The Cultural Solidarity, Free Space, and Double Consciousness of the Black Fraternity

Cultural Solidarity, Free Space, and African Consciousness in the Formation of the Black Fraternity A Dissertation Submitted to the Temple University Graduate Board In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy By Ali D. Chambers August, 2011 Examining Committee Members: Nilgun Anadolu-Okur, Ph.D. African American Studies, Temple University (Chair) Molefi Kete Asante, Ph.D. African American Studies, Temple University Maxwell Stanford, Jr., Ph.D. African American Studies, Temple University Marybeth Gasman, Ph.D. Education, University of Pennsylvania (External Reader) Chambers i © By Ali D. Chambers 2011 All Rights Reserved Chambers ii ABSTRACT CULTURAL SOLIDARITY, FREE SPACE, AND AFRICAN CONSCIOUSNESS IN THE FORMATION OF THE BLACK FRATERNITY By Ali D. Chambers Doctor of Philosophy Temple University, 2011 Major Advisor: Dr. Nilgun Anadolu-Okur This dissertation analyzes and broadens the discourse regarding the impact of culture and the emergence of the social movement by focusing on some of the links between culture and social movements. Drawing upon the idea of cycle of protests this work explains how African Americans were able to materialize, communicate, and ultimately sustain separate identities under antagonistic social conditions. Critical to the understanding of this work is the role the ―free space‖ had in shaping the identity of both African Americans and the movement which occurred as a result of their attitudes. The free space can be described as a protected area, haven, or a small-scale setting which provides activist autonomy from dominant groups where they can nurture oppositional movement identities. This study is a multifaceted account of the Black Greek-letter organizations that explains the creation of these organizations within the Black community. There are four steps or levels which were examined in order to understand the rise or the establishment of the Black organization as a means of social protest. They are: 1) mediating factors or social grievances within a community, 2) the creation of the cultural free space, 3) the framing of the organization in relation to other social movements, 4) the personal orientation or cultural affiliation (African agency) of the organizations‘ members. Subsequently, this study analyzed how internal conflicts, Chambers iii hostile social and political environments, the creation of new organizations, and the dissemination of community grievances combine to create an atmosphere which allowed the African American community to create its own separate conscious identity. By dissecting the anatomy of the social movement and the interrelated patterns that define them one will be able to recognize and ultimately predict the rise of future social movements. Chambers iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS My gratitude and respects go to my advisor and dissertation chair, Dr. Nilgun Anadolu- Okur, for her time and guidance. Dr. Okur was one of the few faculty members who took an interest in reviewing my work. Although she was out of the country she nevertheless always kept my work as one of her primary concerns. Thank you for your insight, your advice, and your kind words of encouragement. My deepest respects also goes to Dr. Molefi Asante the mentor, the scholar, and the individual who guided my growth into a better person and scholar while at Temple. It was both an honor and a privilege to serve as your teaching assistant. Your classroom lectures and lessons both inside and outside of the classroom gave me special insight that I will always remember. My thanks and gratitude to Dr. Muhammad Ahmad (Maxwell Stanford, Jr.) who was always willing to extend his knowledge and expertise to furthering my research and education. Special thanks to my external reader Dr. Gasman who accepted my request on extremely short notice. Thanks to all the faculty and staff of the African American Studies Department at Temple, who over the years supported provided me with a safe haven for my intellectual and personal growth. Thank you to my mother and grandmother. These two women taught me that through persistent work, diligence, and faith anything is possible. They are the greatest inspiration in my life and their lessons have remained the greatest gift that I and my two sisters have received. Although my grandmother is no longer with us…she remains an indelible part of our lives. Special thanks to the communities which helped to raise me in Miami and the Bahamas. These communities provide me with a privileged view of American society that I would not have Chambers v otherwise received. Thank you to my aunts, uncles, and cousins, in Nassau, Abaco, and Long Island who were always there to provide me with safety, solace, and guidance. Thank you to my extended family and friends at Fisk University. It was at Fisk where I first developed a love and appreciation for the social sciences, southern food, and southern culture. It was also at Fisk where first learned an appreciation for African American History. Fisk was also where I was first introduced into the world of Black Greek-letter