MASARYK UNIVERSITY Faculty of Sport studies

BACHELOR THESIS

Brno 2013 Ana Luisa Gil Beras

MASARYK UNIVERSITY Faculty of Sport studies Department of Social Sciences in Sport And Department of Health Promotion

Management of Paralympics Games: Problems and perspectives Bachelor Thesis

Management Paralympijských Her: Problémy a perspektivy

Thesis Supervisor: Prepared by: Doc. PaedDr. Jitka Kopřivová, CSc.. Ana Luisa Gil Beras

Brno, 2013

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I declare that this bachelor thesis developed independently and based on literature and sources listed in the sources used.

In Brno 26. 4. 2013 Signature

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Acknowledgements

I would like to express my thanks to my supervisor doc. PaedDr. Jitka Kopřivová, CSc. and to all the staff members of the Sport Faculty for their kind help and valuable advice that they provided me during my studies and my work on the bachelor thesis.

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CONTENT

INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………… 06

1. HISTORY OF PARALYMPICS GAMES…………………...………………. 08 1.1 The Olympic Games role in history…...……………………………………………... 08 1.2 The Paralympics Games a historical event…………………………………………… 10

2. PARALYMPIC GAMES AND DISABILITY……………………………..... 11 2.1 What is a Disability?...... 11 2.2 Paralympic disability categories……………………………………………………… 12 2.2.1 Sports classes………...…………………………………………………….……….. 19 2.2.1.1 Summer sports….……………………………………………………..………….. 20 2.2.1.2 Winter sports…………….…………………………………………..…………… 33

3. INTERNATIONAL PARALYMPICS GAMES COMMITTEE (IPC): STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS…………………………………………… 35 3.1 International Paralympics committee...... 35 3.1.1 The Athletes …………...... 35 3.1.2 Paralympic Games……………...... 37 3.1.3 International Paralympic Committee Structure…...... 40 3.1.4 Paralympism and Youth …...... 00 3.1.5 International Paralympic Committee Digital Revolution...... 00 3.2 International Paralympic Committee Research segments …………...... 00 3.3 International Paralympic Committee Finance ………………...……………...... 00

4. PROBLEMATIC IN THE MODERN PARALYMPICS GAMES AND PERSPECTIVES FOR THE PARALYMPICS GAMES IN THE ERA OF GLOBALIZATION……………………………………………...…………… 00

CONCLUTION……………………………………………………...……………. 00

SUMMARY……………………………………………...………………………... 00

LITERATURE…………………………………………...……………………….. 00

APPENDIX

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INTRODUCTION

Olympism is a way of life, promoting and uniting in one piece the potentials of the body, determination and mind. Joining together the sport with culture and education, Olympism pursues to create philosophy of life based on the delight of effort, the educational importance of good example and reverence for universal fundamental ethical principles.

The idea of Olympism can be perceived as similar to the development of social study which involves a dialogue between concepts and evidence. As Ragin (1994, p. 55) noted: “Ideas help social researchers use evidence to extend, revise, and test ideas. The end result of this dialogue is a representation of social life-evidence that has been shaped and reshaped by ideas, presented along with the thinking that guided the construction of representation”

The objective of Olympism is to place sport at the disposition of the pleasant growth of man, with an outlook to encouraging a nonviolent society concerned with the protection of human self-esteem.

As a former professional sportsman I always admired the sportsmen with a disability that are fighting day by day with a big smile in their faces and with a focus aim of progress in their life’s condition. For me is a big example to follow such wonderful people that are living in the maximum each day as a unique and unforgettable day. I think is important for society to get to know these valuable sportsmen and to learn how to admire and respect them as human beings with no difference or restrictions.

The aim of my work is to present some of the problems presented in the sports for an athlete with a disability and also during the organization of the Games. Also where are the Games heading in this time of changes and its perspective.

In the followed text is divided into four parts. The first chapter will cover the history since the beginning of the Olympics till the time where those who also have excellence in sports but also have an impairment got the chance to show it in a special part of the Olympics that is known as the Paralympic Games. In the next part of the chapter will be presented the history of the Paralympics how it all starts and where it’s standing right now. In the second chapter will be a short explanation about disability, what types of

6 disability are and which of those types are included in the Paralympic category; also what are the sports classes according to the type of disability presented by the elite sportsmen. The third chapter is all about the International Paralympic Committee, the structure and all what is connected to them. The fourth chapter will be presented the actual problems that exist in the Paralympic Movement and in the Games; also the perspective that offer the movement, games and the committee for this elite group of sportsmen in this era of globalization. I’ll try to present what are the developments made to improve the Games and the idea of the Paralympic Movement.

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1. HISTORY OF PARALYMPICS GAMES

“Olympism is a doctrine of the fraternity between the body and the soul.” (Coubertin, 1936).

"Olympism is not a system it is a state of mind - It can permeate a wide variety of modes of expression and no single race or era can claim to have the monopoly of it." (Coubertin, 1936).

1.1 The Olympic Games role in history.

The Olympic ideal and the Olympic Games stand as symbols of global cooperation, international understanding and the bonding of individuals through the medium of sports (Bloomsbury, 2011).

The first written mention of the name “Olympic” dates back to 776 BC. The Games were dedicated to the Olympian gods. Sports competitions were organized in Olympia, Greece and were named after their locations, hence their name of “Olympic” Games. Since it began, more than two thousand years ago, the Olympic Games have been the competition grounds for the world’s greatest athletes. From its beginning, as a competition for the citizens of ancient Greece and other surrounding countries, the Olympics have developed into a worldwide, commercially oriented event. These Games took place every four years in Greece. The four-year period acquired the name “Olympiad” and was used a date system and time was counted in Olympiads rather than years. The oldest myth which concerns the beginning of the Olympic Games is that of Idaios, Daktylos, and Herakles. According to other myths, Zeus, the father of humanity, fought and defeated Cronus in a struggle for the throne of the gods. Finally, the well-known demigod Herakles is mentioned. He staged games in Olympia in honor of Zeus (Olympics, 1999).

The earliest Olympic Games were originally a one-day event up until the 684 BC, when they were prolonged to three days. In the 5th century B.C., the Games were prolonged once more to cover five days. The ancient Games involved Running, Long jump, Shot put, Javelin, Boxing, Pankration1, Equestrian events, Pentathlon and Wrestling. According to Segrave (1988, pp. 159): “As in ancient times, Olympism is the manifestation of a fundamental dialectic between body and soul, existence and essence, individual and

1 Pankration: was a martial art introduced into the Greek Olympic Games in 648 BC and founded as a blend of boxing and wrestling but with scarcely any rules. http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/Olympics/pankration.html 8 group, and competition and cooperation. By the seeking to assuage conflict and enhance harmony, Olympism places sport in the service of an enlightened humanity”

The Current Olympics as we know it were the idea of a child today known as the "Father of the Modern Olympics"; a man from France named Baron Pierre de Coubertin. The Baron firstly recommended in 1892 the idea of redoing the glorious cultural and sport festivals of the ancient Greece, mainly the Olympic 'Games'. Formally expressed in 1894, that Olympism was not only unique and whole in terms of the possibility of social change anticipated, but very altruistic, enthusiastic and controversial as well. According to Wamsley and Young (Girgonov, 2010, pp. 9): “judge in terms of global participation, world media coverage, the construction and cost of elaborate facilities, billions of dollars of expenditure, environmental and community disruption, crises, scandals and political intrigue of various sorts, massive popular consumption, and the threat of terrorism, the Games may well be the most consistently compelling cultural phenomenon of modern times”

As Coubertin (Coubertin, 1936, p. 34) expressed: “Olympism it’s a social reform or rather it’s the foundation of a new era that I can see coming and which will have no value or force unless it’s firmly based on the principles of a completely new type of education”

The first Olympic Games of modern times were celebrated in 1896.

