in the American Labor Movement, 1881– 1924 (New York: , 1970). 101. Kendall, The Revolutionary Movement in Britain, pp. 66, 69. 102. The Labour Party, ‘The Visit of the Czar of Russia’, pamphlet, Labour Party archives LP/INT/08/1/115. 103. See A. Williams, Labour and Russia: The Attitude of the Labour Party to the , 1924– 1934 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1989), pp. 7– 8. Henderson’s poem is in the Labour Party archives under HEN/14/3. 104. D.S.A. Bell, ‘Unity and difference: John Robert Seeley and the political theology of international relations’, Review of International Studies, Vol. 31, No. 3, March, 2001, pp. 559– 580. 105. Bernstein, Liberalism and Liberal Politics in Edwardian England, p. 166. 106. The best overview of this group is by A. May, ‘The Round Table, 1910– 1966’, D. Phil, University of Oxford, January 1995. See also P. Kramer, ‘Empires, Exceptions, and Anglo- Saxons: Race and Rule between the British and United States Empires, 1880– 1910’, The Journal of American History, Vol. 88, 2002, pp. 1315– 1353. For Milner and Curtis see J. Marlowe, Milner: Apostle of Empire (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1976); L. Curtis, With Lord Milner in South Africa (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1951). For Philip Kerr/Lord Lothian see P. Roberts (ed.), Lord Lothian and Anglo- American Relations (Dordrecht: Republic of Letters, 2010). 107. M.G. Fry, And Fortune Fled: David Lloyd George, the First Democratic Statesman, 1916– 1922 (New York: Peter Lang, 2011), p. 1. 108. Gorman, Imperial Citizenship, pp. 46– 47. 109. Fry, And Fortune Fled, p. 3; A. Lentin, Lloyd George, Woodrow Wilson and the Guilt of Germany (Leicester: Leicester University Press, 1984). 110. J. Morefield, Covenants without Swords: Idealist Liberalism and the Spirit of Empire (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2005), p. 1. 111. M. Ceadel, Pacifism in Britain, 1914– 1945: The Defining of a Faith (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1980). 112. See, for example, L. Ashworth, International Relations and the Labour Party: Intellectuals and Policy Making from 1918– 1945 (London: I.B. Tauris, 2007). 113. B. Porter, Critics of Empire: British Radical Attitudes towards Colonialism in Africa, 1895– 1914, 2nd edition (London: I.B. Tauris, 2007); G. Claeys, Imperial Sceptics: British Critics of Empire, 1850– 1920 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010). 114. MacDonald to Morel, 4 July 1907 and 21 July 1909, Morel Papers F8/106, BLPES. 115. This next section draws heavily on A. Williams, ‘Norman Angell and his French Contemporaries, 1905– 1914, Diplomacy and Statecraft, Vol. 21, No. 4, December 2010, pp. 574– 592. 116. N. Angell, The Great Illusion: A Study of the Relation of Military Power in Nations to their Economic and Social Advantage (London: W. Heinemann, 1912). 117. M. Ceadel, Living the Great Illusion: Sir Norman Angell, 1872– 1967 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), pp. 66, 75. 118. Quoted in ibid., pp. 97, 98– 103. N. Angell, Patriotism under Three Flags: A Plea for Rationalism in Politics (London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1903), and Europe’s Optical Illusion (London: Simpkin, Marshall, Hamilton and Kent, 1909). 119. Angell, The Great Illusion, pp. 1– 3; Ceadel, Living the Great Illusion, p. 104. Notes 203

120. Ceadel, Living the Great Illusion, pp. 93– 94; Esher quoted in L. Ahamed, Lords of Finance: The Bankers Who Broke the World (London: Penguin, 2009), p. 21. On Esher see also: P. Fraser, Lord Esher: A Political Biography (London: Hart- Davis MacGibbon, 1973), and; J. Lees- Milne, The Enigmatic Edwardian: The Life of Reginald, 2nd Viscount Esher (London: Sidgwick and Co., 1986). 121. D.K. Broster, Crouching at the Door: Strange and Macabre Tales (short stories) (London: Wordsworth editions, first pub 1942, 2007). My thanks to Terry Barringer for this gem. 122. E. Childers, The Riddle of the Sands: A Record of Secret Service (London: Penguin, 2007); G.T. Chesney, The Battle of Dorking: Reminiscences of a Volunteer (London: Dodo Press, 2008); H.G. Wells, The War of the Worlds (London: Penguin, 2005); J. Buchan, The Thirty- Nine Steps (London: Penguin, 2007). 123. Brailsford, War of Steel and Gold, p. 72. 124. Ceadel, Living the Great Illusion, pp. 110– 111. 125. Ibid., p. 239. 126. N. Ferguson, The Pity of War (London: Allen Lane, 1998), p. 22, quoting Angell, The Great Illusion, p. 361. 127. Wright, Gustav Stresemann, pp. 57– 58. 128. See S. Hazareesingh, Political Traditions in Modern France (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003). 129. Sorel, Reflections on Violence, pp. 9, 33. 130. R. Wohl, The Generation of 1914 (London: Weidenfield and Nicolson, 1980). 131. P. Drieu La Rochelle, Socialisme fasciste (Paris: Gallimard, 1934), p. 209 quoted in P. Sérant, Le Romantisme fasciste (Paris: Fasquelle, 1959), p. 55. 132. J. Talmon, Myth of the Nation and the Vision of Revolution: Ideological Polarisation in the Twentieth Century (London: Secker and Warburg, 1981). 133. Again, see Sternhell, La droite révolutionnaire en France; ‘ se sent “l’héritier” de Jaurès’ Le nouvel Observateur, 13 April 2007. See also J. Jackson, France: The Dark Years, 1940– 1944 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003), ‘Péguy’s Frances’, pp. 4– 6. 134. This discussion of Jaurès, Sorel and Péguy also draws heavily on my ‘Norman Angell and his French Contemporaries, 1905– 1914’, op. cit. The best biography of Jaurès in English is still H. Goldberg, The Life of Jean Jaurès (New York: Madison, 1962). The context is best placed by G. Haupt, Socialism and the Great War (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1972). 135. J. Jaurès, L’Armée Nouvelle (Paris: Editions Sociales, 1915) and (Paris: Editions 10/18, 1969) with a Foreword by Madeleine Rebérioux, p. 7. 136. For more on this see L. Lévy (ed.), Jean Jaurès: Anthologie (Paris: Calmann- Lévy, 1946, 1983), pp. 114– 116. 137. Cooke, New French Imperialism, pp. 19– 20. 138. G. Lefranc, Le movement socialiste sous la troisième république (Paris: Petite Bibliothèque Payot, 1977), pp. 102– 103. 139. James, Moral Equivalent of War, quoted in Cortright, Peace, p. 309. 140. ‘“L’Armée nouvelle” de Jaurès lu par Rosa Luxemburg, by “Lucien”: Compte- rendu publié dans le Leipziger Volkszeitung du 9 juin 1911, traduit dans Rosa Luxemburg et la spontanéité révolutionnaire’: accessed 2 February 2012, http://bataillesocialiste. wordpress.com/2008/05/30/ larmee- nouvelle- de- jaures- lu- par- rosa- luxemburg/. 141. P. Jackson, Beyond the Balance of Power: France and the Politics of National Security in the Era of the First World War (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013). 204 Notes

142. For a French appreciation of Mitrany, see G. Devin, ‘Que reste- t- il du fonction- nalisme international? Relire David Mitrany (1888– 1975)’, Critique internationale 01/03, no. 38, 2008, pp. 137– 152. 143. L. Bourgeois, Solidarité (Paris: Armand Colin, 1896). 144. S. Audier, Leon Bourgeois: Fonder la solidarité (Paris: Editions Michalon, 2007), p. 15. 145. L. Bourgeois, Pour La Société des Nations (Paris: Fasquelle, 1910). 146. Woolf, International Government. See also P. Wilson, The International Theory of Leonard Woolf: A Study in Twentieth Century Idealism (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002); V. Glendinning, Leonard Woolf: A Biography (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2006). 147. S. Brodziak and J.- N. Jeanneney, Georges Clemenceau: Correspondance (1858– 1929) (Paris: Laffont/Bibliotheque Nationale de France, 2008). 148. See Wohl, Generation of 1914, esp. chapter 1 ‘France: The Young Men of Today’. 149. MacDonald to Morel, 4 July 1907, Morel Papers F8/106, BLPES. 150. MacDonald to Morel, 24 August and 4 September 1914, Morel papers, F8/106, BLPES.

2 The Allies During the First World War and Paris Peace Conference

1. Wohl, The Generation of 1914. 2. J. Winter, Sites of Memory, Sites of Mourning: The Great War in European Cultural History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995). See also J. Winter, ‘Agents of Memory: How Did People Live between Remembrance and Forgetting?’ in J. Winter and A. Prost (eds), The Great War in History: Debates and Controversies, 1914 to the Present (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), pp. 173– 191. 3. Winter and Prost, The Great War in History, p. vii. 4. E. Goldstein, Winning the Peace: British Diplomatic Strategy, Peace Planning, and the Paris Peace Conference 1916– 1920 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991), pp. 10– 11. The memorandum Goldstein is referring to was by Sir Ralph Paget and Sir William Tyrrell, in the first major assessment of the changes that would be wrought to British foreign policy after the war, “Negotiations at the End of the War’, 31 August 1916, CAB 29/1/ P- 2 National Archives (NA). 5. The literature on the First World War is vast, and also includes D. Stevenson, 1914– 1918: The History of the First World War (London: Penguin, 2005); H. Strachan, The First World War: A New History (New York: Basic Books, 2006); J. Keegan, The First World War (London: Pimlico, 1999), and G. de Groot, The First World War (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2000). 6. For such accounts see Macmillan, Peacemakers and Williams, Failed Imagination, esp. chapters 1 and 2. 7. H.G. Wells, The New World Order (London: Secker and Warburg, 1940), ‘The End of an Age’, p. 11. 8. Beatrice Webb, insert to her diary of August 1918, in N. Mackenzie (ed.) The Letters of Sidney and Beatrice Webb, Vol. III: Pilgrimage, 1912– 1947 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978), p. 33. 9. Wells, The New World Order, p. 11. 10. Arthur James Balfour to Bonar Law (Leader of the Conservative Party in 1913), 23 September and 8 November 1913, and Bonar Law to Balfour, 27 September 1913, AddMs 49693, Balfour Papers, British Library. Notes 205

11. M. Howard, The Invention of Peace: Reflections on War and International Order (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2000). 12. M. Ceadel, The Origins of War Prevention: The British Peace Movement and International Relations, 1730– 1854 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996); Cortright, Peace, p. 43, and chapter 2. 13. F.H. Early, A World Without War: How U.S. Feminists and Pacifists Resisted World War 1 (New York: Syracuse University Press, 1997), p. 1. 14. J. Joll, The Second International, 1889– 1914 (London: Harper and Row, 1966); V.I. Lenin, The Collapse of the Second International (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1949) (first published 1915). 15. Knock, To End All Wars, pp. viii– ix. 16. L. Hughes- Hallett, The Pike: Gabriele d’Annunzio, Poet, Seducer and Preacher of War (London: 4th Estate, 2013); Gentile, L’Apocalypse de la modernité. 17. E.H. Carr, Propaganda in International Politics (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1939). 18. T. Akami, Japan’s News Propaganda and Reuter’s News Empire in Northeast Asia, 1870– 1934 (Dordrecht: Republic of Letters, 2012), pp. 102– 103 and chapter 4; P.M. Taylor, British Propaganda in the Twentieth Century: Selling Democracy (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1997); Read, The Power of News. 19. E.H. Carr, The Twenty Years’ Crisis: An Introduction to the Study of International Relations (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2001) (first ed. 1939), pp. 32– 37. 20. Macmillan, Peacemakers, pp. 93– 94. 21. A.J. Mayer, Political Origins of the New Diplomacy, 1917– 1918 (New York: Vintage Books, 1970), Epilogue: ‘Wilson v. Lenin’. 22. F. Stern, Einstein’s German World (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001). For a definition of the doctrine of ‘total warfare’ and Schrecklichkeit, see N. Hanson, First Blitz: The Secret German Plan to Raze London to the Ground in 1918 (London: Corgi, 2008), pp. 20– 21. 23. D.T. Jack, Studies in Economic Warfare (London: P.S. King and Son, 1940), pp. 109– 110. He is here quoting M. Parmalee, Blockade and Sea Power: The Blockade, 1914– 1919, and Its Significance for a World State (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Co., 1924), pp. 151– 152. 24. Jack, Studies in Economic Warfare, esp. pp. 110, 129– 130. 25. R. Skidelsky, John Maynard Keynes, 1883– 1946 (London: Pan, 2004), pp.183, 195– 196. 26. G. Murray, The Problem of Foreign Policy (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1921), pp. 5– 6. 27. A point made by D. Markwell, John Maynard Keynes and International Relations: Economic Paths to War and Peace (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006), p. 20, and chapters 2 and 4. 28. M. Hollis, Now All Roads Lead to France: The Last Years of Edward Thomas (London, Faber and Faber, 2012), p. 172. 29. Grant to Keynes, 30 April 1914, Add. Mss. 74230, British Library and Keynes’ reply in: Skidelsky, John Maynard Keynes, 1883– 1946, p. 184. 30. Hollis, Now All Roads Lead to France, p. 227. 31. Skidelsky, John Maynard Keynes, 1883– 1946, pp. 175– 181. 32. J.M. Keynes, ‘The Financial Dependence of the United Kingdom on the United States of America’, 10 October 1916, Collected Writings of John Maynard Keynes: The Treasury and Versailles (London: Macmillan, 1971), p. 197; see also Skidelsky, ‘By [1917] Britain had become completely dependent upon the United States for fighting a continental war’, John Maynard Keynes: Hopes Betrayed (London: Papermac, 1992), p. 333. 206 Notes

33. P. Clavin, The Great Depression in Europe, 1929– 1939 (London: Macmillan, 2000), p. 5. 34. F. W. Hirst, The Political Economy of War (London: J.M. Dent, 1915), pp. 7, 11, 97. 35. S. Secerov, Economic Phenomena Before and After War (London: George Routledge, 1919); A.C. Pigou, The Political Economy of War (London: Macmillan, 1921); J.M. Keynes, The Economic Consequences of the Peace (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Howe, 1920); and A Revision of the Treaty (London: Macmillan, 1922). 36. E. L. Jones, The European Miracle: Environments, Economies and Geopolitics in the History of Europe and Asia (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981), quoted by M. Mann, in Baechler, Hall and Mann, Europe and the Rise of Capitalism, p. 10. 37. Secerov, Economic Phenomena, p. 191. 38. Bonar Law to Curzon, with Memorandum from Long, 29 January 1915, Add. Mss. 49693 Balfour Papers, British Library. 39. Balfour to Asquith, 5 December 1916, with note left in the file by Balfour of dis- cussions with Asquith about the crisis of late 1916, Balfour Papers, British Library. 40. Burns to Asquith, 2 and 15 August 1914, Burns Papers, Add. Mss. 46282, British Library. 41. [Margot] Asquith to Burns, 14 August 1914; Burns to Asquith 10 December 1914; Burns to Churchill (Admiralty), 7 August 1914, Burns Papers, Add. Mss 46282, British Library. 42. The immediate issue was over an ‘advance’ of $200 million: Balfour to Spring Rice, 3 July 1917, Minute by Drummond of 7 July: Add. Mss 49693 Balfour Papers, British Library. 43. See extensive correspondence between the UDC’s founders, and especially between Edmund Dene [E.D.] Morel and Charles Trevelyan, Morel Papers, BLPES, August– September 1914, F6/1. MacDonald was later Foreign Secretary and Prime Minister, in 1924 and 1929– 35; Ponsonby was a future Under- Secretary of State in 1924 under MacDonald as well as Under- Secretary for the Dominions in 1929 and Labour leader in the House of Lords from 1930 until 1935. 44. Morel to Ponsonby, 5 August and 26 January 1915, Morel Papers, BLPES, F8/123; see also H.M. Swanwick, Builders of Peace: Being Ten Years’ History of the Union of Democratic Control (London: Swarthmore Press Ltd, 1924), p. 187. 45. August 1914, Morel Papers, BLPES, F6/1. 46. E.D. Morel, Ten Years of Secret Diplomacy: An Unheeded Warning (London: National Labour Press, 1915). 47. Ponsonby to Morel, 6 December 1919, Morel Papers, BLPES, F8/123. 48. E.D. Morel to Arthur Ponsonby, reply to letter of 6 December, n.d. Morel Papers, BLPES, F8/123. 49. Winter, ‘Exaggerating the Efficacy of Diplomacy’. 50. Beatrice Webb, Manuscript Diary, 9 July 1901, and 1 November 1901 Vol. 21, pp. 2084 and 2099, Passfield Papers, BLPES. 51. J. Néré, The Foreign Policy of France from 1914 to 1945 (London: Routledge, 1975), p. 3. 52. ‘Bergson Promises to Return to U.S., New York Sun, 28 February 1913, and ‘Diopterophobia, and So On’ New York Sun, 31 August 1914, both Butler Papers, Columbia University Library, New York. 53. Stevenson, French War Aims Against Germany, pp. 2– 7. 54. Noted by Stevenson, French War Aims, p. 7. 55. Stevenson, French War Aims, pp. 7, 18, and Chapter II, on July 1916– March 1917. 56. Daudet, Hors du joug allemand, p. 2. 57. P. Drieu La Rochelle, La Comedie de Charleroi (Paris: Gallimard, 1934); H. Barbusse, Le Feu, Journal d’une Escouade, 1915 (Paris: Ernest Flammarion, 1916). Notes 207