organizations. More importantly it was at Fisk where my journey in academia first began… Fisk Forever…her sons and daughters are forever on the altar. Finally, I want to thank God and the ancestors for allowing me to take this journey. Looking back there were many opportunities to succumb to the pitfalls and tragedies associated with growing up in Miami. It was only through the invisible hand and guidance of the ancestors that I was able to accomplish this milestone. Chambers vi TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS V CHAPTER 1 Introduction 1 Statement of the Problem 4 Research Questions 6 Purpose of the Study 9 Significance of the Study 18 Limitations of the study 22 CHAPTER 2 Literature Review 24 Methodology 61 Origins of the Black Greek Letter organization 68 Socio-political Climate 137 CHAPTER 3 The Failure of the Black Greek Letter Organization 156 The Impact of Religion on the Black Greek Letter organization 174 Kemetic Rites of Passage 190 Conclusion 209 Glossary 221 BIBLIOGRAPHY 230 Chambers vii CHAPTER 1 Introduction For nearly five hundred years Africans living in the Western hemisphere have defined themselves through the commonality of a shared oppression. Regardless of where African people may reside, the culture of a shared oppression has served as a unifying force and has fostered a sense of collective consciousness among Diasporan Africans. From the mid-1700s to the end of the 1800s, Neoclassicism began to gain popularity among European societies. ―Neoclassicism‖ is the name given to the distinct movement in decorative and visual arts, literature, theatre, music, and architecture that draw upon Western classical art and culture (usually that of Ancient Greece or Ancient Rome). As a response to the Neo-Classical Movement, African American students in predominantly white colleges and historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCU) began to apply for and gain membership in Greek fraternities and sororities. Once denied access to join Eurocentric Greek organizations, the necessity of a parallel Greek organization that mirrored African American social experience came into existence for African Americans. Accordingly those organizations that were previously denied to Black students due to racial barriers and concurrent black codes soon became available. Due to social mobility, status, and other privileges associated with membership into one of these organizations, many young African Americans began to gravitate toward the Black Letter Organizations in the hopes of transcending racial discrimination. Between the years 1906 and 1920 seven Black Greek-letter fraternities and sororities were created at the collegiate level. The first of these African American fraternities was Alpha Phi Alpha, founded in 1906 at Cornell University in Ithaca, New Chambers 1 York. Soon Alpha Kappa Alpha became the first Greek sorority for African American women formed in 1908 on the campus of Howard University at Washington DC. The fraternity Kappa Alpha Psi was chartered at Indiana University-Bloomington, in the Spring of 1911. Another fraternity named Omega Psi Phi was established at Howard University in the Winter of 1911. The sorority named Delta Sigma Theta was also incorporated on the campus of Howard University in 1913. Additionally, the fraternity of Phi Beta Sigma was formed on the campus of Howard University in 1914; its sister sorority, Zeta Phi Beta, was incorporated at Howard in 1920. Although these organizations have contributed to the welfare and safety of the Black community through the creation of national programs such as the Delta Sigma Theta Five-Point Program of 1913 which included initiatives toward economic development, educational development, international awareness and involvement, physical and mental health, and political awareness and involvement, over the last thirty years many Black Greek-letter fraternities and sororities have come under much scrutiny. Reports ranging from assaults, mutilations and even the death of its members have caused some of these organizations‘ most staunch supporters to call for their banning at the collegiate level. Historian Ricky Davis author of Black Haze: Violence, Sacrifice, and Manhood in Black Greek-Letter Fraternities details how many of these organizations were indeed valuable assets to the Black community, but due to lack of community involvement, internalized color prejudice, and the over-generalization of stereotypes, the activities of these once prominent organizations have come to resemble the activities of malicious street gangs in the eye of the public. In response to these allegations the supporters of Black Greek-letter organizations such as Lawrence C. Ross, the author of Chambers 2 The Divine Nine: The History of African American Fraternities and Sororities assert that their existence is not only a valuable asset to society but that these organizations, as well as their members, which include prominent writers, social activists, educators, and civil rights leaders, are historically linked to the success of the African American community. The purpose of this study is multifaceted.

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