The aim of the modern Olympic Games is (Trinidad and Tobago Olympic Committee, 2010):

"To promote to development of those physical and moral qualities which are the basis of Sport"

"To educate young people through Sport in a spirit of better understanding between each other, thereby helping to build a better and more peaceful world"

"To spread the Olympic Principles throughout the world, thereby creating International Goodwill"

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1.2 The Paralympics Games a historical event.

During the Second World War old-fashioned methods of rehabilitation were known as inadequate to come across with the medical and psychological necessities of a large numbers of soldiers and citizens with a disability. Spinal Cord Injuries Centre at Stoke Mandeville Hospital in 1944 presented sporting contribution as a method of therapy and as an encouragement for curative treatment and rehabilitation. This work caused the increased distinction of sporting events for persons with spinal cord-related damages and the first Stoke Mandeville Games in 1948. This event directed to the International Stoke Mandeville Games that took place in 1952. Early enough, multi-disability competitions advanced to become the Paralympic Games - the first Paralympic Summer Games were held in Rome in 1960 and the first Paralympic Winter Games in 1976. The word “Paralympic” is derived from Greek preposition “Para” (“beside” or “alongside”) and the word “Olympic” the Paralympic being the parallel Games to the Olympic (Depauw, Gavron 1995, p.64). The international sport for the disable in 1982 designed a new organization named the International Coordinating Committee of the World Sports Organizations (ICC). The goals of this new organization were to bring together sport for the disable internationally and negotiate with the International Olympic Committee (IOC) on behalf of athletes with a disability. On March 1987 was decided that the organization would be formed by representatives from all nation that ran sport for the disable programs. Latter in 1989bathing in the success of the 1984 Paralympics Games in Seoul, the ICC announced the establishment of the IPC (International Paralympic Committee) in Düsseldorf, Germany. The first aim for the IPC was to streamline the organization of the international sport and to establish close links with the IOC International Olympic Committee (Girgonov, 2010, pp. 195). The Paralympic Games in 1984 marked the close of a period that had defended the importance involvement of sports in the lives of individuals with a disability. The winter Games that took part the same year held for first time the skiing events for the disabled. The IPC is now the global governing body of the Paralympic Movement and is responsible for coordinating the organization of the Paralympic Games, while acting as the International Federation for ten IPC sports. Founded on 22 September 1989, the IPC is an international non-profit organization with an extensive membership base, composed of NPCs, IOSDs, IFs, and Regional Organizations. Since 1999, the Management Team has 10 been located at IPC’s HQ in Bonn, Germany. The IPC is a high performing democratic sporting organization that abides by its values and is dedicated to excellence (International Paralympic Committee, 2006).

2. PARALYMPIC GAMES AND DISABILITY

Individuals who didn’t behave according to certain forms for the time, in the appearance and behavior, have continuously experienced different treatment. This treatment changes according to the cruelty from a humane. The follow definitions defined three aspects of disability:

Impairment: In the context of health experience an impairment is any loss or abnormality of psychological, physiological or anatomical structure or function (World Health Organization, 1980, pp.47).

Disability: In the context of health experience a disability is any restriction or lack (resulting from an impairment) of ability to perform an activity in the manner, or within the range considered normal for a human being (World Health Organization, 1980, pp.143).

Handicap: In the context of health experience a handicap is a disadvantage for a given individual, resulting from an impairment or a disability, that limits or prevents the fulfillment of a role that is normal (depending on age, sex, and social and cultural factors) for that individual (World Health Organization, 1980, pp.183).

2.1 What is a Disability?

“A disability is a condition or function judged to be significantly impaired relative to the usual standard of an individual or group. The term is used to refer to individual functioning, including physical impairment, sensory impairment, cognitive impairment, intellectual impairment mental illness, and various types of chronic disease. Disability is conceptualized as being a multidimensional experience for the person involved. There may be effects on organs or body parts and there may be effects on a person's participation in areas of life. Correspondingly, three dimensions of disability are recognized in International Classification of Funding, disability and health (ICF): body structure and function (and impairment thereof), activity (and activity restrictions) and participation (and participation restrictions). The classification also recognizes the role of physical and

11 social environmental factors in affecting disability outcomes.” (Disabled-world, 1999 [online]).

Different terminology has been used through many years to define individuals with a disability. Now, most of the terminology use is one in which the impaired person is stated as “Person with a disability” or “Individual with a physical impairment”

In English they are perceived as being an invalid (a not valid person), as being handicapped (implying a homeless with a cap), or as being disabled (person not able).

2.2 Paralympic disability categories (International Paralympic Committee, 2003).

"Disability" is allocated into three key groups, in which all of them are divided into sub-categories that later make, it easy for the International Paralympic Committee (IPC) to divide the Athletes depending to their impairment that can altered and impact the Athlete’s capability to complete their preformat in a competition. Those key groups and its sub- categories are:

1) Physical disability “A physical disability is any impairment which limits the physical function of one or more limbs or fine or gross motor ability. Other physical disabilities include impairments which limit other facets of daily living, such as respiratory disorders and epilepsy” (Goldstein, 1994).

Into physical disability we can include:

Impaired muscle power: The disability in this group have in mutual that there is reduced force produced by the reduction of a muscle or muscle groups (e.g. muscles of one limb, one side of the body, the lower half of the body). Examples of conditions included in this group are Para and quadriplegia, muscular dystrophy, post poliomyelitis, spine bifida.

Leg length difference: Because of inherited deficiency or trauma, bone shortening that takes place in one leg.

Short stature: Vertical altitude is reduced because of abnormal sizes of bones of upper and lower limbs or trunk (e.g. achondoplasia).

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Amputee: Is the remove of a body extremity by trauma, prolonged constriction, or surgery. As a medical measure, it is used to adjust pain or an illness process in the affected limb. In this group are the athletes with a part or complete loss of at least one limb.

Types of amputation include: Leg, Arm, Teeth, Facials, Breasts, Genitals, Hemicorporectomy, and Decapitation.

Causes:

a) Circulatory disorders: Diabetic foot infection or gangrene (the most common reason for non-traumatic amputation), Sepsis with peripheral necrosis.

b) Neoplasm: Cancerous bone or soft tissue tumors (e.g. osteosarcoma, osteochondroma, fibrosarcoma, epithelioid sarcoma, Ewing's sarcoma, synovial sarcoma, sacrococcygeal teratoma, liposarcoma), Melanoma.

c) Trauma: Severe limb injuries in which the limb cannot be spared or attempts to spare the limb have failed, Traumatic amputation (an unwanted amputation that occurs at the scene of an accident, where the limb is partially or wholly severed as a direct result of the accident, for example a fingertip that is cut off by a meat grinder). Amputation in utero (Amniotic band).

d) Deformities: Deformities of digits and/or limbs, Extra digits and/or limbs (e.g. polydactyly).

e) Infection: Bone infection (osteomyelitis).

f) Athletic performance: Sometimes professional athletes may choose to have a non-essential digit amputated to relieve chronic pain and impaired performance.

g) Legal punishment: Amputation is used as a legal punishment in a number of countries.