58. Ferguson, N. The Pity of War (London: Allen Lane, 1998); also in Clavin, The Great Depression, p. 8. 59. G. Robb, The Discovery of France (London: Picador, 2008). 60. Young, An American by Degrees. 61. Hence Jules Cambon (who preceded Jusserand in Washington, 1897– 1902) kept his post in London for 22 years and Camille Barrère in Rome for 26 years. 62. J.- L. Barré, Le Seigneur- Chat: Philippe Berthelot, 1866– 1934 (Paris: Plon, 1988). 63. Stevenson, French War Aims, p. 76. The official was Henri Cambon, to his brother Paul Cambon, 10 February 1917. See also: ‘Par un diplomate’ [Henri Cambon] Paul Cambon, ambassadeur de France, 1843– 1924 (Paris, [unknown publisher], 1937). 64. G. Hodgson, Woodrow Wilson’s Right Hand: The Life of Colonel Edward M. House (London: Yale University Press, 2006), pp. 91– 104. 65. Ibid., pp. 48– 53. 66. ‘Memorandum on the Attitude of the American Press’, October 1914, in Lansdowne (Bowood) Papers, Box 5, ‘The War: India, USA, Freedom of the Seas’, Add Mss. 88906, British Library, 14 pp. 67. Millis, Road to War, p. 122. 68. Clavin, The Great Depression, p. 15. 69. C. Seymour, American Neutrality, 1914– 1917: Essays on the Causes of American Intervention in the World War (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1935). 70. ‘Report of the Committee on Alleged German Outrages Appointed by His Britannic Majesty’s Government and Presided over by the Right Hon. Viscount Bryce, O.M.’, Command 7894 (London: H.M.S.O. 1915). 71. J. Horne and A. Kramer, German Atrocities, 1914: A History of Denial (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2001), p. 430. On Bryce, see pp. 232– 235. 72. Williams, Failed Imagination, chapter 1. 73. Spring Rice to Foreign Office, 16 July 1915: Bryce Papers, Bodleian Library, File 242. 74. B. Perkins, The Great Rapprochment: England and the United States, 1895– 1914 (London: Victor Gollancz, 1969). 75. ‘Report on the Opinion of Universities and Colleges in America upon the War’, Lansdowne (Bowood) Papers, Box 5, ‘The Wars: India, USA, Freedom of the Seas’, Add. Mss. 88906, British Library. 76. Horne and Kramer, German Atrocities, 1914, p. 230. The French report was pub- lished as: Les Violations des lois de la guerre par l’Allemagne (Paris: Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 1915). 77. For a full list see Horne and Kramer, German Atrocities, 1914, p. 571. 78. Volumes 5 (1914– 1917), and 10, 11 and 12, mostly about German abuses of mar- tial law, war crimes in Belgium, the use of gas, and the liquidation by Germany of French assets in Alsace- Lorraine, as well as early discussions with the US Government about same: Bourgeois Papers, P16884, MAE, Paris. 79. Bergson to Butler, 30 October 1915 and Butler to Bergson, 23 August 1915, Butler Papers, Butler Library, Columbia University, New York [hereafter ‘Butler Papers’]. For more on this friendship see my: ‘Waiting for Monsieur Bergson’. 80. ‘Memorandum on the Attitude of the American Press’, in Box 5, Lansdowne (Bowood) Papers, Add. Mss. 88906, British Library. 81. Quoted by Millis, Road to War, p. 126. Roosevelt’s tract was called Utopia or Hell. It was reported as: ‘Roosevelt Raps Wilson and Bryan’, New York Times, 4 January 1915. See also H. Brands, Theodore Roosevelt: The Last Romantic (New York: Basic Books, 1997, 2001). 82. Millis, Road to War, p. 145. 208 Notes

83. Wilson to House, 20 September 1915, from C. Seymour, American Diplomacy during the World War (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1934), pp. 103– 104, reproduced in Seymour, American Neutrality, p. 4. 84. Millis, Road to War, p. 137, 171– 177. 85. Bryce to Low, 3 March 1916, Butler Papers. 86. Wilson to House, 24 November 1916, in Seymour, American Neutrality, p. 6. 87. Bryce to Low, 3 March 1916, Butler Papers. 88. Bryce to Low, 8 June 1916, Butler Papers. 89. Stevenson, 1914– 1918, pp. 8– 9; I. Bloch, Is War Now Impossible? (London: Richards, 1899) (with a Foreword by W.T. Stead). 90. Bloch, Is War Now Impossible? Preface, pp. xix, xxvii. On Thomas’s death: Hollis, Now All Roads Lead to France, Preface. 91. W. Reid, Architect of Victory: Douglas Haig (Edinburgh: Birlinn, 2006), p. x. 92. A. Clark, The Donkeys: A History of the British Expeditionary Force in 1915 (London: Pimlico, 1991). 93. Winter and Prost, The Great War in History, p. 59. 94. G. Sheffield, Forgotten Victory the First World War: Myths and Realities (London: Review, 2002), pp. 138– 140. 95. M. Gamelin, Etude philosophique sur l’art de la guerre (Paris: Chapelot, 1906), men- tioned in E. May, Strange Victory: Hitler’s Conquest of France (London: I.B. Tauris, 2009), p. 128; M. Alexander, The Republic in Danger: General Maurice Gamelin and the Politics of French Defence, 1933– 1940 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992, 2003). 96. Stevenson, 1914– 1918, p. 176. 97. P. Miquel, Le Chemin des Dames: Enqûete sur la plus effroyable hécatombe de la Grande Guerre (Paris: Pocket, 1999). 98. E.L. Spears, Prelude to Victory (London: Jonathan Cape, 1939), entry for 13 April 1917, p. 431. See also R. Prior and T. Wilson, Command on the Western Front: The Military Career of Sir Henry Rawlinson, 1914– 18 (Oxford: Blackwell, 1992). 99. Reid, Architect of Victory. Reid comments that ‘[Haig] genuinely liked this Frenchman’, p. 299. 100. Reid, Architect of Victory, pp. 281, 61, 180– 187. 101. One expert interpretation is P. Griffith, Battle Tactics of the Western Front: The ’s Art of Attack, 1916– 18 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1994), esp. chapter 3. 102. Prior and Wilson, Command on the Western Front, pp. 276– 277. 103. Reid, Architect of Victory, pp. 284– 286, 293, quoting Duff Cooper, Haig, p. 331. 104. Stevenson, 1914– 1918, pp. 168– 170. 105. Reid, Architect of Victory, p. 309. 106. L. MacDonald, Somme (London: Penguin, 1993) and; M. Middlebrook, The First Day on the Somme: 1 July 1916 (London: Penguin, 2006). 107. K.O. Morgan, Lloyd George (London: Weidenfield and Nicolson, 1974), pp. 98, 103. 108. D. Lloyd George, War Memoirs of David Lloyd George (London: Odhams, 1938) Vol. 2, p. 1603. 109. J.D. Doenecke, Nothing Less than War: A New History of American Entry into , 1914– 1917 (Lexington, KY: University Press of Kentucky, 2011); E.M. Coffman, The War to End All Wars: The American Military Experience in World War 1 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1986), p. 7; B. Tuchman, The Zimmerman Telegram (New York: NEL Mentor, 1967); Z.A.B. Zeman, A Diplomatic History of the Great War (London: Weidenfield and Nicolson, 1971), p. 161. Notes 209

110. Stephenson, French War Aims, p. 76. 111. Balfour to , 6 May 1917, Add. Mss. 496692, Balfour Papers, British Library. 112. Wiseman to Balfour, 13 July 1918, and Balfour to Lloyd George, quoting this let- ter, 16 July 1918; Lloyd George to Reading (Washington) 18 July 1918: All Add. Mss. 496692, Balfour Papers. 113. C.G. Dawes, A Journal of the Great War (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1930), pp. 9, 11, 16. 114. Dawes, A Journal of the Great War, pp. 223– 226. 115. Ibid., pp. 26, 39– 40 (entry of 30 September 1917). 116. Coffman, The War to End All Wars, p. 10. 117. D. Stevenson, With Our Backs to the Wall: Victory and Defeat in 1918 (London: Allen Lane, 2011); J. E. Persico, 11th Month, 11th Day, 11th Hour (London: Hutchinson, 2004). 118. Coffman, The War to End All Wars, p. 342, here quoting Dawes’ Journal of the Great War, entry for 28 October 1918. 119. D. Gorman, The Emergence of International Society in the 1920s, p. 1. 120. Goldstein, Winning the Peace, pp. 10– 11. 121. Ibid., pp. 39– 47 and chapter 2. 122. Ibid., pp. 18– 23. 123. See also G.P. Gooch, and H. Temperley (with Introduction and Notes by J.W. Headlam- Morley), British Documents on the Origins of the War, 1898– 1914 (London: H.M.S.O., 1926). 124. Goldstein, Winning the Peace, p. 69. 125. See Leeper (Alexander Wigram Allen) Diaries, entry of 1 April, 1919, LEEP1/2, Churchill College, Cambridge. 126. L. Gelfand, The Inquiry: American Preparations for Peace, 1917– 1919 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1963); A. Walworth, America’s Moment: 1918 (New York: Norton and Co., 1963). See also, Williams, Failed Imagination? pp. 38– 39 and; FRUS, Paris Peace Conference, 1919 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1924), vol. 1, pp. 41– 53. 127. Gelfand, The Inquiry, p. 33. 128. Lansing, quoted by Walworth, America’s Moment, p. 152. 129. Knock, To End All Wars, pp. 76– 78, 112– 115, and G.C. Conyne, Woodrow Wilson: British Perspectives, 1912– 1921 (London: Macmillan, 1992), pp. 67, 76. 130. Roosevelt, ‘The Belgian Tragedy’, The Outlook, 108, 23 September 1914, pp. 169– 78, cited by Knock, To End All Wars, pp. 48– 49, 225. 131. Bryce to Henry White, 20 April 1919, Butler Papers. 132. Quoted by P. Raffo, ‘The Anglo- American Preliminary Negotiations for a ’, Journal of Contemporary History, Vol. 9, No. 4, October 1974, pp. 154– 155. 133. Fry, And Fortune Fled, p. 49. 134. Raffo points out that both claimed the honour in their memoirs: Raffo, ‘The Anglo American Preliminary Negotiations …’, p. 156. 135. Jusserand to Lansing, 20 July 1917 and Polk to Jusserand, 3 August 1917, FRUS, 1917, Vol. 1. Supplement 2, in: Raffo, ‘The Anglo American Preliminary Negotiations….’, p. 157. 136. Cecil to Balfour, 1 June 1919, British Library Balfour Papers, Add. Mss. 49693. 137. Most recently: W. Reid, Empire of Sand: How Britain Made the Middle East (Edinburgh: Birlinn, 2011); J. Schneer, The Balfour Declaration: The Origins of the Arab- Israeli 210 Notes

Conflict (London: Bloomsbury, 2011); J. Barr, A Line in the Sand: Britain, France and the Struggle that Shaped the Middle East (London: Simon and Schuster, 2011). 138. Lloyd George, War Memoirs, p. 349; see also the Minutes of the War Cabinet, 3 September 1917, CAB 24/24 and various annexes in CAB 23/4, National Archives. 139. House and Brandeis notes, 12 September 1917 and 27 September 1917, National Archives, CAB 24/26; GT 2015 and CAB 24/27; GT 2158 and A.J. Link (ed.) The Papers of Woodrow Wilson, Volume 44 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1983), p. 391. 140. The following section draws on my article ‘Why Don’t the French Do Think Tanks?’ 141. Commission interministérielle d’études pour la Société des Nations (SDN), henceforth ‘Commission Bourgeois’, Ministry of Foreign Affairs Archives, Quai d’Orsay, Paris (Hereafter MAE, SDN 1), Opening remarks by (then) French Président du Conseil and Foreign Minister Ribot: Séance d’ouverture, 28 September 1917, MAE, SDN 1. See also D. Stevenson, ‘The First World War and European Integration’, The International History Review, Vol. 34, No. 4, December 2012, pp. 841– 863. 142. Commission Bourgeois, ‘Etablir l’humanité dans le regle du droit’, 4ème séance, 19 December 1917, MAE SDN 1. 143. Senator , 30 January 1918, MAE SDN 1. 144. Commission Bourgeois, Report by Henri Fromageot, 21 November 1917, and 4th meeting of 19 December 1917, MAE SDN 1. 145. Commission Bourgeois, 28 September 1917 MAE, SDN 1. 146. Commission Bourgeois, 4th meeting of 19 December 1917, MAE SDN 1. 147. Commission Bourgeois, meetings of 15 December 1918, and document of June 1918, “L’Union des Alliés”, 8 pages, MAE SDN 1; D. Mitrany, A Working Peace System (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1944). 148. Smith, American Empire, pp. 113–138 149. Emmanuel de Martonne, Report of 24 October 1918, MAE ‘Paix 22’, microfiche. 150. Commission Bourgeois, comments by both Estournelles de Constant and Gabriel Hanotaux, so two of the most fervent defenders of the Hague system: 7th Session, 31 January 1918; Foch’s statement on the signature of the Treaty in May 1919 was that ‘This is not peace. It is an armistice for 20 years’ can be found in R. Henig, Versailles and After, 1919– 33 (London: Routledge, 1995), p. 52. 151. Williams, Trading with the Bolsheviks, chapter 1. 152. Louis D’Aubert, Memorandum on the Inquiry, 11 December 1918, MAE ‘Paix 220’, microfiche. 153. Goldstein, Winning the Peace, p. 80. 154. P. Mantoux, Paris Peace Conference 1919: Proceedings of the Council of Four (March 24– April 18) (Geneva: Librarie Droz, 1964), with letter from Hankey to Mantoux of 8 September 1955. 155. ‘Red Book’, Paris Peace Conference [Instructions to Commissioners], Box 41, pp. 1 and 2: Shotwell Papers, Columbia University Library. 156. Lord Robert Cecil, Diary, 1919 (manuscript) British Library, 6, 8, 9, 26 January 1919, Add. Mss. 51131. 157. Cecil, Diary, 4 February 1919, Add. Mss. 51131. 158. Bertie to Bryce, 23 March 1915, Bryce Papers, Bodleian Library, Box 239, File 8/89. 159. A. Adamthwaite, Grandeur and Misery: France’s Bid for Power, 1914– 1940 (London: Edward Arnold, 1995), p. 9. 160. Williams, Failed Imagination? p. 39; H. Kissinger, Diplomacy (New York, Pocket Books, 2003), p. 29. Notes 211

161. P. Roberts, ‘World War 1 as Catalyst: The Impact on Anglo- American Relations; The Role of Philip Lothian and the Round Table’, Round Table: The Commonwealth Journal of International Studies, Vol. 95, issue 383, January 2006, 113– 139. D.C. Watt, Personalities and Policies: Studies in the Formulation of in the Twentieth Century (London: Longman, 1965), p. 29. 162. C.W. Streit, Union Now: A Proposal for a Federal Union of the Democracies of the North Atlantic (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1939). 163. D. Reynolds, The Creation of the Anglo- American Alliance, 1937– 41: A Study in Competitive Cooperation (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1982), and Britannia Overruled: British Policy and World Power in the Twentieth Century (London: Longman, 1991). 164. For a detailed description of the setting up of Chatham House and the CFR, see: May, ‘The Round Table: 1910– 66’. 165. Roberts, The Role of Philip Kerr, pp. 121– 127. See also P. Roberts, ‘Paul D. Cravath, the First World War, and the Anglophile Internationalist Tradition’, Australian Journal of Politics and History, Vol. 51, No. 2, June 2005, pp. 194– 215. 166. Young, An American by Degrees, esp. chapter 3: ‘Cautious Seduction, 1914– 1917’. 167. ‘Reparation Commission. Statement on Behalf of the American Delegates by J.F. Dulles, Esq.’ 13 February 1919, and ‘Translation of Address of Mr. Klotz, French Minister of Finance, February 15, 1919’: ‘Reparations Commission: Memoranda etc.’, Box 2, Dulles Papers, Princeton University Library. 168. Keynes, The Collected Writings of John Maynard Keynes, Cambridge University Press, Vol. 16, p. 470, cited by Markwell, John Maynard Keynes, p. 88. 169. Adolf Berle, ‘Diary of the American Commission to Negotiate Peace, 1919’, entries for 8 and 12 December 1918 and 28 March 1919, Box 1, Berle Papers, Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library. 170. H. Hoover, The Ordeal of Woodrow Wilson (London: Museum Press, 1954), pp. 75– 76. 171. J. Schwarz, Liberal: Adolf A Berle and the Vision of an American Era (New York: Free Press, 1987), pp. 25– 30. 172. Wilson, quoted by Walter Millis, Road to War, p. 5. 173. Millis, Road to War, pp. 11– 13. 174. Stephenson, French War Aims, p. 209; S. Shuker, The End of French Predominance in Europe, The Financial Crisis of 1924 and the Adoption of the Dawes Plan (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1976). 175. A. Lentin, Guilt at Versailles: Lloyd George and the Pre- history of (London: Methuen, 1985). 176. A. Sharp, ‘The Foreign Office in Eclipse, 1919– 1922’, History, Vol. 61, 1976, pp. 198– 218. See also S.M. Warman, ‘The Erosion of Foreign Office Influence in the Making of Foreign Policy, 1916– 1918’, Historical Journal, Vol. 15, No. 1, 1972, pp. 133– 159; Steiner, The Foreign Office and Foreign Policy. 177. E.E. Cummings, The Enormous Room (New York: Liveright, 1978) (first published 1922), p. xxiii.

