Contemporary Social Sciences
Founder Padma Shri S. S. Shashi
Editor Dharam Vir
Volume 24, Number 3 (July-September), 2015
RESEARCH FOUNDATION INTERNATIONAL (INDIA) Affiliated to United Nations Organization (UNO) (An Autonomous, Registered (1972), Recognized Charitable Organization of Social Scientists, Authors, Journalists and Social Activists) Editorial Board FOUNDER Padma Shri S. S. Shashi, Executive Chairman, Research Foundation International (India) and Former Director General, Publications Division, Government of India, ‘Anusandhan’, B-4/245, Safdarjung Enclave, New Delhi–110 029, India. EDITOR Dharam Vir, Former Head, Department of Post-graduate Studies and Research in Sociology, Nanakchand Anglo Sanskrit College, CCS University, Meerut–250 004, India. ASSOCIATE EDITORS Sanjeev Mahajan, Department of Post-graduate Studies and Research in Sociology, Nanakchand Anglo Sanskrit College, Ch. Charan Singh University, Meerut–250 004, India. Richa Singh, Secretary (Academics), Social Science Division, Research Foundation International (India), Delhi–110 029, India. MANAGING EDITOR Kamlesh Mahajan, Department of Sociology, Ismail National Mahila Post-graduate College, Ch. Charan Singh University, Meerut–250 004, India. BOOK REVIEW EDITOR S. K. Gupta, Professor of Sociology (Retired), Panjab University, Chandigarh–160 014, India. CONSULTING EDITORS Dr. A. K. Singh (Assistant Coordinator, IGNOU Centre, Rohini, Delhi); Prof. B. K. Nagla (M. D. University, Rohtak); Prof. Bhoumik Deshmukh (University of Pune, Pune); Prof. Ho Chin Siong (Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia); Prof. I. P. Singh (Former Head of Anthropology, Delhi University, Delhi); Prof. I. S. Chauhan (Former Vice-Chancellor, Barakatulla University, Bhopal); Dr. László Vasa, (Faculty of Economics and Social Sciences, Szent István University, Hungary); Dr. Mamta Singh (Academic Counsellor, IGNOU Centre, Rohini, Delhi); Prof. Neelam Grewal (Dean Postgraduate Studies, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana); Dr. R. W. Sherman, (Adjunct Associate Professor, Silberman School of Social Work, New York); Prof. S. S. Sharma (CCS University, Meerut); Prof. S. K. Gupta (Panjab University, Chandigarh); Prof. Satya Prakash (Department of Law, N. A. S. College, Meerut); Prof. Wang Xiaoyi (Director, Rural and Industrial Sociology, Institute of Sociology, Chinese Academic of Social Sciences, Beijing, China). ISSN 0302-9298 World Copyrights of articles published in CSS are controlled by Contemporary Social Sciences, 1972. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form without written permission of the Editor. Contents 1. Documentation of the Male Ornaments of Punjab through Last Ten Decades M. Khullar, S. Bains and N. Grewal 1 2. Women’s Leadership : The Debatable Issue that never ends in Indonesian Pesantren (Islamic Boarding School) Siti Kholifah 13 3. Unethical Food Marketing to Children Malti 25 4. Extent of Problems faced by Female Sewing Machine Workers Neha Gahlot, Manju Mehta, Kiran Singh 33 5. Consumer Acceptance of Prepared Patchwork Cushion Covers with Kantha Embroidery Chhavi Gangwar and Harinder Kaur Saggu 41 6. The Impact of Employee Attitudes toward Social Media on Employee Engagement with Computer-Mediated Communication considered as a Moderatoring Factor Min-Li Hung, I-Feng Lee and Zih-Yu Chen 51 7. Evaluation of the Prepared kurtis on the basis of the Consumer Acceptance Manpreet Kaur and Kanwaljit Kaur Brar 61 8. Globalization and its Impact on Rural India Rangoli Chandra and Renu 71 9. Smocking - A Magnificent Endeavour Shikha Bajaj and Harminder Kaur Saini 83 10. The Role of Psychological Capital to Organizational Commitment of Tenured Employees Anne C. Camit, Ma. Socorro C. Bacay and Lesil E. Artista 95 11. Role of NABARD in the Development of Agriculture Sector in India V. K. Gautam and Yogesh Kumar 109 12. Development of Jewellery From Left Overs G. Kaur and D. Kaur 117 13. Adolescents’ Personality Traits and Attitudes towards Mate Selection Mukta Garg and Pratima 127 13. A Content and Critical Discourse Analysis ...... Terrorist Attack in Kenya Anne Eboi 137 Journal of National Development Aims and Scope The Journal of National Development (JND) is an interdisciplinary bi-annual peer reviewed & refereed international journal committed to the ideals of a ‘world community’ and ‘universal brotherhood’. The Journal is a joint effort of like-minded scholars in the field of social research. Its specific aims are to identify, to understand and to help the process of nation-building within the framework of a ‘world community’ and enhance research across the social sciences (Sociology, Anthropology, Political Science, Psychology, History, Geography, Education, Economics, Law, Communication, Linguistics) and related disciplines like like all streams of Home Science, Management, Computer Science, Commerce as well as others like Food Technology, Agricultural Technology, Information Technology, Environmental Science, Dairy Science etc. having social focus/implications.. It focuses on issues that are global and on local problems and policies that have international implications. By providing a forum for discussion on important issues with a global perspective, the JND is a part of unfolding world wide struggle for establishing a just and peaceful world order. Thus, the JND becomes a point of confluence for the rivulets from various disciplines to form a mighty mainstream gushing towards the formulation and propagation of a humanistic world- view. Publication Schedule The Journal of National Development is published in volumes of approximately 250-300 pages, divided into two bi-annual issues–summer and winter. Besides, a special issue in Hindi is also published every year to meet the demand of social scientists, both research scholars and teachers of Hindi speaking states of India. Subscription and Business Correspondence The annual subscription is ` 1000 in India and US$ 60 abroad, including postage by Speed-Post/Airmail. Special issue in Hindi is free with annual subscription. All the subscriptions must be prepaid in favour of The Journal of National Development, payable at Meerut. ISSN 0972-8309; NAAS Rating : 2.50; IBI FACTOR : 3.46 All correspondence pertaining to subscription, change of address, purchase of back numbers, books for review and advertisements should be addressed to : The Managing Editor Journal of National Development D-59, Shastri Nagar, Meerut-250 004 (India) Tel : 91+121-2763765, 2770765; Mobile : 91+9412200765, 91+99997771669
Documentation of the Male Ornaments of Punjab through Last Ten Decades
M. Khullar*, S. Bains** and N. Grewal***
Documentation of the ornaments worn by men of Punjab was done to study the changes in designs, styles, embellishments and materials used in ornaments through last ten decades. It was noticed that during the period of 1900-1930, very heavy and medium-weight ornaments of gold, silver and bronze were used by male. Beads were widely used in ornaments. Mostly floral designs with different styles were used in the jewellery of this period. In the period from 1930-1960 some changes were noticed in the type of metals used for ornaments. Heavy and medium-weight ornaments of silver metal were observed to be in great use but less as compared to earlier decades during this period. During the period from 1960-1990, it was noticed that floral and animal designs were changed into the modified geometrical designs. While during the period from 1990 onwards, motifs and designs were totally changed in ornaments. Geometrical and abstracts designs/motifs were observed in the ornaments. Cheaper metals were used more in ornaments in place of gold and silver. [Keywords : Ornaments, Generations, Traditional, Significant change] 1. Background The ornaments are no less important than clothes in meeting the psychological needs like the frosting on a cake. Accessories give that finished touch, which is indefinable; something called charm and good taste1. Ornaments * Research Fellow, Department of Apparel and Textile Science, College of Home Science, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana-141004, Punjab (India) E-mail:
In the light of above background, it is essential to gather and document all details from the repositories of our culture, i.e. the older generations and other available sources, If the age-old heritage of Punjab has to be preserved for posterity. The present paper is a humble attempt in this direction. Hence the specific objectives of this study are : 1. To study the background information of three generations. Documentation of the Male Ornaments of Punjab through Last Ten Decades 3
2. To document the male ornaments of Punjab through last ten decades. 3. To study the motifs and designs used in ornaments of Punjab through last ten decades. 3. Methodology and Research Design
The study has been carried in the Malwa region of Punjab which includes Ludhiana, Patiala, Moga, Mukatsar districts. Research Design includes : 1. Documentation of male costume accessories : Documentation of costume accessories was done from primary and secondary sources by using snow ball technique. 2. Primary sources : These include Museum of Rural life of Punjab, PAU, Ludhiana and Museum of Punjabi University, Patiala, Sarafa Bazar (gold market) at Ludhiana, Patiala and Mukatsar city, and village Gillan in district Ludhiana. Secondary sources included family photographs, paintings, books, magazines, gazetteers and internet. 3. Selection of respondents : A purposive sampling technique was used to select 60 families of males having three generations living together. Each family consisted of three respondents, i.e. 1st generation (60 yrs & above), 2nd generation (40-60 yrs) and 3rd generation (20-40 yrs). Thus making a total sample of 180 respondents. The required information was collected from the selected respondents regarding the costume accessories, its designs and embellishments used over the three generations by personally interviewing them. 4. Costume accessories-ornaments : The data pertaining to this part of the study has been categorized into the background information of the male respondents, their description and costume accessories (ornaments) worn by them in last ten decades. 5. Background information of Respondents : Majority of the respondents in the 1st, 2nd and 3rd generation belonged to the age group of 70-80, 40-50 and 20-30 yrs, respectively. Maximum number of respondents in the 1st generation were illiterate, 2nd generation studied up to secondary. Respondents in the 3rd generation were graduates or postgraduates. Most of the respondents were from Sikh families and had monthly income of 30-60 thousand. 4 M. Khullar, S. Bains and N. Grewal 4. Description of Ornaments worn by Males The documented ornaments worn by male respondents through last ten decades have been depicted in Fig. 1 on next page. The ornaments worn fall in following categories : 4.1 Head Ornaments u Sarpesh : the jewelled aigrette worn in front of the turban. u Kutbiladar : an oval pendant worn over the forehead. u Kalgi : a plume in jeweled setting. u Mukat : a head dress worn by Hindus at wedding. u Turah or marwarid : tassels of pearls worn on the turban. 4.2 Ear Ornaments u Bala : very large ring worn by Khatris, Sikhs and Dogras, they have a pearl strung on the gold wire of which they are made. u Murki : smaller earrings of the same shape. u Dur : a small earring with three studs. u Birbali : a broad earring with three studs. u Durichah : an ear-ring with pendant tassel. 4.3 Neck Ornaments u Mala : a necklace of large beads handing down long and loose. u Kantha : this fits rather close to the neck, the pendant may be omitted. u Nam : a pendent, round or star shaped. u Tawiz : a square amulet, jeweled or otherwise. u Takhti : a flat square plate engraved with figures, etc. u Chandarmah : a large gold flat medal suspended by a single ring. u Zanjiri : a set of chains. 4.4 Arm Ornaments u Ponchi : a series of strings of shells or small gold elongated beads worn on the wrist. u Bazuband : a broad belt-like ornament generally mounted on silk and tied on the upper arm. u Taviz : an amulet worn on the upper arm. Documentation of the Male Ornaments of Punjab through Last Ten Decades 5
u Kara or Gokru : a bracelet of stiff metal, when the edges are serrated, it is called gokru. 4.5 Finger Ornaments u Challa : a plain hoop or whole hoop ring, with or without stones, being of gold or silver, but the same all round, challas are worn on the toe also. u Angutha : a big ring with a broad face worn on the toe. u Anguthi : a ring set with stones also called mundri. u Birhamgand : broad ring. 5. Findings
The findings of this study are presented in following sub-heads : 5.1 Costume Accessories (Ornaments) Information The details of the ornaments adorn on different body parts and the information regarding the type, designs and metals preferred for ornaments by the three generations of respondents has been discussed below : 5.1.1 Head ornaments Table-1 below elicits that these ornaments were worn only during formal occasions like on marriages or functions. The majority of the male respondents (53.33%) in the 1st generation during their marriage wore each kalgi and turah/marwarid. In the 2nd generation, majority of the respondents (56.66%) adorned Kalgi followed by 16.66 % who wore sehra on their marriages, whereas in the 3rd generation, good number (28.33%) of the respondents wore Kalgi followed by 5.00 % who wore mukat as head ornament. As a result, a marked change in the use of head ornaments by all the three generations of the males differs significantly. Table-1 : Details of Ornaments worn by the Respondents on different Body Parts (n=60 each generation)
Ornament Category Generation
Head ornaments 1st Generation 2nd Generation 3rd Generation
Sarpesh 07 (11.66) 09 (15.00) 01 (1.66)
Kalgi 32 (53.33) 34 (56.66) 17 (28.33) 6 M. Khullar, S. Bains and N. Grewal
Mukat 03 (5.00) 05 (8.33) 03 (5.00)
Turah or marwarid 32 (53.33) 30 (50.00) 13 (21.66)
Sehra 10 (16.66) 10 (16.66) 06 (10.00)
Ear Ornaments
Bala 18 (30.0) — 03 (5.00)
Murki 05 (8.33) — —
Dur 01 (1.66) — —
Small bali — 01 (1.66) 03 (5.00)
Stud — — 05 (8.33)
Neck ornaments
Mala 08 (13.33) 06 (10.00) —
Kantha 35 (58.33) 24 (40.00) 11 (18.33)
Tawiz 24 (40.00) 07 (11.66) 08 (13.33)
Chandarmah 04 (6.66) 11 (18.33) 17 (28.33)
Zanjiri 11 (18.33) 12 (20.00) 20 (33.33)
Arm ornaments
Ponchi 02 (3.33) 02 (3.33) —
Baju band 16 (26.66) 05 (8.33) 12 (20.00)
Taviz 23 (38.33) — —
Kara 58 (96.66) 58 (96.66) 52 (86.66)
Bracelate — - 22 (36.66)
Finger ornaments
Challa 16 (26.66) 04 (6.66) 10 (16.66)
Angutha 05 (8.33) 01 (1.66) 04 (6.66)
Anguthi 60 (100.0) 60 (100.0) 49 (81.66)
Birhamgand 23 (38.33) 11 (18.33) 01 (1.66)
*Multiple Responses *Figures in parentheses indicates percentages Documentation of the Male Ornaments of Punjab through Last Ten Decades 7
5.1.2 Ear Ornaments The data presented in the Table 1 in concern to ear ornaments indicates that in the 1st generation, good number of the respondents (30.00%) wore bala, followed by 8.33% wore murki in ears. In the 2nd generation, scarcely 1.66% used ear ornament, which included small bali while in the 3rd generation, 8.33% of the respondents wore studs. 5.1.3 Neck Ornaments Table-1 depicts that in the 1st generation, majority (58.33%) of the respondents wore kantha, followed by 18.33% who adorned. In the 2nd generation, good number of the respondents (40.00%) wore kantha and minimum number of the respondents (20.00%) wore zanjiri on special occasions whereas in the case of 3rd generation, zanjiri was worn on special occasions by 46.66 % of the respondents followed by 28.33% of the respondents who wore modern chandarmah. The results point toward a change in the use of neck ornaments by the male respondents on both daily wear as well as special occasions. As the kantha of youngsters has now been replaced by zanjiri. 5.1.4 Arm Ornaments It is clear from the Table 1 that in the 1st generation maximum number of the respondents (96.66%) wore kara regularly, followed by 26.66% of the respondents who wore bajuband. Maximum number of the respondents (96.66%) in the 2nd generation also wore kara while same in the case of 3rd generation, majority (86.66%) wore kara, followed by 36.66% who wore bracelets of different metals/materials in their daily routine. It is evident that the kara is being used by the maximum number of the respondents among all the three generations. However, its use is on the decline, but the change is not as much as with other traditional ornaments. The fact can be attributed to the religious sanctions attached to the use of kara. 5.1.5 Finger Ornaments The results showed in the Table 1 regarding finger ornaments elucidates that all the men in the 1st generation wore anguthi, followed by 38.33% who wore birhamgand. In the 2nd generation, 18.33 per cent of the respondents wore birhamgand whereas in the 3rd generation, maximum number of the respondents (81.66%) worn anguthi. About 3-4 decades back males used many of the 8 M. Khullar, S. Bains and N. Grewal ornaments for different body parts but presently only fingers rings were worn by them4. 5.2 Preference for Weight of Ornaments by the Respondents Data given in Table-2 on next page shows that a good number of respondents in the 1st generation (48.33 and 35.00%) wore heavy weight ornaments on special occasions and daily routine, whereas, no respondent of this generation wore light weight and very light weight ornaments on the special occasions. In the 2nd generation, it was recorded that (21.66%) of the respondents wore heavy-weight ornaments on both daily as well as on special occasions, whereas, in the case of 3rd generation, light weight and medium weight ornaments were worn by half of the respondents (50.00% each) on daily and special occasions, respectively. Table-2 : Preference for Weight of Ornaments by the Respondents (n=60 each generation)
Type of jewellery 1st Generation 2nd Generation 3rd Generation according to weight
Casual Formal Casual Formal Casual Formal
Heavy 21 (35.00) 29 (48.33) 13 (21.66) 13 (21.66) — 01 (1.66)
Medium 20 (33.33) 17 (28.33) 21 (35.00) 25 (41.66) 27 (45.00) 30 (50.00)
Light 19 (31.66) — 13 (21.66) 09 (15.00) 30 (50.00) 27 (45.00)
Very light — — 10 (16.66) — 01 (1.66) 01 (1.66)
*Multiple Responses *Figures in parentheses indicates percentages
5.3 Preferences of Motifs/Designs in Ornaments by Respondents The result shown in Table-3 on next page reveals that respondents in the 1st, 2nd and 3rd generation (53.33, 73.33 and 83.33%, respectively) preferred geometrical designs in ornaments. Documentation of the Male Ornaments of Punjab through Last Ten Decades 9
Table-3 : Preferences of Motifs/Designs in Ornaments (n=60 each generation)
Motifs/Designs 1st Generation 2nd Generation 3rd Generation
Floral 29 (48.33) 18 (30.00) 02 (3.33)
Birds 01 (1.66) — 04 (6.66)
Animals 09 (15.00) 04 (6.66) —
Geometrical 32 (53.33) 44 (73.33) 50 (83.33)
Abstract 08 (13.33) 18 (30.00) 25 (41.66)
*Multiple Responses *Figures in parentheses indicates percentages
5.4 Preference for material in ornaments by the respondents It is evident from the data contained in table-4 below that the maximum number of the respondents in the 1st and 2nd generation (80.00 and 63.33% respectively) preferred gold ornaments, whereas in the 3rd generation majority of the respondents (53.33%) preferred ornaments of other metals except gold and silver. Table 4-Preference for Material in Ornaments (n=60 each generation)
Material Generation
1st Generation 2nd Generation 3rd Generation
Gold 48 (80.00) 38 (63.33) 24 (40.00)
Silver 22 (36.66) 19 (31.66) 20 (33.33)
Other metals 02 (3.33) 12 (20.00) 32 (53.33)
*Multiple Responses *Figures in parentheses indicates percentages 6. Conclusion
In the 1st generation, all the men wore finger, neck and arm ornaments, while in the 2nd generation; maximum number of respondents wore ornaments 10 M. Khullar, S. Bains and N. Grewal
1900-1930
1930-1960 Documentation of ornaments worn by male respondents through last ten decades Documentation of the Male Ornaments of Punjab through Last Ten Decades 11
1960-1990 1990- onwards Documentation of ornaments worn by male respondents through last ten decades on their arms, followed by neck ornaments, whereas in the case of 3rd generation, maximum number of respondents wore arm ornaments followed by the respondents who wore ornaments in fingers. It was noticed that in the 1st and 2nd generation, majority of the men preferred to wore heavy weight ornaments on special occasions as well as in daily life whereas in the 3rd generation light-weight ornaments were preferred by all the respondents in daily and special occasions. Majority of the male respondents from all three generations preferred geometrical designs/motifs in ornaments. It was observed that in the 1st and 2nd generation, majority preferred to wear gold ornaments whereas in the 3rd generation respondents preferred to wear the ornaments of metals other than gold and silver. Significant change was found in the wearing of ornaments by all the three generations of male respondent’s, this shows that there is less usage of traditional ornaments by the 2nd and 3rd generation of male respondents of Punjab. The scrutiny of the data revealed that the 3rd generation respondents 12 M. Khullar, S. Bains and N. Grewal were not even aware, of the traditional ornaments and their names. It was also observed that the up gradation in educational status, change in life style, mass media, rise in gold prices are the major factors found responsible for significant change in the use of traditional ornaments in present generation. People of present generation have shifted their interest in use of ornaments made from beads and shells. References
1. Dar, S. N., Costumes of India and Pakistan, Bombay : D. B. Taraporevala Sons and Co. Pvt Ltd., 1969, 56-75. 2. Kaur, N., Production and marketing of durries in different socio cultural zones of Punjab, Ph D Dissertation. Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, India, 2002. 3. Sidhu, R., A comparative study on costumes of Hindu and Sikh communities of rural Ludhiana before and after independence, M. Sc. Thesis, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, India, 1984. 4. Suri, S, Punjab District Gazetteer-Ludhiana, Chandigarh, Punjab : Controller of Printing and Stationery, 1970. ê
Article Received on May 12, 2015; Accepted on June 05, 2015 2
Women’s Leadership : The Debatable Issue that never ends in Indonesian Pesantren (Islamic Boarding School)
Siti Kholifah*
Leadership is one of the gendered patterns in Indonesia, particularly in pesantren (Islamic boarding school) as one of institutions from which Muslim scholars emerge, and kyai (male leader in pesantren) becomes the reference point and political intent. Pesantren still have differences about leadership, particularly in relation to providing meaning and interpreting Koran, verse An-Nisa’:34. This verse was the justification for males dominating females. This research focus to examine the discourse of pesantren related to women’s leadership in public sphere including in politic area. Using feminist and Foucault theory, this research was conducted in As-sa’idiyyah 2 Pesantren as a modern pesantren, Ilmu Al-Qur’an Pesantren as a traditional pesantren, and Mu’allimin-Muallimaat Pesantren as modern pesantren based on Muhammadiyah. This research was qualitative study with used phenomenology approach. This research shows the discourse women’s leadership in three pesantren still become debatable, although in one pesantren (As-sa’idiyyah 2), women as a leader in pesantren is exist. However, the continuing women’s leadership is controversial. Mu’allimin- Mu’allimaat, women also become a leader in female school, but women’s leadership tends to as segregation system. Ilmu Al-Qur’an, only men can be a leader in this pesantren. The kyai believes that Islamic law explains the first characteristic of leader must be man. [Keywords : Women’s leadership, Pesantren, Gender] 1. Introduction
Leadership is one of the gendered patterns in pesantren (Islamic boarding school) that is still a debated issue in the Muslim community in relation to * Lecturer, Department of Sociology, Faculty of Social and Political Sciences, Brawijaya University, Malang (Indonesia) E-mail:
Discourse is the central concept of Foucault’s analysis that determines what can be said and thought, but also who can speak and when, and with what power or authority. Discourse is related to the social processes that produce meaning which develops not from language but from institutions and power relations. Discourse has provided a new perspective in gender issues that explains how power is constituted in multiple ways between women, between men and between men and women. Hence, post-structuralism has assisted feminist studies to analyze identity and power in societies that have complex characteristics. According to Francis, post-structuralism deconstructs the dominant discourse, exercises a power relationship, and deconstructs concepts of morality, justice and truth. Moreover Francis asserts that the development of post- structuralism is related to feminist research in two main areas. First, discourse analysis is utilized to investigate gender diversity in society. Second, feminism is developed as an interpretative community through openness and respect for others within that community. Furthermore, the educational system maintains the social appropriation of discourse. It therefore controls access to various kinds of discourse. The distribution of discourse in education is constructed by the examination and the whole power and knowledge. Arguably, students are constructed through passive and active processes through internal or external authority figures . Thus the relationship of power and knowledge in education is not only concerned with an imbalance between teacher and student, but also related to the power vested in the teacher by virtue of her or his knowledge of the student . Power has both a negative and positive effect, not only to be resisted, but also pleasurable and emancipatory. Moreover, power/knowledge relations have a gender dimension. A Foucaultian approach can provide an alternative to feminist analyses that adopts over-monolithic notions of male power and male control of women, or which retain utopian visions of the total reconstruction or autonomy of female desire. The view of feminists and Foucault represent different perspectives but they also share views about power and knowledge. Moreover, Foucault’s theory has been of particular interest to feminists. First, Foucault’s theory attends to the productive nature of power and his emphasis on the social body in relation to power is compatible with developing feminist insight about the politics of 16 Siti Kholifah personal life. Second, Foucault was one of the most politically connected poststructuralists. Finally, Foucault’s theory and feminist theory merge to analyze research and provide implications in adopting the methodology. 3. Methodology
This study was qualitative research with a phenomenology approach. The data collection was conducted in some methods: in-depth interview, observation, and documentation. Firstly, in-depth interview were selected by the purposive method with characteristic of informants : pesantren leader, pesantren teachers, and pesantren students. Secondly, observation and documentation directly from pesantren related to the discourse about pesantren leadership include women’s leadership. All the data were cross checked as a process to find significant data which a part of triangulation. I examined in three pesantren in Java : As-sa’idiyyah 2 Pesantren in Jombang, East Java, Ilmu Al-Qur’an Pesantren in Malang, East Java, and Mu’allimin-Mu’allimaat Pesantren in Yogyakarta. The rationale for choosing these pesantren is they have different characteristic: traditional pesantren associated with NU, modern pesantren associated with NU, and modern pesantren based on Muhammadiyah. NU and Muhammadiyah is two largest Islamic organizations in Indonesia that have influence to social, cultural and political issues. 4. Finding and Discussion
4.1 Mu’allimin and Mu’allimaat Pesantren : Men and Women Leader as Segregation System Mu’allimin and Mu’allimaat were founded by Kyai Haji Ahmad Dahlan in 1920. This pesantren is located in Yogyakarta city with Indonesian culture dominates local identity (Javanese). The students of Mu’allimin and Mu’allimaat come from all regions in Indonesia, and the overall majority of students have urban backgrounds. Students total 2036 (47% Mu’allimaat and 53% Mu’allimin students). Mu’allimin and Mu’allimaat are characterised as modern reformist and open-minded toward social and political issues in local and national spheres, as well as being open to outsiders. Moreover, Mu’allimin and Mu’allimaat are professional institutions, where teaching staff are qualified, and the role of the founder family is not dominant. Mu’allimin and Mu’allimaat segregate male and Women’s Leadership : The Debatable Issue that never ends in Indonesian Pesantren 17 female students, not only in boarding school but in the broader school system (Mu’allimin for male students and Mu’allimaat for female students) and have a separate organizational structure. The boarding school system is also different from other pesantren in Java; in Mu’allimin and Mu’allimaat the dormitories and the house of the leader are separate. In addition, the position of the leader, ustadz/ustadzah (male/female teacher) and students have similar positions and professional relations, although the leader still has precedence. In Mu’allimaat, female leadership is still a sensitive issue although it is led by a woman. But, the Mu’allimaat community tends to agree that a woman should not lead a mixed gender community, rather that women can only lead women. Hence, the discourse about the ideal female leader in Mu’allimaat is introduced gradually to Mu’allimaat students as Ustadzah Unik explains : I do not come from a pesantren, I grew up in Muhammadiyah from the Youth organization and am accustomed to being open minded. And then, I worked in a pesantren that is identical to insularity, so I must gradually introduce new notions including about women’s leadership. Although I have colleagues from the Majelis Tarjih (The division in Muhammadiyah that has the authority to create religious opinion and advice relating to contemporary issues or problems in the Muslim community), I regularly discuss this issue. But, in principle the person who has the best qualities, male or female, can be a leader. So, I talk with my students along these lines. I have explained to members of the IPM that the leadership concept does distinguish between male and female. It does not mean if you are female, you cannot do anything. The important thing is to play a role in the Muslim community, to lead oneself, and lead other people. (Interview with Ustadzah Unik, female teacher in Mu’allimaat, 27 September, 2010) The leadership in Mu’allimaat is a model of how women can be leaders, but only in a community of women. Hence, Ustadzah Unik emphasises the capability and quality as characteristics of leadership without citing gender. Mu’allimaat tends to educate and encourage leadership skills of students as asserted by Latifah : Outside the Mu’allimaat, I often listen to debates about the distinction between male and female, but in the Mu’allimaat we do not compare male and female, but we know a woman also can be a leader, women also have skills. So, in Mu’allimaat, we learn a lot of things that educate our leadership, such as organization and competition. We are independent; we 18 Siti Kholifah can lift a table and this is common. (Interview with Latifah, female student in Mu’allimaat, 1 October, 2010) Latifah believes Mu’allimaat enables female students to become independent personalities who can be leaders. However, the perspective of Mu’allimin students is different. They tend to reject the prospect of women as leaders because Islamic values emphasize men as leaders; and if a woman leads this is caused by the unavailability of a man as Ridwan explains : In Islam, the leader must be a man; this means women cannot be a leader. Women can be a leader only in emergency conditions. So, when there is a male with the capability and high quality, why should the man not become the leader? I felt disappointed when Megawati was president. (Interview with Ridwan, male santri in Mu’allimin, 27 September, 2010) Similarly, Taufik also asserted that female leaders tend to have more weakness than advantage because of their domestic responsibilities as explained below : Why in Islam should a woman not be a leader? For example, a woman is a leader of an organization; she must attend meetings from morning until night. If a woman is a leader, does not she think of her obligations to her family, because in her house, she also has responsibilities. Because of her organization, she does not go home until night; how is this seen by society? This is not useful. In Islamic values, the prevention of damage is preferred to the pursuit of advantage. (Interview with Taufik, male student in Mu’allimin, 30 September, 2010) The domination of males in Mu’allimin as leaders, teachers and staff perpetuates masculine culture and values. Muallimin and Mu’allimaat students observe and learn about gender roles through their studies. However, the female students in Mu’allimaat are more conscious of the gender values promoted in both Mu’allimin and Mu’allimaat. The gender segregation in these institutions embeds patriarchal values because the Mu’allimaat system is still dominated by these values, represented in the curriculum and the rules, and women who are educated in this environment tend to preserve the patriarchal system. 4.2 As-sa’idiyyah 2 Pesantren has a figure Women’s Leadership As-sa’idiyyah 2 is located in Jombang, East Java, 100 km from Surabaya, the capital of East Java Province. As-sa’idiyyah 2 is dominated by Javanese culture Women’s Leadership : The Debatable Issue that never ends in Indonesian Pesantren 19 rather than Indonesian national values; as well patriarchal culture is embedded in the pesantren’s tradition. As-sa’idiyyah 2 has 120 santri (student) in total : 51% female and 49% male. The santri mostly come from East Java or Jakarta, Bandung or other cities in Java, and predominantly from middle and lower class family backgrounds. As-sa’idiyyah 2 was founded in 2004 by Kyai Hasan and Nyai Umdatul Choirot. Before As-sa’idiyyah 2 is founded, Kyai Hasan and Nyai Umda managed his father’s pesantren. Nyai Umda also replaced her father’s position as head of school in the MAI (Madrasah Aliyah Al-I’dadiyyah/Senior high school Al-I’dadiyyah) in 2002 who leads mixed gender community where in pesantren community this situation is not common. In As-sa’idiyyah 2, the concept of leadership is not the only discussion point in class, but also the leadership of Nyai Umda in MAI as a female leadership figure, as well as the response of pesantren community to the opportunities for and obstacles to women leaders. Moreover, the leadership of Nyai Umda in MAI actually is controversial for other reasons: first, she has a brother who usually replaces the father and second, MAI is an institution with both males and females which is uncommon in terms of a female leading a male and female community. This is discussed by Ustadzah Riska, female teacher in MAI : Initially, the leader in MAI was the brother of Nyai Umda, it is inconceivable that a women could be a leader here. But I don’t know why, probably Nyai Umda has outstanding skills and experience. At that time, Nyai Umda had a conflict with her brother. It was complicated, because one of Nyai Umda’s family frequently was absent. (Interview with Ustadzah Riska, female teacher in MAI and As-sa’idiyyah 2, 2 December, 2010). As a person who grew up in pesantren, Ustadzah Riska has the perception that a female cannot be a leader in a male and female community. According to Nyai Umda, her father, Kyai Nasrullah saw her as a persistent and consistent person, with strong leadership capacities and argued that the meaning of arrijalu and an-nisa in verse An-Nisa: 34 emphasize character, rather than sex : My father told me, don’t misunderstand the term arrijalu. The important thing is resoluteness. My father knew me as a persistent person; I have fought all the way to the capital city. I do everything although I have lots of conflict, and I also had conflict with my father. I read my father’s yellow 20 Siti Kholifah book related to the concept of leadership, but the social structure has persisted. (Interview with Nyai Umda, the female leader of As-sa’idiyyah 2, 1 December, 2010) Kyai Nasrullah suggested the meaning of the term arrijal refers to masculine character, not males, and an-nisa’ refers to feminine character, not females. Consequently, either can be a leader, if they have the characteristics of logical thinking, strength, and independence. Hence, the interpretation of the verse An-Nisa: 34, also has became a doctrine by Nyai Umda to develop gender equity in pesantren community, as shown by a male santri when I asked about the interpretation of this verse : Nyai Umda always explains that arrijal is not only for males, but is more about masculine characteristics; sometimes a female has masculine characteristics that are arrijal, sometimes a male has feminine characteristics and is an-nisa’. So, a male is not superior, sometimes he has a more subordinate position than a female. Mostly, salaf (traditional) kyai believe that women are led by men. When Nyai Umda explained this verse, my thinking was opened up, in reality there different interpretations. (Interview with Nafis, male santri in As-sa’idiyyah 2, 1 December, 2010) Others believe that Nyai Umda’s perception of Islamic teaching is accurate as Ustadzah Riska (who studied in Cairo) explained : I understood from Nyai Umda, about yellow book and their interpretation, that women do not have to be inferior and leaders do not have to be men. In fact, Nyai Umda is also a woman activist. What we see reflected in Nyai Umda is true. (Interview with Ustadzah Riska, female teacher in MAI and As-sa’idiyyah 2, 2 December, 2010) The leadership of Nyai Umda is unusual, particularly in Bahrul Ulum, because her father provided a strong recommendation that she lead MAI. This makes her an agent of change, not only in relation to her position, but to encourage gender equity and women’s empowerment with the kyai’s approval. However, not everyone in Bahrul Ulum agree that women should be leaders. Some argued that whilst women can have public leadership roles, their domestic roles should take precedence as Ustadz Yusuf explains : I think it does not matter if a woman becomes a leader, as long as she can manage all her responsibilities, including the family. If a woman is in the political area, and then she becomes a leader, she cannot maintain her Women’s Leadership : The Debatable Issue that never ends in Indonesian Pesantren 21
responsibilities with her family, Like the Javanese saying: “looking for something small, losing something substantial”. I think the essential responsibility for women is their family; other matters are optional, if meritorious (sunnah). However, some people say that verse An-Nisa’: 34 only relates to prayers, in which women cannot become an imam (a leader). There is no Islamic teaching that says women can lead men at prayers together. I had been seeking an argument in Islam, because there has been much debate about this. I had been looking for a hadith, but until now, I have not found anything, and if I find it, I am not sure how to choose an interpretation. I prefer to choose the opinion that man must lead women. (Interview with Ustadz Yusuf, male teacher in MAN Bahrul Ulum, 4 December, 2010) Although, he agrees with women becoming leaders, this excludes mixed prayers. Ustadz Yusuf as both teacher and kyai has the authority to choose Islamic teaching or the material in yellow book that he considers significant. This situation shows how individual males invest in the patriarchal system. 4.3 Ilmu Al-Qur’an Pesantren : Man must be a Leader Ilmu Al-Qur’an is located in Singosari, a suburb of Malang, and 80 km from Surabaya. This pesantren is a family institution under the patriarchal control of the pesantren leader. Ilmu Al-Qur’an has developed own curriculum that not associated with Indonesian government. The leader of the pesantren is like a king in a small kingdom and he is thought to have barokah (blessing or reward from God). The santri of the pesantren show great respect towards the leader. The santri of Ilmu Al-Qur’an come from the region in East Java and other province in Indonesia. Ilmu Al-Qur’an is lead by Kyai Alwi Basori who senior kyai in Malang region. As family institution, his sons of Kyai Alwi also teach and manage this pesantren. This situation is method to cadre her family become his successor. One of the sons who teaching staff in Ilmu Al-Qur’an is Ustadz Luthfi Alwi Basori. He is also active in some Islamic organizations in Malang. According to Ustadz Luthfi Alwi Basori, the characteristic of leader in society should be appropriate by Islamic law as his explanation : If we discuss about Islamic law, the first characteristic of leader must be man. Because in one of verses in Al-Qur’an explain man for leadership area. So, I believe the opinion from Islamic scholars who say that person 22 Siti Kholifah who has authority and legitimacy became leader is man. Although some of people say not only man became a leader, but in my opinion that have legality as leader is man. Why like that? Because in fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence) also give explanation that women have restriction. We follow fiqh, not logical thinking. Women must be restricted from men community. Women cannot lead pray together in man community. This situation is limitation from women. As well as women cannot adzan (provide announcement for praying). In term of leadership, this condition will make difficulties for women when Mosque community needs their leader to attend in Mosque; suddenly their women leader is having menstruation. So, she cannot attend in Mosque. Because of this situation, women cannot appropriate as leader. I am as MUI member, if someday MUI has fatwa that women can be president, I will not follow this fatwa. (Interview with Ustadz Luthfi, male teacher in Ilmu Al-Qur’an, 13 August, 2011) Ustadz Luthfi interprets the verse An-Nisa’: 34 as textual based on his knowledge and experience that man as a leader for woman. As a result, the characteristic of leader is man. Her experience in Islamic organization such as MUI (Majelis Ulama Indonesia/Indonesian Islamic scholars association), NU in Malang provide understanding about how the style of leadership. In both organizations the leader is always man, and the members of both organization is dominated by men. As well, in Ilmu Al-Qur’an only men can be a leader. The discourse of leadership in Ilmu Al-Qur’an provide influence to santri, although the political issue never discuss in this institution as explaining Faiz, santri Ilmu Al-Qur’an : In this pesantren we never discuss about leadership issues, or leadership of Indonesian government. However, in this pesantren we are provided knowledge related to how the ideal characteristic of leader in Islam: firstly, the leader must be a Muslim and Man. So, the leader in Indonesia has been according to this criterion (Interview with Faiz, male santri Ilmu Al-Qur’an, 18 August, 2013).