Wheelchair: An athlete may compete in wheelchair racing or running or jumping events in Paralympic Athletics if they have a permanent impairment that alters the biomechanical execution of the running action in a way that is demonstrable and which will adversely affect performance.

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Types of Wheelchair disability include:

Hypertonia: is defined as increased muscle tone which is caused by central nervous system impairment and which results in increased resistance to passive lengthening of the Musile. Types of Hypertonia:

a) Spastic Hypertonia: this is defined as a velocity dependent resistance to passive movement with a clasp-knife type of resistance.

b) Rigidity: this is defined as a heightened resistance to passive movement of a limb that is independent of the velocity of stretch and relatively uniform throughout the range of motion of that limb.

c) Dystonia: this is resistance to passive movement that may be focal (affecting muscles of one limb or joint) or general (affecting the whole body).

Ataxia refers to an unsteadiness, incoordination or clumsiness of volitional movement and eligible ataxias must result from either motor or sensory nervous system dysfunction. Types of Ataxia:

a) Cerebellar ataxia: is used to indicate ataxia that is due to dysfunction of the cerebellum.

b) Sensory ataxia is employed to indicate ataxia due to loss of proprioception, the loss of sensitivity to the positions of joint and body parts.

c) Vestibular ataxia is employed to indicate ataxia due to dysfunction of the vestibular system.

Athetosis refers to unwanted movement and posturing resulting from damage to motor control center of the brain, most frequently the basal ganglia. Types of Athetosis:

a) Involuntary movement of the fingers or upper extremities despite the person trying to remain still.

b) Involuntary movement of the toes or lower extremities despite the person trying to remain still.

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c) Inability to hold the body still – swaying of the body. Swaying should not be due to other neurological deficits such as vestibular or proprioceptive impairments and therefore should not be exacerbated by closing of the eyes.

d) Characteristic athetoid posturing.

Limb deficiency is described in terms of upper and lower limb. Types of Limb deficiency:

a) Limb deficiency – Lower limb: Complete unilateral amputation of half the length of the foot.

b) Limb Deficiency – Upper Limb: Unilateral amputation, through or above elbow; bilateral amputation through or above wrist, Unilateral dysmelia in which the length of the affected arm measured from acromion to wrist is equal in length or shorter than the humerus of the unaffected arm.

2) Sensory disability “Sensory disability is impairment of one of the senses. The term is used primarily to refer to vision and hearing impairment, but other senses can be impaired.” (Du Feu & Fergusson, 2013). In this type of impairment is also including:

Visually Impaired: Is the consequence of a functional destruction of vision, instead of the eye disorder itself. Eye disorders which can tend toward visual impairments can comprehend retinal degeneration, albinism, cataracts, and glaucoma; muscular problems that result in visual disturbances, corneal disorders, diabetic retinopathy, congenital disorders, and infection. Visual impairment can also be produce by brain and nerve disorders, in which case it is usually name as cortical visual impairment (CVI).

Types of Visually Impaired.

a) Partially sighted: indicates some type of visual problem, with a need of person to receive special education in some cases.

b) Low vision: generally refers to a severe visual impairment, not necessarily limited to distance vision. Low vision applies to all individuals with sight who are unable to read the newspaper at a normal viewing distance, even with the aid of eyeglasses or 15 contact lenses. They use a combination of vision and other senses to learn, although they may require adaptations in lighting or the size of print, and, sometimes, Braille.

- Myopic - unable to see distant objects clearly, commonly called near-sighted or short-sighted.

- Hyperopic - unable to see close objects clearly, commonly called far-sighted or long-sighted.

c) Legally blind: indicates that a person has less than 20/200 vision in the better eye after best correction (contact lenses or glasses), or a field of vision of less than 20 degrees in the better eye.

d) Totally blind students learn via Braille or other non-visual media.

The sighted guides for athletes with a visual impairment are such a close and essential part of the competition that the athlete with visual impairment and the guide are considered a team, and both athletes are medal candidates.

Hearing impairment: Also well known as “deafness” is related to conditions in which individuals are fully or partially unable to experience or determinate at least some frequencies of sound which can be normally heard by most people.

Olfactory and gustatory impairment: damage of the sense of smell and taste.

Somatosensory impairment: Is a lack of sensitivity to stimuli such as touch, heat, cold, and pain.

Balance disorder: Is a disturbance that causes an individual to feel unstable, for example when standing or walking.

3) Mental disability Intellectual disability or also well known as mental retardation is a inability characterized by significant restriction in intellectual functioning and adaptive behavior as expressed in practical skills and social. In this type of impairment is also including:

- Mental health and emotional disabilities that is a psychological or behavioral illness.

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- Developmental disability that is a mentally or physically impairment that is develop in the early age and has an indefinite duration.

Into physical disability we can include:

Intellectual Disability: Is a broad concept encompassing various intellectual deficits.

Types of Intellectual disability include: Mental retardation, Specific learning disability, Acquired brain injury, Neuro-degeneration, Dementia.

Causes:

a) Genetic conditions: Sometimes disability is caused by abnormal genes inherited from parents, errors when genes combine, or other reasons.

b) Problems during pregnancy. Mental disability can result when the fetus does not develop properly. For example, there may be a problem with the way the fetus' cells divide as it grows.

c) Problems at birth. If a baby has problems during labor and birth, such as not getting enough oxygen, he or she may have developmental disability due to brain damage.

d) Malnutrition is a common cause of reduced intelligence in parts of the world affected by famine, such as Ethiopia.

e) Heredity – Learning disabilities often run in the family.

The IPC primarily serves athletes with physical disabilities, but the disability group Intellectual Disability has been added to some Paralympic Games. This includes only elite athletes with intellectual disabilities, where few qualify. The IOC recognized Special Olympics World Games however, are open to all persons with intellectual disabilities, also persons with severe and profound levels of intellectual disabilities.

Cerebral Palsy: Is an umbrella term encompassing a group of non-progressive, non-contagious motor conditions that cause physical disability in human development, chiefly in the various areas of body movement. Cerebral refers to the cerebrum, which is the affected area of the brain (although the disorder most likely involves connections

17 between the cortex and other parts of the brain such as the cerebellum), and palsy refers to disorder of movement.

Types of Cerebral Palsy include: Spastic, Ataxia, and Athetoid/Dyskinetic.

Causes In certain cases there is no identifiable cause, typical causes include problems in intrauterine development (e.g. exposure to radiation, infection), asphyxia before birth, hypoxia of the brain, and birth trauma during labor and delivery, and complications in the perinatal period or during childhood. Athletes with non-progressive brain damage, for example cerebral palsy, traumatic brain injury, stroke or similar disabilities affecting muscle control, balance or coordination.

Exist also a group of disability that is not included in the groups above. This group is called:

Les Autres: From the French for the others, this includes persons with mobility impairment or other loss of physical function that does not fall strictly into one of the other five categories. Participants include those with dwarfism, multiple sclerosis or other disabilities. Athletes with a physical disability that does not fall strictly under one of the other five categories, such as dwarfism, multiple sclerosis or congenital deformities of the limbs such as that caused by thalidomide (the name for this category is the French for "the others").