3 Difficult Relations in the 1920s – of Reparations, Debts and ‘Rumo(u)rs of War’

1. Long and Wilson (eds), The Thinkers of the Twenty Years’ Crisis. 2. M. Pugh, Liberal Internationalism: The Interwar Movement for Peace in Britain (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012), p. 4. 212 Notes

3. B.J.C. McKercher (ed.) Anglo-American Relations in the 1920’s: The Struggle for Supremacy (Edmonton: University of Alberta Press, 1990); F. Venn, ‘Anglo- American Relations and Middle East Oil, 1918–34’, Diplomacy and Statecraft, Vol. 1, No. 2, July 1990, pp. 165–184. 4. Emmanuel de Martonne, Report of 24 October 1918, MAE ‘Paix 22’, microfiche. 5. Wells, The New World Order, p. 12; ‘Memorandum of Conference with British Ambassador’, Office of the Under Secretary (Davis), 24 June 1920, Norman Davis Papers, Library of Congress. 6. E. Goldstein and J. Maurer (eds), The Washington Conference, 1921–22: Naval Rivalry, East Asian Stability and the Road to Pearl Harbor (London: Routledge, 1994). 7. D. Crockett, German Post-Expressionism: The Art of the Great Disorder, 1918–1924 (Philadelphia: Pennsylvania University Press, 1999), p. xvii. 8. J. Jacobson, Locarno Diplomacy: Germany and the West, 1925–1929 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1972). See also S. Marks, The Illusion of Peace: International Relations in Europe, 1918–1933 (London: Macmillan, 2003). 9. E. Grossmann, Methods of Economic Rapprochement (Geneva: League of Nations, 1926), p. 7. 10. M. Thomas, The French Empire between the Wars: Imperialism, Politics and Society (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2005), and D. Dilks (ed.), Retreat from Power: Studies in Britain’s Foreign Policy of the Twentieth Century, 2 vols (London: Macmillan, 1981). 11. Carr, The Twenty Years’ Crisis. 12. J. Clements, Prince Saionji: Japan (London: Haus Publishing, 2010). 13. R. Daniels, The Politics of Prejudice: The Anti-Japanese Movement in California and the Struggle for Japanese Exclusion (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999). 14. J.B. Scott, The United States and France – Some Opinions on International Gratitude (New York: Oxford University Press, 1926). The other quotes are taken from Ashworth, International Relations and the Labour Party, pp. 60–63. 15. E.D. Morel, The Horror on the Rhine (London: UDC, 1921); Ponsonby to Morel, 30 August 1921, and 1923 (n.d.) Morel Papers, BLPES, F8/123. 16. Clavin, The Great Depression in Europe, chapters 1 and 2. See also A. Fergusson, When Money Dies: The Nightmare of Deficit Spending, Devaluation and Hyperinflation in Weimar Germany (London: Public Affairs, 2010); Ahamed, Lords of Finance. 17. C. Maier, Recasting Bourgeois Europe: Stabilization in France, Germany and Italy in the Decade after World War 1 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1975), pp. 136–137, 208. 18. Chamberlain to Sir Hugh Levick (Bradbury’s Second-in-Command on the Reparations Commission) 20 August 1920, NA T194/6; Bradbury to H. Fass, Treasury, 11 June 1920, NA T194/5. See also A. Williams, ‘Sir John Bradbury and the Reparations Commission, 1920–25’, Diplomacy and Statecraft, Vol. 13, No. 3, September 2002, pp. 81–102. 19. N. Jordan, “The reorientation of French diplomacy in the mid-1920s: the role of Jacques Seydoux” The English Historical Review, Vol. 473, No. 17, 2002, pp. 867–888. 20. Klotz (Ministry of Finance) to Poincaré (Minister of Foreign Affairs and Président du Conseil), 23 October 1921, Seydoux Papers, PA-AP 261: 10 Etats-Unis. 21. (French Ambassador in Washington, 1937–38, and Minister of Foreign Affairs, 1938–39) to Delbos (MAE), 15 , Corréspondance Politique et Commerciale, 1930–40, USA, Vol. 306. 22. Washington (Claudel) to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MAE): 25 April 1930, 14 June 1930, and 29 April 1931: Corréspondance Politique et Commerciale, 1930–40, USA, Vol. 301. Notes 213

23. M. Trachtenberg, Reparations in World Politics, France and European Economic Diplomacy, 1916–1923 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1980). See also: Williams, Liberalism and War, chapter 3. 24. Klotz to Poincaré, 23 October 1921, Seydoux Papers, PA-AP 261: 10 Etats-Unis. 25. Trachtenberg, Reparations in World Politics, p. 12. 26. Trachtenberg, Reparations in World Politics, pp. 2–3. 27. Opening remarks by Chamberlain, 12 February 1920, The Times, 12 February 1920; Bourgeois to Millerand, 7 March 1920: Conférence Financier de Bruxelles, MAE, 1220 SDN. 28. Fleuriau (London) to MAE 30 April 1920; Curzon to Derby (Paris), copied to Fleuriau, 17 May 1920: Conférence Financier de Bruxelles, MAE, 1220 SDN. 29. Fleuriau (London) to Leygues 10 October 1920: Conférence Financier de Bruxelles, MAE, 1221 SDN. 30. Gorman, The Emergence of International Society, p. 1. 31. A. Wendt, ‘Anarchy Is What States Make of It; The Social Construction of Power Politics’, International Organization, Vol. 46, No. 2, Spring 1992, pp. 391–425; G. Lowes Dickinson, The International Anarchy, 1904–1914 (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1926). 32. Pugh, Liberal Internationalism, p. 2. 33. Adamthwaite, Grandeur and Misery; Shuker, The End of French Predominance. 34. Shuker, The End of French Predominance, p. 5. 35. Jusserand to MAE, 13 November 1919 MAE, Corréspondance Politique et Commerciale, Série B, Etats-Unis, 1918–1929, Box 38. 36. Chambrun to Pichon (French Foreign Minister), 18 May 1919 and 2 June 1919; Jusserand to MAE, 5 September 1919: MAE, Série B, Etats-Unis, 1918–1929, Box 38. 37. De Chambrun to Pichon (Minister AE), 20 May 1919, MAE, Série B, Etats-Unis, 1918–1929, Box 38. 38. Jusserand to Pichon, 22 October 1919, relating a discussion with former Ambassador Morgenthau, MAE, Série B, Etats-Unis, 1918–1929, Box 38. See also: H. Morgenthau, Sr., Ambassador Morgenthau’s Story (New York: Doubleday, 1918). 39. Washington Post, 24 November 1919. 40. Jusserand to MAE, 22, 30 November and 8 December, 1919, MAE, Série B, Etats- Unis, 1918–1929, Box 38. 41. Jusserand to MAE, 25 December 1919 and 5 January 1920; Brief News Report of 6 January 1920: MAE, Série B, Etats-Unis, 1918–1929, Box 38. 42. Chamberlain to Eyre Crowe (Permanent Under-Secretary, Foreign Office), 16 February 1925 (the year of his death), quoted by R.J.Q. Adams, British Politics and Foreign Policy in the Age of Appeasement: 1935–39 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1993), p. 13. See also S.E. Crowe, ‘Sir Eyre Crowe and the Locarno Pact’, The English Historical Review, Vol. 87, No. 342, January 1972, pp. 49–74. 43. Barr, A Line in the Sand, pp. xx. 44. Z. Baranyi (Secretariat of the League) to E. Drummond, 4 December 1921, sends him ‘La Transylvanie sous le régime Roumain’; British Embassy to MAE, 26 December 1922; Report of Titolescu visits to London and Geneva, 1 May 1923: MAE, SDN Sécretariat Général, Minorities, ID. 17. Optants Hongrois, Volume 285. 45. Léger to Berthelot, 3 January 1917, and Léger to Valéry, 2 September 1917, in: A Léger (St.-John Perse), Letters (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1979), pp. 257–8 and 278. 46. Léger to (his mother) Amédée Saint-Léger, 14 March 1917, Letters, pp. 302–303. 47. Seydoux Papers, 28 June 1922, and 5 July 1922, PA-AP 261. 214 Notes

48. Ahamed, Lords of Finance, p. 138, and chapter 8, ‘Uncle Shylock: War Debts’. Ahamed is here quoting Strong to Leffingwell, 30 August 1919, in turn quoted in L.V. Chandler, Benjamin Strong (Washington DC: The Brookings Institution, 1958), p. 144. 49. Seydoux to Commissaire Français à New York, Seydoux Papers, 17 January 1921, PA-AP 261: 10 Etats-Unis. 50. Leith-Ross, ‘Germany’s Default and Capacity to Pay’, sent to the Secretary to the Cabinet, Sir Maurice Hankey 28 July 1922, and to Lloyd George two days later: Lloyd George Papers, House of Lords, F/253. 51. J.M. Keynes, Activities, 1914–1919 (London: Macmillan, 1971), p. 471. 52. Keynes, The Economic Consequences of the Peace; Markwell, John Maynard Keynes and International Relations, pp. 88, 91–96. See also MacMillan, Peacemakers, pp. 488–489. 53. Markwell, John Maynard Keynes, p. 96. See also D. Moggeridge, Maynard Keynes: An Economist’s Biography (London: Macmillan, 1979), pp. 354–356. 54. Markwell, John Maynard Keynes, pp. 98–99. 55. ‘State of Execution of the Treaty of Versailles, Lloyd George Papers, House of Lords, F/246, May 1921 – Reparations. 56. Leith-Ross, ‘Germany’s Default and Capacity to Pay’, Lloyd George Papers, House of Lords, F/253. 57. MacFadyean to Gilray, 9 February 1921, and MacFadyean to Keynes, 28 January 1922; MacFadyean to Kent, 8 February 1922: MacFadyean Papers, BLPES. 58. MacFadyean to Levick, 15 March 1922, MacFadyean Papers, BLPES; A. MacFadyean Recollected in Tranquility (London: Pall Mall Press, 1964). 59. MacFadyean to Gilray, 25 February 1922, and MacFadyean to Lady Levick, 15 November 1922, MacFadyean Papers, BLPES. 60. S. Baker, Wilson and the World Settlement, Vol. 2 (New York: Doubleday, 1923), p. 335. 61. Cf. Account of a meeting at King’s College Cambridge, 20–21 December 1919: Markwell, John Maynard Keynes, pp. 100–105. 62. The most celebrated example was E. Mantoux, The Carthaginian Peace, or The Economic Consequences of Mr. Keynes (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1946). 63. H. Clay, ‘The Liberal Industrial Report’, The Economic Journal, Vol. 38, No. 150, June 1928. 64. ‘Questions d’ordre économique a étudier par la service française de la SDN’, de la Baumelle to Clauges, 10 February 1920, MAE, SDN 1158. 65. ‘The Reparations Settlement’ circulated by Lord Curzon to the Cabinet, June 1921, NA CAB32/6. 66. ‘Reparation in Kind: Memorandum prepared in the Treasury’, NA CAB 27/72, 16 November 1921; Ashworth, International Relations and the Labour Party, p. 51; D. Lloyd George, The Truth about the Peace Treaties (London: Gollancz, 1938), p. 465. 67. Clay, ‘The Liberal Industrial Report’. 68. M. Hogan, Informal Entente: The Private Structure of Cooperation in Anglo-American Economic Diplomacy (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1977), pp. 1–6, 11–17. 69. See C. Fink, The Genoa Conference (Chapel Hill, University of North Carolina Press, 1984); and C. Fink, A. Frohn and J. Heideking (eds), Genoa, Rapallo and European Reconstruction in 1922 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991). 70. Office of the Secretary: ‘Memorandum of Interview with the British Ambassador’, 14 August 1922, Charles Evans Hughes Papers, Document 286, Reel 122, Library of Congress. 71. E.F. Wise, ‘The Anglo-Russian Trade Agreement of 1921’ Soviet Union Monthly, 15 July 1926. See also C. White, British and American Commercial Relations with the Notes 215

Soviet Union, 1918–1924 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992), and Williams, Trading with the Bolsheviks, chapter 2. 72. N.E. Saul, Friends or Foes? The United States and Russia, 1921–1941 (Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 2006), p. 80 and chapter 2, ‘Relief’. 73. Williams, Trading with the Bolsheviks, chapter 1. The ‘inconsistency’ thesis is most notable in J. Hoff Wilson, American Business and Foreign Policy, 1920–1933 (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1971); and Ideology and Economics: U.S. Relations with the Soviet Union, 1918–1933 (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1974). 74. Memo of conversation between Bonar Law and Balfour, 22 December 1922, Add. Ms. 49693, Balfour Papers, British Library. 75. Cecil, ‘Diary of a Tour to the U.S.’, 21 March to 28 April 1923, Cecil Papers, Add. Ms. 51131, British Library. 76. [Bruce Report], ‘The Development of International Co-operation in Economic and Social Affairs. Report of the Special Committee’ (Geneva: League of Nations, 1939) [League of Nations A.23.1939]. 77. H. Aufricht, A Guide to League of Nations Publications, 1920–47 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1951), p. 212. 78. On Austria: League of Nations, Financial Reconstruction of Austria: Report of the Financial Committee of the Council (London: Constable, 1921), pp. 21, 12; and ‘The Financial Reconstruction of Austria: General Survey and Principal Documents’, Geneva, 1926 [League of Nations C.568.M232.1926.II]; Report by the same Committee ‘The Financial Reconstruction of Hungary’, December 1926 [League of Nations C.583.M.221.1926.II], all League of Nations Archives, Geneva. 79. League of Nations (signed J.A. Salter), ‘The Settlement of Greek Refugees’, confi- dential memo of 10 October 1924, League of Nations C.524.M.187.1924.II; and League of Nations, The Settlement of Greek Refugees: Scheme for an International Loan (Geneva: League of Nations, 1924), p. 14. 80. G. Stresemann, His Diaries, Letters and Papers (London: Macmillan and Co., 1935), pp. 321–322. 81. St Aulaire to MAE, 5 July 1922, Seydoux Papers, MAE. 82. Churchill to Cecil, 23 March 1924, Cecil Papers, Add. Ms. 51073, British Library. 83. Various documents on the German economic situation, January 1924, and Record of conversation between Seydoux and Adenauer, 10 January 1924; Report to Seydoux about Schacht, by a Colonel Weyl, 18 January 1924, Seydoux Papers, PA-AP 261: Allemagne – Réparations, 1920–1925. 84. Schacht conversation with Poincaré, 24 Janaury 1024, Seydoux Papers, PA-AP 261: Allemagne – Réparations, 1920–1925. 85. G. Johnson, ‘“Das Kind” Revisited: Lord D’Abernon and German Security Policy, 1922–1925’, Contemporary European History, Vol. 9, No. 2, 2000, pp. 209–224, 209–211, 216–217. 86. Wright, Stresemann, pp. 1, 2–3. 87. D. Kitzinger, ‘Towards a Model of Transnational Agency: The Case of Dietrich von Hildebrand’, International History Review, December 2011, pp. 669–686. 88. Memoranda of 8 October (Baldwin and Poincaré); 8 November (Eyre Crowe and Seydoux Papers, PA-AP 261: Allemagne – Réparations, 1920–1925. 89. Seydoux on commercial relations with Germany, 19 August 1924, PA-AP 261: Allemagne – Réparations, 1920–1925. 90. French Embassy in Washington to Seydoux, 8 and 20 January 1924, Poincaré to Minister of Finance (Clémentel) 29 January 1924: PA-AP 261: 10 Etats-Unis. 216 Notes