Pesantren tradition that assert santri should be sami’na wa atho’na (we listen and we obedient) to leader (kyai) and teachers. So, no wonder santri also have similar political discourse with the kyai or kyai’s family. this is because kyai and his family have central position and power in pesantren, as well they are Women’s Leadership : The Debatable Issue that never ends in Indonesian Pesantren 23 assumed to have outstanding Islamic knowledge. This condition provides influence the similarities of political discourse among kyai and santri. As Foucault’s opinion (1980) power is complex strategies in society that can observe in discourse. 5. Conclusion
The discourse women’s leadership in the three pesantren is based on Islamic teaching, experiences and situation in this institution. The interpretation of Islamic teaching in each pesantren is according to pesantren leader. Nyai Umda is head of MAI, she does not offer gender subjects, but she develops gender awareness through the teaching materials for tafsir (Koran exegesis). A similar condition prevails in Mu’allimin and Mu’allimaat, where some of the teachers develop gender awareness through the teaching materials for fiqh. Nyai Umda believe that the interpretation of Islamic teaching with gender values is important to teach in class, without it being written in the curriculum, because they have the authority to maintain subject materials and teaching methods. But these are unusual teachers using slightly unorthodox methods of drawing attention to the issue of gender in conventional classrooms. In doing so, they subvert the patriarchal norms which are embedded throughout all three pesantren to varying degrees. Their aim is to introduce these perspectives covertly without drawing attention to themselves or their endeavors, and in this way to assist santri to consider the dynamics of gender in their religious, educational and everyday lives. References
1. Ball, SJ, ‘Introducing Monsieur Foucault’ in SJ Ball (ed.), Foucault and Education : Disciplines and Knowledge, Routledge, London and New York, 1990, pp. 1-8. 2. Dhofier, Z, The Pesantren Tradition : The Roles of The Kyai in the Maintenance of Traditional Islam in Java, The Program of Southeast Asian Studies, Arizona, 1999. 3. DJPI-KAR Indonesia, Sejarah Pendidikan Islam dan Organisasi Ditjen Pendidikan Islam, by Indonesia, DJPI-KAR, Direktorat Jenderal Pendidikan Islam -Kementerian Agama Republik Indonesia, 2008. 4. Endang, T, Struggling for the Umma : Changing Leadership Roles of Kiai in Jombang, East Java, The Australian National University, 2005. 24 Siti Kholifah 5. Francis, B, ‘Beyond Postmodernism: Feminist Agency in Education Research’, in B Francis & C Skelton (eds), Investigating Gender : Contemporary Perspectives in Education, Open University Press, Buckingham, Philadelphia, 2001, 65-76. 6. Mu’allimaat 2010a, Data Pendidikan Orang Tua Siswi Madrasah Mu’allimaat Tahun Pelajaran 2010/2011, Madrasah Mu’allimaat, Yogyakarta 7...... , Data Siswi Madrasah Mu’allimaat Tahun Pelajaran 2010/2011, Madrasah Mu’allimaat, Yogyakarta, 2010b. 8. Mu’allimin 2010b, Data Pendidikan Orang Tua Siswa Madrasah Mu’allimin Tahun Pelajaran 2010/2011, Madrasah Mu’allimin, Yogyakarta. 9...... , Data Siswa Madrasah Mu’allimin Tahun Pelajaran 2010/2011, Madrasah Mu’allimin, Yogyakarta, 2010c. 10] Karim, AG, ‘Pesantren in Power : Religious Institutions and Political Recruitment in Sumenap, Madura [Paper in Islamic Education in Indonesia.]’, Review of Indonesian and Malaysian Affairs, vol. 42, no. 1, 2008, 157-84. 11. Kholifah, S, ‘Wacana Santri Perempuan tentang Politik’, Universitas Airlangga, 2005. 12. Pesantren, A-si 2010a, Data Santri Pondok Pesantren As-sa’idiyyah 2 Putra Bahrul Ulum, As-sa’idiyyah 2 Pesantren, Jombang. 13...... , Data Santri Pondok Pesantren As-sa’idiyyah 2 Putri Bahrul Ulum, As-sa’idiyyah 2 Pesantren, Jombang, 2010b. 14. Paechter, C, Changing School Subjects : Power, Gender and Curriculum, Open University Press, Buckingham, Philadelphia, 2000. 15. Sawicki, J, Disciplining Foucault : Feminism, Power and the Body, Routledge, New York, London, 1991. 16. Srimulyani, E, ‘Muslim Women and Education in Indonesia: The Pondok Pesantren Experience’, Asia Pacific Journal of Education, Vol. 27, No. 1, 2007, 85-99. 17. Suryakusuma, JI, Sex, Power and Nation : an Othology of Writings 1979-2003, Metafor, Jakarta, 2004. 18. Wagiman, S, The Modernization of the Pesantren’s Educational System to Meet the Needs of Indonesian Communities, McGill University, 1997. ê
Article Received on May 25, 2015; Accepted on June 18, 2015 3
Unethical Food Marketing to Children
Malti*
The values we impart to our children today, consciously and unconsciously will have a major impart on society tomorrow. If we continue to leave the teaching of values to chance, we are a nation, risk losing as integral piece of our culture altogether. Children are the human resource and assets of a country. They are the most vulnerable section of our country. They need special care and protection, if the future of the nation is to be made secure. Children are the first call on agenda of development not only because young children are the most vulnerable, but because the foundation for life long learning and human development is laid in the crucial early years. Survival, development and growth of a child has to be looked at in a holistic manner and there have to be balanced linkages between education, health and nutrition for proper development of a child. The present paper is an attempt to analyze the Unethical Food Marketing to Children. It has been shown that children should be educated in the science of marketing and businesses and should learn to satisfy needs in a manner which protects and even nurtures children’s right and best interests. [Keywords : Values, Human resource, Unethical food marketing, authority figures, children’s right and best interests] India is the home of the largest child population in the world. “Child is the father of man” is an old but true saying because conduct & character of as adult person reflect what he has imbibed in childhood. Children bring the asset of nation should be grown up to become robust, physically fit, mentally alert and morally healthy citizen. We should be aware that children are the future of the modern world. Children need a healthy, balanced diet which is rich in fruit, vegetables and starchy food. Food which is the basic necessity of life, plays a crucial role in children’s growth. If young children are not given proper care in giving proper * Assistant Professor, Department of Sociology, N. A. S. (PG) College, Meerut, Uttar Pradesh (India) E-mail:
Advertising is a massive, mutli-million dollar project that “having an enormous impact on child development” Says Kanner, who is also an associate faculty member at a clinical psychology training program called the wright Institute. According to Kanner, the result is not only as epidemic of materialistic values among children but also something he calls “narcissistic wounding” of children. Children in share a common thing- a growing, even insatiable, desire for material goods. Now days advertisers are making their pitchers to younger and younger audiences, many of them not yet out of drapers. Marketing to children is a planned process which starts at early age and continue till he/she become loyal customer or drop the product as a result of his analytical ability to understand the message and content of product and advertising. Normally child get exposed to the advertising at early age, when the child starts recognizing shapes and images. Advertising gradually build the strong relationship between brand and the child. For example, Adds of Horlicks, Bournvita, Maggi are presented in such a beautiful manner that a child starts demanding it. These demand create an environment of child parent conflict. Parents find themselves having to say no over and over again to children whose desire are piqued by effective advertising. Attractive Celebrity Colours Endorsement
Image Repeat Brand Entertainment Consumption Building Purchase Loyal
Cartoons Fantasy
Representation of marketing process and development of child as consumer Lifestyle trends in urban India [Crising incomes, longer working hours, more working mothers, time poor/cash-rich parents] tend to support a convenience time pass and food culture, which lead the child to watching television and the increased consumption of HFSS food [high in fat, salt and sugar]. In addition the advertising industry makes junk food seem irresistible, 30 Malti thus children become physically addicted to junk food. Children who don’t have the emotional or cognitive tools evaluate what’s being sold to them also demand for product of their choice (mostly advertised products). They want the advertised product which give pleasure because its glorified, fantasy and puffery appeal. Food industries are more interested in making money rather than paying needs to the health problems that their products can cause. These people are criminals and they seen on harm in doing so. Tactics are used to make entire children, make them feel “less than cool” if they do not get a certain food product or even create products that coloured or shaped in certain ways that children would be fascinated by. Unethical food marketing have adverse effect on child health. This includes : u Physical health of child. u Mental stress for not owing the product of his choice. u Diet habits. u Family stress (a result of influence on family spending). u Consumption of alcoholic drink. u Smoking. Another source of animosity is the family budget advertising make kids want things, it creates desire which put a lot of pressure on parents. When a parent says, ‘No, I cannot by that, I don’t have enough money, there’s as underlying sense that the parent is not meeting the child’s need and is depriving the child of what he or she needs to be happy. At the same time, the youngster is learning how to get parents to respond to his or her wishes and want. This may take the form of a grunt, where scream, or gesture-indeed some tears may be necessary but eventually almost all children are able on a regular basis to persuade Mom of Dad to buy something for them. The Indian child is also becoming influencing consumer for today and powerful buyer for tomorrow. Food industry currently faces angry resistance from health institutions against the growing increase in child obesity. Health industries and institutions seems to be fighting a losing battle in terms of appealing to children, in because they do not understand the art of marketing and communication. Where are the teletubby-branded apples? Obesity amongst children is just as much the result of Unethical Food Marketing to Children 31 unethical marketing on the part of certain food/snack brands as it is of the lack of proper marketing on the part most health institutions and industries. Marketing base to put the brand on the top of the mind, creating brand equity, maintaining the brand loyalty has extended its net to influence the children to a extent that it has lost its path and walking on the unethical grounds, leaving our children in a vulnerable condition. The media is filled with sensational child guardian us the marketer’ articles and in the process none of the parties realize that they can learn from one another to their mutual benefit. Marketers can learn how to be more ethical and socially responsible when it comes to children by understanding them as a developing human being and not just consumer. Health industries and institutions can utilize sound marketing principles to get their positive, educational messages across. Marketing can be wonderful information resource to children. It can serve as an introduction to what it means to be a responsible consumer and help children to appreciate diversity of choices, teaching team to choose wisely. Parents are urged to teach their children financial discernment and in school children are taught how to use and interpret the media. We should educate our children on how to tame this ‘beast’? Today consumers have rights-the right to safety, choice, education, information and right to speak their mind. Consumers expect businesses to be pro-active and adopt a socially responsible approach to marketing which ensures that customers needs are met, but with their best interests at heart-especially comes to children. Marketers need to go back to all of the four marketing P’s-product, price, place and promotion- using sound ethical and socially responsible values as the foundation for all. Businesses should be pro-active and shift their focus from “how can we implement marketing without doing harm” to “how can we implement marketing to the benefit and growth of our market”. It does not mean that fast-food industry should close its doors, television producers stop producing television, programs aimed at children. Not necessarily-the societal management philosophy in self brings new opportunities to many industries; the opportunity to expand food product portfolios by developing ‘healthy alternatives; the opportunity to develop marketing strategies which not only seal products, but also educate consumers on a healthy, balanced lifestyle; a boom in the sports equipment and toy industries and the opportunity to create healthy lifestyle television programs. 32 Malti One thing is certain : The answer does not lie in banning marketing to children or labeling all marketing to children as “unethical”. Children should instead be educated in the science of marketing and businesses should learn to satisfy needs in a manner which protects and even nurtures children’s right and best interests. References
Kumar Ashok, Developing Women & Children in India, New Delhi : Common Wealth Publisher, 2006, 52-60. Dabholker, P. A., Thorpe. D. A. and Punty, J. O, “A measure of service quality for retail stores”, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 24(1), 1996, 3-16. Technopak Retail Outlook Quarterly Report, New Delhi : Technopak Advisors Pvt. Ltd., October 2007. Deloitte Global Powers of Retailing Report, Deloitte Development LLC, 2008. K. K. Tripathy, “Processed Food Industry in India : Potentials and Constraints”, Kurukshetra, Vol. 25, No. 6, April 2006, 12-16. Lalita Khurana, “Consumer sovereigntay can be a Reality”, Kurukshetra, Vol. 25, No. 6, April 2006, 21-23. ê
Article Received on May 09, 2015; Accepted on June 06, 2015 4
Extent of Problems faced by Female Sewing Machine Workers
Neha Gahlot*, Manju Mehta**, Kiran Singh***
Sewing is a helping hand activity for the woman who is not very educated, but skilled and cannot go outside the house for earning. In matrix of home and workplace environment which is often overlapped, women have to suffer a lot of problems including physical and psychological as well. The study was undertaken in the Hisar city of Haryana state to find out the problems in sewing activity performed by the female sewing machine operators. The responses of the respondents were taken through well structured questionnaire cum interview schedule. The findings of the study revealed that injuries and minor accidents were frequently faced by the respondents while performing the sewing task. It was investigated that majority of respondents were suffering from swelling of fingers, followed by needle piercing, cuts , burning and electric shock during ironing. In response the respondents were not paying any attention and were not using any protective measure while performing the sewing task. Respondents also revealed that apart from the injuries they were facing customer related problems which exhaust them and causes occupational stress. The common customer related problems were bargaining (83.75%), urgency of demand, high expectation and low payment. These problems resulted in negative impact as stress (90%), anxiety, household problems and so on. The respondents were paid very low as compared to the boutique rates which results in the dissatisfaction regarding the work in decreased production and low motivation. The respondents were suggested suitable measures to cope up with injuries and to lowering the stress for maintaining their health and for utilizing their proper potential for the accurate prices. [Keywords : Sewing task, Injuries, Protective measures, Customer related problems] * M. Sc. Student, Department of Family Resource Management, I. C. College of Home Science, CCSHAU, Hisar, Haryana (India) E-mail:
Women have always been the major contributor to the household economy. Today women are called upon to undertake the dual role of looking after the family and its need, and also earn for the families maintenance, by taking up either full or part time work for wages/salaries. In the process of economic development, women’s role has been a major component Rashmi (2005). Many women undertake sewing activity as an entrepreneur. A large number of workers employed in sewing activity are unorganized labour and specially women who stitch garments at their home. Women represent a significant majority of the home workers who cut and stitch garments together for the global apparel trade and all these activities they perform at their home environment. Apart from the home environment, the workplace is the setting where many people spend a large proportion of their time. The boundary between their home and workplace environments is blurred for the household sewing workers. In recent years, the contribution of poor environmental conditions at the workplace, poor perception of work conditions, and presence of adverse health conditions in workers has received much attention. The nature of workplaces varies and therefore the determinants of occupational injury and morbidity also varies; identification of the responsible factors in any specific work environment would help in clarifying the etiology and would also be useful for prevention and containment of occupation-related ill health. Along with that sewing activity performed at home is not considered as a professional work, in such this condition the chances of misbehave or unfair wages are very common which leads to stress and other problems and lower level of satisfaction of work done. 2. Methodology
The study was conducted with an objective to find out the extent of problems faced by the female sewing machine operators. The present study was conducted on 80 female sewing machine operators who were engaged in sewing activity from last 4 years for their financial welfare in the Hisar city of Haryana state. The study involved the collection of information regarding the injuries and accidents faced along with the problems faced the respondents related to the customers and the impact of the problems as well. It also included the customer satisfaction level regarding the payment of the work done. The information of the respondents was explored through the questionnaire cum interview schedule. Extent of Problems faced by Female Sewing Machine Workers 35 3. Results and Discussion
The sewing task was performed by the respondents at their own home, where the workplace and the home environment setup was overlapped, therefore no special attention was given for the proper workplace arrangements. The unorganized workplace and poor illumination was found which resulted into various injuries/accidents while performing the sewing task. Almost all the workers experienced injuries during last 1 year. Frequencies of various locations occurred during sewing activity in last one year has been presented in Table-1. The accidents and injuries which occurred most frequently was swelling of fingers (mean score 2.29) followed by needle piercing (mean score 1.90), cuts (mean score 1.60). The least frequent occurred accident / injuries were burns while ironing (mean score 1.12) and electric shock (mean score1.10) as shown in Fig 1. The reasons of the injuries may be poor illumination and no use of protective measures while working. Desai et al. (2005) concluded that common sewing work accident was piercing of the needle through the fingers, particularly the right forefingers. Unsatisfactory man-machine incompatibility, work posture and fatigue, improper coordination of eye, leg and hand were the major problems of the operators. Table-1 : Frequency of injuries/accidents occurred during sewing activity (n=80)
Injuries Very much Moderately Once a while Mean score
Cuts 7 (8.75) 34(42.50) 39 (48.75) 1.60
Swelling of fingers 45 (56.25) 13 (16.25) 22 (27.50) 2.29
Needle piercing 19 (23.75) 34( 42.50) 27 (33.75) 1.90
Burns while ironing 0 10 (12.50) 70 (87.50) 1.12
Electric shock 0 8 (10.00) 72 (90.00) 1.10
Figures in parentheses indicates percentages Multiple Responses Sewing machine operators were facing problems due to the mis-behaviors of customer. These customers create problems for sewing machine operators knowingly or unknowingly. Table-2 showed that more than three fourth (83.75%) of the sewing machine operators faced bargaining problem followed by 36 Neha Gahlot, Manju Mehta, Kiran Singh 73.75 percent sewing machine operators who were facing problems of urgency in demand by the customers specially in marriage seasons and in festivals like holi, diwali etc. In this context the figure further revealed that more than half of the sewing machine operators (61.25%) were facing problem of high expectations with low wages. Sewing machine operators also revealed that customers want a complex and innovative designs in their garments but they do not want to pay extra charges for it. About half of the sewing machine operators (53.75%) were facing problem of late payment of the garments stitched garment while 46.25 % were facing fitting problems in the garments as illustrated in Fig 2.
Fig. 1-Frequency of injuries/accidents occurred during sewing activity
Fig. 2-Customer related problems Fig. 3-Impact of customer related problems Extent of Problems faced by Female Sewing Machine Workers 37
Table-2 : Customer related problems faced by the sewing machine operators (n=80)
Ill behavior Frequency Percentage
Bargaining 67 83.75
Urgency in demand 59 73.75
High expectations with low rates 49 61.25
Late payment 43 53.75
Fitting problem 37 46.25
Multiple Responses Table-3 : Impact of customer related problems on sewing machine operator (n =80)
Result of stress Frequency Percentage
Stress 72 90
Anxiety 68 85.00
Household problems 47 58.75
Decreased confidence 45 56.25
Delayed work 36 45.00
Multiple responses Table-3 disclosed that the customer related problems viz. late payment, fitting problems, bargaining urgency in demand, high expectations with low rates affected sewing machine operators and resulted in household problems, stress, delayed work, decreased confidence and anxiety in the sewing machine operators. The figure 4 unfolds that a huge sewing machine operators (90%) were facing stress as a result of customer related problems followed by anxiety (85%). It was further found that customer related problems resulted in household problems (58.75%), decreased confidence (56.25%) and delayed work (45%) 38 Neha Gahlot, Manju Mehta, Kiran Singh among sewing machine operators. This may be because of the reason that the duration of the sewing activity was more and also sewing machine operators had to perform the household task along with the care of children, thus more burden of activities with lack of time resulted in above mentioned affects. All these resulted in irritation, decreased motivation, and lesser output among sewing machine operators.
24%
76%
Satisfied Unsatisfied
Fig. 4-Level of satisfaction felt by workers in terms of wages The results of fig. 4 shows that majority of the sewing machine operators (76%) were unsatisfied with the wages (stitching rates of the garments) which they got, as there was tendency of customers to bargain with the sewing machine operators for stitching charges. Moreover customer want designing and had high expectations but they don’t want to pay for it. Customers had feeling that they pay less for designer suits to the female sewing machine operator as compared to the boutiques. The findings were in line with Singal and Srinivasan (1991) who observed that the women where self employed, earned the maximum, while earning from wages/ charges were minimum. Nearly, two third of the sewing machine operators expressed dissatisfaction from their paid work because of casual nature of work availability and low return for their work.
4. Conclusion
The sewing task has become a necessary task to perform for the women to earn, to fed the family and fulfill their own need without depending on their Extent of Problems faced by Female Sewing Machine Workers 39 husband or on another family member. This was also revealed that majority of women prefer sewing activity because for performing this task they use their skill at their own home. Hence they can take care of their family and can perform their task at a same place. With this advantage they do not realize their work as “work” and never get that attention and respect from the customers. Along with this a careless attitude towards their own health was seen. They do not pay any attention regarding their safety measures and required and standard workplace measures to be followed while performing the task which results in sort of injuries and accidents which could be minimized through improved environmental conditions and use of protective equipments. The unprofessional attitude of the respondents allow the customers to misbehave with them that results in customer related problems which was found more in festive seasons. These problems creates negative impact on the behavior of the respondents and causes stress and other psychological problems which ruin the peace of their life. Respondents do not get the fair amount of payment they are working for, which creates a dissatisfaction that leads to lower motivation and decreased production. Therefore respondents should maintain the required standards of workplace which includes proper illumination level, use of protective measures, maintainace or replacement of distorted wires which causes electric shock. These measures are not costly but can results in better and improved conditions. Respondents should attain a professional attitude to avoid the customer related problem and should not entertain such customers who are annoying. The over burden should be avoided to reduce the stress and anxiety and should provide more time for their family and for themselves. To avoid the dissatisfaction of payment the respondents should strictly follow the fix rate price and avoid bargaining. These measures are very minor but can help to avoid problems regarding to sewing task which enhance the level of motivation for the sewing task.