2.2.1. Sports classes

Each Paralympic Sport has a different classification system, because each sport requires different abilities. Impairments therefore do not affect activity in different sports to the same extent. Athletes with one of these physical disabilities are able to compete in the Paralympics though not every sport can allow for every disability category. These categories apply to both Summer and Winter Paralympics (Table 1).

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Sport Specific Classification Sumer/Winter sports Summer Sports Volleyball (Sitting)

Archery Wheelchair Basketball

Athletics Wheelchair Fencing

Boccia Wheelchair Rugby

Canoe Wheelchair Tennis

Cycling

Equestrian

Football 5-a-side

Football 7-a-side

Goalball

Judo

Powerlifting

Rowing

Sailing

Shooting

Swimming

Table Tennis

Triathlon

Winter Sports

Alpine Skiing

Biathlon

Cross-Country Skiing

Ice Sledge Hockey

Wheelchair Curling

Table 1: Sport Specific Classification Sumer/Winter sports (IPC 2003) IPC: International Paralympic Committee (Official website of the Paralympic Movement [online])

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2.2.1.1 Summer Sports (International Paralympic Committee, (2007). [online]).

Archery: Included impairment types: physical impairment. Archery has historically been used for hunting and combat. Is the art, practice, or skill of propelling arrows with the use of a bow, from Latin arcus. Sport Classes: Paralympic archers are divided into three sport classes:

ARW1: Archers in this sport class compete in a wheelchair because their impairment includes the loss of leg and trunk function. Also, their arms show a loss of muscle strength, co-ordination or range of movement (spinal cord and cerebral palsy athletes with impairment in all four limbs). For example, one condition that might fit this sport class profile is tetraplegia2.

ARW2: Archers in this sport class have a strong activity limitation in their trunk and legs and compete in a wheelchair. Their arms however, show normal function (wheelchair users with full arm function). This profile would likely apply to paraplegic3 archers.

ARST: Includes athletes competing in a standing position and those who require some standing support because of poor balance. They either have a leg-length difference, limb deficiency or impairments that also affect their arms and trunk (athletes who have no disabilities in their arms but who have some disability in their legs). This group also includes amputees, les autres and cerebral palsy standing athletes.

Athletics: Included impairment types: physical impairment, visual impairment and intellectual impairment Is an exclusive collection of sporting events that involve competitive running, jumping, throwing, and walking. The most common types of athletics competitions are track and field, road running, cross country running, and race walking. All disability groups can compete in athletics but a system of letters and numbers is used to distinguish between them. A letter F is for field athletes, T represents those who compete on the track, and the number shown refers to their disability. Sport Classes: Paralympic athletics are divided into three sport classes:

2 Tetraplegia: paralysis of the arms, legs, and trunk of the body below the level of an associated injury to the spinal cord. This disorder is usually caused by spinal cord injury, especially in the area of the fifth to the seventh vertebrae.( http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/tetraplegia) 3 Paraplegic: Complete paralysis of the lower half of the body including both legs, usually caused by damage to the spinal cord. (http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/paraplegia) 20

T/F11-13: visual impairment: The three sport classes 11, 12 and 13 are allocated to athletes with varying degrees of visual impairment, with sport class 11 including athletes with the lowest vision and sport class 13 including athletes with the best vision meeting the minimum disability criteria. All athletes in the T11 sport class run with a guide runner and are blindfolded. Athletes in sport class T12 may also chose to run with a guide.

T/F 20: Intellectual impairment: Athletes in this class are diagnosed with intellectual impairment and meet sport specific minimum disability criteria in 1,500m, long jump or shot put, respectively.

T32-38 and F31-38: The 30s sport classes are allocated to athletes with athetosis, ataxia and/or hypertonia. The impairments typically affect the ability to control legs, trunk, arms and hands. The lower the number is, the more significant the activity limitation.

F40: Athletes with short stature compete in the sport class F40.

T/F42-46: These sport classes are designated for athletes with limb deficiencies, such as amputations. In the sport classes 42-44 the legs are affected by impairment and in the sport classes 45-46 the arms are affected, for example by above or below elbow amputations.

T51-54 and F51-58: The 50s sport classes only include athletes competing in a wheelchair. Again, a lower number indicates a higher activity limitation. Athletes competing in wheelchair racing events for T51-54 sport classes differ in regards to their arm and shoulder functions, which are pertinent for pushing a wheelchair. Athletes in classes T51-52 have activity limitations in both lower and upper limbs, for example, due to tetraplegia. Unlike athletes in the sport classes T51-53, athletes competing in T54 have partial trunk and leg function.

Boccia: Included impairment types: physical impairment. Is a traditional recreational sport, similar to bocce. The name Boccia is derived from the Latin word for boss – bottia. Boccia is open to athletes with cerebral palsy and other severe physical disabilities (eg, muscular dystrophy) that compete from a wheelchair, Sport Classes: Paralympic boccia are divided into three sport classes:

BC1: Athletes may compete with the help of an assistant, who must remain outside the athlete's playing box. The assistant can only stabilize or adjust the playing chair and give a ball to the player on his request. 21

BC2: Athletes have poor functional strength in their extremities, but can propel a wheelchair and are not eligible for assistance.

BC3: For players with a very severe physical disability. Players use an assistive device and may be assisted by a person, who will remain in the player's box but who must keep his/her back to the court and eyes averted from play.

BC4: For players with other severe physical disabilities - not necessarily cerebral palsy. Players are not eligible for assistance.

Cycling: Included impairment types: physical impairment, visual impairment. Is a competition sport in which various types of bicycles are used. There are several categories of bicycle racing including road bicycle racing, cyclo-cross, mountain bike racing, track cycling, BMX, bike trials, and cycle speedway. Cycling is open to amputees, les autres, athletes with cerebral palsy and visually impaired athletes, competing in individual road race and track events. Athletes with cerebral palsy are split into four divisions according to the level of their disability, where class four comprises the more physically able. Visually impaired athletes compete together with no separate classification system. They ride in tandem with a sighted guide. Sport Classes: Paralympic cycling is divided into three sport classes:

Handcycle H1-4: There are four different sport classes for handcycle racing and lower numbers indicate a more severe activity limitation. Cyclists in the sport classes H1-3 compete in a reclined position. While athletes competing in the H1 class have a complete loss of trunk and leg function and have limited arm function, e.g. because of spinal-cord injuries, athletes in the H3 class have no leg function but good trunk and arm function. Cyclists in the H4 sport class sit on their knees and can thus use their arms and trunk to accelerate the handcycle. Athletes in this sport class might have leg amputations, paraplegia or mild to moderate athetosis or ataxia.

Tricycle T1-2: Tricycle athletes are divided into two classes, T1 and T2. Due to an impairment affecting their balance and coordination they cannot ride a bicycle. The sport class T1 is allocated to athletes with more significant coordination problems or loss of muscle power than athletes competing in sport classT2.