91. Williams, ‘Sir John Bradbury and Reparations’, p. 97; C.G. Dawes, A Journal of Reparations (London: Macmillan and Co., 1939), entry for 10 January 1924, p. 14. 92. Seydoux notes of 8 and 11 August 1924, and Clémentel to Seydoux, 20 August 1924, PA-AP 261: Allemagne – Réparations, 1920–1925. 93. Seydoux note of 27 February 1925, PA-AP 261: Allemagne – Réparations, 1920–1925. 94. N.M. Butler, Is America Worth Saving? Addresses on National Problems and Party Policies (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1920), p. ix. 95. N.M. Butler, The Faith of a Liberal: Essays and Addresses on Political Principles and Public Policies (New York: Scribner’s Sons, 1924); Building the American Nation: An Essay of Interpretation (New York: Scribner’s Sons, 1926). 96. Joint Research and Information Department of the Advisory Committee on International Relations of the TUC and Labour Party, February 1924, No. 317, Shotwell Papers. 97. James T. Shotwell ‘Diary during the Making of the Geneva Protocol’ [Hereafter ‘Geneva Diary’], 87 pages, 1924, Shotwell Papers, Columbia University Library, Box A. 98. Ibid., p. 10. 99. Ibid., n.d., early September 1924, pp. 35, 38. 100. Tasker Bliss to Shotwell, 9 October 1924, in: Shotwell, Geneva Diary. 101. J.T. Shotwell, The Great Decision (New York: Macmillan, 1944), p. 3. 102. Lowes Dickinson, The International Anarchy, pp. vi, 1. 103. K. Kautsky, Outbreak of the World War (Oxford: Carnegie Endowment, 1924). 104. I.F.W. Beckett, American Historical Review, Volume 111, No. 3, June 2006, p. 911. 105. Lowes Dickinson, The International Anarchy, p. 492. 106. B. Kuklick, Blind Oracles: Intellectual and War from Kennan to Kissinger (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2007). 107. Jacques Seydoux, ‘Les Etats-Unis et l’Europe’, 20 February 1927, and article ‘L’illustration Economique et Financière’ in Pax, 6 March 1926, as well as article by Georges Scelle (professor of law at the University of Dijon) of 18 August 1928 on ‘Le Pacte Kellog’, Seydoux Papers, ‘Situation Intérieur, Politique Extérieure’, PA-PA: 261;13, Etats-Unis. 108. Claudel to Briand, 12 March 1931, Vol. 301 Correspondance Politique et Commerciale, 1930–1940. 109. Ashworth, International Relations and the Labour Party, p. ix. 110. Woolf, International Government. 111. A. Ponsonby, Falsehood in Wartime: Propaganda Lies of the First World War (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1928). 112. Ponsonby to Morel, 1923 (n.d.) and 19 April 1924, Morel Papers, BLPES, F8/123. 113. MacDonald (still in Opposition at the time, but shortly to become Foreign Secretary and Prime Minister) to Cecil, 22 February 1923, and 3 July 1923, Mss. 51081, Cecil papers, British Library. 114. MacDonald (as Foreign Secretary and Prime Minister) to Cecil, 25 February 1924; Cecil to MacDonald, 23 June 1924, Mss. 51081, Cecil papers, British Library. 115. For a good analysis of this see L. Ashworth, ‘Did the Realist – Idealist Debate Really Happen? A Revisionist History of International Relations’, International Relations, Vol. XVI, No. 1, 2002, pp. 33–51, and; J. Haslam, The Vices of Integrity: E.H. Carr, 1892–1982 (London: Verso 1999). 116. Pigou, The Political Economy of War, p. 3. Notes 217

117. Skidelsky, John Maynard Keynes, 1883–1946, pp. 127–128. 118. Pigou, Political Economy of War, pp. 161–168, 189–196, and 233–237. 119. W.H. Butler, ‘Economic Factors threatening the Peace of the World’, TUC General Council, Economic Committee, Labour Party Archives, London. 120. Liberal Party, Britain’s Industrial Future: Report of the Liberal Industries Inquiry (London: Ernest Benn, 1928, 1977). 121. R. Skidelsky, Politicians and the Slump: The Labour Government of 1929–31 (London: Macmillan, 1967), p. xii. See also P. Williamson, ‘Safety First: Baldwin, the Conservative Party and the 1929 General Election,’ The Historical Journal, vol. 25, no. 2, 1982, pp. 385–409. 122. R. Skidelsky, Oswald Mosley (London: Macmillan, 1975). 123. E. Clémentel, La France et la Politique économique interalliée (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1931); R. Marjolin, Architect of European Unity: Memoirs, 1911–1986 (London: Weidenfield and Nicholson, 1989). 124. P. Bauchet, La Planification Française: quinze ans d’expérience (Paris: Editions du Seuil, 1962), pp. 13–14. 125. Grossmann, Methods of Economic Rapprochement, pp. 3–6. 126. R. Luce-Gilson, Le corporatisme; est – il valable? (Paris: Les Editions Georges Rochat, n.d. probably 1925), ‘Avant – propos’. 127. K. Polanyi, The Great Transformation: The Political and Economic Origins of Our Time (1944) (London: Beacon, 2002). 128. François Perrou, Contribution a l’Etude de l’Economie et des Finances Publiques de l’Italie depuis la Guerre, quoted by A. Bowley, Some Economic Consequences of the Great War (London: Thornton Butterworth, 1930). 129. Bradbury to d’Abernon, ‘German Gold Bank – Initial Study’, 31 January 1924, Bradbury Papers. 130. Williams, Labour and Russia, pp. 59–62. 131. Henri de Jouvenel, ‘Pour sortir de l’impasse “Sécurité – Désarmament” interna- tionalisons les aviations’, La Renaissance Politique, 18 May 1929; Disarmament Conference Note of 5 February 1932; and note of discussion with Davis 26 May 1932: Massigli Papers, PA-AP: 217. 132. ‘French “Sabotage” Tactics’, Daily Telegraph, 29 August 1930; Craigie (FO) to Massigli, 8 April 1931: Massigli Papers, PA-AP: 217. 133. Massigli, ‘Note sur la nécessité d’une conversation Franco-Britannique’, 10 February 1932; see also Massigli Note of 7 June 1932: Massigli Papers, PA-AP: 217. 134. Intercepted letter, Gibson to Norman Armour (Brussels) 11 December 1930; Note of discussions with Gibson, 10 February 1932: Massigli Papers, PA-AP: 217. 135. Massigli, ‘Note sur la nécessité d’une conversation Franco – Britannique’, doc. cit. 136. ‘Note sur la nécessité d’une conversation Franco – Britannique’, doc. cit.; Note to André Tardieu about a meeting with German negotiator Nadolny of 20 February 1932 and with German Secretary of State von Bulow of 25 April 1932: Massigli Papers, PA-AP: 217. 137. Hamilton Fish Armstrong Papers, 7 November 1928, Box 72, Princeton University Library. 138. Minutes of the Anglo-American Group, meeting of 16 November 1929: Council for Foreign Relations Papers, Box 238, Princeton University Library. 139. C.L. Mowat, Britain Between the Wars (London: Methuen, 1955), p. 142; D. Marquand, Ramsay MacDonald (London: Jonathan Cape, 1977), p. 2. 218 Notes

140. Stimson Diary, ‘Memorandum of Trip to Rapidan’, 7 October 1929, Reel 126, Library of Congress. 141. Stimson Diary, ‘Memorandum of Trip to Rapidan’. 142. Balfour memo for the War Cabinet of 27 July 1919, ‘Armies and Economics’, Balfour Papers, Mss. 49750, British Library. 143. Cecil to Churchill, 24 July 1924; and 26 July 1927, Mss. 51074, Cecil Papers, British Library. 144. B.D. Rhodes, ‘The Image of Britain in the United States, 1919–1929: A Contentious Relative and Rival’, in: McKercher, Anglo-American Relations in the 1920s, p. 188. 145. E.J. Phelan, Albert Thomas et la création du B.I.T. (Paris: Grasset, 1936) [Also pub- lished as Yes and Mr. Thomas, 1936], p. 53. 146. G.P. Pink, The Conference of Ambassadors: Paris 1920–1923; Its History, the Theoretical Aspect of Its Work, and Its Place in International Organization (Geneva: Geneva Research Centre, Vol. XII, Nos. 4–5. 1942). 147. G. Clemenceau, Grandeurs et misères de la Victoire (Paris: Perrin, 1930, 2010). 148. Keynes to Bradbury, December 1922, FI/9/36-41, Keynes Papers (King’s College Cambridge). 149. Cecil to Churchill, 8 January 1929, Ms. 51073, and ‘Diary of Tour to the U.S.’, Add. Ms. 51131, Cecil Papers, British Library.

4 France, Britain and the United States in the 1930s until the Fall of France

1. In a very crowded field: K. Robbins, Appeasement, 2nd edn (London: Wiley- Blackwell, 1997); D.C. Watt, How War Came: Immediate Origins of the Second World War, 1938– 39 (London: Heinemann,1989); D. Dutton, Anthony Eden: A Life and Reputation (London: Hodder Arnold, 1996); and (London: Bloomsbury, 2001); D. Faber , 1938: Appeasement and World War II (London: Pocket Books, 2009); J.P. Levy, Appeasement and Rearmament: Britain, 1936– 1939 (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2006); F. McDonough, Neville Chamberlain, Appeasement and the British Road to War (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1998). 2. P. Clavin, The Failure of Economic Diplomacy: Britain, France, Germany and the United States, 1931– 1936 (London: Macmillan, 1996); P. Clavin, The Great Depression in Europe, 1929– 1939 (London: Macmillan, 2000); C. Kindleberger, The World in Depression, 1929– 39 (London: Penguin, 1987); R. Davis, Britain and France before the War: Appeasement and Crisis, 1934– 1936 (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2001). 3. Thomas, The French Empire between the Wars; T. Chafer and A. Sakur, French Colonial Empire and the Popular Front (London: Macmillan, 1999). 4. See also D.A. Mayers, FDR’s Ambassadors and the Diplomacy of Crisis (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013), chapter 5, ‘France Agonistes’. 5. Berle’s manuscript diaries are one of the best sources for understanding Roosevelt’s foreign policy, partly reproduced as B.B. Berle and T.B. Jacobs (eds), Navigating the Rapids, 1918– 1971; from the Papers of Adolf A. Berle (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1973). 6. R. Ulrich, ‘René Massigli and Germany, 1919– 1938’, in R. Boyce (ed.), French Foreign and Defence Policy, 1918– 1940 (London: Routledge, 1998). 7. Sumner Welles, Office Correspondence, 1937, Correspondence with Adolf Berle, ‘The European Situation’ 4.1.37, Box 39, FDR Presidential Library. On Berle, also see: Schwarz, Liberal: Adolf A. Berle and the Vision of an American Era. Notes 219

8. M. Barone, Our Country: The Shaping of America from Roosevelt to Reagan (New York: Free Press, 1990), p. xiii. 9. Ibid., pp. xi– xii, 29– 31. 10. I. Katznelson, Fear Itself: The New Deal and the Origins of Our Time (New York: Liveright, 2013); L. Olson, Those Angry Days: Roosevelt, Lindbergh, and America’s Fight Over World War II, 1939– 1941 (New York: Random House, 2013). 11. Millis, in The Harvard Crimson, 1941 http://www.thecrimson.com/article/1941/1/14/ walter- millis- author- of- road- to/. 12. Wilson, quoted by Millis, Road to War, p. 5. 13. Millis, Road to War, pp. 11– 13. 14. S. Adler, The Isolationist Impulse: Its Twentieth Century Reaction (New York: Greenwood, 1957); and The Uncertain Giant, 1921– 1941: American Foreign Policy Between the Wars (New York: Macmillan, 1965). 15. Seymour, American Neutrality, 1914– 1917, pp. v– vi. 16. M.C. McKenna, Borah (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1961), p. 143. 17. Ibid., p. 152. 18. Saul, Friends or Foes, chapter 6. 19. Laboulaye to Paul Boncour (Minister of Foreign Affairs), 9 January 1934, MAE Correspondance Politique et Commerciale, 1914– 1940, Box 304. 20. J.D. Doenecke, In Danger Undaunted: The Anti- Interventionist Movement of 1940– 1941 as Revealed in the Papers of the America First Committee (Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 1990), p. xii. 21. Ibid., p. 5. 22. Seymour, American Neutrality, quoting Nye, but interestingly leaving out the ‘American’, p. vi. The Senate’s ‘Special Committee on Investigation of the Munitions Industry’, or ‘Nye Committee’ met between September 1934 and April 1936. 23. Hogan, Informal Entente; Williams, Trading with the Bolsheviks; Saul, Friends or Foes? 24. J.D. Doenecke and J.E. Wilz, From Isolation to War, 1931– 1941 (Arlington Heights, IL: Harlan Davidson, 1991). 25. J.L. Harper, American Visions of Europe: Franklin D. Roosevelt, George F. Kennan and Dean G. Acheson (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994). 26. D. Reynolds, ‘Rethinking Anglo- American Relations’, International Affairs, Vol. 65, No. 1, 1988, pp. 89– 111; Francis Fukuyama wrote about ‘A Realistic Wilsonianism, Please’, in the New York Times, 19 February 2006. 27. Claudel to Briand, 13 December 1931, MAE Correspondance Politique et Commerciale, 1914– 1940, Box 302. 28. Claudel to Briand, 14 December 1931, MAE Correspondance Politique et Commerciale, 1914– 1940, Box 302; ‘There has not been such a critical situation for the Federal Government since the War’. 29. Claudel to Briand, 9 June 1931, MAE Correspondance Politique et Commerciale, 1914– 1940, Box 302. 30. ‘Acting Secretary Welles’ Conference at the American Society of Newspaper Editors’, 28 April 1938, ‘Office Correspondence’, A 1938, Folder 12, Box 44, Sumner Welles Papers, FDR Presidential Library. 31. R. Boyce ‘Introduction’, in Boyce, French Foreign and Defence Policy, 1918– 1940, pp. 2– 3. 32. P. Jackson, France and the Nazi Menace: Intelligence and Policy Making, 1933– 1939 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000). 33. For a brief overview see: P. Bernard and H. Dubief, The Decline of the Third Republic, 1914– 1938 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), chapter 19: ‘The young intellectuals and the crisis of civilization’. 220 Notes