References
Sarder, B., Sheik N. Imrhan and Nabeel Mandahawi, “Ergonomic workplace evaluation of an Asian garment-factory”, Journal of Human Ergology, Vol. 35 (1-2), 2006, 45-51. 40 Neha Gahlot, Manju Mehta, Kiran Singh Nag, A., Desai, H. and Nag, P. K., “Work stress of women in sewing machine operation”, Journal of Human Ergology, Vol. 21(1), 1992, 126-134. Desai, “Work stress of women in sewing machine operation”, Journal of Human Ergology, Vol. 21(1), 1992. 126-134. Singal, Savita and Srinivasan, Kamla, “Drudgery of women’s household work in rural areas”, Journal of Research, Haryana Agricultural Univiversity, Vol. 21 (2), June 1991, 168-172. ê
Article Received on May 23, 2015; Accepted on June 05, 2015 5
Consumer Acceptance of Prepared Patchwork Cushion Covers with Kantha Embroidery
Chhavi Gangwar* and Harinder Kaur Saggu**
For this study, three localities from Ludhiana city were selected randomly and a total of 30 female respondents between 25-35 years of age group were selected through purposive random sampling technique. Different shapes of cushion covers, namely rectangular, triangular, square, oval, star and heart were designed and prepared. Consumer acceptance of the prepared cushion covers was evaluated on the basis of different decorative features, utility and price. Profit margin of the prepared cushion covers was also calculated. The data revealed that majority of the respondents preferred square shape cushion cover on the basis of suitability of shapes for different rooms, designs, colour combinations, overall appearance, utility and price; whereas only oval shape cushion cover got first rank on the basis of embellishment. All the cushion covers were liked by the majority of the respondents and the quoted prices were found to be adequate. The profit margin for prepared cushion covers ranged between 23.33 to 31.25 per cent. Thus it was easy to earn 30 per cent profit on all the cushion covers. [Keywords : Consumer, Patchwork, Kantha embroidery, Cushion covers, Profit margin] 1. Introduction
Embroidery is the art or handicraft of decorating fabric or other materials with needle and thread or yarn. In India, embroidered articles still retain the old * M.Sc Student, Department of Apparel and Textile Science, College of Home-Science, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, Punjab (India) E-mail:
The present study has been undertaken with the following objectives : 1. To design and prepare cushion covers in six different shapes. 2. To study the consumer acceptance of prepared cushion covers. 3. Material and Methods
A total of six designs in six different shapes of cushion covers viz., RE, TR ,
SQ, OV, ST and HE were prepared using patchwork technique with kantha Consumer Acceptance of Prepared Patchwork Cushion Covers 43 embroidery (Fig A). These cushion covers were evaluated on the basis of suitability of shapes for different rooms, designs, colour combinations, embellishments, overall appearance, utility and price. Profit margin for the prepared cushion covers was calculated. To study the acceptability of prepared cushion covers, a sample of 30 female respondents was selected. The respondents were selected through purposive random sampling technique. An evaluation sheet was prepared to get the requisite information. The data collected from respondents were coded, tabulated and analyzed. The frequencies were calculated first and then the weighted mean score was calculated by giving maximum marks to the most preferred and minimum marks to the least preferred. The scores were computed and given ranks.
a b c
d e f Fig A : Prepared designs of cushion covers in six different shapes 4. Results and Discussion
The results obtained from the study as well as relevant discussion have been summarized under following sub-heads : 4.1 Evaluation of Prepared Cushion Covers After preparing cushion covers, their evaluation was done on the basis of various parameters. For evaluation, these cushion covers were shown to a sample of thirty respondents. Data in Table-1 on next page reveal that, SQ and OV designs of square shape and oval shape cushion covers were ranked first on 44 Chhavi Gangwar and Harinder Kaur Saggu the basis of design with weighted mean score of 4.40 each. Design RE,TR and ST of rectangular, triangular and star shape cushion covers were placed as third, fourth and fifth rank, in a sequential order. Cushion cover HE in heart shape was least preferred by the respondents on the basis of design. Table-1 : Evaluation of Prepared Cushion Covers on the basis of Design (n=30)
Shapes and design codes of cushions WMS Rank
Rectangular (RE) 3.83 III Triangular (TR) 3.43 IV Square (SQ) 4.40 I Oval (OV) 4.40 I Star (ST) 2.83 V Heart (HE) 2.10 VI WMS : Weighted Mean Score Data pertaining to preferences of the respondents regarding colour combination of the prepared cushion covers have been presented in Table-2 . It is evident from the data that, design SQ of square shape cushion cover was given the first rank on the basis of colour combination. Design TR and OV were given second rank with weighted mean score of 4.06 each, followed by, design RE, ST and HE were placed at fourth, fifth and sixth rank, respectively. Table-2 : Evaluation of Prepared Cushion Covers on the basis of Colour Combination (n=30)
Shapes and design codes of cushions WMS Rank
Rectangular (RE) 3.93 IV Triangular (TR) 4.06 II Square (SQ) 4.30 I Oval (OV) 4.06 II Star (ST) 2.43 V Heart (HE) 2.23 VI WMS : Weighted Mean Score Data in Table-3 on next page revealed that OV design of oval shape cushion cover embellished with mirrors and stones, was ranked first. It was followed by design SQ of square shape, RE of rectangular shape and TR of triangular shape cushion covers, which were embellished with mirrors, swarovski and tassels and Consumer Acceptance of Prepared Patchwork Cushion Covers 45 were given second, third and fourth rank, respectively. Design ST of star shape and HE of heart shape cushion covers were least preferred by the respondents on the basis of embellishment. Table-3 : Evaluation of Prepared Cushion Covers on the basis of Embellishments (n=30)
Shapes and Design Codes of Cushions WMS Rank Rectangular (RE) 3.80 III Triangular (TR) 2.83 IV Square (SQ) 4.76 II Oval (OV) 4.80 I Star (ST) 2.63 V Heart (HE) 2.23 VI WMS : Weighted Mean Score
Regarding overall appearance, data presented in Table-4 depict that design SQ of square shape cushion cover was first preferred by majority of the respondents with mean score 4.40. Second rank was given to the design OV of oval shape cushion cover with mean score 4.36 and third rank was given to the RE of rectangular shape cushion cover with mean score 4.03. Respondents gave fourth rank to the design TR with mean score of 3.06. Fifth and sixth rank were given to design ST and HE of star and heart shape cushion covers with mean score 3.03 and 2.10, respectively. Table-4 : Evaluation of Prepared Cushion Covers on the basis of overall Appearance (n=30)
Shapes and Design Codes of Cushions WMS Rank Rectangular (RE) 4.03 III Triangular (TR) 3.06 IV Square (SQ) 4.40 I Oval (OV) 4.36 II Star (ST) 3.03 V Heart (HE) 2.10 VI WMS : Weighted Mean Score Preferences of the respondents for various shapes of cushion covers on the basis of their utility have been presented in Table-5. Majority of the respondents given first rank to design SQ of square shape cushion cover on the basis of utility with mean score 5.56, followed by RE and OV shaped with mean score 4.83 and 46 Chhavi Gangwar and Harinder Kaur Saggu 4.13, respectively. Cushion covers of TR, ST and HE shaped were least preferred by the respondents with mean score 2.50, 2.03 and 1.93, respectively. Table-5 : Evaluation of Prepared Cushion Covers on the basis of Utility (n=30)
Shapes and Design Codes of Cushions WMS Rank Rectangular (RE) 4.83 II Triangular (TR) 2.50 IV Square (SQ) 5.56 I Oval (OV) 4.13 III Star (ST) 2.03 V Heart (HE) 1.93 VI WMS : Weighted Mean Score Data in Table-6 reveal that majority (83.33%) of the respondents were of the opinion that rectangular shaped cushion cover were suitable for bedrooms of elderly persons, followed by (63.33%) who considered it suitable for an adults’ room, while fifty per cent of the respondents found it appropriate for teenagers’ room. The least percentages of the respondents preferred its suitability for kids’ room (33.33%), living room (26.67%) and drawing room (16.67%), respectively. Table-6 : Preferences of Respondents regarding Suitability of Cushion Covers for different Rooms (n=30)*
Shapes and Design Drawing Living Bedrooms Codes of Cushions room room Kids Teenager Adults Elderly s persons
f f f f f f (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) Rectangular (RE) 5 8 10 15 19 25 (16.67) (26.67) (33.33) (50.00 ) (63.33) (83.33) Triangular (TR) 16 9 22 18 4 0 (53.33) (30.00) (73.33) (60.00) (13.33) (0) Square (SQ) 28 22 13 12 22 20 (93.33) (73.33) (43.33) (40.00) (73.33) (66.66) Oval (OV) 18 19 24 6 4 10 (60.00) (63.33) (80.00) (20.00) (13.33) (33.33) Star (ST) 13 14 27 25 8 0 (43.33) (46.67) (90.00) (83.33) (26.67) (0) Heart (HE) 17 19 24 26 5 0 (56.66) (63.33) (80.00 ) (86.67) (16.66) (0) f-frequency *Multiple responses Consumer Acceptance of Prepared Patchwork Cushion Covers 47
In case of triangular shaped cushion cover 73.33 per cent of the respondents preferred it for kids’ room, sixty per cent considered it suitable for teenagers’ room and nearly fifty four per cent of the respondents found it appropriate for drawing room. The least percentages of the respondents preferred its suitability for living room (30.00%) and an adults’ room (13.33%), respectively. Regarding suitability of square shaped cushion cover in different rooms the data show that majority (93.33%) of the respondents preferred it for drawing room, followed by an equal percentage 73.33 % of the respondents for living room and an adults’ room. Nearly sixty seven per cent of the respondents found it appropriate for bedroom of elderly persons. Suitability of this shape considered for kids’ and teenagers’ room by 43.33% and forty per cent of the respondents, respectively. Majority (80.00%) of the respondents considered the suitability of oval shaped cushion cover for kids’room, followed by living room (63.33%) and drawing room (60.00 %). Nearly thirty four per cent of the respondents found it appropriate for elderly persons’ room. The least percentages of the respondents preferred its suitability for teenagers’ room (20.00%) and an adults’ room (13.33%), respectively. In case of star shaped cushion cover ninty per cent of the respondents preferred it for kids’ room, followed by 83.33 per cent considered it suitable for teenagers’ room. Suitability of this shape considered for living and drawing room by 46.67% and forty four per cent of the respondents, respectively. The least percentages (26.67%) of the respondents preferred its suitability for an adults’ room. Regarding suitability of heart shaped cushion cover in different rooms the data shows that majority (86.67%) of the respondents preferred it for teenagers’ room, followed by eighty per cent considered it suitable for kids’room. Suitability of this shape considered for living and drawing room by 63.33% and fifty seven per cent of the respondents, respectively. Nearly seventeen per cent of the respondents found it appropriate for an adults’ room. The opinion of the respondents regarding prepared cushion covers was taken on the basis of three categories: ‘Very good’, ‘Good’ and ‘Fair’. Data in Table-7 on next page revealed that 33.33 per cent of the respondents rated rectangular shaped cushion cover (RE), as ‘Very good’. It was considered 48 Chhavi Gangwar and Harinder Kaur Saggu ‘Good’ by 60.00 per cent of the respondents. Only 6.67 per cent of the respondents rated it as ‘Fair’. Table-7 : Opinion of Respondents for Prepared Cushion Cover by using Patchwork with Kantha Embroidery (n=30)
Shapes and Design Very good Good Fair Codes of Cushions f % f % f % Rectangular (RE) 10 33.33 18 60.00 2 6.67 Triangular (TR) 15 50.00 11 36.67 4 13.33 Square (SQ) 18 60.00 10 33.33 2 6.67 Oval (OV) 17 56.67 12 40.00 1 3.33 Star (ST) 15 50.00 12 40.00 3 10.00 Heart (HE) 10 33.33 15 50.00 5 16.67 f- frequency Nearly fifty per cent of the respondents graded triangular shaped cushion cover (TR) as ‘Very good’, while 36.67 per cent of the respondents considered these as ‘Good’. However, only 13.33 per cent of the respondents considered it as ‘Fair’. In case of square shaped cushion cover (SQ), sixty per cent of the respondents rated it as ‘Very good’. It was rated as ‘Good’ by 33.33 per cent of the respondents, while 6.67 per cent of the respondents rated it as ‘Fair’. The respondents liked this cushion cover because of its colour, utility and unique design. Nearly fifty seven per cent of the respondents considered oval shaped cushion cover (OV) as ‘Very good’,followed by 40.00 per cent respondents as ‘Good’. Only 3.33 per cent of the respondents rated it as ‘Fair’. Majority of the respondent liked it and found it to be innovative, attractive and unique. In case of star shaped cushion cover (ST), fifty per cent of the respondents rated it as ‘Very good’. It was considered ‘Good’ by forty per cent of the respondents. Only ten per cent of the respondents rated it as ‘Fair’. Nearly thirty three per cent of the respondents graded heart shaped cushion cover (HE) as ‘Very good’, while fifty per cent of the respondents considered these as ‘Good’. However, only 16.67 per cent of the respondents considered it as ‘Fair’. 4.2 Assessment of Consumer Acceptance for prepared Cushion Covers Quoted prices for all the cushion covers were adequate, however nearly one sixth of the respondents felt that the quoted price for cushion cover were Consumer Acceptance of Prepared Patchwork Cushion Covers 49 high. As the calculated z- values of comparison between high and adequate/ low were found to be significant at 5% level of significance (Table-8), it was clear that quoted price for patchwork with kantha embroidered cushion cover was acceptable to the consumers. Table-8 : Opinion of respondents regarding quoted price of prepared cushion covers (n=30)
Shapes and Design Quoted No. of respondents for suitability of Z value Codes of Cushions Price of the the quoted price Article (in `) High (%) Adequate Low (%) (%) Rectangular (RE) 420 5 19 6 3.77* (16.67) (63.33) (20.00) Triangular (TR) 475 8 18 4 2.66* (26.67) (60.00) (13.33) Square (SQ) 480 6 21 3 3.33* (20.00) (70.00) (10.00) Oval (OV) 470 5 21 4 3.77* (16.67) (70.00) (13.33) Star (ST) 330 4 18 8 4.11* (13.33) (60.00) (26.67) Heart (HE) 415 8 20 2 2.66* (33.33) (66.67) (6.67) *indicate significance of value at P=0.05, respectively Data in Table-9 show the assessment of per cent profit of the prepared cushion covers. Profit margin ranged from 23.33 to 31.25 per cent for the prepared cushion covers. Calculated z-values for the profit margins of the prepared cushion covers were found to be significant at 5% level. Table-9 : Assessment of the Profit Margins of the Prepared Cushion Covers (n=30)
Shapes and design Cost price Quoted Average Percentage Z – value codes of cushions (`) price (`) selling price profit (%) (`) Rectangular (RE) 320 420 468 31.25 17.72* Triangular (TR) 365 475 448 30.14 11.24* Square (SQ) 368 480 474 23.33 13.48* Oval (OV) 360 470 465 30.55 13.12* Star (ST) 255 330 454 29.41 14.48* Heart (HE) 320 415 425 29.68 8.45* *indicate significance of value at P=0.05, respectively 50 Chhavi Gangwar and Harinder Kaur Saggu 5. Conclusion
Respondents selected randomly for studying the acceptance of prepared cushion covers. Evaluation of these cushion covers was done on the basis of suitability of shapes for different rooms, designs, colour combinations, embellishments, overall appearance, utility and price. It was observed that majority of the respondents was given first rank to square shape cushion cover on the basis of suitability of shapes for different rooms, designs, colour combinations, overall appearance, utility and price whereas only oval shape cushion cover got first rank on the basis of embellishment. All the cushion covers were liked by the majority of the respondents. Regarding profit margins, higher profit was possible on selling prepared cushion cover RE. Consumers were willing to pay the quoted price for all the cushion covers. Majority of the respondents found the quoted selling prices of the prepared cushion covers as adequate. References
Anonymous (2009) Embroidery in India.www.indianetzone.com/1/embroidery. html. Endacott, V. M., Design in Embroidery, New York : The Macmillian Company, 1964, 37-43, 119-27. Goodman, L., All About Patchwork, London : Marshall Cavendish Books Limited, 1982, 2-5. Ghosh, G., “Social expression of nakshi Kantha of Bengal’’, Khadigramudyog, Vol. 40, 2001, 392-93. Healey, F., The Harmony Guide to Decorative Needlecraft, London : Lyric Books Limited, 1993, 57. Jha N (2013) Handicraft. http://www.importantindia.com. Kaur, J., Development of new designs of Sindhi embroidery for housewives for their personal and household use, M. Sc. thesis, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, India, 1999. Mookerjee, A., Folk Art of Bengal, Calcutta : Calcutta University Press, 1996, 11-27. ê
Article Received on May 15, 2015; Accepted on June 05, 2015 6
The Impact of Employee Attitudes toward Social Media on Employee Engagement with Computer-Mediated Communication considered as a Moderatoring Factor
Min-Li Hung* , I-Feng Lee* and Zih-Yu Chen*
The popularization of social media has made it more than a tool for maintaining personal contacts as it has also become increasingly important as a means of organizational communication. The use of social media may also potentially affect employee work attitudes, such as employee engagement. This study examined the relationship between user attitudes toward Line Messenger, a highly popular social media application, and employee engagement through a survey of insurance sales team members. In addition, because using social media relies largely on the application of new technologies, it is expected that an employee’s ability to engage in computer-mediated communication (CMC) would also have an impact on the aforementioned relationship. As such, this study also explored the moderating role of CMC competency on the relationship. The analysis results show that user attitudes toward social media have a positive relationship on employee engagement. However, the theorized moderating effect of CMC competency on the relationship between user attitudes and employee engagement was not statistically significant. Finally, specific conclusions and recommendations for the organization and management of subsequent related research studies are also provided. [Keywords : Attitudes toward social media, Job engagement, Organization engagement, Computer-mediated communication] 1. Introduction
A number of social media applications, including Facebook, Twitter, WhatsApp, and Line Messenger, among others, have been rapidly adopted by * Department of Information and Communication, Southern Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Taiwan (R. O. C.) E-mail:
Based on the discussion above, the first research motivation for the present study was to examine the relationship between usage/attitude of Line Messenger, one of the most popular forms of social media, and employee engagement among insurance sales team members. In addition, because using social media relies largely on the application of new technologies, it is expected The Impact of Employee Attitudes toward Social Media 53 that an employee’s ability to engage in computer-mediated communication (CMC) would have an impact on the aforementioned relationship. Therefore, the second research motivation of this study was to explore the moderating role of CMC competency on the relationship. To be specific, we sought to answer the following research questions through a quantitative study of the insurance industry: RQ1: Do attitudes toward using Line Messenger affect employee engagement? RQ2: Does the level of a employee online experience moderate the relationship between user attitudes toward Line Messenger and employee engagement? 3. Literature Review
As we now know, most social networking sites started out by focusing on student use (Peluchette and Karl, 2008). However, the use of such sites, which first became commercially available over a decade ago, has quickly grown far more widespread. Although enterprise acceptance of novel technologies frequently lags behind the acceptance and use of new technologies among students (Lovejoy and Grudin, 2003), a growing number of studies have begun exploring the impacts of using social networking sites in the workplace (Skeels and Grudin, 2009). 3.1 Using Social Media in Workplace Social networking sites (SNSs) and social networking apps are web-based services that make it possible for individuals to (1) set up a public or semi-public profile in the context of the given networking system, (2) create a list of contacts consisting of other users with whom they share friendships or other connections, and (3) view and interact with that list of contacts within the given system (Steinfield, Ellison, and Lampe, 2008). With the rise of smart phones and the mobile internet, SNSs have effectively begun to overlap with social networking apps, with both the apps and SNSs being forms of social media. Broadly speaking, web-based and mobile technologies that can be used to allow communication in the form of an interactive dialogue can be referred to as social media. In this sense, social media, when viewed as media for social interactions, constitute a superset that goes beyond more traditional forms of social communication. As such, the 54 Min-Li Hung, I-Feng Lee and Zih-Yu Chen widespread use of social media has radically altered the ways in which both individuals and large organizations communicate (Kietzmann, Hermkens, and McCarthy, 2011). In this study, we have considered social media in general instead of SNSs in order to be consistent with most related studies, the reasoning being that although there are few differences between SNSs and other forms of social media (http://socialmediatoday.com/index.php?q=SMC/194754), they do overlap in various regards. Specifically, the Line Messenger application was the technology on which the present study focused. Most of the extant social media research has investigated issues relating to identity presentation, interpersonal relationships, and privacy concerns, drawing their sample data primarily from college students. In recent years, however, the use of social media has become widespread among people of almost all ages. For business organizations in particular, social media has become widely used in marketing (e.g., Facebook and Line Messenger) and human resources (e.g., recruitment). Business organizations should use new technologies to stay competitive, and social media is one more tool that may serve the marketing and communication needs of a company (Weiss, 2011). Moreover, given the volatility of current business environments, adept use of social media can provide shrewd leaders and organizations with various opportunities to achieve advantages over their competitors. Certainly, the increased use of social media is hastening and augmenting the levels of engagement, innovation, and performance among employees of countless companies (Jue, Marr, Kassotakis, 2010). 3.2 Attitudes toward Line Messenger and Employee Engagement Because of its value to both organizations and their employees, the topic of employee engagement has been studied extensively for many years. Kahn (1992) provided one previous definition of employee engagement, describing it as the degree to which the employees or members of an organization devote themselves to their work roles. When engaged in performing their work roles, people expend their efforts and express themselves in a variety of ways, including cognitively, physically, and emotionally. Meyer and Allen (1991) further predicted that engagement plays a role in employee turnover and other employment-related outcomes. One of the key components of organizational commitment, according to Meyer and Allen (1991), is affective commitment, a concept which refers to the degree to which employees are emotionally attached to, or otherwise identify with, the organizations they work for. Recently, organizational studies have evolved from The Impact of Employee Attitudes toward Social Media 55 a focus on organizational commitment to a greater focus on employee engagement, shifting their investigative aims toward achieving a better understanding of the relationships between employee engagement, organizational inputs, and employee behaviors (Richman, 2006; Harter, Schmidt and Hayes, 2002). In that context, previous studies have mentioned that there are two subtypes of employee engagement, namely, organization engagement and job engagement (Saks, 2006), which are most commonly used. The concept of attitude is derived from the theory of reasoned action (TRA). Allport (1935) defined attitudes as psychological and mental states based on experiences, as such states will influence reactions toward things and situations. Fishbein and Ajzen (1975) defined attitude as a consistent position toward something through learning. Therefore, attitude is the positive or negative evaluation or feelings toward people and things. Job satisfaction, job involvement, and organizational commitment are job attitudes explored by most studies of organizational behavior (Brooke, Russell, and Price, 1988; Kirkman and Shapiro, 2001). Fishbein and Ajzen (1975) reported that broad attitudes were very strong predictors of broad behavioral outcomes, including employee engagement (Newman, Joseph, and Hulin, 2010). Employee engagement is composed of both job engagement and organizational engagement (Saks, 2006). At some point, all communication technologies are foreign to users. If social media users have positive attitudes toward Line Messenger, then they should also exhibit high levels of satisfaction, involvement, and engagement with the application (Ellison, 2007). Ross, Orr, Sisic, Arseeault, Sim mering, and Orr (2009) stated that at ti tudes to ward Line Mes senger world in flu ence the Line Messen ger use. Therefore, we pro pose the fol low ing hy poth e sis : H1 : User attitudes toward Line Messenger will be positively related to employee engagement. 3.3 Computer-Mediated Communication (CMC) Spitzberg (2006) stated that competency is among the key determinants of technology usage. To put that another way, it has been suggested that, given enough time and sufficient experience with a given communication technology, individuals will often begin to, in effect, ignore the technology; i.e., they will use the technology to communicate without even thinking about what they are using to communicate (Lewis and Fabos, 2005). Accordingly, a person’s skill level, 56 Min-Li Hung, I-Feng Lee and Zih-Yu Chen motivation, and efficacy in using a given communication technology should be taken into consideration (Spitzberg, 2006). In a study of student samples, Bryant, Sanders-Jackson, and Smallwood (2006) found that adolescents exhibited high willingness to master new communication technologies that would enable them to better communicate with their friends and other peers outside of school. Therefore, competency is an important factor affecting technology use. One of the most well-known measures of competence in CMC was developed by Spitzberg (2006) and contains three dimensions of competence: motivation, knowledge, and efficacy. Although Line Messenger became available four years ago, it is still new for certain types of employees such as older employees or those less experienced with the internet. Therefore, if a team leader sends information through Line Messenger, employees with high CMC competency will probably exhibited higher intensity usage of and attitudes toward using Line Messenger, which would in turn result higher employee engagement. Hence, the following is proposed : H2 : The level of a employee online experience will moderate the relationship between user attitudes toward Line Messenger and employee engagement. Based on the discussion above, the research model of the present study is illustrated as below :
Attitude of Line Employee Engagement Messenger • Job Engagement • Organizational Engagement
CMC
Figure-1 : Research model 4. Sampling
According to data retrieved from at-blog.line.me/tw, there are over 17 million registered users in Taiwan. 50.8% are male and 49.2% are female. Moreover, 18.7% of active users are within the age range of 20-29 years old, 23.2% are within the age range of 30-39, and 20.3% are within the age range of 40-49. There are over 4 million registered users of Line Messenger. The Impact of Employee Attitudes toward Social Media 57
The data samples for the present study came from life insurance agents whose team leaders use Line Messenger for team communication. There were two reasons why life insurance agents were chosen as the study subjects. First, the job of insurance agent is one that typically requires a high level of mobility. Accordingly, insurance agents rely on the internet for team communication instead of engaging in face-to-face communication. Second, a team leader typically only meets his team members in person once a week. As such, team leaders could use Line Messenger to communicate with his team members efficiently. Lastly, the work of insurance is with high pressure (Darymple and Cron, 1998; McManus & Kelly, 1999), and an agent’s en gage ment toward the job and or ga ni za tion could thus have a sig nif i cant ef fect on per for mance. 5. Measures
Four constructs were measured: user attitudes toward Line Messenger, employee engagement (in terms of job engagement and organization engagement), and CMC competence. Measure items for the research were from prior studies which used in attitude of Line Messenger and employee engagement and reworded to specifically relate to the purpose of the present study. Responses for all the items corresponded to a five-point Likert scale ranging from strongly disagree (=1) to strongly agree (=5). 6. Research Findings
A total of 335 respondents participated in the study. Table-1 presents the mean, standard deviation, and intercorrelation values and Cronbach’s a of the study variables. According to Nunnally (1978), Cronbach’s a values greater than 0.7 represent a high degree of confidence, so the study design of the questionnaire included question items with a high degree of internal consistency. Table-1 is notable in that it shows positive correlations among the study variables. The correlation coefficient between LINE attitude and employee engagement was 0.319 (p <0.01), indicating a significant positive relationship. The correlation coefficient between employee engagement and CMC was 0.325 (p <0.01), which also indicates a highly significant positive relationship. Finally, the correlation coefficient between LINE attitude and CMC was 0.316 (p <0.01), which also indicates a significant positive relationship. Table-2 shows that the line attitude variable positively related to the employee engagement (b = 0.299, p < 0.000). Hypothesis 1 is supported. However, the moderaing effect of CMC variable toward the relationship 58 Min-Li Hung, I-Feng Lee and Zih-Yu Chen between Line Messanger Attitude and the job engagement is not signficant (b = 0.002., p > .05). Hyothesis 2 is rejected. Table-1 : Descriptive statistics and correlations among study variables (N = 335)
M SD A1 B1 C1
A1. LINE attitude 3.8475 .64034 (.933)
B1. Employee engagement 4.1415 .50106 .319** (.891)
C1. CMC 3.3867 .44995 316** .325** (.814) *p<0.05; **p<0.01; Diagonal ( ) value for Cronbach’s Alpha
Table-2 : Descriptive statistics and correlations among study variables (N = 335)
Predictor variables entered p Standardized â R Adjusted R2 F
LINE attitude .000 .299 .487 .221 .000
LINE attitude x CMC .963 .002 .487 .218 .963 *p<0.05 7. Discussions and Conclusions
This study establishes the significant effect of social media on employee engagement. Ac cord ing to the study data, how ever, CMC com pe tence does not sig nif i cantly mod er ate the re la tion ship be tween so cial me dia and em ployee engage ment. It can be concluded, therefore, that so cial me dia is a vi tal fac tor in em ployee en gage ment. More over, while CMC compe tence does not appear to mod er ate the re la tion ship be tween so cial me dia and em ployee en gage ment, this may be be cause most people are al ready used to us ing com puters to com mu ni cate with oth ers, such that CMC is already a well-estab lished aspect of mod ern life. That being said, fu ture research could inves ti gate whether job sat is fac tion or or ga ni za tional iden ti fi ca tion func tion as mod er a tors of the afore men tioned re la tion ship. Acknowledgements
This research was supported in part by Ministry of Science and Technology (MSC) of the Republic of China under Grant Number 103-2815-C-218-002-H. References
Abramson, L., Can Social Networking keep Students in School, NPR : Morning edition, 2011. The Impact of Employee Attitudes toward Social Media 59
Allport, G. W., “Attitudes’’, C. Murchison (ed.), A Handbook of Social Psychology, Worcester, MA : Clark University Press, 1935. Bryant, A. J., A. Sanders-Jackson, and A. M. Smallwood, “IMing, text messaging, and adolescent social networks’’, Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 11(2), 2006, 577-592. Brooke, P. P., D. W. Russell and J. L. “Price, Discriminant validation of measures of job satisfaction, job involvement, and organizational commitment’’, Journal of Applied Psychology, 73(2), 1988, 139. Dalrymple, J. D. and W. L. Cron (eds.), Sales Management : Concepts and Cases, 6th Edition, New York : John Wiley & Sons, 1998. DiMicco, J., D. R. Millen, W. Geyer, C. Dugan, B. Brownholtz and M. Muller, “Motivations for social networking at work’’, Paper presented at the Proceedings of the ACM conference on Computer Supported Cooperative Work, 2008. Ellison, N. B., “Social Network Sites : Definition, History, and Scholarship’’, Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 13(1), 2007, 210-230. Fishbein, M., and I. Ajzen, Belief, Attitude, Intention, and Behavior : An Introduction to Theory and Research, Mass. : Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, 1975. Harter, J. K., F. L. Schmidt and T. L. Hayes, “Business-unit-level relationship between employee satisfaction, employee engagement, and business outcomes : a meta-analysis’’, Journal of Applied Psychology, 87(2), 2002, 268. Jue, A. L., J. A. Marr and M. E. Kassotakis, Social Media at Work : How Networking Tools Propel Organizational Performance, USA : A Wiley Imprint, 2010. Kahn, W. A., “To be fully there : Psychological presence at work’’, Human Relations, 45(4), 1992, 321-349. Kamenetz, A., Gates Foundation bets on Facebook app to help kids graduate, Fast Company, 14, 2011. Kietzmann, J. H., K. Hermkens, I. P. McCarthy and B. S. Silvestre, “Social media? Get serious! 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Hulin, Job attitudes and employee engagement : Considering the attitude “A-factor”, The handbook of Employee Engagement : Perspectives, Issues, Research, and Practice, 2010, 43-61. Nunnally, J. C., Psychometric Theory, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1978. Peluchette, J., and K. Karl, “Social networking profiles : An examination of student attitudes regarding use and appropriateness of content’’, CyberPsychology & Behavior, 11(1), 2008, 95-97. Richman, A., “Everyone wants an engaged workforce how can you create it’’, Workspan, 49(1), 2006, 36-39. Ross, C., E. S. Orr, M. Sisic, J. M. Arseneault, M. G. Simmering and R. R. Orr, “Personality and motivations associated with Facebook use’’, Computers in Human Behavior, 25(2), 2009, 578-586. Saks, A. M., “Antecedents and consequences of employee engagement’’, Journal of Managerial Psychology, 21(7), 2006, 600-619. 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Article Received on June 18, 2015; Accepted on July 15, 2015 7
Evaluation of the Prepared kurtis on the basis of the Consumer Acceptance
Manpreet Kaur* and Kanwaljit Kaur Brar**
Phulkari embroidered kurtis were systematically designed and evaluated to assess the cost effectiveness and consumer acceptance. The silhouette of the prepared kurti K11 was most preferred by the college going girls with mean score 3.20 which obtained first rank. Motifs as well as colour combinations of kurti K20 (mean score 3.10 each) were most preferred by the respondents. Kurtis K11 and K20 (mean score 3.66 each) obtained first rank for overall preferences. Kurtis K8, K16, K20 (mean score 2.46 each) were liked most for the embellishments. The quoted prices for the prepared kurti design K3, K8, K11 were found to be adequate with profit margins of 28.38, 27.87, and 29.64, respectively. The cost of production is expected to be lower on being mass produced. [Keywords : Kurti, Phulkari, Motifs, Design features, Consumer] 1. Introduction
Designer kurti has emerged as a fashion trend in recent times. Women of all age groups feel comfortable and confident wearing the Indian tunic when worn with a pair of jeans. Indian tunics or kurtis are available in different prints and patterns. Designs of kurtis vary depending on the embroidery work, fabric and colour palette. The fashion designers and manufactures of Indian tunic consider the latest fashion trends, pantone colour chart and fabrics while designing kurtis (Anon, 2013a). The connecting threads of traditional embroideries are getting a chic makeover as more and more fashion designers are incorporating them in * M.Sc Student, Department of Apparel and Textile Science, College of Home-Science, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana-141004, Punjab (India) E-mail: <1234siddu @gmail.com> ** Professor, Department of Apparel and Textile Science, College of Home-Science, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, Punjab (India) E-mail:
The present study has been undertaken with the following objectives : 1. To study the consumer acceptance of kurtis prepared on the basis of consumer preference. 2. To assess of cost effectiveness of the prepared kurtis 3. Methodology
The evaluation prepared designer kurtis with respect to suitability, design features of kurtis, adapted phulkari motifs and designs designed by the investigator was done besides, the acceptance of designed kurtis by the respondents. A sub-sample of the thirty respondents was randomly selected from the previously selected ninety respondents to study their views regarding the prepared kurtis. Prepared kurtis were shown to the sub sample of thirty respondents for assessment of the silhouettes, colour combinations, surface embellishments, overall impact, and price and getting their opinion regarding various parameters mentioned above. To assess the cost effectiveness of the Evaluation of the Prepared kurtis on the basis of the Consumer Acceptance 63 prepared kurtis the cost, quoted price, selling price were calculated. Cost of the kurtis included the cost of the raw materials and supporting fabrics, sewing threads, embellishments, etc used and labour involved. Then, value of each article, known as quoted price, was computed by adding thirty per cent profit to the cost price of each kurti. Opinion of the respondents regarding quoted price was taken. The respondents were then asked to give a suitable price for buying the particular articles. The average selling price was the mean value of the price at which the target consumers were willing to buy the designed product. To evaluate the prepared kurtis for studying the consumer acceptance, the data pertaining to the present study were coded, tabulated and analyzed statistically by using percentages, scores and mean scores.