Bicycle C1-5: Athletes who are able to use a standard bicycle compete in the 5 sport classes C1-5. The sport class profiles include amputations, impaired muscle power or range 22 of motion and also impairments affecting coordination, such as ataxia and athetosis. Sport class C1 is allocated to athletes with the most severe activity limitation, while the sport class C5 is allocated to athletes who meet the minimum disability criteria. For example, cyclists with a double below-the-knee amputation who use a prosthesis are likely to compete in the sport class C3, while an athlete with a below knee amputation and a prosthesis on one leg would compete in the sport class C4.

Tandem TB: Cyclists with visual impairment race on a tandem with a sighted cycler sitting in the front. Cyclists with visual impairment either have a low visual acuity or a visual field restricted to a diameter of 40 degrees.

Equestrian: Included impairment types: physical impairment, visual impairment. More often known as riding, horseback riding (American English) or horse riding (British English) refers to the skill of riding, driving, or vaulting with horses. Sport Classes: Paralympic equestrian is divided into three sport classes:

Grade Ia: Physical impairments Athletes have severe impairments of all limbs and poor trunk control, which usually necessitate the athlete to use a wheelchair in daily life.

Grade Ib: Physical impairments Athletes have either severely reduced trunk control and minimally impaired upper limbs or moderate impairments of the upper and lower limbs and the trunk. Most riders in this class use a wheelchair in daily life.

Grade II: Physical impairments Athletes have a very limited ability in both lower limbs and a good trunk balance, or milder limitations in upper and lower limbs with reduced trunk control. For example, an athlete with a severe impairment in one arm and one leg on opposite sides and good trunk and hip control is likely to compete in Grade II. Some riders in this class use a wheelchair in daily life.

Grade III: Physical and visual impairment Athletes are able to walk, but have a severe impairment in both arms or have no arms, a moderate impairment of all four limbs or short stature. This grade also includes athletes with no sight.

Grade IV: Physical and visual impairment Comprises athletes with impaired range of motion or muscle strength, deficiency on one limb or mild deficiency on two limbs. Moreover, riders with reduced vision or a restricted visual field compete in this grade.

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Football: Included impairment types: physical impairment, visual impairment. Consists of adaptations of the sport of association football for athletes with a physical disability. These sports are typically played using International Federation of Association Football (FIFA) rules, with modifications to the field of play, equipment, numbers of players, and other rules as required to make the game suitable for the athletes.

Football 5-a-side is an adaptation of football for athletes with visual impairments including blindness. Sport Classes: Paralympic Football 5-a-side is divided into three sport classes:

B1 - Totally or almost totally blind; from no light perception up to light perception but inability to recognize the shape of a hand.

B2 - Partially sighted; able to recognize the shape of a hand up to a visual acuity of 2/60 or a visual field of less than 5 degrees.

B3 - Partially sighted; visual acuity from 2/60 to 6/60 or visual field from 5 to 20 degrees.

Football 7-a-side is an adaptation of association football for athletes with cerebral palsy and other neurological disorders, including stroke and traumatic brain injury. Sport Classes: Paralympic Football 7-a-side is divided into four sport classes:

C5: Athletes with difficulties when walking and running, but not in standing or when kicking the ball.

C6: Athletes with control and co-ordination problems of their upper limbs, especially when running.

C7: Athletes with hemiplegia.

C8: Minimally disabled athletes; they must meet eligibility criteria and have an obvious impairment that has impact on the sport of football.

Goalball is a team sport designed for blind athletes. Goalball is played by visually impaired athletes and a special rule means there is no need for classification. Participants wear "black out" masks to ensure everyone competes equally.

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Judo: Included impairment types: physical impairment, visual impairment. Is an adaptation of the Japanese martial art of judo. Judo is contested by visually impaired athletes only, so there is no specific categorization as competitors are divided by weight in the same way as able-bodied athletes; except with the visual impairment category.

Visual impairment category:

B1: Judoka in this sport class are diagnosed with visual impairment and are either blind or have very low visual acuity. By way of explanation, their level of visual acuity is such that the athlete cannot recognize the letter “E” (15x15cm in size) from a distance of 25cm.

B2: The B2 sport class profile includes athletes with a higher visual acuity than athletes competing in the B1 class, but they are unable to recognize the letter “E” from a distance of 4m. Moreover, athletes with a visual field of less than 10 degrees diameter are eligible for this sport class.

B3: The B3 sport class profile describes the least severe visual impairment eligible for Judo. Eligible athletes either have a restricted visual field of less than 40 degrees diameter or a low visual acuity.

Powerlifting: Included impairment types: physical impairment. Is an adaptation of the sport of powerlifting for athletes with disabilities. The only discipline in Paralympic powerlifting is the bench press. Powerlifting is open to all athletes with a physical disability and is classified by weight alone. Powerlifters competing at the Paralympics have disabilities including paralysis, cerebral palsy and lower limb amputation. Both male and female competitors take part in 10 weight classes.

Rowing: Included impairment types: physical impairment, visual impairment. Is a special category of rowing. Rowing, new for the 2008 Paralympic programme. Sport Classes: Paralympic rowing is divided into four sport classes:

AS: Athletes in sport class AS primarily use their arms and shoulders to accelerate the boat, as they have minimal or no leg and trunk function, which can be caused by spinal cord injuries, for example.

TA: Sport Class TA comprises athletes who can use their arms and trunk when rowing, but are not able to use their legs or a sliding seat when performing the strokes. These athletes

25 typically have good trunk and arm function. For example, athletes with a double around the knee amputation would fit this sport class profile.

LTA-PD: This sport class includes athletes, who can use their legs, trunk and arms to accelerate the boat and can use the sliding seat. Athletes who miss three fingers on one hand or have a foot amputation might be eligible to compete in this class.

LTA-VI B1, B2 and B3: Rowers in this sport class have varying degrees of visual impairment. Athletes in sport class B1 are nearly or completely blind. Athletes in the B3 sport class have the least severe eligible visual impairment. Fairness between the teams: To ensure that races are fair, rowers compete only against rowers in the same sport class. Consequently, there are four different events in adaptive rowing:

LTA Mixed coxed four: Two male and two female rowers from the sport classes LTA-PD and LTAB1/ 2/3 form a team. Due to their physical strength, only two rowers in the team may have a visual impairment and no more than one may have the sport class LTA-VI B3. All athletes with visual impairment are blindfolded during training and competition.

TA Mixed double sculls: One female and one male rower of sport class TA form a team.

AS Women’s single sculls and AS Men’s single sculls: In sport class AS there are separate events for men and women and the athletes compete in single boats.

Sailing: Included impairment types: physical impairment, visual impairment. Is the propulsion of a vehicle and the control of its movement with large (usually fabric) foils called sails. Sport Classes: Paralympic sailing is divided into three sport classes:

Three-Person Keelboat: The sailors are classified with a sport class from 1 to 7, with 7 indicating the least severe and 1 indicating he most severe eligible impairment. For example, a sailor with complete tetraplegia is likely to compete in sport class 1 and a sailor with a single above knee amputation is likely to compete in sport class 7. Moreover, athletes with visual impairment are also classified with the same sport classes. Depending on their visual ability, they compete in sport class 3, 5 or 7, with 7 indicating the highest eligible visual ability. To make sure that no crew has an advantage or disadvantage in the competition due to impairment, each crew is only allowed a maximum of 14 points.