34. P. Mazgaj, Imagining Fascism: The Cultural Politics of the French Young Right (Newark: University of Delaware Press, 2007), p. 13. 35. D. Halévy, La Fin des Notables (Paris: Bernard Grasset, 1930), pp. 17– 18. 36. J.- B. Duroselle, Politique étrangère de la France. La décadence, 1932– 1939 (Paris: Imprimerie Nationale, 1979). Peter Jackson has a useful summary of the debate on ‘décadence’, France and the Nazi Menace, pp. 1– 2. 37. Siegfried, Tableau des Parties en France, pp. 1, 9. 38. A. Mitchell, A Stranger in Paris: Germany’s Role in Republican France, 1870– 1940 (Oxford: Berghahn, 2006), p. 17. 39. Duroselle gives Siegfried the accolade as the most acute ‘serious’ commentator in the 1930s on the United States, and Georges Duhamel (see below) as the most ‘popular’: cf. Duroselle, Politique étrangère de la France, pp. 195– 196. 40. André Siegfried, talk at the Institut d’Etudes Américaines, 26 January 1932, sent by the Minister of the Interior, , in MAE, Correspondance Politique et Commerciale, 1914– 1940, Box 302. 41. See, for example, Jules Henry (French Consul in Chicago) to Briand, 14 June and 11 July 1930, and Claudel to Briand, 30 October 1930: MAE Correspondance Politique et Commerciale, 1914– 1940, Box 301. 42. Siegfried, talk at the Institut d’Etudes Américaines. 43. Claudel to the Sociétés Franco- Américaines in New York, with accompanying letter to FDR, Official File, ‘France, Government of, 1933– 1934’ OF203, FDR Presidential Library [Hereafter OF 203]. 44. Visit by Laval, 21– 27 October 1931, OF 203. 45. See D. Woolner, Searching for Cooperation in a Troubled World: Cordell Hull, Anthony Eden and Anglo- American Relations, 1933– 1938 (New York: Praeger Press, forthcoming). 46. R.F. Kuisel, Seducing the French: The Dilemma of Americanization (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997), pp. 10– 11; G. Duhamel, America the Menace; Scenes from the Life of the Future (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1931). 47. Kuisel, Seducing the French, p. 10. 48. Mitchell, A Stranger in Paris, p. 27. 49. M.L. Siegel, The Moral Disarmament of France: Education, Pacifism and Patriotism, 1914– 1940 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), ‘Introduction’ and p. 23. 50. D. Caute, The Fellow Travellers: Intellectual Friends of Communism (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988); Williams, Labour and Russia. 51. A. Kriegel, Aux origins du communisme français: 1914– 1920, contribution à l’histoire du mouvement ouvrier français (Paris: Imprimerie nationale, 1965); R. Bourderon, J. Burles, J. Girault et al., Le PCF: étapes et problèmes, 1920– 1972 (Paris: éditions sociales, 1981). 52. P. Bourdrel, Les Cagoulards dans la guerre (Paris: Albin Michel, 2009). 53. S. Spender, Forward from Liberalism (London: Victor Gollancz, 1937). 54. R. Overy, The Morbid Age: Britain and the Crisis of Civilisation, 1919– 1939 (London: Penguin, 2010). 55. W. Davis, Into the Silence: The Great War, Mallory and the Conquest of Everest (London: Vintage, 2012). 56. J. Hazelgrove (ed.), Spiritualism and British Society between the Wars (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2000). 57. Lothian, ‘Interview with Hitler, May 4th 1937’, likewise with Herman Goering and Hjalmar Schacht of the Reichsbank, PSF- Germany, Box 38, FDR Presidential Library. Notes 221

58. K. Neilson, ‘An Excellent Conning- Tower: John Buchan on the Fringes of Diplomacy’, pp. 243– 260, in J. Fisher and A. Best (eds), On the Fringes of Diplomacy: Influences on British Foreign Policy, 1800– 1945 (Farnham: Ashgate, 2011). 59. For a comprehensive account of this process see Reynolds, The Creation of the Anglo- American Alliance; R. Douglas, New Alliances, 1940– 41 (London: Macmillan, 1982). 60. Mentioned in Neilson, ‘An Excellent Conning- Tower ….’, pp. 263– 264; P. Bell, ‘The Foreign Office and the 1939 Royal Visit to America: Courting the USA in an Era of Isolationism’, Journal of Contemporary History, Vol. 37, No. 4, 2002, pp. 599– 616; The smoking discussion figured in a cartoon by Sidney (George) Strube, in the Daily Express, 9 June 1939, British Cartoon Library, University of Kent. 61. R. Self, Britain, America and the War Debt Controversy: The Economic Diplomacy of an Unspecial Relationship, 1917– 1941 (London: Routledge, 2006), quoted in Neilson, ‘An Excellent Conning- Tower ….’, p. 260. 62. W.N. Medlicott et al., Documents on British Foreign Policy, 1919– 1939, Series A, Volume 1, London, HMSO, 1966, quoted in P. Mangold, Success and Failure in British Foreign Policy: Evaluating the Record, 1900– 2000 (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2001), p. 1. 63. P. Haggie, Britannia at Bay: The Defence of the British Empire against Japan, 1931–41 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1981); I. Nish (ed.) Anglo-Japanese Alienation, 1919– 1952 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982). 64. K.W. Thompson, ‘Toynbee’s Approach to History’, in M.F. Ashley Montagu (ed.), Toynbee and History: Critical Essays and Reviews (Boston: Porter Sargent, 1956), pp. 200– 220; and Toynbee’s World Politics and History (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1985). 65. A. Toynbee, A Study of History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1948– 1961); P. Becque, Tragedy and the Limits of Reason: Arnold J. Toynbee’s Search for a Middle Way, University of Kent PhD thesis, May 2009, esp. ‘Introduction’; C. Navari, ‘Arnold Toynbee: Prophecy and Civilization’, Review of International Studies, Vol. 26, No. 2, 2000, pp. 289– 301. 66. Carr, The Twenty Years’ Crisis; Long and Peter Wilson, Thinkers of the Twenty Years Crisis, Introduction, p. 16. 67. For more on this see Ceadel, Pacifism in Britain, 1914– 1945, p. 24, and Williams, Failed Imagination? p. 182. 68. Toynbee to May, 16 and 11 , Toynbee Papers, Bodleian Library, Oxford, quoted by Becque, page 10, fn. 6. There are many other like quotations. 69. C. Sylvest, Making Progress? British Liberal Internationalism, 1880– 1930 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2009). 70. Roberts, Lord Lothian and Anglo- American Relations, chapter three: ‘The Interwar Philip Lothian’, pp.79– 105; and Conclusion, pp. 229– 245. 71. Ashworth, International Relations Theory and the Labour Party; J.F. Naylor, Labour’s International Policy: The Labour Party in the 1930s (London: Weidenfield and Nicolson, 1969); B. Pimlott, Labour and the Left in the 1930s (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977). 72. Ashworth, International Relations and the Labour Party, pp. 44– 48. 73. E. Wertheimer, Portrait of the Labour Party (London: G.P. Putnam, 1929); Naylor, Labour’s International Policy, pp. 8– 10; D. Carlton, Macdonald versus Henderson: The Foreign Policy of the Second Labour Government (London: Macmillan, 1971). 74. Claeys, Imperial Sceptics. 75. Ashworth, International Relations and the Labour Party, pp. 212– 213. 222 Notes

76. On Spain, see J. Edwards, The British Government and , 1936– 1939 (London: Macmillan, 1979); G. Stone, ‘Neville Chamberlain and the Spanish Civil War, 1936– 9’, The International History Review, April 2013, pp. 377– 395. 77. New York Times, 8.11.33, clipping in OF 203, FDR Presidential Library. 78. Press Release of Herriot’s farewell speech, 28 April 1933, OF 203. 79. Mary (Mrs. James A. Roosevelt, FDR’s cousin) to FDR, 12 July 1933, and deliv- ered by Laboulaye to McIntyre, 26 July 1933, OF 203. 80. J.E. Persico, Roosevelt’s Secret War: FDR and World War II Espionage (New York: Random House, 2001). 81. Wilson to Welles, 20 May 1937, Box 44, Sumner Welles Papers, FDR Presidential Library. 82. C. Hull, The Memoirs of Cordell Hull, 2 vols (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1948); J.W. Pratt, Cordell Hull, 1933– 44 (New York: Cooper Square Publishers, 1964). 83. Henry to Briand, 12 September 1931, MAE Correspondance Politique et Commerciale, 1914– 1940, Box 302. 84. Hull to FDR, 9.3.33, OF 203. 85. Bullitt to FDR, 8 November 1936, ‘France- Bullitt’, Secretary’s Files, PSF 30, FDR Presidential Library [Hereafter: France- Bullitt, PSF 30]. 86. Bullitt to FDR, 10 January 1937, France- Bullitt, PSF 30. 87. R. Walton Moore (new Acting Under- Secretary of State) to FDR about Bonnet’s credentials, 13 January 1937, OF 203. On Bonnet and appeasement see: Adamthwaite, France and the Coming of the Second World War, pp. 200– 205. 88. Bonnet to MAE, 19 February 1937, MAE Correspondance Politique et Commerciale, 1914– 1940, Box 306. 89. Straus to FDR, PSF Diplomatic, Box 31, Paris, 20 December 1933, FDR Presidential Library. 90. Straus to FDR, ‘Memorandum of Various Subjects Which the Ambassador Contemplates Taking up While in the United States’, PSF Diplomatic, Box 31, 20 December 1933; and FDR to Straus, 9 May 1935; Straus to FDR; 9 April 1935 and FDR to Hull, 26 April 1935: PSF Diplomatic, Box 31, FDR Presidential Library. 91. Straus to FDR, 10 February 1934; 27.2.34: PSF Diplomatic, Box 31, FDR Presidential Library. 92. Straus to Secretary of State Hull, 3 and 8 November 1934, PSF Diplomatic, Box 31. 93. Philipps to FDR, Washington, 3 November 1934; Philips to Hull, 9 November 1934: PSF Diplomatic, Box 31, FDR Presidential Library. 94. Straus to Marguerite le Hand (FDR’s Personal Secretary) for FDR personally, 21.1.36 and Enclosure letter Straus to FDR, 20.1.36; FDR to Straus, 13.2.36: Secretary’s Files, Box 31, FDR Presidential Library. 95. Sumner Welles, Office Correspondence, 1937, Correspondence with Adolf Berle, ‘The European Situation’ 4.1.37, Box 39, FDR Presidential Library. 96. FDR to Bullitt, 9.11.36, ‘ France-Bullitt’, Secretary’s Files, France- Bullitt, PSF 30; Mayers, FDR’s Ambassadors, p. 137; see also Mayers, op.cit., 131– 136. 97. FDR to Bullitt, 20.10.36, Bullitt to FDR, 5.10.36: France- Bullitt, PSF 30. 98. Bullitt to FDR, 24.10.36, France-Bullitt, PSF 30. 99. Hull to FDR, 5.1.38 (St Quentin suggested) and 3.3.38 (credentials presented), OF 203. 100. George Sumek to Marvin H. McIntyre, asking FDR to see Jouhaux, 30.8.38 and Bullitt to Marguerite Le Hand (thus bypassing Hull) 15.8.38, OF 203. Notes 223

101. Offie to Le Hand, 3.12.37, France- Bullitt, PSF 30. 102. R. Dallek, Franklin D. Roosevelt and American Foreign Policy, 1932– 1945 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995), p. 21. 103. Bullitt to FDR, ‘Le Président Roosevelt et les Dettes de Guerre’, enclosed with letter of 8.11.36, France- Bullitt, PSF 30. 104. A. Williams, ‘Canada and Anglo- Soviet Relations: The Question of Russian Trade at the 1932 Ottawa Imperial Conference’, Diplomacy and Statecraft, Vol. 1, No. 2, July 1990, pp. 185– 215; The quote is from: I. Drummond, Imperial Economic Policy, 1917– 1939 (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1974), p. 31. 105. ‘Memorandum of Conversations between the Prime Minister, Mr. Ramsay MacDonald, Sir John Simon and Mr. Norman Davis, Mr. Allen Dulles, accompa- nying Mr. Davis, March 30 1933’, Norman. H. Davis Papers, Library of Congress. 106. For more on the Conference see Dallek FDR and American Foreign Policy, pp. 36– 38, and ‘State Department Memorandum on United States Monetary and Economic Policy’, 3.4.33 [in which the Gold Standard was seen as ‘essential to world recovery’], E.B. Nixon (ed.), Franklin D. Roosevelt and Foreign Affairs, Vol. 1, January 1933– February 1934 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard, Belknap Press, 1969), pp. 35– 39. 107. Press Release of Herriot’s farewell speech, 28 April 1933, OF 203. 108. ‘French Unfavorable to NRA, says Flandin’, Press cutting (no source), October 1933: OF 203; Henry to MAE, 9 November 1934, MAE Correspondance Politique et Commerciale, 1914– 1940, Box 304. 109. Straus to FDR, 9.11.34, Secretary’s Files, Box 31, FDR Presidential Library. 110. For example: Cordell Hull note on trade in lace with France, 20.9.35, OF 203. 111. Laboulaye to Laval, 26 December 1934 and 4 January 1935, MAE Correspondance Politique et Commerciale, 1914– 1940, Box 304. 112. Williams, Failed Imagination, Chapter 4, for a full discussion of this. 113. Hull to FDR, 4 April 1935, OF 203. 114. Straus to FDR, 7 March and 29 May 1935, Secretary’s Files, Box 31, FDR Presidential Library. 115. Straus to Hull, 5 June 1936, Secretary’s Files, Box 31, FDR Presidential Library. 116. Berle to Welles, Office Correspondence, 1937, Correspondence with Adolf Berle, 9.3.37, Box 39, FDR Presidential Library. 117. Hull to FDR, 9 July and Philips to FDR, 18 March 1936, OF 203. 118. Philips to FDR, 9 June 1936, OF 203. 119. Bullitt to FDR, 24 November 1936, France- Bullitt, PSF 30. 120. Morgenthau to FDR, relating his discussion with then British Chancellor of the Exchequer Neville Chamberlain and the Treasury, 29 September 1936, and Morgenthau to FDR, 1 July 1937, all OF 203. 121. See also K. Mouré, Managing the Franc Poincaré: Economic Understanding and Political Constraint in French Monetary Policy, 1928– 1936 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002). 122. See, for example, FDR to MacDonald, 20 February 1933, in Franklin D. Roosevelt and Foreign Affairs, 1933– 34, pp. 14– 16, which was not sent; Press Conference by FDR on his hopes for his discussions in London with MacDonald, 7 April 1933, pp. 43– 44; Norman Davis to FDR, on discussions with MacDonald, 7 April 1933, pp. 44– 48. 123. Straus to FDR, 9 November 1934, doc. cit. 124. FDR to Straus, 13 February 1936: Secretary’s Files, Box 31, FDR Presidential Library, cited above. 224 Notes

125. Laboulaye to Laval, 8 January 1935, MAE Correspondance Politique et Commerciale, 1914– 1940, Box 304. 126. Meeting between Barthou and Simon, 11 July 1934, Massigli Papers, ‘Relations avec la Grande- Bretagne’, PA- AP: 217. 127. Laboulaye to Laval, 8 and 16 January 1935, MAE Correspondance Politique et Commerciale, 1914– 1940, Box 304. On the Hoare- Laval Pact see: R. Overy with A. Wheatcroft, The Road to War (London: Vintage, 2009), chapter 4 ‘Italy’. 128. Stimson Diary, entry for 23– 24 April 1932, Reel 4, November 1931– October 3 1932, Library of Congress. 129. Williams, Trading with the Bolsheviks, chapter 5; Stimson Diary, entry of 22 February 1931, and Reel 4, op. cit., entries for 24 April 1932 and 16 May 1932. 130. 5 May 1932, Massigli memo of conversation with von Weiszacker discussion and of Norman Davis and Massigli, 26 May 1932, Conference pour la Reduction et la limitation des armements, 1931– 1933, Massigli Papers, PA- AP: 217. 131. Massigli, survey of the French and other positions on disarmament, 7 June 1932, Massigli PA- AP: 217. 132. Massigli, Note on the work of the Conference, 7 June 1932, 23 pp (another doc- ument to that cited above) and Massigli to Alphand (then Directeur du Cabinet of Herriot, then French Foreign Minister) 15 June 1932, Massigli PA- AP: 217. 133. Massigli Notes, 23 and 24 November 1932, Massigli PA- AP: 217. 134. Massigli Notes, 6, 7 and 11 April 1933, Massigli PA- AP: 217. 135. Massigli, ‘Etat de la Question du désarmement’, 9 February 1934, and ‘Conversation Franco- Britannique sur le désarmement’, 15 February 1934, Massigli PA- AP, 217. 136. Massigli, ‘Etat de la Question du désarmement’, 9 February 1934, Massigli PA- AP, 217. 137. Paul- Boncour to Corbin (French Ambassador to London, 31 July 1933, Massigli PA- AP: 217. 138. Massigli, Notes, 8 June 1933, Massigli, PA- AP: 217. 139. Bullitt to FDR, 17.1.37, France-Bullitt, PSF 30. 140. I.M. Wall, ‘Teaching the French Popular Front’, The History Teacher, Vol. 20, No. 3 (May 1987), pp. 361– 378. 141. Bullitt to FDR, 24.11.36, France-Bullitt, PSF 30. 142. Note from Direction Politique, 2 December 1936, and Henry to MAE on Hull speech to Congress of March 1937, 23 March 1937: MAE Correspondance Politique et Commerciale, 1914– 1940, Box 306. 143. Bonnet, discussion with FDR, 14 April 1937: MAE Correspondance Politique et Commerciale, 1914– 1940, Box 306. 144. Hull to FDR, 12 June 1937, OF 203, and Bullitt to FDR to Hull, 24 February 1938, France- Bullitt, PSF 30; Bonnet discussion with FDR, 14 April 1937; Henry to Delbos, 23 April 1937 reporting a speech by Hull at the Hotel Baltimore in New York on 5 April 1937: MAE Correspondance Politique et Commerciale, 1914– 1940, Box 306. 145. See, for example, a discussion between Bernard Baruch (Treasury) reported to Welles, 9 March 1937, Office Correspondence, 1937, Box 39, Welles Papers, FDR Library. 146. Massigli, ‘Eléments pour la conversation Franco- Britannique’, 27 November 1937: Massigli Papers, ‘Relations avec la Grande- Bretagne’, PA- AP: 217. 147. For one source of this see: Bullitt to FDR, 24.11.36, France- Bullitt, PSF 30. 148. Bullitt to FDR, 8 December 1936 and 20 December 1936, and FDR to Bullitt, 6 February 1937: France- Bullitt, PSF 30. Notes 225