4. Research Findings and Discussion
The innovatively designed phulkari kurtis were highly appreciated and their preferences with respect to various aspects have been presented below : 4.1 Preferences for the Silhouettes of the Prepared Kurtis Preferences of the college-going girls for the silhouettes of the prepared kurtis indicated that kurti K11 was most preferred with mean score 3.20 followed by K15 which was ranked second (Table-1). Kurti K 20 was obtained third rank. Kurti K3 obtained the last rank with mean score 2.33. Table-1 Preferences of the College-going Girls for the Silhouettes of the Prepared Kurtis (n=30)
Designs code Score Mean score Rank
K3 70 2.33 VI
K8 83 2.76 IV
K11 96 3.20 I
K15 92 3.06 II
K16 77 2.56 V
K20 88 2.94 III
4.2 Preferences for the Necklines of the Prepared Kurtis
First rank was given to the necklines K11 and K15 (mean score 2.90 each) followed by third and fourth preferences for necklines of K8 (mean score 2.73) and
K16 (mean score 2.60). Neckline of K3 kurti design was least preferred with mean score 2.33 (Table-2). 64 Manpreet Kaur and Kanwaljit Kaur Brar
Design K3 Design K8
Design K11 Design K15 Evaluation of the Prepared kurtis on the basis of the Consumer Acceptance 65
Design K16 Design K20 Table-2 : Preferences of the college-going girls for the necklines of the prepared kurtis (n=30)
Designs with code Score Mean scores Rank
K3 58 1.93 VI
K8 82 2.73 III
K11 87 2.90 I
K15 87 2.90 I
K16 78 2.60 IV
K20 67 2.23 V
4.3 Preferences for adapted phulkari motifs and designs of the prepared kurtis
The most preferred phulkari design was K20 (mean score 3.10) followed by design of K15 kurti (mean score 2.93) which obtained second rank. Third preference was given to the design of K11 kurti (mean score 2.80). The next preferred phulkari motifs and designs were of K16 (mean score 2.46) and K3 (mean score 2.30). Phulkari design of K8 kurti (mean score 2.30) was least preferred among the prepared kurtis (Table-3). 66 Manpreet Kaur and Kanwaljit Kaur Brar Table-3 : Preferences of the college-going girls for phulkari designs of the prepared kurtis (n=30)
Designs with code Score Mean score Rank
K3 69 2.30 V
K8 48 1.60 VI
K11 84 2.80 III
K15 88 2.93 II
K16 74 2.46 IV
K20 93 3.10 I
4.4 Preferences for colour combination of the prepared kurtis
First rank for the colour combination of the prepared kurtis was given to K20 (mean score 3.10), while second and third ranks were awarded to colour combination of K16 (mean score 3.00) and K15 (mean score 2.93), respectively. The least preference was given to the colour combination of kurti K8 with mean score 1.60 (Table-4). Table-4 : Preferences of the college-going girls for colour combination for the prepared kurtis (n=30)
Designs with code Score Mean score Rank
K3 69 2.30 V
K8 48 1.60 VI
K11 84 2.80 IV
K15 88 2.93 III
K16 90 3.00 II
K20 93 3.10 I
4.5 Preferences of the college-going girls for embellishments of the prepared kurtis The data pertaining to the preferences of the respondents regarding embellishments used for the prepared kurtis indicated that embellishments of K8,
K16, K20 (mean score 2.46 each) were most preferred by the respondents followed by embellishments of K15 kurti design (mean score 2.06) and K11 (mean score 1.96) which obtained fourth and fifth ranks for embellishments. Last rank was given to the embellishments of kurti K3 with mean score 1.50 (Table-5) Evaluation of the Prepared kurtis on the basis of the Consumer Acceptance 67
Table-5 : Preferences of the college-going girls for embellishments of the prepared kurtis (n=30)
Designs with code Score Mean score Rank
K3 45 1.50 VI
K8 74 2.46 1
K11 59 1.96 V
K15 62 2.06 IV
K16 74 2.46 I
K20 74 2.46 I
4.6 Preferences for overall appeal of the prepared kurtis Compared to all prepared kurtis, K15 and K20 obtained the first rank (mean score 3.66 each) followed by K16 (mean score 3.03) for overall appeal of the prepared kurtis. Kurti K11 (mean score 2.86), K8 (mean score 2.56) and K3 (mean score 2.34) obtained fourth, fifth and sixth ranks with respect to overall appeal (Table-6). Table-6 : Preferences of the college-going girls for overall appeal of the prepared kurtis (n=30)
Designs with code Score Mean score Rank
K3 70 2.34 VI
K8 77 2.56 V
K11 91 2.86 IV
K15 110 3.66 I
K16 86 3.03 III
K20 110 3.66 I
4.7 Opinion of the respondents towards the prepared kurtis The opinion of the respondents regarding the prepared kurtis was taken on the basis of three categories: very good, good and fair. The data revealed that majority of the respondents (93.34% each) considered design K15 and K20 as ‘very good,’ whereas 16.66 per cent assessed as ‘good’ and ‘fair’. Majority of the respondents liked the kurtis because of these motifs and designs, colour combinations and embellishments (Table-7). 68 Manpreet Kaur and Kanwaljit Kaur Brar Table-7 : Opinion of the respondents towards the prepared kurtis (n=30)
Designs with code Very good Good Fair
f % f % f %
K3 20 66.68 5 16.66 5 16.66
K8 23 76.66 5 16.67 2 6.67
K11 24 80.00 4 13.33 2 6.67
K15 28 93.34 1 3.33 1 3.33
K16 27 90.00 2 6.67 1 3.33
K20 28 93.34 1 3.33 1 3.33
Nearly 76.7 per cent of the respondents graded the design K8 as ‘very good’ while 16.67 per cent of the respondents considered it as ‘good’. However, only 6.67 per cent of the respondents considered it as ‘fair’. The respondents found kurti K8 to be very attractive, stylish and unique.
The results indicated that majority of respondents (80.00%) considered K11 as ‘very good’, while 13.33 per cent of the respondents considered it as ‘good’. The respondents appreciated the design for its motifs and colour combinations.
Also, majority of the respondents, i.e. 93.34 per cent, graded the design K15 as ‘very good’. The reason stated by the respondents for considering it as ‘’very good’ was for the kind of base fabric and design. The data indicated that the majority of the respondents (90.00%) considered K16 as ‘very good’ whereas 6.67 per cent and 3.33 per cent respondents opined it as ‘good’ and ‘fair’ respectively. Respondents found it to be very attractive, unique and creative.
Design K20 was considered as ‘very good’ by the respondents (93.34%) followed by 3.33 per cent of the respondents each who considered these as ‘good’ and ‘fair’. The reason stated by the respondent for considering these as ‘very good’ was for the kind of design, motif and colour combinations. 4.8 Opinion of the respondents regarding the suitability of price in the prepared kurtis The largest percentage of respondents, i.e. 93.34 per cent, found the quoted selling price of the prepared kurtis K8 and K20 as adequate. Besides, 3.34 per cent respondents found the quoted price as lower than what the price should be Evaluation of the Prepared kurtis on the basis of the Consumer Acceptance 69
(Table-8). Majority of the respondents considered the quoted price for K3, K11, and K15 as adequate. Nearly 17.00 per cent considered the quoted price by K3 and
K11 as low. Also, 23.34 per cent respondents considered the quoted price of K16 as high. Table-8 : Opinion of the respondents regarding the suitability of price in the prepared kurtis (n=30)
Designs with Quoted price Respondents code (`) High Adequate Low
f % f % f %
K3 3549.00 5 16.67 25 83.34 5 16.67
K8 5863.00 1 3.34 28 93.34 1 3.34
K11 2587.00 5 16.67 25 83.34 5 16.67
K15 2158.00 6 20.00 23 76.67 1 3.34
K16 4621.00 7 23.34 21 70.00 2 6.67
K20 8287.00 1 3.34 28 93.34 1 3.34
4.9 Assessment of the profit margins of the prepared kurtis Quoted price was calculated by adding thirty per cent profit to cost of each kurti. Respondent’s opinion about the quoted price for each kurti was taken. Then, they were asked to mention the selling price for each kurti that they would be ready to pay. Average selling price was calculated for each kurti and is presented in Table-9. Quoted price for design K3, K8, K11 was `3549/-, `5863/-, and `2587/-, respectively while the average selling price suggested by the respondents was little lesser, i.e. `3505/-, `5767/-, and `2580/-, respectively. Table-9 : Assessment of the profit margins of the prepared kurtis (n=30)
Kurti designs Cost price Quoted Selling price z-value Percentage (`) price (`) (`) profit
K3 2730.00 3549.00 3505.00 13.32** 28.38
K8 4510.00 5863.00 5767.00 26.95** 27.87
K11 1990.00 2587.00 2580.00 58.95** 29.64
K15 1660.00 2158.00 2141.00 19.29** 28.97
K16 3555.00 4621.00 4657.00 28.52** 23.66
K20 6375.00 8287.00 8213.00 31.60** 28.83 **Significant at 5% level of significance 70 Manpreet Kaur and Kanwaljit Kaur Brar
Highest profit was found to be possible in case of K11, i.e. 29.64 per cent followed by K15 and K20 with profit margin of 28.97 and 28.85 per cent. These calculated z-values for profit margin of the prepared kurtis were found to be significant at 5% level of significant (Table 4.42). Thus, there is significant difference in the selling price and cost price of kurtis. The cost of production is expected to be lower on being mass produced. Therefore, the designed line of kurtis would be commercially viable. 5. Conclusions
Diversification of phulkari embroidery through innovative product development will not only help to popularise the phulkari craft but would also yield good profit margin. References
Anonymous (2012a) Meaning of Fashion, http://wiki.answer.com/q/ meaning_ of_fashion (08/8/2012) Anonymous (2010) Definition of kurtis http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/kurtis (accessed on 06/05/2012) Anonymous (2013a) www.jaipuri kurti.com/.../latest-clothing trends (accessed on 3/8/2013). Anonymous (2013b) http://indiatoday.in/stort/a-stitch-in-time/ (accessed on 04/ 8/2013). Malik, S. B. (2011) From Silk to Synthetic Phulkari: The Long Journey of a Period Textile www.ijhssnet.com/journals/Vol_1_No_16_November_2011/31.pdf [ac cessed 20/04/2012] Singh, O. P. and K. Brar, Revival of Phulkari, Report of Ad HOC Research Project of ICAR, 2002, pp. 22. ê
Article Received on June 18, 2015; Accepted on July 11, 2015 8
Globalization and its Impact on Rural India
Rangoli Chandra* and Renu**
“Globalization means ‘global village ‘in which people from every place of the world can be approached directly or indirectly. Modern communication and information technology plays an important role in spreading globalization. Internet, by which we can receive any information in few seconds, is also an important mean of globalization. Globalization broadly affects the rural life. Because of globalization, informational technology and communication revolution also occurs in village that has raised global consciousness and education in the rural areas. The globalization has both positive and negative impact on rural life. In positive impact, it includes progressiveness of rural life and in negative, includes changes in cultural paradigm of rural life. Thus, we see that globalization widely affects the rural life. The process of globalization has enhanced the competition in society. The culture of marketplace has increased. Human moral values have been declined. Globalization, on one side has increased the materialistic facilities but on the other side, mental peace of individual has been lost. So the process of globalization has changed the course of the whole world in a global village, as a result, it has become difficult to subsistence for unskilled and uneducated labours.” [Keywords : Globalization, village, Communication, Technology, Revolution, Consciousness, Progressiveness, Competition, Unskilled] 1. Introduction The term ‘globalization’ was first used in the field of economy. Globalization is a process of integration of policies, economic, cultural and industrial system that exist separately today. It is a process by which the world is
* Associate Professor, Department of Sociology, University of Lucknow, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh (India) E-mail:
Globalization has a long history as a political and cultural reality and as a religious and cultural movement. It is believed that the first stage of globalization started with the early Egyptian, Babylonian, Greek and Roman Empires, Which united the world of their time. The second stage traced later part of 1400s when European explorers voyaged out of Europe to discover new land. Trade expended between European explorers voyaged out of Europe to discover new world of gradually the process of colonization started. The third stage of globalization started in the 19th century along with the expansion of colonial empires and trade. The globalization intensified with advent of industrial revolution in Europe and sought raw materials for its products. This period ended with World War ll but its ideological, economic and cultural consequences continue to influence till today. With the rejection and failure of socialism as an alternative, the whole world is thrown open to market economy, liberal Globalization and its Impact on Rural India 73 democracy and western cultural values with the powerful tool of information technology.2 The term ‘globalization’ derived from the word glob al ize, which re fers to the emergence of an inter na tional network of eco nomic sys tems.3 One of the earli est known us ages of the term as a noun was in a 1930 publi cation enti tled, To wards New Ed u ca tion, where it denoted a ho lis tic view of hu man expe ri ence in ed u ca tion.4 A related term, corpo rate gi ants was coined by Charles Taze Rus sell in 1897 to re fer to the largely na tional trusts and other large en ter prises of the time. By the 1960s, both terms began to use as the synonyms by econ o mists and other scien tists. Econo mists Theo dore Levitt is widely credited with coin ing the term in an arti cle enti tled “Glob al iza tion of Mar kets” which ap peared in the May-June 1983 is sue of Har vard Busi ness Re view. How ever, the term glob al iza tion was in use well be fore (at least as early as 1944) and had been used by other schol ars as early as 1981.5 Some thinkers define globalization which are as follows : Anthony Giddens (1991) in The consequences of Modernity, wrote that “Globalization can thus be defined as the intensification of worldwide social relations which link distant localities in such a way that local happenings are shaped by events occurring many miles away and vice versa.6 Paul James (2005), defines “Globalization is the extension of social relations across world space, defining that world- space in terms of the historically variably ways that it has been practiced and socially understood through changing world-time.”7 Tomlinson (1996) says that “Globalization refers to the rapidly developing processes of complex interconnections between societies, cultures, institutions and individuals worldwide. It is social process that involves the compression of time and space, shrinking distances through a dramatic reduction in time taken either physically or representational to cross them, so marking the world seem smaller and in certain bringing human being ‘closer’ to one another.”8 Ulrich Beck (2001), said that “Globalization is a process of worldwide stratification in the course of which new socio-culture hierarchy, on a world wide scale is put together.”9 3. Characteristics of Globalization
There are number of characteristics of globalization which are as follows : 74 Rangoli Chandra and Renu u According to Robert Mecorquodale, “Globalizations is contested term and there is no one accepted definition of it”. In broader sense it include s two things, in te gra tion of the world and in ter de pen dence of the sov er eign na tion states. u The term globalization is all encompassing and is defined in both economic and non economic context which includes social-cultural, historical and political. u Shrinking space which means people lives, their-jobs, incomes and health- are affected by events on other side of the globe often by events they do not know about. u Shrinking time which is seen in speed with which markets and technologies are changing. u Disappearing Borders : National borders are breaking down not only on trade, capital and information but also for ideas, norms, culture and values. u Globalization also means “universalization of particularism and particularization of universalism” that is what is local is global and what is global is local. u It is two fold process (Global-Local) has many aspect it is political, social and cultural process, but is foremost an economic process. u Some scholars like John Harris views globalization as American capitalism /imperialism Stanley Hoffmann illustrates the following feature of globalization. u Globalization is multidimensional process it has three basic dimensions economic, cultural and political. u Benefits of globalization, though undeniable are limited as well as uneven. The reach of globalization remains limited as it excludes many poor countries/poor people. u Globalization main effect is rise of social movements due to the discontent of globalization. u Globalization suffers from many contradictions. u It is the market which has been the main beneficiary of the state’s retreat. u Economic globalization has affected states sovereignty. u Stanley Hoffmann further points out that character of citizenship remains intact despite of global integration of economic life of people. u Hoffman’s perceived that there exists a relationship between globalization and violence. Globalization and its Impact on Rural India 75
u Communication and information Technology reduces the distance in real time. u Deregulated markets with speedy transfer of capital. u The emergence of global media network linked with global communication. u Global consumer culture and global music, film, TV culture. u Increase concentration of capital in the hand of few individuals via merger and acquisitions. u Greatest awareness, but not very effective to address problems of human rights violation and other problems faced by the mankind today (Singh10 and Sinha11.) 4. Aspects of Globalization
There are many potentially positive and negative aspects of globalization. Development linked with globalization have opened up boundless possibilities for human development, enormous new opportunities and enhanced the quality of life for many people in the third world countries. The globalization has been reciprocally beneficial. If also creates and promotes global concern and attracts worldwide attention to the local issues. Globalization has many dimensions- economic, political, social, technological, cultural, and ideological etc. each of them affects the local either positively or negatively. Manoj Sinha has highlighted the various aspect of globalization; some of them are summarized as follows11 : 4.1 Economic Aspects u Some nations have tremendous economic advantages, other have become more and more dependent. u The main players in the process of globalization and governments of powerful Nation G7, TNCS (Transnational Corporation), IMS (Integrated Management Systems), WB (World Bank) and WTO (World Trade Organization). u Development of third world countries has to be related with world market. u Over all control of global economy is in the hand of G7 countries. u The foreign debts work as an instrument to control development process in these countries. u Terms and conditions are imposed on them which make them almost impossible to develop on their own terms. 76 Rangoli Chandra and Renu u Growth of multinationals and emphasis on foreign trade is not the tune with the basic need of people u In the globalized free market economy, the only people who count are those who have goods to sell and those who have money to buy. u Widening the gap between the rich and the poor, both between countries and within countries. u There has been a worldwide growth in poverty, inequality and human misery and social injustice is becoming an accepted reality. u Present economic system does not serve the interests of majority it rather destroys the lives of many people due its unjust distribution of wealth, exploitation and deprivation of basic needs. u Globalization leads to lowering of labor costs and wages.(p. 193-194) 4.2 Social Aspects u Globalization created the situation of marginalization, exclusive and social disintegration countries like India are facing their problems squarely. u People in rural area isolated from the urban privileged groups. u It creates an inferiority complex among the poor rural masses. u Because of urban centric model of developments, many rural people are forced to migrate to cities in search of employment and better living. u The migrants are the most exploited people; they suffer from insecurity and social exclusion. u Permanent employment and skilled workforce is being replaced by the casual and part time employment creating insecurity among the workers. u Diminishing trade unionism has made the workers abso lutely voiceless. u Profit oriented free market has lost the present social realities. u Society has become impersonal, mechanical and inhumane and is lost in consumerism and materialism. u Unprincipled living, selfishness, corruption, opportunism and violence are the products of consumerism and materialism which intern is the effect of globalization (p. 195). 4.3 Cultural Aspects u Globalization involves cultural invasion. u Globalization means the export and import of cultures. Globalization and its Impact on Rural India 77
u The whole idea of progress and development is shaped by western life style. u A monoculture is fast emerging based on western values of consumerism and individualism undermining the ethnicity and traditions of local. u There was a community ownership of land and property, accumulation of wealth by an individual was not welcome, but today wealth is increasingly regarded as belonging to individuals and not to community. u Indigenous cultural values are vastly ignored (p.196). So Globalization has become a significant factor in competitive world that integrated and mobilize cultural values of people at global level. In the age of rapid technical progression, many countries are unified and transformed due to the process of globalization. Globalization has a huge impact on cultural, social, monetary, political and communal life of countries. Abundant theoretical studies demonstrated that globalization intercedes in a cultural life of populace that raises numerous critical issues (Robertson, 1992). In broad sense, the term ‘globalization’ means combination of economies and societies through cross country flows of information, ideas, technologies, goods, services, capital, finance and people. Globalization is described by theorists as the process through which societies and economies are integrated through cross broader flows of ideas, communication, technology, capital, people, finance, goods, services and information.12 Globalization has brought new prospects to developing world. It has given great power to developed markets to enter in the developing countries by transferring their machinery with the assurance of better output and higher living standard. However, it does have brought up difficulties as well such as increase in inequality between socio-economic classes, environmental degradation and instability in financial market. In the nineties, the restriction on the trade and investment was removed of barrier accelerated the rapidity of globalization in India. 5. Globalization in Indian Context
In India early 1990s, India unlocked its economy to the world because of the foreign policies exchange crisis that to defaults on loans of the economy. There was a sudden policy change in India with the notion of new economic model known as Liberalization, Privatization and Globalization in India (LPG). The primary objective of this model was to make the economy of India the fastest 78 Rangoli Chandra and Renu economy developing economy in the globe with capabilities that help it match up with the biggest economies of the world. In early nineties, the key measures instigated as a part of policy like, the abandoning of licensing of industries, the reduction in the areas of public sector, amendment in the monopolies and the controlled trade systems function, initiated privatization programme, lessening tariff charges and the most important was to switch to the market determined exchange rates. This change in the policy had dramatic effects on the expansion of Indian economy. This all changes actually the announcement of the fusion of Indian economy into the global economy. Over the years with the policy change, more and more sectors begin foreign direct investment and portfolio investments and attracted foreign investors in telecom, airports, insurance, roads, ports, airports, transportation and much more.13 6. Impact of Globalization on Rural India
Globalization and India discourse continues since the recent wave of liberalization, structural adjustment and economic reforms have started in India about more than a decade ago (in 1991). This has opened the doors of Indian economy to the world and vice-versa. Concerning rural India, the debate has been going on how and in what manner it is going to be affected by globalization. So here we will gong to discuss the impact of globalization on different sectors of rural India. 6.1 Agriculture In case of agriculture sector, it is a matter of debate that how and in what manner Indian agriculture is going to be affected by reforms, liberalization and consequent policies. Some have arguing in favour of it that agricultural sector will be benefitted, there will be diversification of agriculture and ultimately that will boost the production which will positively affect the Indian famers and the rural population in general. On the other hand, others are arguing strongly against globalization and have been indicating that farmers and rural population in India going to be adversely affected. It is feared that the multinational corporations by way of free flow of goods, capital and services will grab not only the industrial resources but also the agriculture sector, agri-business and probably result in to pauperization of Indian agriculturists, small farmers and rural labour.13 Over the years, with the advent of more technology, there has been a significant change in the process of agriculture in the country. Earlier farmers used traditional farming techniques for growing crops. As such, they suffered a Globalization and its Impact on Rural India 79 lot and the output was affected by a number of factors like pest problems, weather situations and lots more. Due to the globalization and introduction of better equipments, there has been a stark improvement in the techniques of agriculture. Today, farmers are using gadgets like rowers, tractors, electric pipelines and lots more for the cultivation of crops. This has increased the produce in terms of quantity as well as quality. As such, farmers have started earning more and have improved their per capita income and the standard of living. The government has also taken several positive steps to improve the poverty situation in the rural areas. Irrigational projects have been undertaken, dams have been built and more facilities have been provided to the farmers to increase their agricultural produce. As lots of farmers are poor, they are not in a position to buy expensive equipments. To solve this problem and make them self sufficient, the government also grants financial help and loan to the farmers at very cheap rates. The government has set up the National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) and various other Regional Rural Banks (RRBs) to financially help the farmers in need. Housing projects are also being undertaken to solve the accommodation problems of the poor.14 6.2 Education Education, as a service industry, is part of globalization process under the umbrella of General Agreement on Trade in Services. In 2000-01, government initiated programme aimed at the universalization of education. The package of reforms in primary education sector is addressed as Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (popu larly known as SSA) meaning ed uca tion for all; Gov ern ment has ini ti ated new edu ca tion policy. The salient featur e of New Na tional Policy of Edu ca tion are intro duc tion of a na tional core curric u lum at the school level; spe cial empha sis on the edu ca tion of women and of the scheduled castes / tribes; ex am i na tion re forms; es tab lish ment of pace – set ting in sti tu tions called “Navodaya vidyalayas” in all parts of the coun try as a part to the ef fort to provide equal oppor tu ni ties, espe cially in rural ar eas, to raise the quality of higher education. 6.3 Reforms in Basic Services The government of India has initiated several reforms measures in the delivery of basic services. The vital of them include (i) Primary Health Services (ii) Sanitation Education (iii) Drinking Water Supply. Reforms in basic services 80 Rangoli Chandra and Renu are being implemented since 2000/01. The package on reforms in primary health care is addressed as National Rural Health Mission (NRHM); Globalization has also positively affected the overall health care situation in the country. More and more medical innovations are coming in which are improving the health situation in India. The infant mortality rate and the malnutrition rate have significantly come down since the last decade and the package on reforms in rural drinking supply water is addressed as ‘Swajaldara’- Rural Drinking Water Project so that safe and hygiene water reach to people of villages and government also started welfare and education programme on sanitation. But these reform initiatives involving basic services need effective implementation so it will reach each and every part of rural India. 6.4 Poverty Since Independence, the eradication of poverty has been the integral part of strategy for the economic development in India. Garibi Hatao, Kapada-Roti-Makan or Bizili-Sadak-Pani was and still is one of the vote catcher and aid catcher for India. World’s Bank motto, “our dream is world without poverty” made optimists to think that worldwide war against poverty will reduce the poverty in India in Globalization Era. The World Bank’s Global Monitoring Report for 2014-15 on the Millennium Development Goals Says India has been the biggest contributor to poverty reduction between 2008 and 2011, with around 140 million or so lifted out of absolute poverty. Since the early 1950s, Indian government initiated various schemes to help the poor attain self-sufficiency in food production. These have included ration cards and price controls over the supply of basic commodities, particularly food at controlled prices, available throughout the country. These efforts prevented famines, but did little to eliminate or reduce poverty in rural or urban areas between 1950 and 1980. Poverty elevating programmes launched by government such as MNREGA and Midday Meal Scheme in schools reduce poverty to some extent.14 A major portion of the poverty level in India is from the rural areas whose staple form of income is agriculture and farming. Due to the globalization, Indian agriculture has improved to some extent which has helped to reduce the poverty problem of the rural masses. 6.5 Employment Globalization has also put a favorable effect on the employment scenario of the country. Over the years, due to the liberalization policies, India has become a Globalization and its Impact on Rural India 81 consumer oriented market where the changes are brought by the demand and supply forces. Due to the high demand and the supply chains, there has been significant growth in the market. As such, more and more job opportunities are being created in different sectors. This has increased the per capita income considerably which has improved the poverty level to a great extent. The growth of the various sectors has also opened up new employment opportunities which have put a positive impact on the overall poverty situation of the country. More and more industries are being introduced in the market to cater to the growing demand. Some of the well known industries that have recently become very popular in the country are personal and beauty care, agro products, health care, information technology and some other sectors. The service sector has a share of around 54% of the annual Gross Domestic Product (GDP). The share of the agricultural and industrial sectors in the annual GDP is 17% and 29%. Thus we can see that globalization has increased the employment opportunities to some extent.15 7. Conclusion
Globalization as it is perceived and viewed today is a complex, dynamic and multidimensional phenomenon. The worldwide talk about globalization does not lead to any common view point. It is a contested concept. The opponents and the proponents of the globalization provide their own statics and figures to substantiate their view points. In India, this phenomenon has a unique feature and that is ‘globalization in our country was ‘crises driven’, and without any preparatory work. The logic given by the pro-globalist to support it is based on trickled down theory which is not evident in the countries where these policies are in force for past many years. Hence, it will be futile to hope that it will really work for all the sections of the society, unless certain changes are made keeping in mind the history, culture and geography of a particular country in general and India in particular. References
1. Srivastava, Indira and Srivastav, Shekhar, Sociology of Development and Planning, Allahabad : K. K. Publications, Academy Press, 2002-2003. 2. Sinha, Manoj, ‘Globalization and Consumerism : A study of its Impact,’ in Govind Prasad and Anil Datta Mishra (eds.), Globalization : Myth and Reality, New Delhi : Concept Publishing Company (P) Ltd.,2004, 188-189. 82 Rangoli Chandra and Renu 3. “Globalization” online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 7 July 2012. 4. “Globalization” Oxford English Dictionary online. September-2009, Retrieved 5 November 2010. 5. Feder, Barnaby J. (6 July 2006), Theodore Levitt, 81, Who coined the term “Globalization is Dead”. Retrieved 23 April 2014. 6. Gidden, Anthony, The Consequences of Modernity, Cambridge : Polity Press, 1991, 64. 7. James, Paul, “Arguing Globalisation : Propositions towards an Investigation of Global Formation”, Globalization, Vol. 2 (2), 2005, 193-209. 8. Tomlinson, John, “Cultural Globalization : Placing and Displacing the West”, European Journal of Development Research, Vol. 8 (2), December, 1996, cited by Rajkumar in “Globalization and Dalit Culture”, P. G. Jogdand (ed.), New Economic Policy and Dalits, New Delhi : Rawat Publication, 2000, 85. 9. Beck, Ulrich, What is Globalization, U.K. : Polity Press, 2001. 10. Singh, Arun Kumar, “Globalization Sovereignty and Human Rights : A Perspective”, Govind Prasad and Anil Dutta Mishrain (eds.), Globalization : Myth and Reality, New Delhi : Concept Publishing Company (P) Ltd.,2004. 11. Sinha, Manoj (2004), “Globalization and Consumeris m : A Study of its Impact’ ”, Govind Prasad and Anil Dutta Mishrain (eds.), Op. Cit., 189. 12. Effects of Globalisation on Indian Society- Civil Service India. 13. Impact of Globalization on India; UKEssays. 14. Impact of Globalization – Business in India, Maps of India. 15. Ibid. ê
Article Received on June 29, 2015; Accepted on August 10, 2015 9
Smocking - A Magnificent Endeavour
Shikha Bajaj* and Harminder Kaur Saini**
The art of adornment on fabric pieces been always been a matter of interest for the craft lovers and designers. For centuries, arts and crafts have been distinguished for their great aesthetic and functional value1. In the present world of fashion, demand of variety and new interesting creations are cherished more than anything. This present attempt entitled, ‘Smocking - A magnificent endeavour’ was aimed at designing and shaping of merchandise with pleasing exotic concepts. The study was carried out in Ludhiana city. A total of ten utility articles namely cushion cover, pillow cover, bolster cover, trimming for bedsheet, curtain canopy, lampshade, handbag, jewellery box, folder and footwear were prepared by using various smocking techniques and designs. Two designs for each article were sketched on corelDRAW X3 and after evaluation by a panel of judges, one design of each article, was selected for development of the article. Selected designs were then developed by using suitable fabrics and embellishments. [Keywords : Smocking, Utility, Design, Judges, Articles] 1. Introduction
Embroidery can be a wonderfully meditative practice. It is a creative way to play with color, shape, line and texture and adorn the simple pieces of fabric. Creative and innovative thoughts of mind can bring up numerous ideas of embellishment and adding value to the merchandise. Smocking is one of the magnificent and elegant arts of ornamentation which carries its roots in England, but over the years, it has found its worthy place in many parts of the world. It is an art form which has been handed down from generation to generation much * Research Scholar, Department of Apparel and Textile Science, College of Home Science, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana-141004, Punjab (India) E-mail:
Two designs for each of the article were sketched by using graphics and tools of corelDRAW X3. A total of twenty designs, for ten articles were shown to a panel of judges which included faculty members and PG students from Department of Apparel and Textile Science and Department of Family resource management. The data collected from a panel of judges were coded, tabulated and analyzed. Simple percentages were calculated to obtain the information regarding preferences of judges. On the basis of the rankings given by judges, the most preferred design for each article was selected for development. The ten articles selected for preparation with smocking technique included cushion cover, pillow cover, bolster cover, trimming for bedsheet, curtain canopy, lampshade, handbag, jewellery box, folder and footwear. u Prepartion of Articles l Cutting the fabrics : Fabrics were selected for each of the article and then cutting was done according to the final measurements required. A little extra length or width of the fabric was kept (according to the smocking stitch to be used) while cutting the fabric. In general, if smocking is done after pleating the fabric, it consumes almost three times the actual fabric, however if it is done without pleating, it takes two times of actual fabric inside the stitches. Smocking - A Magnificent Endeavour 85
l Marking of patterns on the fabrics : According to the placement and measurement of area to be smocked, markings in the form of square boxes were done on the fabrics by using pencil, ball pen or coloured sketch pen. On the fabrics, where pen or pencil could not be used, squares of uniform size were printed on the wrong side by using a light colour. The corners of these square boxes were then filled with the smocking pattern to be developed for respective articles (Fig. 1). 86 Shikha Bajaj and Harminder Kaur Saini l Smocking on the fabrics : Smocking was done with thread colour matching to the fabric (Fig. 2). Double thread was taken in crewel needle and stitches were made on the fabric according to the pattern. Smocking stitches include pulling of thread at one point, generally at one corner of a square and usually ending at the same point after stretching one or two more corners of the same square. The thread pulling pattern may vary depending on the smocking pattern and design to be achieved. l Stitching : After the smocking was done, fabrics were rechecked for required measurements. Minor adjustments were made here by increasing or decreasing smocked area, or cutting a short length of fabric in order to suit the required specifications of articles. After this, articles were stitched separately by using single needle lock stitch machine or by hand, as suited for various articles. The embellishments like beads and laces were applied on the stitched articles. 3. Results and Discussion
The use of computer aided softwares in the field of designing has increased to the productivity of the designer by improving the quality of design, communications through documentation, and by creating a database for manufacturing4. Computer aided designing is an important industrial art extensively used in development of two dimensional and three dimensional compositions which in turn enhances the understanding and clarity of the concept and makes the accomplishment simpler, therefore, the designs prepared for smocked utility articles have been developed on CorelDrawX3 (Fig. 3). The results pertaining to the preferences of judges have been furnished in table-1. The data revealed that in case of article A1, cushion cover, majority of the judges (82.00%) preferred design 1 whereas design 2 was liked by only 18.00 per cent of the judges. For article A2, bolster cover, 58.00 percent of the judges preferred design 2 followed by 42.00 percent who preferred design 1. As regards to article A3, a bolster cover, majority of the judges (80.00%) liked design 1 whereas only 20.00 percent of the judges preferred design2. In case of article A4, trimming for bedsheet, 56.00 percent of the judges opined that design 2 was better; however 44.00 percent of the judges liked design 1. For A5, curtain canopy, 62.00 percent of the judges preferred design 2 followed by 38.00 percent of judges who liked design-1. Smocking - A Magnificent Endeavour 87 88 Shikha Bajaj and Harminder Kaur Saini
For article, A6 lampshade, 54.00 percent of the judges opined that design 2 was better, however, 46.00 percent of the judges preferred design 1. As regards to
A7, handbag, majority of the judges (74%) rated design 1 as better, followed by
26.00 percent of the judges who liked design 2. In case of A8, jewellery box, 68.00 percent of the judges preferred design 2, however 38.00 percent of the judges preferred design 1. For article A9, folder, 66.00 percent of the judges liked design
1 however 34.00 percent of the judges preferred design 2. In case of article A10, footwear, 56.00 percent of the judges opined that design 2 was better, however 44.00 percent of the judges preferred design-1. Table- 1 : Design preferences by the judges for smocked utility articles (n=50)
Article code and name Design 1 Design 2
A1 Cushion cover 41 (82.00) 9 (18.00)
A2 Pillow cover 21 (42.00) 29 (58.00)
A3 Bolster cover 40 (80.00) 10 (20.00)
A4 Trimming for bedsheet 22 (44.00) 28 (56.00)
A5 Curtain canopy 19 (38.00) 31 (62.00)
A6 Lampshade 23 (46.00) 27 (54.00)
A7 Handbag 37 (74.00) 13 (26.00)
A8 Jewellery box 16 (32.00) 34 (68.00)
A9 Folder 17 (34.00) 33 (66.00)
A10 Footwear 22 (44.00) 28 (56.00)
Figures in parentheses indicate percentages
3.1 Prepared Smocked Utility Articles
Article A1 : Article A1 was a cushion cover in round shape which was made by using velour fabric in purple colour. Canadian smocking stitches were used in cushion cover and were worked out by using polyester yarn. The diameter of the cushion cover was 30.48 cm. In order to fix the pleats developed by smocking stitches, a round plastic button of 2” diameter had been used. The button had been covered with same velour fabric and pleats were sewn and fixed in the centre. A casing was stitched on the back side of cushion cover and a drawstring Smocking - A Magnificent Endeavour 89 90 Shikha Bajaj and Harminder Kaur Saini stitched with same velour fabric was inserted in it. The cushion cover could be opened by pulling the drawstring (Fig 4a).