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Two-Person Keelboat: One sailor has to be allocated the sport class “TPA” and the other one has to be classified as “TPB.” The sport class TPA includes athletes with more severe impairments, which are equivalent to a sport class 1 or 2 on a Three-Person Keelboat. Examples for impairments included in this sport class profile would be complete quadriplegia or a double above-the-elbow amputation. The sport class TPB means that an athlete only has to meet the minimum impairment criteria for sailing. Athletes of all seven sport classes of the Three- Person Keelboat could compete in the TPB sport class, including athletes with visual impairment.

Single-Person Keelboat: To sail on the Single-Person Keelboat athletes only have to pass the minimum disability criteria, but there is no further sport class distinction. Thus, this classification is equivalent to the TPB sport class on the Two-Person Keelboat.

Shooting: Included impairment types: physical impairment. Is an adaptation of shooting. Shooting is a test of accuracy and control, in which competitors use pistols or rifles to fire a series of shots at a stationary target. Sport Classes: Paralympic shooting is divided into two sport classes:

SH1: Athletes in this sport class shoot with either pistol or rifle. They do not require a shooting stand, because their arms are affected by impairment to a lesser extent and allow for sufficient support of the pistol or rifle. Eligible pistol shooters, for example, have an impaired non-shooting arm, such as amputation or muscle weakness.

SH2: This sport class is designated to shooters with a more severe impairment in the upper limbs, which necessitates them to use a shooting stand. Unlike the SH1 class they shoot with rifles only and not with pistols.

Volleyball: Included impairment types: physical impairment. Is an adaptation of the sport of Volleyball for athletes with disabilities. Has a sitting and standing event. Sport Classes: Paralympic Volleyball is divided into two sport classes:

SITTING: Volleyball the court is smaller than standard and has a lower net. Games are contested by athletes with a minimal disability that prevents them from competing with able-bodied athletes. In sitting volleyball, the net is about 3 feet high, and the court is 10 x 6 meters with a 2-meter attack line. Players are allowed to block serves, but one “cheek” must be in contact with the floor whenever they make contact with the ball.

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STANDING: Volleyball uses a full-sized court and normal height net, and is played by athletes split into three classes according to their disabilities. In standing volleyball, a mix of disabilities must be represented on the court at all time to equalize the level of play. Athletes with the following disabilities can compete in sitting or standing volleyball: Amputees, spinal cord injuries, cerebral palsy, brain injuries and stroke.

Swimming Included impairment types: physical impairment, visual impairment and intellectual impairment. Is an adaptation of the sport of swimming for athletes with disabilities. Swimming is the only sport that combines the conditions of limb loss, cerebral palsy (coordination and movement restrictions), spinal cord injury (weakness or paralysis involving any combination of the limbs) and other disabilities (such as Dwarfism and major joint restriction conditions) across classes. Sport Classes: Paralympic Swimming is divided into two sport classes: The sport class names in Swimming consist of a prefix “S,” “SM,” or “SB” and a number. The prefixes stand for the strokes and the number indicates the sport classes.

The prefixes stand for:

S: Freestyle, Butterfly and Backstroke events.

SM: Individual Medley.

SB: Breaststroke.

S1 - S10: Physical impairment:

S1 SB1 SM1: Swimmers in this sport class have a significant loss of muscle power or control in legs, arms and hands. Some athletes also have limited trunk control, as it may occur with tetraplegia. These impairments may be caused by spinal-cord injuries or polio. Swimmers in this class usually use a wheelchair in daily life.

S2 SB1 SM2: Swimmers in this sport class are able to use their arms with no use of their hands, legs or trunk or have severe coordination problems in 4 limbs. As in sport class S1 SB1 SM1, athletes mostly only compete in backstroke events.

S3 SB2 SM3: This sport class includes athletes with amputations of all four limbs. Swimmers with reasonable arm strokes but no use of their legs or trunk and swimmers with severe coordination problems in all limbs are also included in this sport class. 28

S4 SB3 SM4: Swimmers who can use their arms and have minimal weakness in their hands, but cannot use their trunk or legs. Athletes with amputations of three limbs also swim in this sport class.

S5 SB4 SM5: Swimmers with short stature and an additional impairment, with loss of control over one side of their body (hemiplegia) or with paraplegia compete in this sport class.

S6 SB5 SM6: This sport class includes swimmers with short stature, amputations of both arms and moderate coordination problems on one side of their body.

S7 SB6 SM7: This profile is designated for athletes with one leg and one arm amputation on opposite sides, double leg amputations or a paralysis of one arm and one leg on the same side. Moreover, swimmers with full control over arms and trunk and some leg function can compete in this class.

S8 SB7 SM8: Swimmers who have lost either both hands or one arm are eligible to compete in this sport class. Also, athletes with severe restrictions in the joints of the lower limbs could compete in this sport class.

S9 SB8 SM9: Athletes in this sport class swim with joint restrictions in one leg, double below-the knee amputations or an amputation of one leg.

S10 SB9 SM10: This class describes the minimal impairments of eligible swimmers with physical impairment. Eligible impairments would be the loss of a hand or both feet and a significantly limited function of one hip joint.

Sport Classes 11-13: Visual Impairment, Swimmers with visual impairment compete in the sport classes 11-13, with 11 meaning a complete or nearly complete loss of sight and 13 describing the minimum eligible visual impairment. Athletes in sport class 11 compete with blackened goggles.

Sport Classes 14: Intellectual impairment, Swimmers with intellectual impairment who also meet the sport-specific criteria compete in sport class 14.

Table tennis: Included impairment types: physical impairment and intellectual impairment. Is a Paralympic sport which follows the rules set by the International Table Tennis Federation with slight modifications for wheelchair athletes. Athletes from all 29 disability groups can take part. Sport Classes: Paralympic Table tennis is divided into eleven sport classes:

Sitting classes:

CLASS 1: Players have no sitting balance and a severely affected playing arm, for example due to a spinal-cord lesion or polio.

CLASS 2: Players in this sport class also have no sitting balance, but their playing arm is less affected than described in sport class 1.

CLASS 3: While class 3 players have no trunk control, their arms and hands are not or minimally affected by the impairment.

CLASS 4: Players have a fair sitting balance and fully functional arms and hands. Such a profile may be due to a lower spinal-cord lesion or cerebral palsy.

CLASS 5: This sport class includes athletes who compete in a wheelchair, like athletes with a sport class 1-4, but who have normal sitting balance, arm and hand function.

Standing Classes:

CLASS 6: Players have severe impairments in both arms and legs, which is due to incomplete spinal cord injuries, neurological conditions which affect both or one side of the body, amputations or similar congenital conditions. You will see some players handling the racket with their mouth.

CLASS 7: Players either have very severe impairments of the legs or the playing arm or impairments affecting arms and legs, less severe than described in sport class 6. For example, a player with an amputation of both arms above the elbow could compete in this sport class.

CLASS 8: Athletes with moderate impairment of their legs or moderately affected playing arm compete in this sport class. Classified as these conditions are stiffness of both knees or a below elbow amputation of the playing arm.

CLASS 9: Players have mild impairments affecting the legs or the playing arm. Some show severe impairments of the non-paying arm, such as an amputation above the elbow.

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Athletes with a stiff knee or a restricted range of motion in a joint of the playing arm may also compete in this sport class.