149. Bullitt to FDR, 10 May 1937, France- Bullitt, PSF 30. 150. Note from Direction Politique, 2 December 1936 and Weiler (Chicago) to Delbos, 4 January 1937: MAE Correspondance Politique et Commerciale, 1914– 1940, Box 306. 151. Bullitt to FDR, 10 January 1937, France- Bullitt, PSF 30. 152. Bullitt to FDR, 28 May 1937, France- Bullitt, PSF 30. 153. Naylor, Labour’s International Policy, chapters 4 and 5. 154. Bullitt to FDR, 4 November 1937, France-Bullitt, PSF 30. 155. Welles to Bullitt, 4 January 1938, Office Correspondence, Box 44, Welles Papers, FDR Library. 156. Bullitt to FDR, 10 May 1937, 23 November 1937 (when he met Goering) – Dodd and he suggested using poison to avoid the meeting. See also Dodd to Hull, 12 December 1937, telling Hull how Von Neurath had confirmed Lothian’s despatch about German intentions in the East, Welles Papers, Office Correspondence, Box 44, Welles Papers, FDR Library. 157. Bullitt to FDR, 7 December 1937, Bullitt- France, PSF 30. 158. Bullitt to FDR, 23 November 1937 and 2 November 1937, France- Bullitt, PSF 30. 159. Bullitt to Welles, 5 August 1938, Office Correspondence, 1938, Box 44, Welles Papers, FDR Library. 160. Welles, off- the- record talk with the American Society of Newspaper Editors, 22 April 1938, Office Correspondence, Box 44, Welles Papers, FDR Library. 161. For the most recent summary of this debate see: G. Bailey, Aircraft for Survival. Anglo- American Aircraft Supply Diplomacy, 1938– 1942, PhD, University of Dundee, 2010, and R.J. Young, ‘The Strategic Dream: French Air Doctrine in the Inter- War Period, 1919– 39’, Journal of Contemporary History, Vol. 9, No. 4 (1974), pp. 65–67. 162. Philips to FDR, 30 January 1935, OF 203. 163. Philips to FDR, 24 April 1934, with latter and report from Dr Willard Thorpe of the US Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, by Douglas Miller, , 4 April 1934, PSF, Germany. 164. Bullitt to FDR, 23 November 1937, France-Bullitt, PSF 30. 165. Bullitt to FDR, 12 May 1938; FDR to Bullitt (draft for signature), 3 June 1938, Bullitt- France, PSF 30. 166. Townsend Griffiths, 31 May 1938, Hopkins Papers, Box 185/3, Volume 2, FDR Presidential Library. 167. Bullitt to FDR, 13 June 1938, Bullitt- France, PSF 30. 168. Fuller, report of 1 August 1938; Sterling report of 26 August 1938, Hopkins Papers Box 185, Vols 2 and 3. 169. Dallek, FDR and American Foreign Policy, pp. 172– 173; Bailey, Aircraft for Survival. 170. Dallek, FDR and American Foreign Policy, p. 172.

5 Conclusion: Britain, France and the United States in 1940

1. Quoted by J. Lacouture, De Gaulle: The Ruler, 1945– 1970, London, Harvill, 1991, pp. 8– 9. 2. Alexis Léger to Katherine Biddle, 13 September 1945; St- John Perse (Léger), Letters, pp. 401– 402. 3. J. Nye, Bound to Lead: The Changing Nature of American Power (New York: Basic Books, 1991). 4. For Winant’s time in London, 1941– 1945, see D. Mayers, ‘John Gilbert Winant, 1941– 1945’, in A.Holmes and J. S. Rofe, The US Embassy in London, 1938– 2008: 70 Years in Grosvenor Square (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012). 226 Notes

5. American Consul, Saint Pierre – Miquelon to State Department, 10 January 1942, PSF – Dispatches – France, Box 31: FDR Presidential Library; D. Woolner, ‘Canada, Mackenzie King and the St Pierre and Miquelon Crisis of 1941’, London Journal of Canadian Studies, vol. 24, 2010; J. F. Hilliker, ‘The Canadian Government and the Free French: Perceptions and Constraints, 1940– 44’, International History Review, Vol. 11, No. 1, 1980, pp. 87– 108. 6. Consul General at Algiers (Wiley) to Secretary of State, 4 November 1943, FRUS, Vol. 1, 1943, pp 804–5 and Associated Press Release, 11 November 1944. 7. Shotwell, The Great Decision, p. (v) 8. A. Scherr ‘Presidential Power, the Panay Incident, and the Defeat of the Ludlow Amendment’, International History Review, Vol. 32, No. 3, September 2010, pp. 455– 500. 9. For a summary of post- war planning see Williams, Failed Imagination, chapters 3– 5. 10. K. Polanyi, The Great Transformation: The Political and Economic Origins of Our Time (London: Beacon, 2002). 11. D. Edgerton, Britain’s War Machine: Weapons, Resources and Experts in the Second World War (London: Allen Lane, 2011). 12. P. Ziegler, London at War, 1939– 45 (London: Pimlico, 2002): ‘More traffic passed through the Port of London than through any other port in the world. It was the seat of the judiciary, of the executive, of legislature, of the court. It was the prime target for any aggressor. If you could knock out London, you could knock out England. You could almost knock out western Europe.’ 13. Edgerton, Britain’s War Machine, p. 62; K.- H. Frieser and J.T. Greenwood, The Blitzkreig Legend: The 1940 Campaign in the West (Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 2005); J. Mosier, The Blitzkreig Myth: How Hitler and the Allies Misread the Strategic Realities of World War II (New York: Harper Collins, 2003). 14. P. Burrin, France under the Germans: Collaboration and Compromise (New York: New Press, 1996), p. 5. 15. Waite, report of 14 May 1938, Hopkins Paper, Box 185, Volume 3, FDR Presidential Library. 16. E. May, Strange Victory: Hitler’s Conquest of France (London: I.B. Tauris, 2009). 17. R. Overy, ‘The Many and the Few’, History Today, September 2010, pp. 23– 26. See also Overy, The Battle of Britain experience (London: Carlton, 2010). 18. A. Shlaim, ‘Prelude to Downfall: The British Offer of Union to France, June 1940’, Journal of Contemporary History, Vol. 3, No. 9, July 1974, pp. 27– 63. 19. E.J. Spears, The Fall of France (London: Heinemann, 1954); Fulfillment of a Mission (London: Leo Cooper, 1977). 20. D.C. Dildey, Dunkirk 1940: Operation Dynamo (Oxford: Osprey, 2010). 21. P. Collier, The Second World War (4): The Mediterranean 1940– 1945 (London: Osprey Publishing, 2003); V.P. O’Hara, Struggle for the Middle Sea: The Great Navies at War in the Mediterranean Theater, 1940– 1945 (Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 2009). 22. Burrin, France under the Germans, p. 12. 23. J. Jackson, France: The Dark Years, 1940– 1944 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), p. 1. 24. M. Bloch, Strange Defeat: A Statement of Evidence Written in 1940 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1948) [First published in French as L’Étrange Défaite (Paris: Franc- Tireur, 1946)]; May, Strange Victor. See also C. Fink, Marc Bloch: A Life in History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989). Notes 227

25. I. Nemirovsky, Suite Française (London: Vintage, 2006). 26. J.- P. Paul Sartre, Les Chemins de la Liberté (3 vols): L’Âge de raison, 1945; Le Sursis, 1945; La Mort dans l’âme, 1949 (Paris: Folio, 1997). English translation as The Roads to Freedom (London: Penguin, 2001). 27. J.- P. Sartre, Witness to My Life: The Letters of Jean- Paul Sartre to Simone de Beauvoir, 1926– 39 (London: Penguin, 1992); and Quiet Moments in a War: The Letters of Jean- Paul Sartre to Simone De Beauvoir, 1940– 1963 (New York: Prentice Hall, 1993); S. Beauvoir, de Mémoires d’une jeune fille rangée (Paris: Folio, 2008). 28. T. Judt, The Burden of Responsibility: Blum, Camus, Aron and the French Twentieth Century (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1998), pp. 6– 7. 29. As well as Judt, The Burden of Responsibility, and Winock, Le siècle des intellectuels, esp. ‘Troisiemé Partie; Les années Sartre’, on Camus see, especially R. Aronson, Camus and Sartre: The Story of a Friendship and the Quarrel that Ended It (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2004). On Aron, the best source is still R. Aron, Memoirs (New York: Holmes and Meier, 1990). 30. R. Vinen, The Unfree French: Life under the Occupation (London: Penguin, 2007); I. Ousby, Occupation: The Ordeal of France, 1940– 1944 (London: Pimlico, 1999). 31. Jackson, France and the Nazi Menace. 32. Bloch, Strange Defeat, p. 126. 33. M. Alexander, ‘The Fall of France, 1940’, Journal of Strategic Studies, Vol. 13, No. 1, March, 1990. See, by the same author, The Republic in Danger. 34. R. Holland, S. Williams and T. Barringer (eds), The Iconography of Independence: ‘Freedoms at Midnight’ (London: Routledge, 2010). 35. M. Thomas, ‘European Crisis, Colonial Crisis? Signs of Fracture in the French Empire from Munich to the Outbreak of War’, The International History Review, Vol. 32, No. 3, September 2010, pp. 389– 414. 36. H. Mackenzie, ‘Transatlatic Generosity: Canada’s “Billion Dollar Gift” to the United Kingdom in the Second World War’, The International History Review, Vol. 34, No. 2, 2012, pp. 293– 314. 37. Thomas, ‘European Crisis, Colonial Crisis?’, p. 391. 38. E. Manela, The Wilsonian Moment: Self- Determination and the International Origins of Anticolonial Nationalism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009). 39. P. Neville, Britain in Vietnam: Prelude to Disaster, 1945– 6 (London: Routledge, 2007), pp. 8– 9. 40. D. Kotlowski, ‘Independence or Not? Paul V. McNutt, Manuel L. Quezon, and the Re- examination of Philippine Independence, 1937– 9’, The International History Review, Vol. 32, No. 3, September 2010, pp. 501– 532. 41. E. Kier, Imagining War: French and British Military Doctrine between the Wars (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1997); D. Porch, ‘Military “Culture” and the Fall of France in 1940: A Review Essay’, International Security, Vol. 24, No. 4, Spring 2000, pp. 157– 180, p. 162 and passim. 42. Jackson, France – The Dark Years, p. 113. 43. Ibid., pp. 118– 119. 44. H. Amouroux, Les beaux jours des collabos: Juin 1941– Juin 1942 (Volume 3 of his La grande histoire des Franc¸ais sous l’occupation) (Paris: Robert Laffont, 1978): ‘collabo’ is a slang and derogatory term for anyone who helps illegitimate authority. 45. Burrin, France under the Germans, pp. 3– 4. 46. Blum to de Gaulle, 14 October 1945, AN4BL1, Blum Papers, Archives Nationales. 47. H. Rousso, The Syndrome: History and Memory in France since 1944 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1991), esp. chapter 4, ‘Obsession 228 Notes

(after 1974): Jewish Memory’. The best account of Darquier is to be found in C. Callil, Bad Faith: A Story of Family and Fatherland (London: Vintage, 2007). 48. Rousso, The Vichy Syndrome, chapter 3, ‘The Broken Mirror (1971– 1974)’. 49. C. Davidson, ‘Dealing with de Gaulle: The United States and France’, in C. Nuenlist, A. Locher and G. Martin (eds), Globalizing de Gaulle: International Perspectives on French Foreign Policies, 1958– 1969 (Lanham: Lexington Books, 2010), p. 112. 50. F. Kersaudy, Churchill and de Gaulle (London: Collins, 1981). 51. Ibid., p. 373. 52. Ibid., pp. 248, 255. 53. Auriol to London, 13 July 1944. The letters had been written on 12 May, when Churchill and Roosevelt had other things on their minds: Auriol Papers, Archives Nationales, Paris: AU 10 Dr 5. 54. Kersaudy, Churchill and de Gaulle, p. 138. 55. De Gaulle to Pleven, 18 March 1942, Pleven Papers, Archives Nationales, Paris: 550 AP 16. 56. Mendès-France to Noel- Baker, 29 January 1944, Noel Baker papers, Churchill College, Cambridge, 4/261. 57. Kersaudy, Churchill and de Gaulle, p. 416. 58. For more on this see Williams, Failed Imagination, pp. 144– 46, and A. Williams, ‘France and the New World Order, 1940– 1947’, Modern and Contemporary France, Vol. 8, No. 2, May 2000, pp. 191– 202. 59. Hull to FDR, 31 January 1938 and Bullitt to FDR, 28 January 1938, OF 203; for details see correspondence etc. in Blum PSF 30, FDR Presidential Library. For Blum after 1945 see Williams, ‘France and the New World Order, 1940– 1947’, pp. 191– 202. 60. Hopkins to FDR and reply, 15 May 1942, Secretary’s Files, File 168, Box 3, FDR Presidential Library. 61. Markwell, John Maynard Keynes and International Relations, chapter 6. 62. Quoted by ibid., p. 129. 63. Mantoux, The Carthaginian Peace. 64. See also D.C. Macintosh, ‘Mantoux Versus Keynes: A Note on German Income and the Reparations Controversy’, The Economic Journal, Vol. 87, No. 348, 1977, pp. 765– 767, who aimed to refute Mantoux’s critique of Keynes’ assessment of Germany’s ability to pay. 65. P. Mantoux, ‘Foreword’ to Mantoux, The Carthaginian Peace, p. x. 66. Macmillan, Peacemakers, p. 182. 67. See S. Brown Wells, Jean Monnet: Unconventional Statesman (Boulder, Col.: Lynne Rienner Publishers; 2011); J. Monnet, Memoirs (London: Collins, 1978); F. Duchêne, Jean Monnet: The First Statesman of Interdependence (London: Norton, 1996). 68. Secretary’s Files, FDR Presidential Library, Roosevelt to Clark, 13 April 1936. 69. J.M. Keynes, How to Pay for the War (London: Macmillan, 1940); J.M. Clark and J.T. Shotwell, The Costs of the World War to the American People (New York: Literary Licensing, 2012) (first published 1931). 70. Keynes to Clark, 26 July 1941, Clark Papers, Roosevelt Presidential Library. 71. E. Silberner, The Problem of War in Nineteenth Century Economic Thought (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1946), p. 80. 72. The best contemporary summaries of this thinking can be found in L. Robbins, Economic Planning and International Order (London: Macmillan, 1937), and The Economic Causes of War (London: Jonathan Cape, 1939). Notes 229