Article A2 : Article A2 was a pillow cover in rectangular shape. Plain glazed cotton fabric was used for this. The article was made in pink colour and lattice smocking pattern was used. The stitches had been made by using polyester yarn. The dimensions of pillow cover were 59.69 x 42.55 cm. The pillow cover was embellished by using a white lace on all sides. For opening of pillow cover, a zipper was attached on the unsmocked back side (Fig 4b).
Article A3 : Article A3 was a bolster cover of length 68.58 cm and diameter 21.59 cm. This article was developed by using thick cotton fabric with red and white check. The smocking stitches were worked out by using shell smocking pattern. Polyester yarn was used for making smocking stitches on the wrong side of fabric. The stitches were made in the centre portion of bolster cover. On both ends of bolster cover, casings were used for putting up drawstrings, which facilitate its opening and closing. Tassels made of acrylic yarn and beads were used to enhance the look of bolster cover (Fig 4c).
Article A4 : The article was trimming for bedsheet of size 31.75 cm. The trimming was prepared by using Lozenge smocking pattern on the wrong side of white coloured net fabric having thickly woven vertical stripes each at 1”of interval. It was attached on pink coloured cotton bed sheet having self printed stripes. White coloured polyester yarn was used for working out smocking stitches. Trimming was attached on the sides of bedsheet. The trimming for bedsheet has been finished at the bottom by white coloured pom pom lace (Fig. 4d).
Article A5 : Article A5 was curtain canopy of single door width. The length of the canopy at both ends was 59.69 cm and in the centre was 31.75 cm. The canopy has been made by using blended self printed fabric in blue colour and pleated smocking was done in five rows. The smocking was carried out by using polyester yarn on the right side of the fabric. A casing was sewn on the top of canopy for a curtain rod. The bottom of the canopy was finished with beaded lace to give it a fancy look. Off white beads were used to embellish the smocking rows of canopy (Fig. 4e).
Article A6 : This was a lampshade. It was made by using organdy fabric of blue colour and two tints of blue were used to make it more attractive. Panels of 30.48 x 20.83 cm size of both colours were dyed, cut and smocked separately and Smocking - A Magnificent Endeavour 91 were fixed alternatively on the base for lampshade. Pleated smocking pattern was used for this. The smocking stitches were worked by using cotton yarn of contrast blue colour, for each of the panel separately. Five rows of smocking stitches were done on panels. Lace, sequins and silver beads were used to embellish the lampshade (Fig. 5f).
Article A7 : Article A7 was a handbag. The handbag was prepared by using a woven cotton fabric in white and yellow stripes. The smocking pattern was worked out in such a way that white stripes were shown and yellow stripes were hidden in some areas, while yellow stripes were shown and white were hidden in other areas. White cotton yarn was used for working out smocking stitches on the right side of fabric and it was left uncut and visible. A zig zag pattern of smocking was used. Small off white beads were used in the smocked area for embellishment. The shape of the handbag was semicircle with a diameter of 45.72 cm. Two stripes of same striped woven fabric were attached on both sides of the handbag. Elastic of 0.64 cm width was sewn on both sides of handbag to give it proper shape. For opening and closing of handbag, white coloured velcro was sewn inside the opening of handbag (Fig. 5g).
Article A8 : Article A8 was a jewellery box which was made in dark blue coloured velour fabric. Floral smocking pattern was worked all over the fabric and it was then attached to the wooden box. The dimensions of the jewellery box were 20.83 x 13.2 x 12.7 cm. The smocking stitches were made by using matching blue polyester yarn on the right side of fabric. Small silver stones were used for the embellishment (Fig. 5h).
Article A9 : Article A9 was a folder with dimensions 36.83 x 27.3 cm. The folder was made by using khaddar fabric of brown colour. The smocking pattern used for folder was floral mesh and it was worked on the front side. The stitches were made by using matching brown coloured polyester yarn. The folder was covered with the same khaddar fabric from inside and two patch pockets were also made. Lace and sequins were used to embellish the folder (Fig. 5i).
Article A10 : Article A10 was footwear. For this, smocking has been done on pink cotton canvas fabric having dimensions of 45.72 x 20.32 cm. The smocking was carried out on the wrong side of the fabric to create zig zag pattern on the right side using matching pink coloured polyester yarn. The ready fabric was cut and fixed onto a footwear and the edges were sewn inside the base to achieve finished look (Fig. 5j). 92 Shikha Bajaj and Harminder Kaur Saini 93 Smocking - A Magnificent Endeavour
4. Conclusion
The attempt revealed new impressions of contemporary use of smocking techniques and the findings of the study provide an overview of the preferences of judges for smocked utility articles which was intended to provide inspiration to its designers for development of designs of more practical use. The adoption of various smocking techniques and mix and match of type of fabrics can greatly add element of emphasis to the articles and increase their relevance in terms of market sellability. This art needs all the possible encouragement to make the producers enjoy contentment arising out of their stock. The present endeavour was an earliest attempt directed towards preservation, promotion and propagation of the art of smocking before it completely loses its distinctiveness. The idea is to reform the present portrait of the art thereby retaining the treasure of charm and delight. The result related to type of fabrics, yarns and colours would be beneficial to the artisans and housewives for developing diverse range of articles by making use of different stitches, fabrics, design placements etc. The study in this way adds a great deal of variety in assortments of handloom and upholstery markets and provides a firm traditional base in terms of design and development. Acknowledgement
Heartfelt gratitude and indebtedness to my major advisor, Dr. (Mrs) Harminder Kaur Saini, Professor, Department of Apparel and Textile Science, for her adept guidance, inspiring directions, enthusiastic interest and constructive criticism throughout the course of this study without which it would have been impossible to accomplish the present work. I owe sincere thanks to the members of Advisory Committee, Dr (Mrs) Harinder Kaur Saggu, Professor, Department of Apparel and Textile Science, Dr. Sukhdev Singh, Professor, Department of Economics and Sociology and Dr (Mrs) Vandana Gandotra, Associate Professor, Department of Apparel and Textile Science for their valuable suggestions and timely help in successful completion of the work. References
1. Karolia, A. and Sardiwal S. Namda, The Traditional felted craft of Rajasthan, Indian J Traditional knowledge, Vol. 13 (2), 2014, 409-415. 94 Shikha Bajaj and Harminder Kaur Saini 2. Kaiman, B. K., What is English smocking, 2010-2011. Available at: http://www.smockingstore.com/ what.html 3. Cecilia, E. and Toth K., Good Housekeeping : The Illustrated Book of Needlecrafts, New York : Hearst Books, 1994, 50. 4. Narayan, K. Lalit, Computer Aided Design and Manufacturing, New Delhi : Prentice Hall of India, 2008, 3. ê
Article Received on June 18, 2015; Accepted on July 08, 2015 10
The Role of Psychological Capital to Organizational Commitment of Tenured Employees
Anne C. Camit*, Ma. Socorro C. Bacay** and Lesil E. Artista***
Though the interest in positive psychology considerably expanded to include organizational commitment in various settings in recent years, further research has yet to be made on psychological capital and its effect on the organizational commitment of tenured employees. Tenure is said to have different effects on commitment. To contribute to the growing interest in understanding psychological capital in this context, we anchored the study to the broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions and surveyed 57 tenured employees in a private manufacturing firm. Data revealed that there is a strong correlation between psychological capital and organizational commitment. This study has implications in creating and nurturing work environments which allow positive emotions to flourish as it is crucial to enable employees build personal resources which includes creativity and social support especially critical to those tenured personnel who are influential to the company. [Keywords : Positive Psychology, Psychological capital, Tenure, Organizational commitment]
* Faculty Member, Human Resource Management Program of the School of Management and Information Technology, De La Salle – College of St. Benilde, 2544 Taft Avenue, Manila (Philippines) E-mail:
Work ends up dehumanizing people. (Francis, 2015) The above quotation ironically captures how work, though mainly beneficial to people, can affect employees negatively if not managed well. It also describes in a nutshell the intent of the researchers to investigate whether certain aspects of positivity can affect a tenured employee’s level of organizational commitment. The following discussions aim to discuss relevant studies involving psychological capital as it relates with organizational commitment while emphasizing the scant literature involved in linking the mentioned concepts with tenured employees. Thus shedding light on the possibility that there is more to dwindling organizational commitment in a seasoned employee than job burnout. Recent research on positive psychological capital is inspired by the idea that the organization’s strength and success is more than its economic, human and social capital. The study of positive psychological capital is a response to the call of psychologists Martin Seligman and Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi’s challenge for the field of psychology to shift its focus from the negative to the positive aspects of human attitude and behavior (Luthans, Luthans, & Luthans, 2004; Larson & Luthans, 2006; Avey, Nimnicht, & Pigeon, 2010). “Psychological capital (PsyCap) is an individual’s positive psychological state of development and is characterized by: (1) having confidence (self-efficacy) to take on and put in the necessary effort to succeed at challenging tasks; (2) making a positive attribution (optimism) about succeeding now and in the future; (3) persevering toward goals and, when necessary, redirecting paths to goals (hope) in order to succeed; and (4) when beset by problems and adversity, sustaining and bouncing back and even beyond (resiliency) to absenteeism attain success” (Luthans, Youssef, & Avolio, 2007 : 3) Review of literature shows that these psychological states of hope, self-efficacy, resiliency, and optimism may, individually and/or collectively (i.e., psychological capital), affect employee attitudes, behaviors and performance. A meta-analysis conducted by Avey, Reichard, Luthans, & Mhatre (2011) showed that PsyCap is positively correlated with desirable work attitudes (satisfaction, commitment and well-being), and behavior (organizational citizenship behaviors), but negatively correlated with undesirable attitudes (cynicism, turnover intentions, and stress and anxiety) and behaviors (workplace deviance). Further, the meta-analysis showed that PsyCap was significantly correlated with The Role of Psychological Capital to Organizational Commitment 97 self-rated, supervisor-rated, and objective measures of job performance (e.g., sales). For example, PsyCap negatively correlated with job stress, intentions to quit, and job search behaviors (Avey, Luthans, & Jensen, 2009). Another variable linked with psychological capital is organizational commitment. For this study, organizational commitment is defined as the psychological basis of a person’s attachment in the organization which would include the desire to identify with the organization due to the similarity of personal values to that of the organization (Caldwell, Chatman, & O’ Reilly, 1990 citing O’ Reilly & Chatman, 1986). Comparing datasets collected from different respondent groups at different intervals, Luthans, Avolio, Avey & Norman (2007) showed that PsyCap contributed to organizational commitment over and beyond the contribution of personality traits (conscientiousness and extraversion). Their research also showed that global measure PsyCap contributed to organizational commitment more significantly than the individual facets did. Interestingly, PsyCap did not only predict desirable organizational attitudes and behavior, and negatively related to those that are undesirable, but it also predicted what Chen and Lim (2012) called ‘strength in diversity’. PsyCap moderately correlates with perceived employability but only slightly with preparatory and active job search. Another research among female nurses in Xi’an City, China, showed significant correlation between PsyCap and organizational commitment, where OC further partially mediated between PsyCap and job burnout (Peng, et al., 2013). On the other hand, a research on absenteeism (Avey, Patera, & West, 2006) showed that respondents’ demographics (age, gender, tenure, level within the organization) were not correlated with the variable but more importantly, the study showed that PsyCap was shown to be a better predictor of absenteeism than organizational commitment and job satisfaction (Avey, et al., 2006). However, in a research conducted by Kipkebut (2013), position tenure was a negative predictor of normative commitment (Kipkebut, 2013), a component of organizational commitment that has to do with one’s “perceived obligation to remain in the organization” (Allen & Meyer, 1990). That is, an employee who has stayed too long in his position becomes ‘frustrated and disillusioned’ (Kipkebut, 2013:30), and his intent to quit increases. In a more recent research tenure was also found to predict a decrease in employees’ general productivity among local 98 Anne C. Camit, Ma. Socorro C. Bacay and Lesil E. Artista govenrment employees in Australia (Muchiri & Ayoko, 2013). In another research conducted by Wang (2014) among 238 Chinese employees, tenure strengthened the relationship between perceived supervisor support and organizational commitment, such that the longer the tenure, the greater the relationship between the two variables. From the discussion above, it can be noted that though there are studies linking commitment and tenure the relationship between variables vary. Moreover, in spite of the studies done linking psychological capital to commitment, considering tenured employees in the context are not studied in depth. Hence, this study further investigates on the role of tenure in the relationship between PsyCap and OC. Figure 1 illustrates the model of the study treating both psychological capital and organizational commitment as a global concepts.
Psychological Capital Organizational Commitment
Fig.-1 : Theoretical Framework of the Study
The broaden and build theory of positive emotions is used in the study to explain the intended relationship of psychological capital to organizational commitment. This theory states that positive emotions can broaden mindsets to build an individual’s personal resources such as creativity and social bonds creating long-term adaptive benefits which can be used in coping successfully for any individual (Friedrickson, 2004) . 2. Method
Descriptive correlational research design was used by the researchers of this study. The design associates the connection between the predictor and the outcome which is psychological capital and organizational commitment respectively. The survey instrument was administered to tenured employees in a private firm in the manufacturing industry using purposive sampling. The researchers provided questionnaires and administered the survey directly to volunteered employees. The employees were given the instruction to answer the survey forms as honestly as possible to make the data valid. From 80 questionnaires that were released, only 57 results were considered valid yielding a final response rate of 71.25%. The Role of Psychological Capital to Organizational Commitment 99 3. Measures
Organizational commitment was measured using an eight item modification of a scale of organizational commitment developed by O’ Reilly and Chatman’s Organizational Commitment Scale (1986) where alpha =.90. Sample items for OC include: “What this organization stands for is important to me.” This measure used a 7-point Likert Scale ranging from 1 having the entry “Completely Disagree” to 7 “Completely Agree.” Psychological Capital was measured using thirty-item scale developed by Luthans, Youssef, et.al. (2007) with a cronbach alpha of .90. Sample item for this measure include “I feel confident analyzing a long-term problem to find a solution.” The measure used a 7-Point Likert Scale ranging from 1 having the entry “Completely Disagree” to 7 “Completely Agree.”
4. Results and Discussion
Descriptive statistics of the study shows in Figure 2 that majority of the respondents are male with 63% followed by the female respondents comprising of 35% of the respondents. From among the group 2% of the population did not answer the entry for gender.
Figure 2. Gender Profile of Respondents
On the other hand, figure 3 on next page states that their average age is 35.6 years old (SD=8.02 years old) with range 27 to 43 years old. 100 Anne C. Camit, Ma. Socorro C. Bacay and Lesil E. Artista
n M SD Range
Respondents 57 35.61 ±8.02 27 to 43
Figure 3. Profile of Respondents in Age
It was hypothesized that tenured employees’ psychological capital is positively correlated to organizational commitment. Using pearson r, there is a significant correlation in the relationship with r = 0.687 at 0.01 level (2-tailed). Tenured employees who have high psychological capital leads to increased organizational commitment. This is consistent to the findings of Arvey et.al. (2008) employees’ positive emotions helps increased their coping mechanism which leads to effective organizational change. Acceptance to change and supporting new strategies as dictated by management shows high organizational commitment. Tenured employees in a organization indicates that they are happy with their organization and that they can cope up with the changes in the orgaization. These is the primary reason why they stayed long in their current organization. The high psychological capital can also be related to high organizational fit. If an employee sees that their values are aligned with the organization, they find satisfaction in their work which explains the why they got tenured. 4.1 Organizational Commitment and PsyCap Results show a strong correlation between OC and PsyCap : Table-1 : Correlation between organizational commitment and psychological capital
Model R R Square Adjusted Std. Error of R Square the Estimate
1 .712a .507 .469 5.298
a Predictors : (Constant) optimism, efficacy, resiliency, hope
Next we tested for the correlation of OC with each of the dimensions of PsyCap. The table of correlations on next page shows that each of the dimensions of PsyCap was significantly correlated with OC. Stepwise linear regression was conducted to further determine the effects of each of the PsyCap measures. Analysis shows that hope and resiliency were better predictors of OC. The Role of Psychological Capital to Organizational Commitment 101
Table-2 : Correlation table
Table-3 : Stepwise linear regression
Model R R Square Adjusted Std. Error of R Square the Estimate 1 .647a .418 .408 5.594 2 .692b .478 .459 5.345 a. Predictors : (Constant), hope; b. Predictors : (Constant), hope, resiliency Among the individual measures under the two domains, item #20 (“At the present time, I am energetically pursuing my goals”), which is a measure of Hope, is the best predictor. This is followed by items #26 (Resiliency: “In my job, I usually manage difficulties one way or another.”), item #22 (Hope: “Right now, I see myself as being pretty successful in my goals.”), and #28 (Resiliency: “I usually take stressful things in my job in stride.”). The regression model summary is as follows : Table-4. Regression table (model summary)
Model R R Square Adjusted Std. Error of R Square the Estimate 1 .666a .444 .434 5.468 2 .760b .578 .562 4.810 3 .789c .623 .602 4.588 4 .811d .658 .631 4.413 a. Predictors : (Constant), Psych Cap 20 b. Predictors : (Constant), Psych Cap 20, Psych Cap 26 102 Anne C. Camit, Ma. Socorro C. Bacay and Lesil E. Artista c. Predictors : (Constant), Psych Cap 20, Psych Cap 26, Psych Cap 22 d. Predictors : (Constant), Psych Cap 20, Psych Cap 26, Psych Cap 22, Psych Cap 28 Finally, we tested for the effect, if any, of tenure in the relationship between OC and PsyCap measures. Results showed that tenure did not correlate with any of the variables. This means that the attenuating effect of tenure is not statistically significant for this sample set. This is possibly because of small sample size. Table-5 : Attenuating effect of tenure in the relationship between organizational commitment to psychological capital
N Valid 57 Missing 0 Mean 11.22 Median 12.00 Mode 18
5. Recommendation
From the results of the study given in the previous paragraphs, the researchers suggest exploring psychological capital as a faceted concept in studying organizational commitment. And since hope turned out to be the best predictor than tenure in increasing organizational commitment, find avenues to explore developing this among employees. Studies to further investigate causes of hope for example could assist in developing this facet of psychological capital. This is consistent with the study of Luthans, Youssef and Avolio (2007) which mentions that in as much as the best places to work are those where employees are provided, the “opportunities, resources, and flexibility for sustainable growth, learning, and development (p. 6)”, and whereas PsyCap predicts positive organizational attitudes and behaviors, helping employees to develop their PsyCap would benefit both the organization and the employees. A series of studies further affirms the suggestion of using psychological capital in employee development especially among managers and staff. Hope, optimism, self-efficacy and resilience, being state-like psychological resources, are open to training and development (Luthans & Youssef, 2004; Luthans, Avolio, Avey, & Norman, 2007). Furthermore, the researchers highly recommend nurturing positive emotions because it fuels resiliency and catapults people to greater heights as they also elicit positive emotions as a response reaction from others when they manifest the same (Friedrickson, 2004). This is consistent to the broaden-and-build-theory of positive emotions. Managers and practitioners can The Role of Psychological Capital to Organizational Commitment 103 make use of this cost effective strategy in all stages of human resource development. This can acculturate employees towards a culture of mental and physical wellness which enables personnel to not only signal productivity but also create peak states in productivity (Friedrickson, 2004 ) (Caldwell, Chatman, & O’ Reilly, 1990). Lastly, the researchers envision that this study would open avenues for more studies involving larger sample sizes and explore other industries to increase the generalizability of the results. This can start initiatives to pay more attention to positive psychology so it can take equal footing with operational and strategic goals of the company as maintenance of this is critical to making employees stay committed in a company. Tenured employees last very long in organizations for various reasons. Ensuring that these seasoned mentors display positive realistic job previews to new hires begin with consistent efforts to reward manifestations of positive emotions or psychological capital in the work place. Though the interest in psychological capital is not as exhaustive as negative emotions e.g. dark triad etc. it is more close to our innate human nature as Friedrickson’s theory mentions: that positive emotions seldom occur in life-threatening situations which makes it more likely to outlast (Friedrickson, 2004). References
Allen, N. J., & Meyer, J. P., “The measurement and antecedents of affective, continuance, and normative commitment to the organization”, Journal of Occupational Psychology, Vol. 63, 1990, 1–18. Avey, J. B., Luthans, F., & Jensen, S. M., “Psychological Capital : A positive resource for combating employee stress and turnover”, Human Resource Management, Vol. 48 (5), September-October 2009, 677-693. doi:10.1002/hrm.20294 Avey, J. B., Nimnicht, J. L., & Pigeon, N. G., “Two field studies examining the association between positive psychological capital and employee performance”, Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 31(5), 2010, 384-401. Arvey, J. B., Luthans F. & Wernsing S., “Can Positive Employees Help Positive Organizational Change? Impact of Psychological Capital and Emotions on Relevant Attitudes and Behaviors”, The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, Vol. 44 (1), 2008, 48-70. Avey, J. B., Patera, J. L., & West, B. J., “The implications of positive capital on employee absenteeism”, Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, Vol. 13 (2), 2006, 42-60. Avey, J. B., Reichard, R. J., Luthans, F., & Mhatre, K. H., “Meta-analysis of the impact of positive psychological capital on employee attitudes, behaviors, and 104 Anne C. Camit, Ma. Socorro C. Bacay and Lesil E. Artista performance”, Human Resource Development Quarterly, Vol. 2 (22), Summer 2011, 127-152. doi:10.1002/hrdq.20070 Caldwell, D., Chatman, J., & O’ Reilly, C., “Buidling organizational commitment : A multifirm study”, Journal of Occupational Psychology, Vol. 63, 1990, 245-261. Cetin, F., “The effect of organizational psychological capital on the attitudes of commitment and satisfaction: A public sample in Turkey”, European Journal of Social Sciences, Vol. 21 (3), 2011, 373-380. Chen, D. J., & LIm, V. K., “Strength in adversity”, Journal of Organizational Behavior, Vol. 33, June 25, 2012, 811-839. doi:10.1002/job.1814 Etebarian, A., Tavakoli, S., & Abzari, M., “The relationship between psychological capital and organizational commitment”, African Journal of Business Management, Vol. 6 (14), April 11, 2012, 5057=5060. doi:10.5897/AJBM11.2844 Francis, P., (2015 January 17). Retrieved January 17, 2015, from Brainy Quote: http://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/quotes/p/popefranci521191.html Friedrickson, B. L., “The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions”, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, 2004 (359), 1367-1377. Kipkebut, D. J., “The effects of demographic charateristics on organisational commitment, hob satisfaction and turnover intentions: The case of employees in Kenyan universities”, Journal of Organisation and Human Behaviour, Vol. 2 (1), 2013, 20-33. Larson, M., & Luthans, F., “Potential added value of psychological capital in predicting work attitudes”, Journal of leadership & organizational studies, Vol. 13 (1), 2006, 45-62. Luthans, F., & Youssef, C. M., “Human, social, and now positive psychological capital management: Investing in people for competitive advantage”, Organizational Dynamics, 33, 2004, 143-160. Retrieved from http://doi.org/bdpv5w Luthans, F., Avey, J. B., Avolio, B. J., Norman, S. M., & Combs, G. M., “Psychological capital development : Toward a micro-intervention”, Journal of Organizational Behaviour, Vol. 27, 2006, 387-393. doi:10.1002/job.373 Luthans, F., Avolio, B. J., Avey, J. B., & Norman, S. M., “Positive psychological capital: Measurement and relationship with performance and satisfaction”, Personnel Psychology, Vol. 60 (3), Autumn 2007, 541-572. Luthans, F., Avolio, B. J., Avey, J. B., & Steven, N., “Positive Psychological Capital: Mesurement and relationship with performance and satisfaction”, Personnel Psychology, Vol. 60 (3), 2007, 541-572. Luthans, F., B, A. J., Avolio, B. J., & Peterson, S. J., “The development and resulting performance impact of positive psychological capital”, Human Resource Development Quarterly, Spring 2010, 41-67. doi:10.1002/hrdq The Role of Psychological Capital to Organizational Commitment 105
Luthans, F., Luthans, K. W., & Luthans, B. C. (2004, January-February). “Positive psychological capital : Beyond human and social capital”, Business Horizons, Vol. 47 (1), 45-50. Luthans, F., Youssef, C. M., & Avolio, B. J., Psychological Capital: Developing the Human Competitive Edge, New York : Oxford University Press, 2007. Meyer, J. P., Stanley, D. J., Herscovitch, L., & Topolnytsky, L., “Affective, continuance, and normative commitment to the organization: A meta-analysis of antecedents, correlates, and consequences”, Journal of Vocational Behavior, 2002, 20-52. doi:10.1006/jvbe.2001.1842 Muchiri, M. K., & Ayoko, O. B., “Linking demographic diversity to organisational outcomes: The moderating role of transformational leadership”, Leadership & Organization Development Journal, Vol. 34 (5), 2013, 384-406. doi:10.1108/ LODJ- 11-0086 Peng, J., Jiang, X., Zhang, J., Xiao, R., Song, Y., Feng, X., . . . Miao, D., “The impact of psychological capital on job burnout of Chinese nurses: The mediator role of organizatinal commitment”, PLOS One, 2013, 1-7. Retrieved from www. plosone.org Simons, J. C., & Buitendach, J. H., “Psychological capital, work engagement and organisational commitment amongst call centre employees in South Africa. SA”, Journal of Industrial Psychology/SA Tydskrif vir Bedryfsielkunde, Vol. 39 (2), 2013,12. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.4012/sajip.v39i2.1071 Wang, Z., “Perceived supervisor support and organizational citizenship behavior: The role of organizational commitment”, International Journal of Business and Social Science, Vol. 5 (1), January 2014. Zhang, X., Li, Y.-L., Ma, S., Hu, J., & Jiang, L., “A structured readhing materials-based intervention program to develop the psychological capital of Chinese employees”, Social Behavior and Personality, Vol. 42(3), 2014. doi:http: //dx.doi.org/10.2224/sbp.2014.42.3.503 Appendix : Questionnaire
Control Number : ...... Dear Respondent: This project concentrates how certain traits and procedures might be improved to enhance commitment among employees. It will take approximately 10-15 minutes to complete. When you have completed the survey, please place in the box provided. Rest assured the responses are completely confidential and anonymous, so please be as honest and open as possible. 106 Anne C. Camit, Ma. Socorro C. Bacay and Lesil E. Artista Section A : Background Information The following information is only needed to help analyze the data and draw more meaningful conclusions from the survey results. Your responses will remain completely confidential. Your survey will be handled with confidentiality and no one at your current organization will have access to this information. We appreciate your help in providing these very important information.