CLASS 10: Players have minimal impairments and may include a stiff ankle or wrist of the playing arm. Players with short stature may also play in sport class 10.

CLASS 11: Includes athletes with intellectual impairment who also meet sport specific criteria for table tennis.

Wheelchair basketball: Included impairment types: physical impairment. Basketball is played by people in wheelchairs and is considered one of the major disabled sports practiced. Basketball is open to wheelchair athletes, whose impairments may include paraplegia, lower limb amputation, cerebral palsy and polio. On the game each team fields five players but may not exceed a total of 14 points at any given time. Sport Classes: Paralympic Wheelchair Basketball is divided into five sport classes: Athletes are classified according to physical ability and are given a points rating.

CLASS 1.0: Players in sport class 1.0 have no trunk control and thus cannot bent forward or sideways or rotate to catch and pass the ball. To keep a stable position, the backrest of the wheelchair is a bit higher and the athletes are strapped to the wheelchair.

CLASS 2.0: These players can move lean forward and rotate their body to some extent, allowing them to catch the ball within a larger radius. Like their team members in sport class 1.0, their wheelchairs have a higher backrest and strapping for trunk support.

CLASS 3.0: This profile describes players whose trunk control allows them to fully rotate and lean forward, but does not allow them to lean to the sides. As they do not need sitting support, their wheelchair has a low backrest.

CLASS 4.0: While 4.0 players can move forward and rotate like their team members in sport class 3.0, they can partially lean to the sides as well. Often players in this sport class can lean to one side only, for example, because an impairment in one leg would cause a loss of balance to the other side.

CLASS 4.5: Players in this sport class have the least eligible impairment and have no restriction in trunk rotation or leaning forward or sideways. Players with a foot amputation or a 6 cm leg length difference would be eligible for this sport class.

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Wheelchair fencing: Included impairment types: physical impairment. Is a version of Fencing for athletes with a disability. Fencing is open to wheelchair athletes, whose impairments may include spinal cord injuries, lower limb amputation and cerebral palsy. Sport Classes: Paralympic Wheelchair fencing is divided into two sport classes.

CATEGORY A: Fencers in Category A have good trunk control, allowing them to move forward and sideways when attracting their opponent or dodging an attack. Also, their fencing arm is fully functional.

CATEGORY B: Fencers in Category B either have worse trunk control than described in category A and a normal fencing arm, or they have normal trunk control and minimally reduced function in their fencing arm.

Wheelchair rugby: Included impairment types: physical impairment. Is a team sport for athletes with a disability. Wheelchair rugby athletes are classified using a points system; each team is comprised of four players and is allowed a maximum of eight points on court at any one time. Sport Classes: Paralympic Wheelchair rugby is divided into seven sport classes. Below you will find a short description of four out of seven sport class profiles.

CLASS 0.5: Players in sport class 0.5 show significant shoulder instability and limitations in their upper arm and hand functions. Most have no trunk or leg control. The player would typically catch the ball by tapping it into the lap and throw the ball with a scoop pass.

CLASS 1.5: Players in sport class 1.5 have better shoulder stability and arm and wrist function than players in sport class 0.5. They can do chest passes, but the instability of their wrist makes ball handling difficult. Some players might have one side of their body more strongly affected than the other side.

CLASS 2.5: Players in this sport class have good shoulder stability and arm function. They might have some trunk control. Due to their ability to flex their fingers, they can perform overhead passes, catch the ball with two hands and maneuver the wheelchair better than their team mates in the lower sport classes.

CLASS 3.5: This is the sport class describing the least severe eligible impairment in wheelchair rugby. Due to a less significant impairment of their shoulders, trunk, arms and hands, they are good ball handlers and can move quickly on the court. 32

Wheelchair tennis: Included impairment types: physical impairment. Is one of the forms of tennis adapted for those who have disabilities in their lower bodies. In wheelchair tennis competitions, players are allowed two bounces of the ball, the first bounce being within the bounds of the court. Sport Classes: Paralympic Wheelchair tennis is divided into two sport classes.

OPEN CLASS: This sport class is designated for athletes, who have a significant and permanent impairment of one or both legs and normal arm function. This profile may match with athletes with paraplegia or leg amputations.

QUAD CLASS: Players in this class have an impairment affecting their arm function, as well as their legs. This limits their ability to grip the racket and to move in the wheelchair.

2.2.1.2 Winter sports (International Paralympic Committee, (2007). [online]).

Paralympic alpine skiing, Paralympic biathlon, Paralympic cross-county skiing:

Included impairment types: physical impairment, visual impairment and intellectual impairment. Nordic skiing disciplines in the Winter Paralympic Games are an adaptation of alpine skiing, biathlon and cross-county skiing for athletes with a disability. Sport Classes: Paralympic alpine and Nordic ski racing are divided into three groups.

Standing classes.

LW 1: Double leg amputation above the knee, moderate to severe cerebral palsy, or equivalent impairment. LW 2: Single leg amputation above the knee. LW 3: Double leg amputation below the knee, mild cerebral palsy, or equivalent impairment.

LW 4: Single leg amputation below the knee.

LW 5/7-1: Double arm amputation above the elbow.

LW 5/7-2: Double arm amputation, one above and one below the elbow.

LW 6/8-1: Single arm amputation above the elbow.

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LW 6/8-2: Single arm amputation below the elbow.

LW 9-1: Amputation or equivalent impairment of one arm and one leg above the knee.

Sitting classes.

LW 10-1: Paraplegia with no upper abdominal function and no functional sitting balance.

LW 10-2: Paraplegia with some upper abdominal function and no functional sitting balance.

LW 11: Paraplegia with fair functional sitting balance.

LW 12-1: Paraplegia with some leg function and good sitting balance.

LW 12-2: Double leg amputation above the knees.

Visually impaired

B1: Totally blind.

B2: Visual acuity of less than 2/60.

B3: Visual acuity of 2/60 to 6/60.

Ice Sledge hockey: Included impairment types: physical impairment and intellectual impairment. Is a sport that was designed to allow participants who have a physical disability to play the game of ice hockey. Sport Classes: Paralympic Ice Sledge hockey is divided into five groups.

Amputation: - through the ankle.

Paresis: - loss of 10 muscle points in both legs (not counting grade 1 and 2; maximal point score 80).

Joint mobility: - ankylosis (fusion) of ankle joint - extension defect of at least 30 degrees orankylosis of knee joint.

Cerebral Palsy: - spasticity/dyscoordination, corresponding to class 7.

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Leg shortening: - at least 7 centimeters.

3. INTERNATIONAL PARALYMPICS GAMES COMMITTEE (IPC): STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS

The motto of the IPC is “Spirit in motion” The word “Spirit” is derived from the notion that the IPC, like athletes it represents, has a drive to compete and to succeed. “Motion”, on the other hand relates to the fact that the IPC is truly moving forward, an organization that realizes it’s potential and is now striving to achieve it. (Girgonov, 2010. pp.205).

The Paralympic Movement is a worldwide network of organizations united together through their commitment to bring sporting opportunities for Para-athletes i.e., all athletes from ordinary to elite, and through the confidence of contribute to an improved world with same opportunities for all people. The Paralympic Movement is built around the important standards of courage, determination, inspiration and equality.