73. Huxley to a NESPA meeting in Washington, 5 December 1939, Berle Papers, Box 65. 74. Robbins, The Economic Causes of War, p. 10 and passim. Robbins states here that ‘works by Mr. Lionel Curtis [of Round Table] and Mr. Clarence Streit, which approach … the general problem of international relations from starting- points very different from mine, reach substantially the same solution’. 75. On this see J.G. Ruggie, ‘International Regimes, Transactions, and Change: Embedded Liberalism in the Postwar Economic Order’, International Organization, Vol. 36, No. 2, Spring 1982, pp. 379– 415. For the Third World riposte to Western liberalism after the end of the 1940s see S. Krasner, Structural Conflict: The Third World against Global Liberalism (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985). 76. Polanyi, The Great Transformation. 77. Kindelberger, The World in Depression. 78. Adolf Berle, ‘The Bases of an International Economic Program in Connection with a Possible Conference of Neutrals’, 29 January 1940, Berle Papers, Box 56 and Berle, ‘Economic Policy in Respect of Western Europe, 19 November 1942, and ‘The European Economic Policy’, 23 November 1942, Berle Papers, Box 58 FDR Presidential Library. 79. Berle, ‘Memorandum to the President’, 15 December 1942, Berle Papers, Box 65. 80. Leo Pasvolsky, ‘International Economic Cooperation’, Memorandum of 20 March 1944, Pasvolsky papers, Library of Congress, Box 7. 81. Shepherd B. Clough (London) to Berle, 13 September 1943, Berle Papers, FDR Presidential Library, Box 65. 82. For details of this see Williams, Failed Imagination?, pp. 116– 123. 83. Paul Mantoux, recounting his son’s pre- war views about Angell, in Mantoux, The Carthaginian Peace, p. xi. 84. Mantoux, The Carthaginian Peace, pp. 1– 3. 85. Kersaudy, Churchill and de Gaulle, pp. 383– 384. 86. Harper, American Visions of Europe, pp. 1– 2. Bibliography

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Abyssinia () 148, 157, 160 Baldwin, Stanley 115, 122, 145 Acheson, Dean 193 Balfour, Arthur James 30, 47, 112 Action Française 33–4, 67, 104, as Foreign Secretary 64, 83, 92, 141, 144 100, 129 Adenauer, Konrad 114 ‘Balfour Declaration’ 84 Adorno, Theodor 5 Barbusse, Henri 68 Addams, Jane 52 Barrès, Maurice 24–5, 33, 49, 140 Afghanistan 2 Beauvoir, Simone de 179 Agadir Crisis (Morocco, 1911) 37, 65 Beer, George Louis 86–7 Allied Supreme Council 100–1 Belgium 54, 57, 63, 162, 182 ‘Appeasement’ 134, 147, 163 atrocities in 67, 72, 82 Alsace-Lorraine 23, 63, 67, 86, 88 Benjamin, Walter 5 Althusser, Louis 5 Bennett, R.B. (PM, Canada) 155 American Commission to Negotiate Bergson, Henri 7, 10, 11, 13, 24, 49, the Peace (ACNP) 81–2, 88, 90–1 67, 71 American Red Cross 113 Berle, Adolf American Relief Administration 112 and the British 145 American Union Against and Bullitt, William 149 Militarism 82 and ‘Free French’ 186 American Peace Societies 41–42,58 at Paris Peace Conference 91 Angell, Norman 109 as Assistant Secretary of State 134 The Great Illusion 1910 46–9, Berthelot, Philipe 68, 127 57, 122 Bertie, Sir Frederick 88 UDC 65 Blackett, Basil 109 Anglo – phobia and Anglo – philia Blair, Anthony 8 (in USA) 24, 29, 31, 69, 89 Blatchford, Robert 38 ‘Anglosphere’ 1, 31 ‘Blitzkreig’ 176–7, 180 Anglo-Soviet Trade Agreement 112, 121 Bloch, Ivan 74 Anti-semitism and persecution 25, Bloch, Marc 143, 179 67, 163 ‘Bloomsbury Group’ 60–1 in 183–4 Bliss, General Tasker 117–8 Apollinaire, Guillaume 25 Blum, Léon (Prime Minister) 151, Armstrong, Hamilton Fish 91 153–4, 155, 157–8, 166, 180, 186 Aron, Raymond 3, 180 Bonnet, Ambassador Georges 151 Asquith, Herbert 37, 76–7 Borah, William 103, 117, 137, 148, 162 Asquith, Raymond 63 Bourdieu, Pierre 5 Astor, Nancy 89 Boer War 2, 23 27 32, 66 ’Atlantic Charter’ (1941) 181, 189, Bonar Law, Andrew 63, 112 191, 193 Bosquet, Réné 183 Attlee, Clement 185 Boulanger, General Charles 36 Aubert, Louis d’ 86–7 Bourgois, Léon Auriol, Vincent 157, 185 ‘Solidarité’ 52–3, 84 Austro-Hungarian Empire 26, 92, in First World War 58 105–6 at Paris Peace Conference 88–9

250 Index 251

Société des Nations 52, 84, 100 Brussels Economic Conference, ‘Commission Bourgeois’ 84–7, 88 1920 100 Bowman, Isaiah 14, 8, 90, 117 Bryce, James 23, 25, 46, 70–3, 83 Bradbury, Sir John (see also: Reparations Buchan John (Lord Tweedsmuir) 48, 145 Commission) Buenos Aires Conference, 1936 164 and General Dawes 116 Bullitt, William and Reparations Commission 97, as Ambassador to France 149–50, 108–109, 115–6, 125, 131 153–4, 166–70 First Secretary of the Treasury 97 and Britain 167 Brailsford, Henry Noel 24 48, 65, and Germany 167–8 120, 147 at Paris Peace Conference 91 Brassilach, Robert 50, 140 relationship with FDR 149–50, Breton, André 26 153–154 Bretton Woods Conference 17 Burke, Edmund 39 Briand, Aristide 84, 97 Burns, John 64 Britain (aka United Kingdom) (see also Butler, Nicholas Murray 4, 71 ‘Special Relationship’) and ‘plans to outlaw war’ 116–8 in 1940 176–7 and inter-Allied debts 100–1, 106–9 ‘Cagoulards’ 144 and English Revolution 12 Capitalism (critiques of) (see also War: and Europe 28–9 economic causes of) 2, 16, 24, 25, foreign policy defined 145–6 122–6, 141–144 and France 33–4, 54–5, 74–7, 88–9, Campbell Bannermann, Henry 66 97–9, 110–2, 115–6, 129–32, Camus, Albert 180 159–60, 172–4, 178–9 Canada 145, 155 and Germany 30, 35, 48–50, 60, 66, Carnegie Foundation for International 108, 111–5, 125,159–63 Peace 4, 9, 41, 42, 119 intellectuals in 11, 60–1, 66, 144–8 Carr, Edward Hallett 59, 81 and the League of Nations 104–5, And ‘utopians’ 121, 146–7 129–30, 146–7 Casement, Roger 37 and Russia 30–1, 111–2, 121, 160 Cecil, Lord Robert 83, 147 in Second World War 172–3, 176–7, and League of Nations 83–4, 88, 112, 184–193 131–2 and the USA (1900–20) 3–4, 23–4, ‘Cecil-Requin Plan’ 117 28–32, 60, 71, 78–9, 83 on Woodrow Wilson 132 and the USA (1921–40) 94–5, Céline, Louis Ferdinand 50 128–30, 133, 138, 139, 145–6, 150, Chamberlain, Austen (Foreign 156, 158, 167, 172–5, 177, 184–93 Secretary) 100, 105, 114, 128 British Empire 4, 24–5, 27–9, 44–6, Chamberlain, Joseph 27, 32, 95 95–6, 107, 147–8, 180–1, 193 Chamberlain, Neville (PM) 178 and League of Nations 104 Chatham House (see Royal Institute of and ‘Belonging’ 27–8 of International Affairs) British Expeditionary Force (BEF) 51 Chesterton, G.K. 39, 65 (1914), 177 (1940) China 95, 160 British Socialist Party 39, 43 May 4th Movement 106 British Treasury Chirac, Jacques 2 and financing of Great War 61–2, 64 Churchill, Winston 31, 113, 147, 193 and post-war issues 110 as war-time Prime Minister 174, 178 Brockway, Fenner (ILP) 147–8 and De Gaulle 172, 184–6, 192–3 Brooke, Rupert 60–1 and FDR 174, 189–90 252 Index

“Civilisation” 15–6 Debts, inter-Allied 99–101, 104, 106–9, Clark, John Maurice 188 138–9, 155–6, 165 Claudel, Paul 13, 98, 139 (see also Britain, France, Reparations, Clausewitz, Carl von 40–1 United States) Clemenceau, Georges 13, 50–3, 100, ‘Amsterdam Memorial’ 108 106, 130–1 Dawes and Young Plans 107, 115–6 as President of France 77, 88–9 linkage with trade issues 158 visit to USA 115 De Gaulle, Charles (see also: Churchill, Clémentel, Etienne 84, 99, 123 Winston; FDR) 123, 192 ‘Cliveden Set’ 89 relations with Allies 172, 174, Cockburn, Claud 115 184–6, 192 Commemoration after Great War 56 ‘Décadence’ (France) 140–144 Commercial issues, disputes and Delcassé, Théophile 32, 33, 35 treaties (see also London Economic Depression, The Great 97, 125–6, Conference, ‘Imperial Preference’) 139, 157 ‘commercial interventionism’ 138 Dewey, Thomas 90 and War debts 165 ‘Deuxième Bureau’ (France) 168 Protectionism 125,134, 137, Dien Bien Phu (1954) 181 155–7, 190 Diplomacy – ‘open’,‘secret’, ‘new’ 65, trade promotion 156–7 92, 119, 136 Treaties (1930s) 150, 151 Disarmament (see also League of rise of US as trading Power 141 Nations) 117–8, 126–8, 129–30, Communist International 160 155, 160–3 Communist Party of Great Britain Disarmament Conference 127, 129, (CPGB) 144, 148 159–63, 166 Confédération Générale du Travail 154 Draft Treaty of Mutual Conferences, ‘Big Three’, 1941–44 186 Assistance 117, 121 Conrad, Joseph 37 Dodd, Ambassador William E. 167–8 Conservative Party GB 63, 94, 120, 122 Doumergue, Gaston 152 Coolidge, President Calvin 115 Dreiser, Theodore 25, 38, 142 ‘Corporatism’ 123–4 Drieu La Rochelle, Pierre 50 Council on Foreign Relations 4, 9, 27, Dreyfus Affair 33, 35–6, 67, 180 80, 90, 95, 101, 146, 176 Duhamel, Georges 142–3 ‘Anglo-American Group’ 95, 128 Dulles, John Foster 90 Cravath, Paul 90 Drummond, Eric 64, 100 Crowe, Sir Eyre 35–6 Dunkirk, retreat from (1940) 176, 178 Cummings, Edward E. 93 Durkheim, Emile 49 Curtis, Lionel 45–6 Curzon, Lord Nathaniel 100 Eden, Anthony 162 Edward VII 65 D’Annunzio, Gabriele de 24 Eisenhower, President Dwight D. 90 D’Abernon, Lord Edgar Vincent 114 Empires, collapse of 26, 92, Daladier, Edouard (French PM) 162, 178 103, 180–1 Darquier, Réné, ‘de Pellepoix’ 183 Emmerson, Ralph Waldo 105 Daudet, Léon 36, 49, 67 Entente cordiale 35–6, 54–5, Davis, Norman (US State Dept) 91, 65–6, 120–1 137, 155 Esher, Lord Reginald 47–8 and Massigli, Réné 159–62 “Establishment”, the 9–10 Dawes, General Charles 78–9 European Advisory Commission ‘Dawes Plan’ 107, 115–6 (EAC) 174 Index 253

European integration 84, 131, intellectuals in 11–2, 24, 66–7, 140–4 138–9, 192–3 military power of 140, 143, 168 European Coal and Steel monetary problems 152, 153, 157–9 Community 114, 188 political instability in 152–4 Everest, Mount 144 Revolution (French) 6, 7–8, 11–12 and Russia 111–12, 160 Fashoda Incident 35 Socialism in 49–52, 67–8, 140–1 Fay, Sidney Bradshaw 137 Third Republic 11–12, 23, 32–4, Flandin, Pierre 156 52–3, 152–4, Foch, Marshall 86, 88 and TOV 102–4 Foreign Office (British) 92 and US Commercial Treaty, Ford Foundation 9 1936 156–8 France (see also, Britain; Germany; Vichy Government (1940–44) 170, United States; ‘Fall’ of; ‘Free French’) 179, 183–4 Ancien Régime 33 France, Fall of, 1940 (‘le débâcle’) 172–3, and ‘Anglo-Saxons’ 3, 5–6, 10–12, 177–183 14–18, 32–3, 88, 127, 162 subsequent debates about 183–4 anti-American feeling in 141–4, 156 François - Poncet, Ambassador and Britain 74–7, 87, 92–3, André 163, 168 115–6, 130–2 Francophonie 17 and Allied debts 99–101, 104, 107–8, Frankfurt School 5 115–6, 138–9, 155–6, 158 ‘Free French’ (see also: De Gaulle; commercial issues 156–9 ‘Post-War Planning’) 186 ‘décadence’ 140–44, 173 ‘Forces Françaises de l’Intérieur’ 123, and disarmament 117, 126–8, 174, 184 129–30, 155, 160–3, 166 ‘Groupe Jean Jaurès’ 174 economic thinking in 123–4, 141–3 Resistance movement 183–4 and Empire 33, 35–36, 96, 180–1 Freedom of the Seas 32, 72–3, 82, 95 ‘fascism’ in 144 ‘Front Populaire’ 151, 153, 157 Fourth Republic 185–6 Futurists 58–9 and Germany 32, 67–8, 84, 108, 111–2, 113–5, 162–3, 166–8, 170 Gamelin, General Maurice 75, and German air power 154, 170, 178 168–70, 177 Genoa Conference 111–2 and Great War 55, 66–9 Germany (see also France, Treaty of and the League of Nations 102–4, Versailles, Stresemann) 105–6, 110 ‘appeasement’ of 134, 144 (see also Bourgeois, Léon) and Britain 30–1, 48–9, 60–1, 147–8 and the Paris Peace Conference 84–9, debts and reparations 106–9, 90–3 111–2, 115–6 and Reconstruction 110 and democracy 113–5 and Reparations 97, 108–109, 115–6, and disarmament 159–63 125, 131 financial collapse in 97 and the USA 6–7, 86–7, 92–3, 97–8, and France 66–8, 90 102–6, 119–20, 133–4, 141–4, and Great War Chapter 2, passim 148–59, 160–5, 168–71, 174–6 and League of Nations 127 Belle Epoque 13, 25 and Nazism 144, 154, 163 Empire 4, 14, 33, 87 rearmament 163–4, 169–70 “generation of 1914” 49–50, 54, 56, repudiates Treaty of Versailles 161–3 67, 140 and Russia 110–2 254 Index

Germany (see also France, Treaty of Hoover, President Herbert 87, 91, 97, Versailles, Stresemann) – continued 104, 127–8, 138 and USA 70–4, 77–8 and Rapidan, 1929 95, 128–9 Weimar Republic 96, 118 and Russia 112 Gillies, William 185 and Supreme Economic Council 109 Giraud, General Henri 185 and US economic policy 108, Goering, Hermann 167 138, 155 Globalization 2 Hopkins, Harry 177 Gold Standard 61–2, 122, 154–5 Horne, Sir Robert 107 ‘Good Neighbour’ policy (USA) 164 Horkheimer, Max 5 Grant, Duncan 60–1 House, Colonel Edward 69, 86 Great War (First World War) Chapter 2, Hughes, Charles Evans (Sec. State) 111 passim Hull, Cordell (Sec. State) 142 Battles of: 63, 74–6 and ‘dissatisfied Powers’ 165 ‘Greater Britain’ 44–6 relations with FDR 149, 154, 186 Grey, Sir Edward 30, 80 trade agreements 150 and Treaty of Versailles 104 Hungary 81, 105, 112 Husserl, Edmund 115 Haber, Fritz 59 Hyndman, Henry 38 Habermas, Jurgen 5 Hague Disarmament Conferences 41, ‘Imperial Preference’ 155 58, 84–5 Independent Labour Party (ILP, Haig, Field Marshall Douglas 74–6 Britain) 39 Halévy, Elie 38 International ‘anarchy’ 101, 117–8 ‘la fin des notables’ 140–1 International Monetary Fund Hancock, Tony 3 (IMF) 125 Hankey, Maurice 82, 88, 100 International Relations (subject of) Hanotaux, Gabriel 85 in general 1, 117–8, 175–6 Hardinge, Charles 47, 92 ‘Anglo – Saxon’ bias of 1–7 Harriman, Averell 112, 174 in Britain 3–4, 10, 44 – 49, Hay, John 32 120–21, 144–8 Hayek, Friedrich 187 and culture 15–16 ‘Hegemony’ 28 in France 5–6, 49–53, 101–2, Hemingway, Ernest 137 118–9, 140–8 Henderson, Arthur in USA 40–3, 118 and Labour Party 44 International Labour Organisation as Foreign Secretary 128, 148 (ILO) 10, 80, 101, 117, 130 and Russia 44 ‘International Society’ 10, 89–90, and Disarmament Commission 101–2, 113, 145 127, 161 ‘Inquiry’, The 80–2, 86, 88 Herriot, Edouard 148–9 Iraq 2,54 Hildebrand, Dietrich von 115 Ireland 54–5, 57–8, 73–4 Hitler, Adolf 144, 167, 177, 182 ‘Iron Curtain’ 193 rise to power 129 Irvine, Sandy 144 repudiates Treaty of Versailles ‘Isolationism’ (USA) 148–9 161–3 qualified nature of in 1920s 110–12 Hoare-Laval Pact, 1935 160 significance of 135–9 Hobson, John A. 24 Italy (see also: Mussolini, Benito) Hooper, Elsie 153 88, 124 Index 255