01. Gender (please encircle): 1. Male 2. Female 02. Age (as of last birthday):
03. What is your position in the company?
04. How long have you been working as a tenured employee?
For the sections below, think about your current situation in the organization as you answer the questions which follow Section B : About Commitment Please use the following rating scale :
Completely Disagree Somewhat Undecided Somewhat Agree Completely Disagree Disagree Agree Agree 5 1 2 3 4 6 7
05. What this organization stands for is important to me. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
06. I talk up this organization to my friends as a great 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 organization to work for
07. If the values of this organization were different, I would not 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 be as attached to the organization
08. Since joining this organization, my personal values and 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 those of the organization have become more similar
09. I am proud to tell others that I am part of this organization 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
10. The reason I prefer this organization to other organizations 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 is because of what it stands for, its values
11. I feel a sense of “ownership” for this organization rather 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 than being just an employee
12. My attachment to this organization is primarily based on the 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 similarity between my values and those of the organization The Role of Psychological Capital to Organizational Commitment 107 Section C : About Psychological Capital
13. I feel confident analyzing a long-tem problem to find a 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 solution
14. In my current job, I feel confident in representing my area of 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 work in meetings with management
15. In my current job, I feel confident that I am able to contribute 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 to discussions about the company’s strategy
16. In my current job, I feel confident about helping to set 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 targets/goals
17. In my current job, I feel confident contacting people outside 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 the company (e.g., suppliers, customers) to discuss problems
18. I feel confident presenting information to a group of 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 colleagues in the current field
19. If I should find myself facing a problem in my job , I could 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 think of many ways to get out of it
20. At the present time, I am energetically pursuing my goals 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
21. There are lots of ways around my job-related problems 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
22. Right now, I see myself as being pretty successful in my 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 goals
23. I can think of many ways to reach my current goals 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
24. At this time, I am meeting the goals that I have set for myself 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
25. When I have a setback in my job, I have trouble recovering 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 from it
26. In my job , I usually mange difficulties one way or another 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
27. I can be “on my own”, in my job , if I have to 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
28. I usually take stressful things in my job in stride 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
29. I can get through difficult times in my job because I’ve 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 experienced the difficulty before
30. I can feel I can handle many things at a time in my job 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
31. When things are uncertain for me in my job, I usually expect 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 the best
32. If something can go wrong for me during my job , it will 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
33. I always look on the bright side of things regarding my job 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 108 Anne C. Camit, Ma. Socorro C. Bacay and Lesil E. Artista
34. I’m optimistic about what will happen to me in my job 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
35. While on the job , things never work out the way I want them 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
36. While on the job, I maintain the attitude that something 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 positive will always turn out no matter how difficult it might be
37. There is generally a strong demand in job market for people 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 like me at the present time
38. There are plenty of vacancies in the area where I hold a job 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
39. I can easily find out about job opportunities in my chosen 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 area of work
40. The skills and abilities I possess are what employers are 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 looking for
41. If circumstances arise, I am generally confident of success in 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 the job interview and selection process
42. If circumstances arise, feel I could get any job as long as my 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 skills and experiences are reasonable and relevant
Thank You! ê
Article Received on June 01, 2015; Accepted on July 18, 2015 11
Role of NABARD in the Development of Agriculture Sector in India
V. K. Gautam* and Yogesh Kumar**
NABARD is a Development Bank with a mandate for providing and regulating credit and other facilities for the promotion and development of agriculture, small-scale industries, cottage and village industries, handicrafts and other rural crafts and other allied economic activities in rural areas with a view to promoting integrated rural development and securing prosperity of rural areas, and for matters connected therewith or incidental thereto. The aim of the present paper is to examine role of NABARD in the development of agriculture sector in India. It has been emphasized that NABARD is not just a bank, it is an institution primarily intended to develop agriculture. [Keywords : Agriculture sector, NABARD, Agricultural credit, Rural poverty] 1. Introduction
India predominantly an agricultural economy till date, remained a food deficit country for about two decades after its independence. The situation started gradually improving after the mid sixties with introduction of High Yielding Variety (HYV) seeds, especially of rice and wheat, improved technology and infra-structural development, especially irrigation, rural roads, rural electrification together with opportunities for assured and remunerative marketing which ushered India in the era of Green Revolution. Today India is more or less self dependent in the area of food production and scope still remains there for improvement in the field of pulses, oilseeds and the areas of rainfed farming. * Principal, N. A. S. (PG) College, Meerut, Uttar Pradesh (India) E-mail:
With the introduction of social control over banks in 1967, and the nationalization of the 14 commercial banks in 1969 and subsequently 6 banks in 1980 had one important aim, namely to ensure that banks to play a dynamic role in the development process of rural and backward areas and for the uplift of the poorer sections of society. To fill the gap between cooperatives and nationalized banks Regional Rural Banks sponsored by Commercial banks were established in 1975. The intention in having these new banks was that there should be and institutional device which combined the feel and familiarity with the rural problems which the cooperatives possessed and the degree or business, organization and modernized outlook which the commercial banks had, with a view to reach the rural poor more extensively. Over the years the institutional credit system of agriculture and rural sector continued to suffer from certain basic short coming viz emphasis on credit worthiness of borrowers, rather than on purpose of loans, scattered lending to individuals, lack of much needed bias in favour of small and marginal farmers, artisans. It is in this context that need for imparting development orientation to banking in the rural sector was felt. 3. NABARD and its Role in the Development of Agriculture Sector
The setting up of National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) in July 1982 is the landmark in the evolution of agricultural and rural Role of NABARD in the Development of Agriculture Sector in India 111 credit in India. Designed specifically as an organizational device for providing undivided attention, forceful direction and pointed focus to the credit problems of the rural sector, NABARD is now the apex bank for agricultural and rural credit. It inherited the credit functions of Agriculture Credit Department of RBI and the refinance functions of the erstwhile Agricultural Refinance and Development Corporation and has, during last 25 years, built upon that legacy. NABARD, today, is a household word, especially in rural India. It can confidently be said that most of the innovative financial products and services developed and mainstreamed over the last two decades are either directly attributed to NABARD or have been positively influenced by NABARD. An in-depth analysis of organization objectives and operations of NABARD has been made in preceding chapters. Based on our analysis broad conclusions are forwarded as under : u NABARD as an apex institution in the field of agricultural finance has the objective of promoting the health and strength of credit institutions forming, the front of credit delivery system of credit institutions forming, the front of credit delivery system i.e Co-operative, commercial banks and RRBs, to coordinate the activities of different agencies engaged in the development work at the field level and to keep liaison with government and other agencies. u The management of NABARD is vested in a broad based Board of 15 members which includes persons from cooperative banks, commercial banks, RBI, State Governments and experts in rural finance, rural economies rural development, handicrafts etc. u The entire work of NABARD has been divided in fourteen department. These department are further divided inti divisions and cells according to the requirement. u During the 25 years, NABARD has gone throgh three phases : 3.1 The First Phase In the first phase from 1982-91, food grain production rose from 129.52 MT to 168.38 MT and the credit flow to agriculture increased from ` 4351 crore to ` 14,332 crore. NABARD's refinance support increased from ` 2042 crore to ` 5257 crore. In those early years, NABARD's refinance was intended to play a supporting role to cooperative Banks and RRBs. 3.2 The Second Phase The second phase was during the years 1991-2001. During this period, food grain production rose from 168.38 MT to 212.85 MT and credit flow to agriculture 112 V. K. Gautam and Yogesh Kumar increased from ` 14,332 crore, to ` 61,942 crore. NABARD's refinance support increased from ` 5,287 crore to ` 14,294 crore. Having established its crore fuction of refinance, NABARD shifted its focus towards other development issue e.g micro finance through SHGs, rural infrastructure, etc. 3.3 The Third Phase In the third phase, which is still continuing began in 2002. Since then farm credit flow has increased from ` 61,942 crore in 2001-02 to ` 2,03,296 crore in 2006-07. NABARD's refinance has also increased from ` 14,572 crore to ` 21,917 crore during the same period. However a point of concern for the same period has been more or less stagnant food grain production and continuing low growth rate in real GDP, originating from agriculture and allied activities, which was a mere 2.7% in 2006-07. While a minimum growth rate of 4% in agriculture sector is imperative to achieve the goal of sustained and inclussive economic growth. u The compound annual growth rate (CAGR) for grand total of refinance disbursement by NABARD is found 11.94% p.a. during the study period. The CAGR of short term refinance has been 9.26% p.a; while medium ter, refinance has experienced only 3.47% p.a growth over the entire period of study. Loans to state governments or long term refinance shows a growth rate of 6.37% p.a. during the same period indicating a better growth rate than medium term loans. u Total credit amount made available by NABARD in 1982 was Rs. 2,055 crore, proving our hypothesis that more credit facilities are made availabe to the people of rural India by NABARD, and its refinance function has attracted more attention and resources over the year than other. Analysis of term wise performance of refinance by NABARD indicates that the decline in (CAGR) of refinance support during last 12 years has serious implications for agricultural growth of the country. u Analysis of state wise performance of refinance disbursement by NABARD indicates that most of the states show a rising trend with small fluctuations. CAGR of refinance in Himachal Pradesh is Tamil Nadu etc. The growth rates of refinance disbursement of major states like Punjab. Haryana U.P., M.P. etc. are significantly lower than the Nationla level. u From the point of view of purpose-wise refinance disbursement by NABARD, analysis reveals that CAGR of non-farm sector is highest i.e 25.83% followed by land development, animal husbandry, farm mechanization and plantation & horticulture in that order. Refinance Role of NABARD in the Development of Agriculture Sector in India 113
disbursement in case of minor irrigation Govt. sponsored programmes and fisheries has not been found quite well. It is a matter of serious concern and point to a low agriculture development in future. u Inter regional analysis of refinance disbursement by NABARD indicates that CAGR in eastern region in highest i.e. 11.77% p.a followed by central region, NE region, Southern region and western region analysis Indicate a rising trend in all regions except NE region and slight down ward trends in western region after 2001-02. u The analysis of agency wise performance of refinance disbursement by NABARD over the period of study indicates that CAGR of state Cooperative Bank is highest i.e 20.3% p.a. followed by RRBs and cooperative societies, and commercial banks. u The inter-regional analysis of agency performance indicates that CAGR of northern-region L.P. 12.42% p.a. is highest followed by N.E. region, central region, eastern region and western region over the entire period of study. This analysis indicates why northern region is advanced in India from the point of view of agriculture development. The trends of inter-regional analysis also indicates that trends are constant in NE region. u From the ongoing analysis in the previous chapter it is clear that institutional finance for rural and agricultural sector has increased since the inception of NABARD. It has increased from 63.2% in 1981 to 70.4% in 2001, whereas the finance from non-institutional agencies has come down from 36.8% to 29.6% during the same period. It has proved our hypothesis that since the inception of NABARD, more credit facilities have been made available to the people of rural India from financial institutions. However NABARD has made tremendous job to achieve its goals and objectives for which it was founded but still some areas of serious concerns remain their which may be outlined as following : l 2/3 of the agriculture in India is still rainfed and contribution of agriculture and allied sector to the GDP is continuously decreasing Objective of achieving 4% p.a. growth rate in the agriculture sector is still mirage, which is very much essential for sustained and inclusive economic growth. l In the recent past deceleration has been observed in the production of good grain and the benefits of green revolution has resulted in the regional and crop imbalances. A steady rise in population and lowering area of cultivation due to urbanization poses a serious future threat. 114 V. K. Gautam and Yogesh Kumar l The other issue of immediate concern is the presently high level of financial exclusion. The NSSO Survey 2003 reveals that as much as 51% of the farmers' household do not access debt at all and only 27% of farmers receive institutional credit and most of this credit is received by medium and large farmers. l The another issue which needs to be tackled, concerns the high level of rural indebtedness from non-institutional sources. The burden falls rather heavily upon small and marginal farmers and the problems gets accentuated in case of repeated crop failure on account of successive natural calamities. l The fifth issue pertains to enhancing productivity and value addition to agricultural output. Faster agricultural growing will require diversification into higher value output, improving avenues for value addition and bringing about vertical and horizontal integration in the supply chain. l The next issue pertains to rural infrastructure which covers irrigation, road connectivity, housing water supply, rural electrification, telephony etc. l The last but not least is that the compulsions of ongoing fiscal management policies and financial reforms, together with increased market orientation, have resulted in the withdrawal of many funding avenues of NABARD. It has to depend on market borrowing, whereas NABARD is expected to land at concessional rates. This has led to declining margins for NABARD. 4. Suggested Policy Measures for NABARD
While NABARD has a proud of achievements including the introduction of innovative products, there are a number of ideas which NABARD could examine for inclusion in its growing portfolio of activities : u It has been observed during this research work that many of the Chairmen of NABARD did not complete their full term of five years. Non-completion of the tenure of Chairman jeopardiscs the working of the institution. Therefore measures should be taken to ensure that the Chairman completes his full term in the office, it will enable him to prepare long term plans for the growth and development of NABARD. Further it should be ensured that all the members of Board are appointed and attend the meeting regularly. Role of NABARD in the Development of Agriculture Sector in India 115
u The Government of India has supported the idea of State-specific and agro climatic zones based agricultural plans. A state plan, in turn, should be prepared on the basis of district-specific agricultural plans that reflect the opportunities and needs of each district. For this NABARD should open its branches at each district to help and guide the lead banks and State Government to draw up district-specific and State-specific plans. u Availability of adequate financial resources is essential for efficient working of an institution. Since institution like NABARD requires huge amont of funds for its proper functioning, it becomes imperative that Governments should make regular contribution in the fund. u In view of low rate of return (ROR) on capital employed and total assets, NABARD should maintain profitability and productivity. u NABARD has to play a protective role in ensuring minium 4% p.a. agricultural growth by ensuring that credit plus approaches in contributing to improved productivity in terms of trade and risk management at the farm-hold level. Secondly, NABARD has to facilitate sustainble and equitable growth of agriculture both across regions and social groups. There is a need for robust policy for sustainable natural resources management based on livelihood enhancement policy. Thirdly, NABARD has to play a leadership role ensuring a vibrant and responsive rural financial system which supports financial inclusion through a mode of relationship banking. It has to build not only capacity among rural banks but also pioneer adoption of information technology such as biometrics cards in rural banking. u NABARD has to provide more grant in-aid for research projects in the agriculture technology. More emphasis on biotechnology is necessary for improving productivity and production, Networking with ICAR, Agriculture Universities, Kisan Vigyan Kendras is needed for R&D in bio-tech areas. u NABARD should actively engage in developing a long term credit policy for rural finance clearly laying role of various agencies in our multi-agency approach to bring a role clarity for all the agencies. u A specific and important role has to be played by NABARD in the area of infrastructure. However by 2006 NABARD has allocated Rs. 61,000 crore through RIDF, still though more is required. A subsidiary for rural infrastructure may be formed, which should be given the responsibility of mobilizing funds, if require, from overseas. 116 V. K. Gautam and Yogesh Kumar u It has to educate farmers on enonomic climate of the country. NABARD may conduct short duration training programmes for farmers on the basic skills and application of new technology. u NABARD should take up 'management role' in RRB by raising share holdings to reach village level peple more effectively. It could assist RRBs in capacity building, transparency by adoption of it, supply chain credit and insurance. u Differential rate of interest may be extended to the entire rural credit and priority sector lending. If NABARD has difficulty in reducing interest rates, Government of India should come forward to support this move. u NABARD should have a strong technical wing with competent people in various disciplines such as commericial agriculture, agro processing, marketing risk mitigation. The technical officers should be exposed to the field for constant up-gradation of their technical skills. Its junior Officers should develop 'Specialization' and 'strong perspective'. u NABARD needs to focus on the quality of Self Help Groups for sustainable SHG movement. It should facilitate common standards, book keeping system and self regulatory mechanism for the SHG members. u The non grain crop sector and animal husbandry are clocking faster growth pointing towards diversification that is taking place in agriculture sector. It is a big business for NABARD and it should see that happen to reduce the dependence on core agriculture and efforts must be made that non farm sector is also diversified. 5. Conclusion
In conclusion, it may be said that NABARD has carved for itself a special place in the unfolding story of India's economic development. A journey of this kind has no end. Every mile that we travel throws up new challenges and new opportunities. It is the combination to pause or stop and never to band or yield. NABARD is not just a bank, it is an institution primarily intended to develop agriculture. Hope and trust that NABARD make a world class rural banking a possibility in the country. ê
Article Received on May 14, 2015; Accepted on June 25, 2015 12
Development of Jewellery From Left Overs
G. Kaur* and D. Kaur**
The investigation entitled “Development of jewellery from left overs” was carried out in Ludhiana city. An interview schedule was employed to study the preferences of ninety respondents between the age group of 17-25 years, selected through purposive random sampling technique from three colleges of Ludhiana city. The results of the study revealed that majority of the respondents were students between age group of 17-21 and were higher secondary, belonging to nuclear families and had monthly family income ranging between ` 25,000-50,000. Majority of the respondents, i.e. 87.78 per cent were aware of jewellery developed from left overs and 64.44 per cent were interested to reusing it. Where as 66.67 per cent of the respondents were interested in purchasing jewellery. Most of the left overs was collected by the investigator. On the basis of the preferences of respondents, two jewellery miniatures of each waste were developed and were shown to panel of judges. On the basis of the judges preferences, the most preferred designs were used to develop the jewellery. [Keywords : Design, Jewellery, Left overs, Miniatures] 1. Introduction Waste is a term generally used to describe the materials we throw away. Any material that is unused and rejected as worthless or unwanted is called waste material. Waste includes all items that people no longer have any use for, which they either intend to get rid of or have already discarded. Many items can be considered as waste e.g., household rubbish, sewage sludge, wastes from manufacturing activities, packaging items, discarded cars, old televisions, * M.Sc Student, Department of Apparel and Textile Science, College of Home Science, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana-141004, Punjab (India) E-mail:
To counter the problem of waste produced, many efforts are undertaken to reduce its negative contribution towards environment. One of such measures is textile recycling- the reuse as well as reproduction of new products and accessories. This importance of reuse of waste does not just lie in the fact that it is reusable waste but in its usefulness to reduce the human sufferings, so the study is planned to develop jewellery from left overs with the following objectives : 1. To identify and collect different types of left overs capable of being used for jewellery. 2. To develop jewellery designs and select the most suitable designs for making jewellery. 3. Methodology
This investigation was conducted in Ludhiana city. Three colleges of the city namely Government College for Girls, Bharat Nagar Chowk, Guru Nanak Girls Development of Jewellery From Left Overs 119
College, Model Town and College of Home Science, PAU were selected for studying the preferences for different jewellery. Thirty respondents were selected from each college. The total samples of 90 colleges going girls between the age group 17-25 years were selected purposively as the respondents from this particular age group were more receptive towards new trends in fashion. An interview schedule was framed for collection of data regarding preferences of the respondents for development of designs for different jewellery from left over. On the basis of information collected from the respondents regarding the development of jewellery, ten miniature jewellery sets were developed. The developed miniatures of each waste were shown to a panel of ten judges comprising faculty of College of Home Science, PAU, Ludhiana. The most preferred ten miniatures were used to prepare jewellery sets by using left overs. 4. Results and Discussion
The present study entitled “Development of jewellery from left overs” was conducted to develop jewellery by using left overs on the basis of wearability, colour combination, overall impact and appearance of the developed jewellery was also studied. Awareness regarding jewellery Preference of respondents regarding making developed from left overs (n=90) jewellery from left overs at home (n=90)
Fig.1 : Awareness regarding jewellery Fig.2 : Preference of respondents regarding developed from left overs making jewellery from left overs at home
The data in Fig.1 deals with the awareness of the respondents regarding jewellery developed from left overs. In fig. 1, it can be seen that 87.78 per cent of the respondents were aware of jewellery made from left overs while 12.22 per cent were not aware of it. The Fig 2 shows that 32.22 per cent of the respondents 120 G. Kaur and D. Kaur were not interested in making the jewellery at home while a large percentage (67.78 %) was interested in making jewellery at home. Table-1 : Constraints faced by respondents in making jewellery from left overs at home (n=32*)
Problems Frequency Percentage
Lack of knowledge 20 62.50 Lack of Skill 29 90.63 Lack of techniques 12 37.50
Lack of equipments 5 21.86 *Multiple responses
The findings in table-1 show that 90.63 per cent of the respondents were constrained to make jewellery at home due to lack of skill, followed by 62.50 per cent of the respondents who faced this problem due to lack of knowledge whereas 37.50 per cent of the respondents facing problem due to lack of techniques. Unavailability of equipment was stated to a constraint by 21.86 per cent of the respondents. Table-2 : Motivating factors for utilizing left overs for developing jewellery (n=58*)
Factors Frequency Percentage
Personal use articles 14 24.13
Starting small scale business 12 20.69
Utilization of waste 17 29.31
Qualitative time 15 25.86
Create new design 13 22.41 *Multiple responses The factors regarding the development of jewellery from left overs have been furnished in table-2. The maximum numbers of the respondents were utilizing the waste for developing jewellery from left overs i.e. 29.31 per cent and 25.86 per cent of the respondents were interested in developing jewellery to spent qualitative time. Where as 24.13 per cent and 22.41 per cent of the respondents were interested to develop personal use articles and were also enthusiastic to create new design respectively. Rest 20.69 per cent of the respondents was interested in starting small scale business. Development of Jewellery From Left Overs 121
Fig. 3 : Interest of respondents according to practice of purchase of jewellery developed from left overs (n=90) The results illustrate that 66.67 per cent of the respondents were interested in buying the jewellery developed from left overs while 33.33 per cent were not interested in it. The following table shows preferences of respondents for the development of jewellery from left overs : Table-3 : Preferences of respondents for surface accessory material (n=90)
Accessories Order of preferences WMS Ranks
I II III IV V
Shells 18 18 9 18 22 2.74 IV (20.00) (20.00) (10.00) (20.00) (24.44)
Ribbon 11 17 28 19 20 2.94 III (22.22) (12.22) (18.89) (31.11) (21.11)
Beads/stones 19 17 21 25 4 3.11 II (21.11) (18.89) (23.33) (27.78) (4.44)
Decorative 16 10 25 20 7 2.69 V Buttons (17.78) (11.11) (27.78) (22.22) (7.77)
Wire (silver, 26 28 7 8 37 3.51 I metal, plastic) (28.89) (31.11) (7.77) (8.88) (41.11) Figures in parentheses indicate percentages Weighted Mean Score - WMS Kruskal –Wallis H-test H=1.25* *Significant at 5 per cent The data presented in table-3 indicated that wires, beads and ribbons were the most preferred decorative material to be used for the development of 122 G. Kaur and D. Kaur jewellery from left overs and their weighted mean scores were 3.51, 3.11 and 2.94 given first, second and third ranks, respectively. Shells were given fourth rank with weighted mean score of 2.74. Decorative buttons were the least preferred decorative material. Since the sample size is large the Kruskal –Wallis H-test statistically follows c2distribution=9.49. The Kruskal –Wallis H-test i.e. H=1.25* was found to be significantly different from each other at 5 per cent in all the cases. Table-4 : Attributes considered by the respondents in jewellery developed from left overs (n=90)
Attributes of developed jewellery Frequency Percentage
Wearability 10 11.11 Colour combination 50 55.56
Overall impact 14 15.56
Appearance 16 17.77
The data regarding the attributes to be considered while developing jewellery from left overs has been presented in table-4. The data revealed that 55.56 per cent, of the respondents selected jewellery due to the colourful combination, 17.77 per cent, were preferred due to the appearance of design of the jewellery followed by 15.56 per cent, due to their overall impact and only 11.11 per cent, of the respondents were of the opinion that the wearability used attract them to purchase the products. Table-5 : Factors affecting purchase of the jewellery developed from left overs (n=90)
Accessories Order of preferences WMS Ranks
I II III
Price 47 23 20 2.30 I (33.30) (14.44) (11.11)
Appearance 35 28 27 2.09 II (27.77) (15.55) (30.00)
Durability 19 25 46 1.70 III (10.00) (22.22) (30.00) Figures in parentheses indicate percentages Weighted Mean Score - WMS Kruskal–Wallis H-test H=0.62** *Significant at 5 per cent Development of Jewellery From Left Overs 123
Many economical and socio-cultural factors influence the purchase of jewellery. The data shown in table-5 revealed that price, was the most influenced factor (weighted mean score 2.30) and hence was given the first rank. Appearance, with a weighted mean score 2.09 was given the second rank and durability was at the third place (weighted mean score 1.70) respectively. Since the sample size is large the Kruskal –Wallis H-test statistically follows c2distribution=5.99. The Kruskal –Wallis H-test i.e. H=0.62* was found to be significantly different from each other at 5 per cent in all the cases. 4.1 Selection of Miniature Jewellery developed from Left Overs For the development of jewellery sets from left overs, preferred waste i.e. buttons, textured sheets, toothpicks, cardboards and wires were used. For single jewellery design two miniatures were developed and were show to panel of judges for the final selection. Table 6 reveals that Design A2 with a weighted mean score 1.60, was selected for the development of jewellery from left over buttons, Design B1, with a weighted mean score 1.60 was selected for development of jewellery from left papers, Design C2 with (weighted mean score 1.70) was selected for developing jewellery from used toothpicks, In the case of leftover cardboard Design D1 (weighted mean score 1.70) was selected and
Design E1 (weighted mean score 1.90) was selected for the jewellery development from waste wires. The study by Kaur (2014) also developed accessories from leftover/waste of Zari /Brocade fabrics. Table-6 : Weighted mean score of panel of judges according to their preferences regarding the designs of jewellery developed from left overs (n=10)
Designs WMS Ranks
Buttons
A1 1.40 II
A2 1.60 I
Textured sheets
B1 1.60 I
B2 1.40 II
Toothpicks
C1 1.30 II
C2 1.70 I 124 G. Kaur and D. Kaur
Cardboards
D1 1.70 I
D2 1.30 II
Wires
E1 1.90 I
E2 1.10 II Weighted Mean Score-WMS
4.2 Details of the Jewellery developed from Left Overs The investigator selected five the most preferred jewellery designs evaluated by panel of judges. The details of the jewellery have been furnished as follows:
Jewellery A2
Jewellery A2 was a set of necklace and earrings developed by using leftover buttons. The pattern was made by joining the buttons together as shown in design A2 (Plate I). For embellishments having buttons a floral pattern buttons were used. A chain was attached on the edges of the neckpiece and earrings are made with single button pattern as shown in the design.
Jewellery B1
Jewellery B1 was a set of necklace and earrings developed from textured sheets. The neckpiece had a three colours i.e. silver, golden and pink neckpiece and was made from left papers (Plate II). Black stylized flower buttons were used to embellish and finish the neck piece and earrings were made in pink and golden colour.
Jewellery C2
The design C1 had a neckpiece made from used toothpicks made by weaving ribbon through alternate toothpicks. The earrings were made by pasting ribbon on toothpicks (Plate III). Beads were used for the embellishment while a silver hard wire was used to tie it.
Jewellery D1
Jewellery set D1 was developed from cardboard that was cut into round floral shapes in three different sizes. All these were joined with each other to make a single floral pattern. Than all these composite floral patterns were joined together as shown in design D1 by passing wire through it (Plate IV). Development of Jewellery From Left Overs 125
Plate-I : Jewellery A2 Plate-II : Jewellery Plate-III : Jewellery developed from left B1 developed from C2 developed from buttons textured sheets toothpicks
Plate-IV : Jewellery Plate- V : Jewellery D1 developed from E1 developed from cardboards wires
Jewellery E1
Jewellery E1 a golden coloured necklace and earrings set was developed by using waste wires (Plate V). Wires were folded in a circular shape to make this jewellery set.
5. Conclusion
It is concluded that development of jewellery form left overs, would provide entrepreneurs a new idea for making use of different left overs to produce new products along with different accessories to start with very less investments. The results related to design development and colour combinations would be beneficial to the housewife’s to utilize the left overs at home. 126 G. Kaur and D. Kaur References
Anonymous (2009) Reusing waste textile and clothing.http://www.humananova.org/en/ columns/0/2/reusing-waste-textile-and-clothing-products-in-a-way-which-avoids-thro wing-the-items-away/ Davis, M. L. and S. J. Masten (2004) what is waste. http://scp.eionet.europa.eu/ themes/waste; also see, Davis, M. L. and S. J. Masten, Principles of Environmental Engineering and Science, New York : McGraw Hill, 2004. Kaur, B., Development of Eco-Fashion Accessories from Leftover/Waste of Zari /Brocade Fabrics, M. Sc. thesis, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, India, 2014. ê
Article Received on June 10, 2015; Accepted on June 25, 2015 13
Adolescents’ Personality Traits and Attitudes towards Mate Selection
Pratima* and Mukta Garg**
The present study was conducted to find out personality traits and attitude of adolescents towards mate selection. Two reputed institute of 6th zone of Kanpur city namely HBTI, Nawabganj and C. S. A. University of Agriculture & Technology, Company Bagh were selected purposively. For the study two girls and boys hostels were taken. The sample comprised of 120 students of 19 & 20 years. 60 boys and 60 girls were selected randomly from both the institutions. For this purpose a standardized scale 16 PF for personality traits and a self prepared questionnaire for attitude of adolescents towards mate selection was used. Investigation reveals most of the girls as well as boys wanted that their mate should be well educated, should have the good sense of humor, faithful, good looking and fashionable. Apart from all these qualities girls also give the emphasis to the sense of humor and age factor. And the c2 values between boys and girls were found to be significant at .05% level of significance in Q.No. 1, 3,10,,16 related to the well educated (5.217) , same profession (4.524),1-2 Years age gap (5.502), faithfulness (5.925). And at 1% level of significance in Q.No. 15 Sense of humor (11.641). In Type of personality most of the girls and boys of both the institution were lie in the cool and average level in different personality traits. Only few respondents were found in warm type of personality traits, i.e. in factor C, F, L, N & Q2. & Q3 .According to personality traits sten score of the boys were higher in the factor A,B,F,G,,Q,Q2,Q3, were found more easy going ,participatory, stable, mature, serious, can take stress, bold, and socially aware and think more abstractly in comparison to girls. While in factor C.H.L, O, N girls were found more reserved, more effected by emotional feelings, shy, socially praised, genuine, self satisfied. The result revealed that personality traits regarding mate selection among adolescents. The tests are found to be significant and the correlation values were found to be positively significant. [Keywords : Adolescents, Attitude, Mate selection, Personality traits] * Student, Department of Human Development, College of Home Science, CSA University of Agriculture & Technology, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh (India) E-mail:
The word Adolescence derived from Latin word ‘adolescere’ which means “to grow up”. Adolescence is a transitional period from childhood to adulthood, it now typically begins prior to the teenage years and there have been a normative shift of it occurring in preadolescence, particularly in females (see precocious puberty). Physical growth, as distinct from puberty (particularly in males) and cognitive development generally seen in adolescence, can also extend into the early twenties. Personality can be defined as consistency in a person’s way of being — that is, long-term consistency in their particular ways of perceiving, thinking, acting and reacting as a person. Organized patterns of thought and feeling and behavior. The term “personality trait” refers to enduring personal characteristics that are revealed in a particular pattern of behavior in a variety of situations Individual differences in personality have many real life consequences. Preparation for the marriage is a major development task of adolescent’s year. Mate selection is the foremost important step towards marriage and is greatly influenced by culture, profession, family background, and much more. Mate choice, or intersexual selection, is an evolutionary process in which selection of a mate depends on the attractiveness of his or her traits. It is one of two components of sexual selection. Today when the Adolescent’s attitude towards marriage and mate selection can be influenced by their personality traits. Studies speculate that every individual’s personality influences their whole developmental process. Personality is the major factor that is considered by adolescents in case of marriage and mate selection. The nature and process of forming relationship regarding marriage and mate selection has changed in important ways over the past few decades. Adolescents focused on various aspects of relationship formation, ranging from adolescent pregnancy, premarital relationships, and mate selection to sexuality in relationships and families formed outside of marriage. In India adolescent’s attitude towards marriage and mate selection was depended on their parent’s interest before sometimes but now a days as the trends has been changed and the life style is changed so most of the youth believe in love marriages And by the time passes arranged marriage are going to be disappeared and also freely committed with their age mates. Adolescent attitudes towards and expectations of mate selection are currently of great Adolescents’ Personality Traits and Attitudes towards Mate Selection 129 significance. Authors (Kieren & Badir, 1976) have indicated that these attitudes and expectations are formed during adolescence. According to Mooney (Malony, 1978 and Zhang Fan, 2013) the uncertainty regarding a future mate selection is one of an adolescent’s greatest problems. They explained gender similarities and differences in mate- selection criteria among undergraduate university students. Female students placed greater emphasis on mate competence and earning potential, while male students put more emphasis on women’s physical attractiveness & elegance. 2. Objectives of Study
This study focuses on relationship between personality traits and attitude of adolescents’ towards mate selection. The specfic objectives of this study are as follows : 1. To find out the personality traits among the adolescents. 2. To find out the attitude of adolescents towards mate selection of adolescents. 3. To find out correlation between level of personality and mate selection criteria among adolescents. 3. Research Methodology
The present study was conducted in Kanpur Nagar. Two colleges were purposively selected for this study i.e. HBTI, Nawabganj and C. S. A. University of Agriculture & Technology, Company Bagh,. For the study two girls and boys hostels were covered. The sample comprised of 120 students between the age group of 19 & 20 years. 60 boys and 60 girls were selected randomly from both the institutions. For this purpose one standardized scale (16 PF Scale) to find out the personality traits, and a self prepared questionnaire for attitude of adolescents towards mate selection were used. 4. Results and Discussion
Table-1 on next page shows the attitude of total girls and total boys towards mate selection in which some values are found to be significant at 0.05 %level of significance as shown by c2 values. Question 1(5.217*) that they want well educated partner, question 3(5.425*) that they prefer to same profession in their mates, question 10(5.502) that they want 1-2 year of gap in their mates, question16 130 Pratima and Mukta Garg faithfulness in their mates (5.925*) .question No.15 significant at 1% level of significance related to qualities of good sense of humor in their mates (11.641). And rest of the responses of questions has not found any significant differences these findings are in support of Rao et al. (1990), Fiengn gold (1992) and Todosejvic et al (2003). Table-1 : Distribution of respondents’ (of CSA & HBTI) according to their attitude towards mate selection across the gender
Q. No. Total Girls N=60 Total Boys N=60 c2 value
Yes No Yes No
1 60 0 55 5 5.217* 2 34 26 30 30 2.232
3 24 36 28 32 4.524*
4 40 20 36 24 0.574
5 38 22 39 21 0.039
6 35 25 34 26 0.034
7 42 18 34 26 2.296
8 41 19 47 13 1.534
9 50 10 47 13 0.484
10 51 9 40 20 5.502*
11 52 8 31 27 1.533
12 33 27 30 30 0.300
13 40 20 36 24 0.574
14 37 23 33 27 0.548
15 60 0 48 12 11.614**
16 58 2 50 10 5.925* *Significant at 0.01 % **Significant at 0.05% Table-2 shows the total sten scores of different personality factor of total girls & total boys with their mean scores of CSA & HBTI institute, which are categorizing in cool, average and warm. Most of the boys gave their response in cool and average type of personality. Many differences were found in girls and boys personality of different institution. In some factors Only few respondents Adolescents’ Personality Traits and Attitudes towards Mate Selection 131 were found in warm type of personality traits .i.e. in factor C, F, L, N & Q2. & Q3 .According to personality traits sten score of the boys were higher in the factor A,B,F,G,,Q,Q2,Q3, were found more easy going, participatory, stable, mature, serious, cantake stress, bold, and socially aware and think more abstractly in comparison to girls. While in factor C.H.L, O, N girls were found more reserved, more effected by emotional feelings, shy, socially praised, genuine, self satisfied These findings contributed with the study of Klimstra et al. (2009) and Schwarz et .al. (2012). Table-2 : Distribution of the respondents according to their type of personality on different personality traits across the gender
Personality Type of Total Sten Total mean Total sten Total mean factor personality score of girls N=60 score of boys N=60
A Cool 112 1.86 45 0.75 Average 39 0.65 208 3.46
Warm — — — —
B Cool 112 2.03 137 2.22
Average — — 12 2.28
Warm — — — —
C Cool 81 1.35 116 1.93
Average 83 1.38 50 0.8
Warm 40 0.66 — —
E Cool — — — —
Average — — — —
Warm — — — —
F Cool 69 1.15 113 1.88
Average 19 0.31 28 0.46
Warm 8 0.13 — —
G Cool 82 1.36 45 0.75
Average 105 1.75 201 3.35
Warm — — 17 0.28
H Cool 98 1.63 37 0.61 Average 69 1.15 97 1.61
Warm — — — — 132 Pratima and Mukta Garg
I Cool 103 1.71 64 1.06
Average 75 1.25 138 2.3
Warm — — — —
L Cool 10 0.16 10 0.16
Average 149 2.48 266 4.43
Warm 268 4.46 50 0.83
M Cool — — — —
Average — — — —
Warm — — — —
N Cool 47 0.78 80 1.33
Average 129 2.15 93 1.55
Warm 8 0.13 — —
O Cool 46 0.76 65 1.08 Average 109 1.81 96 1.6
Warm — — 32 0.5
Q1 Cool 36 0.6 44 0.73
Average 190 3.16 200 3.33
Warm — — 57 0.95
Q2 Cool 82 1.36 45 0.75 Average 72 1.2 158 2.63
Warm 8 0.13 60 1
Q3 Cool 12 0.01 6 0.1
Average 282 4.7 136 2.26
warm 49 0.81 297 4.86
Q4 Cool 60 1 60 1
Average — — — —
warm — — — —
Table-3 shows the comparison between mate selection and personality traits of CSA & HBTI girls. There is no significant difference among their views in both cool and average personality factor except question 7 that shows that they prefer inter cast marriages in both the personality traits. But all the values were Adolescents’ Personality Traits and Attitudes towards Mate Selection 133 found positively correlated between personality traits and mate selection criteria among girls. Table-3 : Correlation between the attitude towards mate selection and type of personality (cool & average) among the girls (CSA & HBTI)
Q. No. CSA girls (n1a) N=30 HBTI girls (n2a) N=30
Type of Type of Type of Type of personality personality personality personality (cool) (Average) (Cool) (Average)
1 0.0123 0.0154 0.0240 0.0222
2 0.0543 0.1629 0.1261 0.1780
3 0.1536 0.0344 0.0228 0.0542
4 0.0122 0.1233 0.0172 0.0631
5 0.0224 0.0999 0.0523 0.0452
6 0.0549 0.0562 0.1722 0.0113
7 0.0321 0.0812 0.5411** 0.0175
8 0.1233 0.0523 0.0234 0.0332
9 0.1562 0.0423 0.1244 0.0502
10 0.0922 0.0622 0.0566 0.1234
11 0.1623 0.1124 0.0432 0.1126
12 0.0234 0.1752 0.1233 0.0134
13 0.0549 0.0992 0.0462 0.1342
14 0.0234 0.0982 0.0512 0.0682
15 0.0156 0.0542 0.0423 0.0542
16 0.0234 0.1211 0.0126 0.0322 *Significant at 0.01 % **Significant at 0.05 % Table-4 shows the comparison between mate selection and personality traits of CSA & HBTI boys. There is no significant difference among their views in both cool and average personality factor on different personality traits of boys. But all the values were found positively correlated between personality traits and mate selection criteria. 134 Pratima and Mukta Garg Table-4 : Correlation between the attitude towards mate selection and type of personality (cool & average) among the boys (CSA & HBTI) on different personality traits
Q. No. CSA boys (n1b) N=30 HBTI boys (n2b) N=30
Type of Type of Type of Type of personality personality personality personality (Cool) (Average) (Cool) (Average)
1 0.1321 0.0921 0.1256 0.0012
2 0.0211 0.0322 0.0125 0.0234
3 0.0121 0.0477 0.0321 0.1234
4 0.0321 0.123 0.0160 0.0534
5 0.0322 0.0523 0.0451 0.0345
6 0.1321 0.0362 0.1271 0.1234
7 0.1012 0.0456 0.1523 0.0179
8 0.1342 0.1270 0.0340 0.0185
9 0.0340 0.1129 0.0111 0.0328
10 0.0102 0.1240 0.1250 0.1324
11 0.1160 0.0124 0.0971 0.0681
12 0.2010 0.0230 0.0823 0.0923
13 0.0121 0.0450 0.0128 0.1233
14 0.0532 0.1799 0.1755 0.1102
15 0.0342 0.1211 0.0321 0.0102
16 0.0451 0.1121 0.0425 0.0345 *significant at 0.01 % **significant at 0.05 % The table shows the comparison between the personality traits and mate selection among total girls and boys of both institution (CSA & HBTI). Differences are found in some girls and boys. Maximum scores are found to be significant at 0.01 levels. Population of girls is found to be more significant at 0.01 levels in question No. 5 Girls & in question No.10 boys. These were related to the selection of mate by own choice (0.3979), 1-2 years of age difference (0.3604), respectively. Significant difference at 0.05 levels among the boys were found question in No 1, 5, 10, and 15.The questions were related to well educated (.2986), selection of mate by own choice (.2581), 1-2 years of age difference (.2980) sense of humor (.2762) the value among the girls was (.2632) apart from this Adolescents’ Personality Traits and Attitudes towards Mate Selection 135 question Significant difference at 0.05 levels among the girls were found in Q.No. 4, 6, 11, that shows difference in selection of mate by parent choice (.2740), intercast marriage (.2905), age factor (.2618). Most of the values are found to be positively correlated. Table-5 : Correlation between the attitude towards mate selection and type of personality across the gender (CSA & HBTI) among the respondents across the gender
Q. No. Total girls (CSA & HBTI) (n1a & n2a) Total boys ( CSA & HBTI) N=60 (n1b & n2b) N=60
Type of Type of Type of Type of personality personality personality personality (Cool) (Average) (Cool) (Average)
1 0.1068 0.4010 0.2986* 0.2311 2 0.0869 0.3742 0.2276 0.1233 3 0.1196 0.0741 0.1253 0.0123 4 0.2740* 0.3795 0.2153 0.0221 5 0.3979** 0.0654 0.2581* 0.0341 6 0.2905* 0.3353 0.0705 0.0301 7 0.1191 0.1451 0.1890 0.0334 8 0.0187 0.0221 0.0341 0.0124 9 0.2187 0.0321 0.2169 0.1452 10 0.3604** 0.3342 0.2980* 0.3122 11 0.2618** 0.1211 0.2116 0.2314 12 0.1277 0.0121 0.0189 0.0321 13 0.0231 0.2213 0.0476 0.2310 14 0.1192 0.0531 0.1154 0.1134 15 0.2632* 0.0321 0.2762* 0.0234 16 0.1000 0.0432 0.1000 0.2342 *Significant at 0.01 % **Significant at 0.05 % 5. Conclusion
An adolescent is a very crucial period, involving a variety of physiological and psychological changes that usually affects marriage and mate selection qualities regarding their personality traits. most of the girls and boys were preferred to have well educated mates in their life and they also wanted to have a 136 Pratima and Mukta Garg partner with good sense of humor and should have faithful to them. In case of personality traits most of the girls and boys were found in cool and average categories, positive significant relationship was found between the level of personality type and attitude of mate selection. According to the sten score on personality traits most of the boys were found easy going participating, good scholastic achievement, emotionally stable, serious, suspicious, more polished and socially aware, believe in following self image. While girls were found more effected with emotional feelings, more expressive, cheerful, suspicious, genuine, self satisfied, and group oriented. It is quite satisfactory that most of the girls and boys were having the experimental type of personality, they were open to change, relaxed and unfrustrated attitudes which help a person to lead happy and healthy life.
References
Fan Zhang; Ting-Ting Wang; Ying zheng; Bin-Liu Chen; Brian Kai-Yung TAM, “Mate selection criteria among university students in China”, Journal of Youth Studies (10297847); Vol. 16, Issue 1, January 2013, p. 125. Feingold, Alan, “Gender differences in mate selection preferences: A test of the parental investment model”, Psychological Bulletin, Vol 112(1), July 1992, pp.125-139. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033 2909.112.1.125 Kieren and Badir, Expectation of marriage during adolescents : socioculture factors influencing determinants of marriage, University of pensylamia,1926, 331-345. Klimstra, T. A., Hale, W. W., III, Raaijmakers, Q. A. W., Branje, S. J. T., & Meeus, W. H. J., “Maturation of personality in adolescence”, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 96, 2009, 898 –912. doi: 10.1037/a0014746 Molony (1926).Mate preferences: what’s love get to do with it? Hpt//www. relationship.blocity.com/objectify mate preference.pp 116-126. Rao, V. N., and Rao, V. V. P., “Desired qualities in a future mate in India”, International Journal of Sociology of Family, Vol. 20(2), 1990, 181–198. Thornton, Arland, and Linda Young-DeMarco, “Four Decades of Trends in Attitudes Toward Family Issues in the United States : The 1960s Through the 1990s,” Journal of Marriage and Family, Vol. 63, 2001, 1009-1037. ê
Article Received on July 21, 2015; Accepted on August 22, 2015 14
A Content and Critical Discourse Analysis of the Nation Newspaper’s Coverage of the Garissa University College Terrorist Attack in Kenya
Anne Eboi*
This paper aimed at critically analyzing the coverage of the Garissa University College terrorist attack which happened on 2nd April 2015 through three objectives: to determine whether the Nation conformed to the traditional news function of informing by use of the inverted pyramid; to analyze the use of language and its possible effects on the audience; and to establish the degree to which the gatekeeping function of the media was followed. Through a content analysis and a critical discourse analysis of language use of the reporting of a total of 115 stories between 4rd April, 2015 to 30th April, 2015, it was established that the paper did indeed conform to the information function of the press. The paper also conformed to acceptable gatekeeping functions where only 5% of the stories covered should have been killed. With the exception of only 5.22% of the stories, 94.78% of them were well-written according to the traditional inverted pyramid form of news writing with the study concluding that the Daily Nation reported this highly newsworthy event accurately and in line with procedure and with minimal evidence of bias. [Keywords : Press function, Discourse analysis, terrorism, Bias, Gatekeeping, Inverted pyramid] 1. Introduction
In the last three years, Kenya has faced more than 50 terrorist attacks by the Al-Shabaab militant group, according to local media sources. The latest deadly * Mount Kenya University, School of Social Sciences, Avenue-De-la-paix Opposite Belgium School, P.O. BOX, 5826, Kigali RWANDA (East Africa) E-mail:
2. Research Objectives
This study sought to achieve the following objectives : 1. To determine whether the Nation conformed to the traditional news function of information with specific attention given to the inverted pyramid style. 2. To analyze the use of language and its possible effects on the audience. 3. To examine the gatekeeping function of the media in these stories.
3. Methodology
The study was largely qualitative in nature. It also employed quantitative analysis where percentages were used to make conclusions. The methods used were content analysis and/or critical discourse analysis. According to Bryman (2012), content analysis is an approach to the analysis of documents and texts that seeks to quantify content in terms of predetermined categories and in a systematic and replicable manner. Berelson defines it as follows : “Content Analysis is a research technique for the objective, systematic and quantitative description of the manifest content of communication.” (Bryman, 2010 : 310). A Content and Critical Discourse Analysis ...... Terrorist Attack in Kenya 139
Wodak & Meyer (2001 : 2-3) define critical discourse analysis as being : “Fundamentally concerned with analyzing opaque as well as transparent structural relationships of dominance, discrimination, power and control as manifested in language” (Berelson, 1952 :18). The content and language of 115 news stories (4rd April to 30th April, 2015) were analyzed using the two methods of research. 4. Rationale
According to Devereux (2007) it is important to analyze media content because it is a powerful source of meaning about the social world. Take the example of representation of ethnic minorities. What the public is used to is media establishing a connection between race and crime. This coverage is significant in the shaping of public attitudes towards minority groups which in most cases is negative. In the case of Kenya, the study found out that the content and language used did not in any way exhibit discrimination against the minority Somali people from whom the terrorist group Al-Shabaab comes from. The second reason necessitating this study is that while media content does not equate with social reality, it is essential that we examine how media content represents realities involved in social, economic and political relationships. In this case, the reality of a terrorist attack was well represented as a news function. 5. Literature Review
5.1 News Determinants According to Singh (2008) news determinants or news values are used for discussing news judgments as between competing stories and among elements within a given story. These include : a) timeliness; it is said that all other factors being equal, the present is more important than the past as far as the news values is concerned; b) proximity; it is said that all factors being equal, here is greater than there. The proximity or nearness of the place of action also determines the news values. c) the magnitude of news; all other factors being equal, the bigger event is given greater prominence and precedence over the little or routine event; d) significance: an event affecting a larger percentage of people is greater than an event affecting hardly a few persons. Wilber & Miller (2003) add their voice to what makes news, or what would make an editor pick one story for publication and skip another. They are of the 140 Anne Eboi view that a slow but persistent general decline in both the number of newspapers and their circulations pushes today’s newspapers to tinker with their idea of just what the news is, which would include : a) unusual in that readers are generally not interested in normal, everyday occurrences. It is the events that depart from the norm that are interesting; b) local; c) timely; d) prominence; and e) human interest. Hassan (2010) also comes up with more or less the same list that includes: a) weirdness with the example of famous editor Charles A. Dana who once said, “If a dog bites a man, that’s not news. But if a man bites a dog, that’s news.” (Hassan, 2010 : 206). People are interested in : a) extra ordinary events; b) currency; related to some general topic a lot of people are already talking about; c) conflict; if it involves some kind of disagreement between two or more people; d) prominence; if it involves a famous person or public figure; e) timeliness; if it occurs within an acceptable time frame eg 24 hours in the case of a daily paper; f) human interest; if the story touches on the lives and values of people and g) proximity; if it occurs nearby, as opposed to thousands of miles away. In this study, the element of impact/significance, human interest and proximity played a big part in the story dominating the Daily Nation’s coverage of the Garissa University attack due to the huge number of casualties in the hands of extremists. 5.2 Inverted Pyramid Wilbur & Miller (2003) see the inverted pyramid’s strength in the fact that it lets the reader know immediately what is important and allows the reader to scan key points of each story without having to search for the news. Readers can follow along as much as they wish and get maximum news for their effort. It also serves as a standard. According to Zomick(2013) a good guideline in writing a news story is to use the 5 W’s and the 1 H: Who, What, Where, When, Why, and How. If a jour nal ist can satisfy these essen tials in the open ing para graph then he/she is already using the invert ed pyra mid writ ing style. Just by address ing these points, the journal ist has proba bly summa rized the ar ticle as a whole in a few sen tences. Seema Hassan (2010) says one of the most important elements of news writing is the opening paragraph or two of the story. This is the lead whose function is to summarize the story and/or to draw the reader in. A Content and Critical Discourse Analysis ...... Terrorist Attack in Kenya 141
One objective of this study was to examine the stories in order to establish if they followed the journalistic style of writing, in this case, the inverted pyramid. 5.3 Critical Discourse Analysis Mcquail (2010), says the term ‘discourse analysis ‘has gradually become preferred to the expression, ‘qualitative content analysis,’ although there is not much specific meaning to the term that differentiates it. It may be simply that the latter expression was too closely identified with the content of mass media, while the term ‘discourse’ has a broader connotation and covers all ‘texts’, in whatever form or language they are encoded. Discourse can be analyzed by studying bodies of text of all kinds, including documents, transcripts of debates and media content. Singh(2010) sees critical discourse analysis within the field of linguistics where he says a number of authorities have studied the fact that our thinking is determined by the structure of particular languages. A critical discourse analysis of the language used by writers of the Daily Nation with regard to the coverage of the Garissa terrorist attack reveals interesting findings discussed below. 5.4 The Gatekeeping Function McQuail (2010) says gatekeepers decide which information will go forward, and which will not. In other words, a gatekeeper in a social system decides which of a certain commodity – materials, goods, and information – may enter the system. Important to realize is that gatekeepers are able to control the public’s knowledge of the actual events by letting some stories pass through the system but keeping others out. Media gatekeeping showed that decision making is based on principles of news values, organizational routines, input structure and common sense. The gatekeeper’s choices are a complex web of influences, preferences, motives and common values. Gatekeeping is inevitable and in some circumstances it can be useful. Gatekeeping can also be dangerous, since it can lead to an abuse of power by deciding what information to discard and what to let pass. This study examines the gatekeeping function from the Nation’s coverage because the terrorist attack was a sensitive and crucial story to Kenyans that needed careful handling at the time. 5.5 Critical factors to consider in news writing 5.5.1 Objectivity and Bias MacQuail (2010) says bias in news content can refer, especially, to distorting reality, giving a negative picture of minority groups of many kinds, 142 Anne Eboi neglecting or misconstruing the role of women in society, or differentially favouring a particular political party or philosophy. Professor Bill Parks(2008) , a journalism instructor at Ohlone College, says the reporter’s job is to find out the truth and tell it, regardless of who might be made uncomfortable. The reporter’s responsibility is to serve only the reader. The public needs unbiased information in order for democracy to succeed. Most reporters believe pure objectivity is impossible. When you select one word over another, your judgments enter the story. But fairness is possible, and fairness should be every reporter’s goal. Fairness requires the reporter to recognize his or her own biases in the story, and then consciously include all relevant points of view—even ones that the reporter doesn’t like, personally. 5.5.2 Attribution Ingram (2008) says, attri bu tion is stating who said somethin g. Jour nal ists do it so that readers or listen ers can know who is speaking or where the infor ma tion in the story co mes from, thus giving it credi bil ity . 5.5.3 The ABC’s of News Writing Parks (2008) says the first and most important consideration to good news writing is accuracy—a story can be creative and compelling, but if it contains errors, it is worthless. Actually, it is worse than worthless; a false news story undercuts the public trust necessary for the survival of a free press. Parks identifies brevity as the second most important feature of a good story. Each word in the story should do a job. Clarity, which is third, starts before writing. A journalist ought to understand their subject so completely that their story leaves it crystal-clear in the reader’s mind. 6. Findings
6.1 Information Function of the Press In response to the first objective where the study sought to find out whether the paper conformed to traditional news functions of information including journalistic ethics of news coverage, only 5.22 % of the stories (6/115) were found to have bent the law of objectivity. Three articles incidentally were by the same author who only contributed news stories in the same subject area: namely failure by security forces to protect Kenyans. These were: Shame of slow response in 15-hour terror attack (Sunday Nation 5th April, 2015, p.1); Attack revives old rivalry between police and army (Daily Nation, 8th April, 2015 p.3), and GSU Recce heroes A Content and Critical Discourse Analysis ...... Terrorist Attack in Kenya 143 are not a happy lot (Daily Nation, 6th April, 2015, p.1) According to the inverted pyramid concept to which all news standards are subjected, news stories are expected to be objective and keep out personal opinion. Even though the 115 stories were both news and feature stories, they should be appropriately labeled so. However, the three stories above appeared as news stories with Shame of slow response in 15-hour terror attack appearing as the cover story. Sample the following highly opinioned language in this story: “This was long after the killing had started and a majority of the 142 young Kenyans had been slaughtered by the extremists, who knew all along that their chances of leaving the compound alive or free were slim. The late deployment has provoked questions among Kenyans on whether the issue may have contributed to the big number of casualties and whether our security agencies learned any lessons from the 2013 Westgate Mall attack,…” (Sunday Nation, 5th April, 2015, p. 1). This story is highly biased beginning from its heading by the use of the word ‘shame.’ One would expect the story to give the What, Who, Where, When, Why and How of the response of the said security forces. Indeed the story gives details of when the security agents received the call to the point when the enemy was silenced. However, the entire story is betrayed by a highly opinioned writer. For instance, he speculates and conjectures when he says the extremist knew all along that their chances of leaving the compound alive or free were slim. Did this writer speak to the victims or extremists for him to make such a bold statement without attribution? Which Kenyans are these he is not acknowledging as sources who have been provoked into thinking that a huge casualty arose due to the slow response? In concluding that this story was not objectively written, consider the bit the writer introduces in the story : “But it is not the delay disturbing the elite team, the officers often complain of unpaid allowances for such risky missions, just like it happened during Westgate.” (Sunday Nation, 5th April, 2015, p. 1) This bit of information adds no value to the overall comprehension of the story. Its only purpose is to cement bias in a carefully crafted narrative whose original objective was not to inform but to influence the reader against Kenyan security forces. Still another story that contained bias was titled, Monster who led Shabaab mass killers is unmasked subtitled, Ex-law student led killer squad in campus raid 144 Anne Eboi (Daily Nation, 6th April, 2015, p.4). Most of the story is well told in accordance with journalistic principles apart from this statement : “24 year old UON former law student and son to the chief of Bulla Jamhuri location in Mandera,…will likely go down in history as the mass murderer with the most innocent face.” (Daily Nation, 6th April,2015, p. 4) Again from the title, the words ‘monster’ and ‘unmasked’ already make the reader who has by now been exposed to these stories, cringe. Anthropologists would not quickly dismiss this ex-law student as a monster but would seek to understand what went on his mind, and environmental factors before dismissing him as a monster. Secondly, what makes this writer boldly state that this former law student has earned a place in history for being a mass murderer with the most innocent face? How does an innocent face look like and what authority is this writer citing to determine a face that is innocent? Another story that could easily have been well-written but which defied the inverted pyramid style of writing was titled VCs say varsity should not be shut down (Sunday Nation, 5th April, 2015, p. 6). The story fails the test of the inverted pyramid because instead of starting with what the VCs said in accordance with the title, the story begins by describing the attack as an act of evil and darkness. They then call for the introduction of a course on disaster preparedness for all students when joining university. The reason they were featured in the first place according to the title comes at the end. The words ‘evil’ and ‘darkness’ automatically introduce bias when they are introduced at the beginning, making the reader feel as if they are most urgent. The story Police boss Kaindi might pay for slow Garissa response (Daily Nation, 19th April, 2015, p. 6) totally defies journalistic principles as a news story because it is highly speculative. The writer actually presupposes that Kaindi, the police boss, might pay for the Garissa debacle just because she is in charge of the response unit and that colleagues have complained about her abrasiveness and high handedness. The writer makes no mention of his sources or whether this is the official position of the government with regard to disciplining an errant officer. On a positive note however, 94.78% (109/115) stories were found adhering to reasonable standards of journalism (with the exception of some headlines). The stories were detailed and conformed to the inverted pyramid concept. The stories cover the 5 W’s in their leads, give adequate background, attribute A Content and Critical Discourse Analysis ...... Terrorist Attack in Kenya 145 sources, have ample quotations and good conclusions. They are clear and are careful to be objective in their coverage. For instance, consider the breakdown below of the story entitled : 14 Forex bureaus’ bank accounts frozen In this story, the 5 Ws and H come early in the story as they should. In addition, the story gives a background, additional information, a quotation and a conclusion : Who : 14 Forex bureaus, 63 individuals, 4 bus companies plying the Nairobi-Garissa-Mandera route and a hotel in Eastleigh What : Accounts frozen by the government Where : Nairobi where the said properties were located When : yesterday Background : in light of the Garissa terrorist attack Additional information : given 24 hours or be blacklisted; police sent to issue the letters and ensure premises did not open. Most operate through hawalas. Quotation : Quotes the Kenya Forex Bureaus Association Executive Antony Wachira saying the licences had been suspended without notice and without giving members an opportunity to defend themselves. Conclusion : the quotation above by Anthony Wachira is what concludes the story The story fulfills its traditional function of relaying information to the readers by strictly following the inverted pyramid style of writing news. The author totally leaves out opinion and conjecture. 6.2 Use of Language The second objective sought to analyze specific use of language to determine its possible influence on the audience. The stories analyzed revealed usage of certain parts of speech that evoke strong emotions in readers. Strong language which had the capacity to draw out strong emotions from readers was rightly used in feature stories though some news stories also carried this strong language. The possible strong negative feelings that these articles might have evoked included, pity, anger, despair, fear, disappointment and sadness among others. The articles also display positive emotions of joy, patriotism, hope and admiration. 146 Anne Eboi 6.2.1 Negative Emotions In the story Survivor : we played dead for several hours (Daily Nation, 4th April, 2015, p.2), sympathy is evoked mainly due to the nature of the story itself, of course assisted by several key words or quotations by survivors The terrorists apparently taunted the students before killing them. For example, they were told they pay taxes for terrorists to buy guns and that their security forces were cowardly. They then proceeded to shoot students as others watched. Some students smeared themselves with blood and played dead for 10 hours, thus surviving the ordeal. Non-muslims were asked to recite the Shahada, failure to which they were gunned down. The terrorists also taunted parents of victims on the phone saying they had killed their children. The broad headline that covered a group of stories, this one included, read : Varsity terror : Grief and pain (Daily Nation, 4th April, 2015, p. 1). Another story which evokes pity is : Body lotion meal kept hunger at bay for 2 days (Sunday Nation, 5th April, 2015, p. 2). “There was blood all over. The terrorists would pile three or four students and shoot them from the top, splashing blood…” (Sunday Nation, April 5, 2015, p. 2). In Relatives recount last moments with loved ones (Sunday Nation, 5th April, 2015 p. 4), one could easily sympathize with a student whose parents emptied themselves to educate her but now she lay dead due to a senseless war. Words such as ‘devastated’ ‘grief has engulfed’ ‘mother traumatized and been crying since morning,’ etc evoke pity and even pain. The ‘sombre mood’ that engulfed Garissa town as 663 students left for their homes evoked sympathy too, captured in the story 600 students leave Garissa for their homes (Sunday Nation, 5th April, 2015, p. 8). This story quotes the local governor saying that it had been the only university in the region. In GSU Recce Squad are not a happy lot (Daily Nation, 6th April, 2015, p. 1), the fact that these soldiers only received Ksh 500 instead of the 3,000sh lunch allowance would evoke not only pity but anger as well since security in the hands of an angry and hungry person is no security at all. In Registration staff, CID to lend hand in identification task (Daily Nation, 6th April, 2015, p. 5), the following quotation not only shows sympathy but deep sadness in the reader as well : “My cousin and I viewed what must have been a hundred bodies on Saturday looking for our cousin who has been missing since Thursday. Most of the bodies are A Content and Critical Discourse Analysis ...... Terrorist Attack in Kenya 147