James, Henry 40–1 International Questions Japan 35–6, 94–5, 106, 146 (ACIQ) 52–3, 66, 110, 120–21 Jaurès, Jean 23, 33, 48, 49, 67, 140, 143 and disarmament 117, 121, 167 and ‘l’Armée Nouvelle’ 50–2 and economic problems 122–3 ‘Jeunesse Radicale’ 91, 187 and France 97, 120–1, 185 Johnson Act, 1934 165 and League of Nations 121, 147–8 Johnson – Reed Act, 1924 96 Lansbury, George 167 Jouhaux, Léon (French CGT) 154 Lansdowne, Marquess Henry 35–6, 66 Joyce, James 40–1 Laski, Harold 187 Jusserand, Jules 68–9, 90, 104–4 Lausanne, Treaty of (1923) 113 Laval, Pierre 142, 159 Kant, Immanuel seen by FDR as French leader and the French Right 36 152, 186 and Britain 44–5 League of Nations 4, 64, 80–2, 94, Kelley, Robert F. (State 131–2, 144, 191 Department) 160–1, 163 ‘Bruce Report’ 112 ‘Kellogg-Briand Pact’ 85, 117–8, 119, ‘Conference of Ambassadors’ 130 126, 129, 139 Disarmament 117–8, 126–8, 155, Kennan, George 160–1, 193 160–3 Kerr, Philip (Lord Lothian) founding of 82–4, 101 and Germany 145, 167 International Committee on and Round Table 45–6, 90 International Cooperation 10 Ambassador to Washington 90, and Hungary 105 145, 171 And ‘Mandate’ system 83, 103 Keynes, John Maynard problems in 1930s 147–8, 160–3 and the Great War 60–1, 90–1, 100 and ‘Reconstruction’ 112–3, 123–4 as Economist 122, 187, 188 US non-membership 102–4, 144, 187 influence in the USA 135, 187–8 League of Nations Union (British) 82, and PWP (1940–45) 187–8 94, 148 and Reparations (‘Economic Léger, Alexis (St-John Perse) 13, 106, Consequences of the Peace’) 107–8, 134, 172–3 109, 131 Leeper, Alexander and Rex 81 and ‘reconstruction’ 109–10 Leith-Ross, Frederick 107 and the Treaty of Versailles 62, 103, ‘Lend – Lease Agreements’, 1941 107, 187 28, 191 and the USSR 112 Levinas, Immanuel 5 Kissinger, Henry 89 Leygues, Georges 101 Klotz, Ferdinand 90, 97, 99 Liberal Party (British) 26, 39, 94 Knox, Philander Chase 103 decline of 53–4, 63, 92 Kun, Bela 81 in Great War 64, 76 Liberal Industrial Report 122 La Chambre, Guy (French Air Liberalism 1–3, 16, 25–6, 40, 144–8 Minister) 169–70 crisis of 117–8, 124–6, 144 Labour Movement (British) 37–40, 59, ‘embedded’ (Ruggie) 190 92–3, 97, 122, 147–8 and Empire 44–6 La Boulaye, Ambassador André 137, in France 49–50 149, 150–1 and peace 7–8, 118–9, 150 Labour Party (British) 37–40, 94, 167 ‘Rhineland’ 190 Advisory Committee on in USA 40–3, 117 256 Index

‘Liberal Internationalism’ 94, Merleau-Ponty, Maurice 5 101–2, 147–8 Mers-El-Kebir, 1940 178–9 Lippman, Walter 81 Middle East, (Ottoman Empire) 26 Lloyd-George, David 45–6 Anglo-French friction 104–6 Debts and Reparations 107–8 Minh, Ho Chih (Nguyen Ai Quoc) 181 and Genoa Conference 110–2 Millerand, Alexandre 100 ‘Land fit for Heroes’ 110 Millis, Walter 42–3, 70, 91–2, 135–6, 137 at Paris Peace Conference 77 Mitterand, President François 183 and League of Nations 83–4 Mitrany, David 52, 85 as Prime Minister 76–7, 91–3, 111 Moch, Jules 123 And the USA 82, 104 ‘Modernity’ Locarno Treaty (‘Pact’), 1925 95, 114 and Violence 7, 24–6, 58–9 Lodge, Henry Cabot 103–4 defined 24 London (World) Economic Conference, Monnet, Jean 99, 123, 131, 168, 1933 126, 155–6 178, 187–8 Long, Walter 63 Morand, Paul 14 Loucheur, Louis 110, 123 Morel, E.D. 24, 36–7, 97, 119, 120 Lowes – Dickinson Goldsworthy 101 and Congo Reform Association 36–7, ‘The International Anarchy’ 118–9 46, 54–5 Luce-Gilson, Raymond 124 and UDC 59, 65–6 Morgan, J.P. 108 MacDonald, James Ramsay Morgenthau, Ambassador Henry, Sr. and France 97, 121 103–4 and Labour Party 44, 46, 128, 163 Morgenthau, Henry, Jr. and League of Nations 121, 129 (Sec. Treasury) 157–8 as Prime Minister 44, 121, 128–9, ‘Morgenthau Plan’, 1944 113 145, 163 Mosley, Oswald 123 and UDC 54–5, 65–6, 120 Munich Crisis, 1938 151 and USA 128–9,155 Munro, Harold 61 Mackenzie King, William L. Murray, Gilbert 60, 120 (P.M. Canada) 145 Mussolini, Benito 124, 157 Mackinder, Halford 13 Madariaga, Salvador de 117 Nansen, Fridtjof 113 ‘Maginot Line’ 86, 177 Nemirovsky, Irene 179 Mahan, Alfred Thayer 15 ‘New Deal’ 135, 156, 188, 190 Mallory, George 144 Nicolson, Harold 13, 81 Mann, Thomas 114 Nivelle, General Robert 75 Mantoux, Etienne 187, 191 Noel-Baker, Philip 120, 174, 185 Marjolin, Robert 123 Nye, Senator Gerald 138 Martonne, Emmanuel de 86 Massigli, Réné Orlando, Vittorio 88 importance of 134 Ottawa Conference, 1932 155 and Disarmament Conference 126–8, Owen, Wilfred 56, 61 160–3 as De Gaulle’s Foreign Minister 174 ‘Pacifism’ 58, 146–7 Maulnier, Thierry 140 ‘Pacificism’ 146 Maurras, Charles 24, 33, 39, 49, 140 Parmentier, Jean 106 McFadyean, Andrew 108–9 Paris Commune 23 Mellon, Andrew 108, 115 Paris Peace Conference 59, 80–89, 136 Mendès-France, Pierre 185 (see also: Treaty of Versailles) Index 257

Parti Communiste Français 140 Rathenau, Walter 113 Passos, John Dos 137, 142 Renouvin, Pierre 5 Pasvolsky, Leo 189, 191 Reparations Commission 106–9, 126 Péguy, Charles 24–5, 49, 50 (see also Sir John Bradbury, Pershing, General John 78–9, 98, 119–20 Inter-Allied Debts) ‘Pertinax’ (André Geraud) 98 Anglo-French friction about 109–110 Pétain, Philippe 183, 186 Reynaud, Paul (French PM) 177 views on French ‘décadence’ 143 Ricoeur, Paul 5 ‘Petite Entente’ 105 Robbins, Lionel 189 Philips, Under Sec. State William Rockefeller Foundation 9 152, 168 105 Phillimore Committee 83 Roosevelt, President Franklin Delano Pigou, Professor A.C. 122 (see also: ‘isolationism’; United States Political Economy (see also: Commercial of America; Chapter 4 Issues; Debts, Inter-Allied; Britain; passim) 91, 102 France; Keynes; Reparations; and American politics 135–39 United States) and Bullitt, William 149–50 of war 61–3, 70–1, 122–3, 187–92 and Churchill, Winston 172 ‘Political and Economic Planning’ and De Gaulle, Charles 172, (PEP) 189 174, 186 ‘Planning’ 99–100, 122–6,188–189 and economic issues 155–9 Pleven, Réné 185 and political friendships 149–50 Poincaré, President Raymond 106 and Britain 145 and Britain 115–6 and Europe 138 and Germany 111, 113–4 and France 152–4, 155–9, 172–5 Président du Conseil 97 and Germany 144, 164–5 And 97, 111 and Russia 160–2 Poland 104, 114, 117–8 and ‘isolationism’ 136–8 Polanyi, Karl (The Great and Sumner Welles 149–50 Transformation) 124, 190 Roosevelt, Mary 149 Political Intelligence Department Roosevelt, President Theodore 71–2, (PID) 80–2, 120, 146 82, 87, 89 ‘Blue Books’ 80, 82 ‘Round Table’ 4, 9, 45–6, 87, 94, 147 Ponsonby, Arthur 65–6, 120–1 Royal Institute of International Affairs ‘Post-War Planning (State (Chatham House) 4, 9, 27, 80, 90, Department) 174–5, 176, 187–91 101, 146 French feeling excluded from 172, ‘Anglo-American Group’ 95, 128 174–5, 187 Ruhr, French invasion of 108, ‘Pragmatism’ (USA) 40–2 112, 115–6 Progressive Era (USA) 9–10 Runciman, Walter 151 Russia (Czarist and USSR) Quai d’Orsay (French Foreign (see also Genoa Conference, Ministry) 14–14, 68–9 Herbert Hoover) and Britain 30–1, 44 Rapidan Conference, 1929 95, and (Allied) debt question 111–2 128–9, 146 and disarmament 126 Rappard, William 117 and France 111–2 Rawlinson, Field Marshall Henry 75 and Germany (Rapallo) 110–1 ‘Reconstruction’ 109–113, 124 Western intellectuals and USSR 144 (see also League of Nations) and Paris Peace Conference 78, 91 258 Index

Russia (Czarist and USSR) – continued St. Quentin, Ambassador Réné 151 and Russo – Japanese War 35 State Department (see also USA) as ‘new’ Power 94 81–2, 86 and recognition of 111, 137, 160–1 Stimson, Henry and USA 71, 78, 111–12, 160–1 Secretary of State (Hoover) 128–9 and Second World War 172,182, 193 and ‘World Court’ 139 Streit, Clarence 89, 189 Saarland 88, 159 Straus, Ambassador Jesse 149 Sangnier, Paul 115 views on France 151–3 Salisbury, Lord 36 Stresemann, Gustav 30–1, Sartre, Jean – Paul 8, 50, 179 48–9, 113–115 ‘Save the Children’ Fund 113 Schacht, Hjalmar 114 Taft, President William Howard 104, 105 Schubert, Carl von 114 ‘Taylorism’ 119, 142 Schumpeter, Joseph 26 Thomas, Albert 10, 117, 130 ‘Sciences Po’, Paris 34 Titulescu, Nicolae 105 Sée, Henri 12 Tocqueville, Alexis de 24 ‘Self – Determination’ (Paris Peace Toynbee, Arnold (see also: PID) 146–7 Conference) 2, 82 Trianon, Treaty of 105 American and British fears Tressell, Robert 38 about 82–4, 86 Tumulty, Joseph 103–4 and anti-colonial movements 180–1 113 Senate Foreign Affairs Committee (USA) 104, 117, 137 Unitarian Church 105 Seven Years War 7, 28 United Nations 10 Seydoux, Jacques United States of America and financial negotiations 97, (see also ‘Special Relationship’; 107, 115–6 Britain; France) 3–4, 23–4, 28–32, Seymour, Charles 86, 136 60, 71, 78–9, 83, 89–90, 94–5, Shotwell, James 4, 86, 90, 174 102–4, 111–2, 115–6, 125, on war and liberalism 116–8 128–30, 145, 155–6 and disarmament 117, 121 and American Civil War 23, 135 Siegfried, André 4, 12–13, 141 and Britain 3–4, 23–4, 28–32, 60, Simon, Sir John 128, 161 71, 78–9, 83 94–5, 128–30, 133, , Fall of, 1942 180–81 138, 139, 145–6, 150, 156, 158, Smoot-Hawley Tariff, 1929 125 167, 172–5 Smuts, General Jan 81 and disarmament 117–8, 126–8 ‘Solidarité’ 52–3, 84, 163 emigration to 25 Sorel, Georges 7, 8, 24, 33, 49, 141 and France 6–7, 86–7, 92–3, Spanish Civil War 148 97–8, 102–6, 133–4, 141–4, Spears, General Sir Edward 75, 178 148–65, 170–71 ‘Special Relationship’ 31–2, 89–90, and France, aircraft sales to 154, 111, 128, 133, 192 168–70 Spencer, Herbert 38 and French Commercial Spender, Stephen 144 Treaty 156–8 Spengler, Oswald 24 as an ‘Empire’ 14–15, 23 Spring – Rice, Ambassador Cecil 64 and Germany 70–4, 77, 79, Stalin, Josef 172 145, 162–3, St. Aulaire, Charles de 106 intellectuals in 5, 119 St. Pierre et Miquelon 174, 186 and ‘isolationism’ 135 Index 259

and Great War 68–74, 77–9 Washington Conference, 1922 95 Labor Movement in 43–4 Webb, Beatrice 38–9, 57, 66 and (American) Revolution 6, Welles, Sumner 134, 139 12, 148–9 and Roosevelt 149–50, 154 ‘Manifest Destiny’ 23 Wells, H.G. 57 Military Attachés in France Weygand, General Maurice 178 169–70, 177 Wharton, Elizabeth 25, 31 Peace Movement in 41–2 White, Harry 158 and Russia 71, 78, 91, 111–12 Whitman, Walt 149 and non –ratification of TOV 102–4 Wickham – Steed, Henry 98 and Vichy Government Wilhelm, Kaiser 92 War Debt Commission 106 Wilson, Ambassador Hugh R. 150 Wartime diplomacy (1940–45) 174 Wilson, President Woodrow 2, 87, Union of Democratic Control (UDC) 168, 191 (see also Morel, E.D.) 59, 65–6, and American politics 69, 77–8, 94, 120 89, 135–6 ‘Fourteen Points’ , 1918 69, 97, Vansittart, Sir Robert 128 128, 180 Veblen, Thorstein 26 and Great War 42–3, 58, 69, Versailles, Treaty of (TOV) (see also: Paris 72–3, 79, 135–6 Peace Conference) and Inter-Allied debts 108 disappointment with 97, 102–4, and League of Nations 81–2 190, 191 and Paris Peace Conference 2, 81–2, resentment of in Germany 114, 118 87–8, 90–3 repudiation and revision of 127–8, and entry into Great War 42–3 144, 159, 161–3 and ratification of the TOV 102–3 Vichy Government (see also France) Wiseman, Sir William 78 25, 170 Winant, Ambassador John 174 Victoria, Queen 23, 65 ‘Wobblies’ (IWW, USA) 43–4, 93 Viner, Professor Jacob 158, 189 Woolf, Leonard 16, 52–3, 120–1, 148 Woolf, Virginia 60 Wall Street Crash, 1929 97,123, 125, World Bank 125 128, 141 World (London) Economic Conference, War (see also: Political Economy) 1933 126, 155–6 air power, rise of 159, 166, 168–70 changing methods of 59–60 Yeats, W.B. 25 ‘corporatism’ 110–11 submarine warfare 77 Zimmern, Alfred 81, 109, 120 Warburg, Paul 108 Zimmermann Telegram 77 ‘Washington Consensus’ 17 Zola, Emile 35