grossly swollen and others are badly mutilated that it is difficult to identify them based on physical features. In that confusion, I saw five different families lay claim on one body” said Robert. (Daily Nation, 6th April, 2015, p. 5). A similar story would be, Parents’ pain and horror at city mortuary (Daily Nation, 7th April, 2015, p. 4), with the following quote also full of sympathy, pain, horror and anger for the reader : “It was the most harrowing experience, opening the mouths of all the dead bodies in the mortuary trying to establish if any of them could be that of my daughter” said the traumatized father of one of the victims. (Daily Nation, 7th April, 2015, p. 4). And also : “It is not clear why relatives are going through the horror of physically examining more than 100 bodies while DNA testing services are widely available and take only two days.” (Daily Nation, 7th April, 2015, p. 4). Away from the victims, stories about educationists and the university generally also evoked pity. Consider this: We were growing fast, says college principal (Daily Nation, 6th April, 2015, p. 11). The devastating effects of the attack touch even those who disseminate knowledge : “When you approach the university, the first thing that attracts you is a huge green gate under a canopy of flourishing green giant Jacaranda giant trees that make an avenue on a gravel pavement.” (Daily Nation, 6th April, 2015, p. 11). This is followed by a description of the university including the new buildings hardly a year old, and new hostels worth 430m still under construction. “All these buildings, some magnificent, are now riddled with bullets….Blood stains are also all over the place. The hostels had bodies scattered all over the floors…” (Daily Nation, 6th April, 2015, p. 11). The economy has also been affected as vendors now have no one to sell to. Alongside this story was Journalists allowed into horrifying attack scene (Daily Nation, 7th April, 2015 p. 4) where journalists recorded pavements that had patches of blood, buildings’ roofs riddled with bullets and windows shattered. Still, more sympathy would be recorded on social media with the story, Sympathy floods social media (Daily Nation, 7th April, 2015, p. 9) . Consider this : “Social media was on Monday bursting with messages of condolences for families of the 148 victims of the GUC attack. 148 Anne Eboi Ms Ory Okolloh Mwangi suitably came up with the hashtag #147 not just a number to commemorate the victims of the terrorist attack. By Monday morning, the hashtag was trending at number 5. My village is mourning. One of the very few ladies who’ve managed to go to university now is possibly dead” tweeted Kiplang’at Arap Bett. (Daily Nation, 7th April, 2015, p. 9). A cover story entitled The ones we lost (Daily Nation, 8th April, 2015 p.1 & 2) which was accompanied by photos of 112 dead students crowned it all in terms of sadness, helplessness and simply anger at such senseless loss of innocent life. The editor had this comment beside the pictures : These names were compiled by Daily Nation reporters and are accurate to the best of our knowledge. The government is yet to honor a request to make the official list public. (Daily Nation, 8th April, 2015, pp. 1 & 2). It should be borne in mind that the narrative the Daily Nation newspaper through its editorials and opinion columns throughout this time was trying to tell was that Kenya had an insensitive and incompetent government. Father heard his daughter being shot by terrorists (Daily Nation, 10th April, 2015, p. 4) is a story that evokes not only deep sorrow and sympathy for the victims’ parents but anger as well. “Dad our lives are at the mercy of Al-Shabaab. Don’t call me again. Bye” Lydia told him. After Lydia had spoken to her father, a terrorist snatched the phone and told him it was the last time he was speaking to his daughter. According to the victim’s mother, the nearly seven hours it took, from the time Lydia first informed them of the danger she was in and the moment she was shot dead, security forces would have saved her and many other students. This is where rage sets in when you consider that this mother’s observations are sensible. In Emotions run high as families bid farewell to youths gone too soon (Sunday Nation, 12th April, 2015, p. 4), the reader is taken through the same emotions of pity, sorrow and anger as would be expected in a funeral, only this funeral had come too soon. Words like anger, grief and outrage are used within the article to express the emotions of the mourners who were bidding farewell to some of the victims. The underlying feeling was anger at a government that had failed to protect her own. A Content and Critical Discourse Analysis ...... Terrorist Attack in Kenya 149
“For how long are we going to take this? The first and foremost responsibility of any government is security” said Akaranga. (Sunday Nation, 12th April, 2015, p. 4). Again the government had to bear ridicule and embarrassment when a politician refused to read to the mourners a letter President Uhuru Kenyatta had penned to each and every affected family. To them, it was an insult that he had failed to honor them with his physical presence preferring instead to embark on impersonal missions of letter writing. This is evident in the story, Siaya Rep says no to Uhuru Condolences (Sunday Nation, 12th April, 2015, p. 6). I am still in shock, says suspect’s mother (Daily Nation, 13th April, 2015, p. 5) gives the other side of the coin too. It’s not only the dead children’s parents who suffer but the terrorists’ parents’ too. The mother to a Form 5 student arrested in connection with the Garissa attack had hoped her son would become a doctor or lawyer but the word used by the Daily Nation is ‘shattered’. The reader too can feel the pain of this mother, or at least imagine it. In 68 bodies still at mortuary (Daily Nation, 13th April, 2015, p. 5) the author revisits an emotional scene that had done its round on social media, where a victim texts her mother : “Mum, aki tumeshikwa na Al Shabaab (we have been taken hostage by Al Shabaab), just pray for me… I love you all very much…” (Daily Nation, 13th April, 2015, p. 5). A final story I wish to examine on sorrow and sympathy is entitled, Dad searches for Garissa daughter (Daily Nation, 30th July, 2015, p. 8) long after the other victims had been buried. It’s the description that brings about this intense sorrow and anguish as a father, who traditionally has all the solutions, is finally stranded : “It has not been easy going to her mother and siblings with no news about her whereabouts. It has really taken a toll on us, said Isaac Mutisya. “Risper’s mother is depressed. She is really disturbed. She no longer eats or sleeps. She cries day and night” adding that the family no longer enjoys the happiness it used to have (Daily Nation, 30th July, 2015, p. 8). The feeling of anger and annoyance against the government is easily noticeable in the articles that dealt with the response of security forces. Most noticeable is from the story Shame of 15-hour delayed response in campus terror attack 150 Anne Eboi (Sunday Nation,5th April,2015, p. 2), where such words would definitely elicit rage : “On arrival in Garrissa, the GSU team was briefed on the situation for two hours and when the ones that had travelled by road arrived, they launched the final assault on the terrorists at about 5pm who they are reported to have subdued within half an hour.” (Sunday Nation, 5th April, 2015, p. 2). A briefing for 2 hours? In an emergency? Does it take two hours for a terrorist to aim and fire at a victim? This is rage. And the reader becomes more outraged when they read what this security analyst had to say in the same story : “Security analyst Major Bashir Abdulahi had this to say, “Surely, why did we take that long to end the siege? Were we expecting Al-Shabaab terrorists to negotiate for release of hostages? These guys came prepared to die in the first place and this is something the security forces should have known and hence not given more time to continue killing.” (Sunday Nation, 5th April, 2015, p. 2). The whole response scenario is made worse by security forces who try to justify this goof by saying they responded within reasonable time. It should be noted that they took 11 hours to respond and exterminate the threat. These statements only succeed in breeding more anger. Still feelings of disappointment and hopelessness emanate from the statement below : “Even as critics complained about the logistical plans for elite units, Mr. Nkaissery’s description of the attack as a surprise was also contentious. The Sunday Nation established that prior to the attack, local police had received intelligence of an impending attack. The intelligence brief gave the possibilities that either the university or the medical training college in the same area would be attacked.” (Sunday Nation, 5th April, 2015, p. 2). In Pull out of Somalia : Leaders (Sunday Nation, 5th April, 2015, p. 6), the following statement elicits anger against the government too : “There is nowhere around the world where we have seen innocent students suffer in the hands of terrorists except in Kenya and Nigeria where Boko Haram abducted 200 girls” by opposition figure, Moses Wetangula (Sunday Nation, 5th April, 2015, p. 6). This is definitely a demonstration of lack of faith in the government’s ability to protect her citizens. GSU Recce heroes are not a happy lot (Daily Nation, 6th April, 2015, p. 1) portrays the government as unfeeling, unbothered and with mixed priorities. A Content and Critical Discourse Analysis ...... Terrorist Attack in Kenya 151
One gets the sense that the government has not recognized the value of spending money on the one function of government that would easily secure the country. “Some officers are deployed to areas like Liboi, Malkamari, Turkwel and other disciplinary camps where their capacity wastes away,” said the officer, adding that “some officers were even assigned to guard VIPs.” “No officers are on standby at Ruiru Camp, since most of them are in various regions discharging duties that are not meant for them,” an officer said and urged the Inspector General of Police Joseph Boinnet to recall all Recce personnel from the field to be on standby in Ruiru (Daily Nation, 6th April, 2015, p. 1). The story State House admits flaws in response (Daily Nation, 10th April, 2015 p. 5) carries a ton of annoyance when the government’s communication expert Manoah Esipisu attempts to apologize and instead angers by justifying an obviously botched up rescue mission. But Manoah Esipisu, Presidential Strategic Communication Unit said criticism was unwarranted as Kenyans did not know the situation at the time and the question of allowances was not a priority at that particular time. He also shared that the UK shared intelligence information. “We expect the media to work with the government instead of focusing on the negatives alone,” said Fred Matiang’i Information and Communication CS (Daily Nation, 10th April, 2015, p. 5). 6.2.2 Positive Emotions A total of 40 stories (34.78%) carried positive emotions in them such as hope, patriotism, joy and admiration. 20 of them were purposively sampled as given below : Body lotion meal kept hunger at bay for 2 days (Sunday Nation, 5th April, 2015, p.2) gave the nation hope that a girl had escaped what the terrorists might have thought was a water tight barricade. This young girl survived by smearing herself with blood and playing dead and also by drinking a body lotion which incredibly, didn’t harm her. In Muslims hold a demo in Eastleigh to condemn attack (Sunday Nation, 5th April, 2015, p. 5.) the nation is again showed a ray of hope where the demonstration is an indication that terrorism and religion are two separate things. “We have lived together in peace for so long that we do not have to be separated now…The Al-Shabaab kill Muslims in Somalia, too, and coming to Kenya, they 152 Anne Eboi kill Christians to inflict bitterness among ourselves” Mr. Mohammed said (Sunday Nation, 5th April, 2015, p. 5). President Barrack Obama gives Kenya hope in his message contained in the story, US stands with Kenya at this difficult moment (Sunday Nation, 5th April, 2015, p. 6.). “This much is clear : the future of Kenya will not be defined by violence and terror; it will be shaped by young people like those at Garissa University College-by their talents, their hopes and their achievements.” (Sunday Nation, 5th April, 2015, p. 6). The story Woman seized over church bomb scare (Daily Nation, 6th April, 2015 p. 5.) can be seen in two lights : fear driving the citizens or citizens starting to gain awareness of their surroundings. Ms. Martha Wanjiru, a worshipper, said “The woman’s hair was covered with a veil. We became suspicious when she kept on calling and sending text messages.” (Daily Nation, 6th April, 2015, p. 5). Kenyans generally are not sensitive to the presence of terror threats hence the huge number of casualties when attacked. This story offers hope that citizens are no longer taking their security for granted. Health Staff vow to stay put despite attack (Daily Nation, 7th April, 2015, p. 4) is a story that inspires patriotism and admiration. Under normal circumstances, people flee from danger but here are nurses and health workers at Garissa Hospital who chose to stay to attend to the wounded. More positive energy emerges in the story Big-hearted citizens who counseled, fed relatives. (Daily Nation, 7th April, 2015, p. 6). “It has been an outpouring of generosity since Al Shabaab terrorists killed 148 people at GUC,… Public-spirited Kenyans from all walks of life brought foods and drinks to feed hundreds of people who have been camping at Chiromo from Saturday.” (Daily Nation, 7th April, 2015, p. 6). The message was clear : you can take a few of us out but you will never take out our spirit as Kenyans who care and love one another. Families of survivors, despite the tension and feelings of empathy directed at victims’ relatives, also could not fail to celebrate what life had offered them: their children in one piece, as demonstrated in the story, Tears of joy, prayers of thanksgiving as survivors arrive home, recount ordeal. (Daily Nation, 7th April, 2015, p. 2) A Content and Critical Discourse Analysis ...... Terrorist Attack in Kenya 153
“After reality dawned on them that the young man was indeed alive, the brothers and sisters followed suit and one by one, they gave him emotional hugs as tears flowed freely for nearly 15 minutes.” (Daily Nation, 7th April, 2015, p. 2). Perhaps a fact that inspires patriotism, togetherness and love cannot be found in any other scenario than in the following words from the same story above : Emmanuel Murambi escaped by jumping over the fence to come face to face with a Somali man who helped him by taking him to his home, offering him clothes and taking him to hospital. (Daily Nation, 7th April, 2015, p. 2). Families’ joy as two students are discharged (Daily Nation, 7th April, 2015, p. 9) is another story that gives the reader hope when two students are discharged from hospital and reunited with their families. In Plan to vet Islamic teachers proposed (Daily Nation,8th April, 2015, p. 9) the reader feels hope that at last something is being done albeit little. “Yesterday, Attorney General Githu Muigai told the Nation that his office will continue meeting religious leaders to finalize regulations that will tame religious centres used by rogue preachers.” (Daily Nation, 8th April, 2015, p. 9). Five to be detained for a month (Daily Nation, 8th April, 2015, p. 6) and Undercover police to help thwart terror raids (Daily Nation, 8th April, 2015, p. 6) also give the reader optimism when it’s revealed that more undercover police as well as uniformed patrol police have been deployed to soft target areas and quick response units have been put on a 24-hour alert. Moreover, the Recce company was given 2 helicopters to be used to transport personnel in the event of an attack. In addition : “We also want the public to know that we are not in the usual mood, we are at war,” said Mr. Kibui, city police chief.” (Daily Nation, 8th April, 2015, p. 6). They laid down their lives for their country (Daily Nation, 8th April, 2015 p. 6) would give the reader the feeling of admiration and patriotism as it honors Solomon Oludo, KDF soldier who was felled when he ran out of bullets. He was among the first ones to arrive at the scene when the distress call was sent out. In addition, Peter Masinde had been deployed to the university barely three weeks before while Bernard Tonui of Recce Squad was leading a team of the Recce unit in the onslaught against Al-Shabaab at the university when they too were felled. 154 Anne Eboi In Church wants halt to killing of Christians (Daily Nation, 10th April 2015 p.5) most readers would be gratified to note citizens are beginning to wake up to the fact that they could do something about their security when they declare that they would not remain silent as they continue being massacred. The shooting dead of two suspects in Kwale County is an indication that security forces may finally be waking up to their responsibility. This is captured in the story Police shoot dead two Al-Shabaab suspects (Daily Nation, 13th April, 2015 p. 5) and in Airwing chiefs grilled over corruption claims (Daily Nation, 17th April, 2015 p. 5) the reader can derive feelings of satisfaction that at last something is being done in the area of accountability. The Airwing’s director and deputy were quizzed after it emerged that the plane that should have been dispatched to Garissa had instead been sent on the deputy director’s personal mission, thus occasioning the delay in rescuing the students. In Ruto assures Kenyans of their security (Daily Nation, 13th April, 2015, p. 6) the reader would naturally derive comfort from the fact that the assurance is coming from none other than the Vice President of the country who says that the government would recruit more police officers to deal with insecurity. Perhaps the greatest comfort comes from the President of Kenya, Uhuru Kenyatta, when he reveals that the government is working on various strategies to tackle terrorism threats. He also promises to fight corruption and calls on Kenyans to unite. This is contained in a story entitled, We’ll defeat terrorists, says Uhuru. (Daily Nation, 15th April, 2015, p. 3). Kenya safe to visit, says US senator (Daily Nation, 15th April, 2015, p. 16) is also a story that provides relief to the people when US senator Craig Tieszen criticizes travel advisories. In a show of solidarity too, Artistes eulogize Garissa terrorist victims in songs (Daily Nation, 16th April, 2015 p.3) records an event that hosted hundreds of people among them artists who had gathered at Freedom Corner to honor victims. 6.3 Gatekeeping Function The third objective of this paper was to examine the extent to which the gate keeping function of the media guided the newspaper in appropriate selection of the stories that made it for publication. Because a high percentage of stories, i.e 94.78% were objectively written and adhered to acceptable standards of journalism, it can safely be concluded that gate keepers did a good job insofar as story selection is concerned. However, after a careful analysis, the following stories should have been killed : A Content and Critical Discourse Analysis ...... Terrorist Attack in Kenya 155
6.3.1 Stories that took a Political Undertone While it’s true that prominence is one of the criteria used to determine a newsworthy story, in this case, it was obvious certain politicians were using this platform either to settle political scores or to gain mileage ahead of the 2017 presidential elections. Such stories include: Pull out of Somalia : Leaders (Sunday Nation, 5th April, 2015, p. 5) In this story, the statement by opposition figure Moses Wetangula (There is nowhere around the world where we have seen innocent students suffer in the hands of terrorists except in Kenya and Nigeria where Boko Haram abducted 200 girls) does little to comfort a heavily bruised nation, except to aggravate the pain and mock the government of the day. Another story was Dismantle Dadaab Camp (Daily Nation, 6th April, 2015, p. 6) where another politician, Wycliffe Mudavadi, engages in a debate largely seen as diverting Kenya’s attention from a perceived incompetent security force. Similarly, Leaders want refugee camps closed down (Daily Nation, 7th April, 2015, p. 9) falls in the same category while Senators back Uhuru’s police recruits order (Daily Nation, 6th April, 2015, p. 9) adds no value to an anxious and jittery nation since it only displays the troop mentality of Jubilee(ruling party) members. The story Politicians behind attack, says lawyer (Daily Nation, 8th April, 2015, p. 5) once more has no significant value addition other than give an individual a political platform to engage in speculation. Raila asks US to help Kenya out of Somalia (Daily Nation,12th April, 2015, p. 1) is a story that should not have made it past the gate because other than the lead being about opposition figure Raila Odinga and Kalonzo Musyoka asking the US to help move Kenyan soldiers out of Somalia, the chunk of the story is on Vice President William Ruto’s war with the United Nations Commission for Human Rights (UNHCR) over his roadside declaration that the government would close the camp. 6.3.2 Stories that suggested Victory for the Terrorists Indeed the duty of any journalist fundamentally remains to inform. However, the gate keeping function allows a journalist to kill a story which in his judgment may not add much informative value. One reading all these stories in one sitting would be overwhelmed with painful emotions that also borders on helplessness. There was excessive coverage of stories dealing with either the victim or their relatives which were full of sadness, for instance in relatives identifying bodies, missing children, burials etc. 7. Conclusions and Recommendations
Given that a journalist’s primary responsibility is to inform in the most unbiased manner, this study concludes that the Nation newspaper maintained its 156 Anne Eboi integrity as a body charged with informing the public by keeping to the highest standards of journalism in its reasonable adherence to the inverted pyramid style of news writing. 94.78% of stories were acceptable news stories devoid of bias and opinion. Only 5.22% of stories contained bias and opinion, and also did not adhere to the inverted pyramid style. It can also be concluded that the language used captured the emotions of the moment without prejudicing the nation against members of the Somali community. Most emotions were to do with the pain and sorrow of losing so many young lives and also anger towards the government of the day. The final conclusion is that the Nation conformed to standard gatekeeping practices by selecting a majority of stories that were deemed relevant for public consumption with the exception of a few stories discussed above that should never have been featured. This study recommends that media practitioners continue to observe the tenets of journalism at all times especially in covering sensitive stories that cover terrorist attacks. At that point in time, the public usually feels helpless and vulnerable hence the need for solid reporting. Too many stories that drain a nation’s emotions should also be avoided. Finally, stories that give the terrorist due advantage should also be killed. References
Agoya, V., “Five to be detained for a month”, Daily Nation, April 8, 2015, p. 6. Agoya, V., “Terror case cleric to be held for 30 more days”, Daily Nation, April 22, 2015, p. 11. Angira, Z., “10 cash firm chiefs quizzed in probe”, Daily Nation, April 14, 2015, p. 9. Apollo S. and A. Chepkoech, “Pull out of Somalia : Leaders”, April 5, 2015, Sunday Nation, p. 6. Atieno, W., “Woman seized over church bomb scare”, Sunday Nation, April 5, 2015, p. 5. Baran, S. and D. Davis, Mass Communication Theory, Foundations, Ferment, and Future (5th ed), Wadsworth Cengage Learning, 2009. Barasa, L., “Wall on border with Somalia coming up soon”, Sunday Nation, April 12, 2015, p. 40. Bryman, A., Social Research Methods (4th ed), USA : Oxford University Press, 2012. Cherono, S., “Dad searches for Garissa daughter”, Daily Nation, April 30, 2015, p. 8. Cherono, S., “GSU Recce heroes are not a happy lot”, Daily Nation, April 6, 2015, p. 1. Cherono, S., “Muslims hold a demo in Eastleigh to condemn the attack”, Sunday Nation, April 5, 2015, p. 5. A Content and Critical Discourse Analysis ...... Terrorist Attack in Kenya 157
Cherono, S. and F. Mureithi, “Police recruits vow to go for training”, Sunday Nation, April, 12, 2015, p. 12. Cherono, S., “They laid down their lives for their country”, Daily Nation, April 9, 2015, p. 6. Devereux, E., Understanding the Media (2nd ed), London : Sage Publications Ltd., 2008. Hajir, A. and J. Kubania, “Garissa Varsity closed indefinitely”, Daily Nation, April 4, 2015, p. 6. Hajir, A., “600 students leave Garissa for their homes”, Sunday Nation, April 5, 2015, p. 8. Hajir, A., “Terror attack victims to be remembered in prayers”, Sunday Nation, April 19, 2015, p. 22. Hajir, A. and Mutambo, A., “We were growing fast, says college principal”, Daily Nation, April 6, 2015, p. 11. Hassan, S., Mass Communication : Principles & Concepts, New Delhi : CBS Publishers & Distributors Pvt Ltd., 2010. Ingram, D. & the Henshall Peter Estate, The News Manual : A professional source for journalists and the media, 2008. Karanja, S., “Burial Plans shelved for six to await fingerprint results”, Sunday Nation, April 12, 2015, p. 20. Kariuki, N., “Terrorist was a ‘gifted, obedient, student”, Daily Nation, April 8, 2015, p. 2. Kevin, J. K., “Agencies need to do better, says US”, Daily Nation, April 10, 2015, p. 5. Kilonzo, E., “Student tells of how music fan met death”, Daily Nation, April 8, 2015, p. 4. Koech, F., “Slow response blamed for deaths”, Daily Nation, April 14, 2015, p. 8. Kubania, J., “Families : Where are our children?”, Daily Nation, April 6, 2015, p. 8. Kubania, J. and Merab, E., “Sympathy floods social media”, Daily Nation, April 7, 2015, p. 9. Masongo, J., “Artistes eugolise Garissa terrorist victims in songs”, Daily Nation, April 16, 2015, p. 3. McQuail, D., McQuail’s Mass Communication Theory (6th ed), London : Sage Publications, 2010. Merab, E., “Varsity comrade died in my arms”, Daily Nation, April 14, 2015, p. 6. Mjema, D., “I’m still in shock, says suspect’s mother”, Daily Nation, April 13, 2015, p. 5. Mukinda, F., “Now spotlight shifts to top police chiefs”, Daily Nation, April 7, 2015, p. 5. 158 Anne Eboi Mukinda, F., “Shame of 15-hour delayed response”, Sunday Nation, April 5, 2015, p. 2. Murithi, BMJ. “Families in agony and pain as Obama, UN condemn terrorists”, Daily Nation, April 4, 2015, p. 5. Mutambo A. and Hajir, A., “Survivors:We played dead for hours”, Daily Nation, April 4, 2015, p. 2. Mutambo, A. and Angote J., “Body lotion meal kept hunger at bay for 2 days”, Sunday Nation, April 5, 2015, p. 3. Mutambo, A., “Envoys ‘told Kenya of possible attack”, Daily Nation, April 9, 2015, p. 8. Mutambo, A., “Leaders want refugee camps closed down”, Daily Nation, April 7, 2015, p. 8. Mutambo, A., “Plan to vet Islamic teachers proposed”, Daily Nation, April 8, 2015, p. 5. Mukinda, F., “Attack revives old rivalry between police and army”, Daily Nation, April 8, 2015, p. 3. Mukinda, F., “Terrorists’ origin disclosed”, Daily Nation, April 16, 2015, p. 5. Namunane, B. & Wanzala, O., “14 Forex bureaus’ bank accounts frozen”, Sunday Nation, April 5, 2015, p. 5. Nation correspondents, “Act on tip-offs, clergy tell police”, Daily Nation, April 4, 2015, p. 3. Nation correspondent, “Muslims urge unity to fight terrorism”, Daily Nation, April 4, 2015, p. 2. Nation correspondent, “Plane with 48 bodies lands in city”, Daily Nation, April 4, 2015, p. 2. Nation correspondent, “Police arrest four suspects at mall”, Daily Nation, April 4, 2015, p. 6. Nation correspondent, “Raila : Stop blame game, let’s unite to defeat terrorism”, Daily Nation, April 4, 2015, p. 3. Nation correspondent, “Grieving relatives identify 62 bodies”, Daily Nation, April 6, 2015, p. 6. Nation correspondent, “Counties seek bigger role in State security”, Daily Nation, April 7, 2015, p. 8. Nation correspondents, “Health Staff vow to stay put despite deaths”, Daily Nation, April, 7, 2015, p. 4. Nation correspondent, “Journalists allowed into horrifying attack scene”, Daily Nation, April 7, 2015, p. 4. Nation correspondent, “Police shoot dead two Al-Shabaab suspects”, Daily Nation, April 13, 2015, p. 5. A Content and Critical Discourse Analysis ...... Terrorist Attack in Kenya 159
Nation correspondent, “Kikuyu Campus students leave as exams are postponed”, Daily Nation, April 14, 2015, p. 6. Nation correspondent, “Revive student youth service, urge parents”, Daily Nation, April 14, 2015, p. 8. Nation correspondent, “Lobby groups fight to recover their accounts”, Daily Nation, April 14, 2015, p. 9. Nation correspondent, “Bus firms sue over freezing of accounts”, Daily Nation, April 17, 2015, p. 9. Nation correspondent, “Photos of terror suspects put up on Mombasa billboards”, Daily Nation, April 17, 2015, p. 9. Nation reporter, “Obama : US stands with Kenya at this difficult moment”, Sunday Nation, April 5, 2015, p. 6. Nation reporter, “Registration staff, CID to lend hand in identification task”, Daily Nation, April 6, 2015, p. 5. Nation reporter, “Senators back Uhuru’s police recruits order”, Daily Nation, April 6, 2015, p. 9. Nation reporter, “Families’ joy as two students re discharged”, Daily Nation, April 7, 2015, p. 9. Nation reporter, “New recruits to report on Sunday : IG”, Daily Nation, April 7, 2015, p. 5. Nation reporter, “ Search is on for local partners of terrorists”, Daily Nation, April 7, 2015, p. 5. Nation reporter, “112 bodies of victims identified, says minister”, Daily Nation, April 8, 2015, p. 3. Nation reporter, “Air strikes on Shabaab bases not retaliation”, Daily Nation, April 8, 2015, p. 4. Nation reporter, “Boinnet warned of contempt”, Daily Nation, April 8, 2015, p. 6. Nation reporter, “Politicians behind attack, says lawyer”, Daily Nation, April 8, 2015, p. 5. Nation reporter, “Probe police response to raid, MP”, Daily Nation, April 8, 2015, p. 5. Nation reporter, “Survivors: How we fled from the jaws of death”, Daily Nation, April 8, 2015, p. 6. Nation reporter, “Undercover police to help thwart terror raids”, Daily Nation, April 8, 2015, p. 6. Nation reporter, “AG : We will hold talks with police recruits”, Daily Nation, April 9, 2015, p. 6. Nation reporter, “Vet religious leaders, Njue says”, Daily Nation, April 9, 2015, p. 8. Nation reporter, “Church wants halt to killing of Christians”, Daily Nation, April 10, 2015, p. 5. 160 Anne Eboi Nation reporter, “Some cash transfer firms may be genuine, state told”, Daily Nation, April 10, 2015, p. 6. Nation reporter, “68 bodies still at mortuary”, Daily Nation, April 13, 2015, p. 5. Nation reporter, “County to hold mass for dead students”, Daily Nation, April 13, 2015, p. 6. Nation reporter, “Muslims told to help fight terrorism”, Daily Nation, April 13, 2015, p. 8. Nation reporter, “Ruto assures Kenyans of their security”, Daily Nation, April 13, 2015, p. 6. Nation reporter, “Teacher quits job to join recruits camp”, Daily Nation, April 13, 2015, p. 6. Nation reporter, “We’ll defeat terrorists, says Uhuru”, Daily Nation, April 15, 2015, p. 3. Nation reporter, “House asked to sack spy chiefs”, Daily Nation,April 16, 2015, p. 5. Nation reporter, “Rights team calls for new approach in war on terror”, Daily Nation, April 16, 2015, p. 5. Nation reporter, “Students may get military training”, Daily Nation, April 16, 2015, p. 6. Nation reporter, “Airwing chiefs grilled over corruption claims”, Daily Nation, April 17, 2015, p. 3. Nation reporter, “Church leaders scared of radical youth”, Daily Nation, April 17, 2015, p. 3. Nation team, “Christians defy fear, throng churches for Easter service amid tight security”, Daily Nation, April 6, 2015, p. 2. Nation team, “Dismantle Daadab camp, says Mudavadi”, Daily Nation, April 6, 2015, p. 6. Nation team, “Hunt on for terror message’s author”, Daily Nation, April 6, 2015, p. 6. Nation team, “Monster who led Shabaab mass killers is unmasked”, Daily Nation, April 6, 2015, p. 4. Nation team, “Students want police posts in campuses”, Daily Nation, April 6, 2015, p. 6. Nation team, “UASU: Move lecturers, support staff too”, Daily Nation, April 6, 2015, p. 6. Nation team, “Tears of joy, prayers of thanksgiving as survivors arrive home, recount ordeal”, Daily Nation, April 7, 2015, p. 2. Nation team, “Confusion over number of missing varsity students”, Daily Nation, April 9, 2015, p. 4. Nation team, “NGOs protest as accounts frozen”, Daily Nation, April 9, 2015, p. 4. A Content and Critical Discourse Analysis ...... Terrorist Attack in Kenya 161
Nation team, “Four undergo surgery at KNH, 113 treated”, Daily Nation, April 13, 2015, p. 2. Nation team, “One dead, 141 hurt in varsity terrorist scare”, Daily Nation, April 13, 2015, p. 1. Nation team, “Police plane in Mombasa on day of Garissa raid”, Daily Nation, April 13, 2015, p. 1. Nation team, “Student dies, 141 injured in stampede after explosions rock UON”, Daily Nation, April 13, 2015, p. 2. Nation team, “More Garissa students buried”, Daily Nation, April 15, 2015, p. 3. Nation team, “Clerics, leaders give conditions on amnesty order”, Daily Nation, April 16, 2015, p. 4. Nation team, “Kingi tells state to review refugee treaty”, Daily Nation, April, 20, 2015, p. 9. Nation team, “Officials criticized for slow Garissa response”, Daily Nation, April 20, 2015, p. 9. Nation team. (). “Garissa attack victims appeal for counseling”, Daily Nation, April 22, 2015, p. 10. Nation team, “Leaders back building of Kenya-Somali wall”, Daily Nation, April 22, 2015, p. 10. Ndurya, M., “Big-hearted citizens, who counseled, fed relatives”, Daily Nation, April 7, 2015, p. 6. Ndurya, M. and Wachira, M. , “Parents’ pain and horror at city mortuary”, Daily Nation, April 7, 2015, p. 4. Ngunjiri, J., “Dashed hopes as Kiganjo turns away youth”, Daily Nation, April 13, 2015, p. 6. Njagi, J., “Duale under pressure to quit over terror list”, Daily Nation, April 17, 2015, p. 9. Nyassy, D., “Religious Leaders urge State to stem local terrorism”, Sunday Nation, April 12, 2015, p. 18. Nyassy, D. and Amadala, B., “MPs fault Ruto on plan to shut Dadaab camp”, Daily Nation, April 13, 2015, p. 8. Ochieng, L., “Relatives hang on hope as they wait for news”, Daily Nation, April 4, 2015, p. 3. Odhiambo, N., “Siaya reps say no to Uhuru condolences”, Sunday Nation, April 12, 2015, p. 6. Okewo, E. and Wafula, L., “Father heard his daughter being shot by terrorists”, Daily Nation, April 10, 2015, p. 4. Okewo, E. & Shilitsa, J., “Relatives recount last moments with loved ones as Muslims condemn attack”, Sunday Nation, April 5, 2015, p. 4. 162 Anne Eboi Okewo, E., “VCs say varsity should not be shut down”, Sunday Nation, April 5, 2015, p. 6. Robert, S., “Police trying to figure out why ‘rich kids’ join Shabaab”, Sunday Nation, April 12, 2015, p. 18. Rono, G., “Kenya safe to visit, says US senator”, Daily Nation, April 15, 2015, p. 16. Scanlan, C. (2014). Writing from the top down: pros and cons of the inverted pyramid. Retrieved from: http://www.poynter.org/news/media-innovation/12754/ writing-from-the-top-down--pros-and-cons-of-the-inverted-pyramid/Date retrieved: 15/07/2015. Severin, T. W. and Tankard, J. W, Jr., Communication Theories : Origins, Methods and Uses in the Mass Media, 5th edition, USA : Pearson Custom Publishing, 2001. Singh, J. K., Media & Journalism, New Delhi : A. P. H. Publishing Cooperation, 2001. Singh, J. K.,Textbook of Mass Communication, New Delhi : A.P.H. Corporation, 2009. Sunday Nation team, “Police boss Kaindi might pay for slow Garissa response”, Sunday Nation, April 19, 2015, p. 6. Wanzala, O., “36 Garissa victims yet to be identified”, Daily Nation, April 8, 2015,p. 8. Wanzala, O., “State House admits flaws in response”, Daily Nation, April 10, 2015, p. 5. Wanzala,O., “Omamo: 128 bodies identified”, Daily Nation, April 9, 2015, p. 6. Wilbur, R. and Miller, R., Modern Media Writing, USA : Wadsworth Cengage Learning, 2003. Zomick, B., (2013). Everything you need to know about the inverted pyramid style. Retrieved from: phttp://www.skilledup.com/articles/about-the-inverted- pyramid-writing-stylearagraph. Date retrieved: 10/08/15. ê
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