3.1 International Paralympics committee.

3.1.1 The Athletes.

There is no question about that without athletes; there would be no Paralympic Games no Paralympic sports. All athletes are at the soul of the Paralympic Movement. They are reinforced by extensive structures which hold, in particular, local clubs, National and International Federations and National Paralympic Committees. As role figures in society athletes are able to do a big contribution to the Paralympic Movement equally by raising the outline of sport and recreation through communities and by becoming standard bearers for future generations. Athletes should be stimulated to play an important part in the organization and growth of sport. Athletes are also guarantee that they all can compete on a level playing field through flawless standards of judging and referee, rules and norms of the highest order; and total ethical of judge and referees.

Athletes participating in Paralympic sports have an impairment that brings it to a competitive difficulty in sport. Consequently, is need a system that placed in place to minimize the influence of impairments on sport performance and to make sure the success of an athlete is proper divided by skill, fitness, power, endurance, tactical ability and mental focus. This structure is called classification. The clearness and efficiency of the 35 eligibility principles are compromised by the use of terminology that are not standardize, such as “functionally be equated” (International Stoke Mandeville Wheelchair Sports Federation (ISMWSF) system), “similar condition” (Cerebral Palsy International Sports and Recreation Association (CP-ISRA) system), and “resembling” (International Wheelchair and Amputee Sports Federation (ISOD) system). (Girgonov, 2010).

Classifications offer a structure for competition. Classification systems vary by sport and were established by the International Federations (IF) governing the sport. IFs choose which impairment group their sport will cater for. Some Paralympic sports are only considered for athletes with one impairment type. Furthermore choose how severe an impairment has to be in order for an athlete to be qualified to compete in their sport. For an athlete to be qualified the impairment must be severe enough that it influences his or her sport performance, if an athlete has a motion limitation coming from an impairment that is not permanent and/or does not limit the athlete's ability to participate fairly in elite sport with athletes with an impairment, the athlete should be considered unqualified to compete. Sport Rules of the IFs are the only rule on the eligibility of an athlete to participate in the Games. The Paralympic Movement is dedicated to the progress of evidence based in the classification systems, so that athletes who improve their competitive performance through efficient training will not be relocated to a class with athletes who have less activity restriction but will be compensated by becoming more competitive with the class they were assigned.

Athletes as role figure in society and integral peace in the organization and progress of sport, have a special duty to guarantee that no forbidden substance go in his/her body. To encourage and guard the integrity of sport and the health of athletes, the IPC, together with International Federations (IFs) and the National Paralympic Committees (NPCs) created the IPC Anti-Doping Code. The goal of the code is to defend the athlete’s right to contribute in doping free sport and therefore encourage health, fairness and equality. In accordance to the Anti-doping Code article 2.1.1 In case of been holding any of the prohibited substance mentioned in the IPC Anti- Doping list, the athlete will be responsible for any prohibited substance or its metabolites or markers found to be present in his/her sample and it doesn’t matter if was the athlete intent, fault, negligence or knowing use (IPC Anti-Doping Code 2011, ed. 4). Therefore Paralympic athletes often obtain a Therapeutic Use Exception (TUE) that prove his/her medical situation requiring the use of a forbidden substance or forbidden technique. In an Athlete’s testimonial the

36 athlete Yu Chui Yee Alison state that: “Every athlete is training so hard to compete. Therefore, they should have the opportunity to compete in a fair game. For athletes and coaches, we have no excuse to ignore the anti-doping code; ignorance is not a reason to cheat. It is the responsibility of athletes, coaches and all of us to maintain the sport in clean and fair”

Being an athlete does not end on the athletics track, in a pool or on a court. Same as any inhabitant in the world, an athlete has to demonstrate that he is proficient, dynamic and capable of referring any issue. Like any person in the world, an athlete has a right and responsibility to express himself, to make his idea heard and to play a greater role within the sport movement on local, national, regional and international levels and outside the sports field within society in general.

As athletes and as human beings, they have to inspire clean sport and show a good example for the new generation.

Sport is playing an increasingly important role in a world of changing economic, political, cultural and social systems. Presently living in a golden time for sport. Since the earliest times, never has sport occupied such a significant place in society as today. This situation has mostly been accomplished by the athletes themselves, motivated by sporting excellence, and also by the positive influence of performing very successful Paralympic Games.

3.1.2 Paralympic Games.

The Paralympic Games are commonly known as an exclusive and special experience; ensure to leave a rich legacy of remarkable memories to all sportsmen, staff members and spectators. Today they have expected the significant on a worldwide scale that has taken sport from a recreational and rehabilitative activity partially privileged few, to a universal audience across the world. The Games as they are today represent a truly exceptional sporting phenomenon. They are the highest multi-sport event in the world today. Even though the Games are seen as the highpoint of all sporting, they’ve been taken far more than just a sport event. The world sees the Games as a festivity of harmony and peace but also diversity. The Games are the only worldwide event, which connects sporting superiority with fundamental human values. Is the only event that has the control

37 to involve the entire world and to transport the social, urban and economic regeneration to a city, while touching all generations through sport.

The Paralympic Games are at all times held in the same period and place as the Olympic Games. International Olympic Committee (IOC) and International Paralympic Committee (IPC) signed on 19th June, 2001 agreement in which they assume to cooperate in the organization of the Olympic and Paralympic Games. Since 2012, the host for the Olympic Games also hosts the Paralympic Games.

Athletes who practice and prepare for the high sport event since the mid- 1980s were the new type of Paralympians that controls the mass sporting event that the Movement is showcased after two decades later. Athletes are not anymore inspire or gradually able to participate at the international level in two different sports, since the performance standards and the number of athletes participating for the limit of number of places accessible on teams has meant vastly increased competition for place.

The Paralympic Games are the ultimate sporting event for athletes from five groups of various types of disabilities. The emphasis is not on the actual asset disability, but on athletic performance. (Girgonov, 2010. pp.191) The Paralympic Games are the pinnacle of the career of Paralympic athletes and a motivation for many to participate or engage in Paralympic sports. They also represent the most visible element of the Paralympic Movement and its values. Thus they represent a showcase to a worldwide audience and act as primary vehicle to change perceptions and to leave tangible legacies. Finally, the Paralympic Games also guarantee the majority of the IPC’s funding. Given their central role it is the goal to safeguard the high standard of the Paralympic Games and continue to develop their appeal to all participants. (IPC Strategic plan, 2011-2014).

The Paralympic Games have developed dramatically. Dr. Ludwig Guttmann created Paralympic Sport in 1940’s as an addition for the rehabilitation method. As the Paralympic Movement developed, the emphasis goes away from rehabilitation and was focused on sport. The number of athletes competing has increased from 400 in Rome in 1960 (IPC Annual report, 2009) to 3,951 athletes in Beijing in 2008 (IPC Annual report, 2009) with same percentage growth in the Paralympic Winter Games (Table 2a-2b). The numbers of sports, media attention, sponsor awareness, spectator appearance and global viewers have grown to convert the Paralympic Games one of the principal multisport events worldwide. The accomplishment of the Games is connected an extensive and

38 complex network of Games investors and focused on the ability to work together. The connection between partners and the IPC is very significant to deliver a great quality and impeccably executed elite sport event like the Paralympic Games. The Games have the capability to deliver positive legacies (sporting, social, cultural, environmental and urban legacies), which will have eternal impact on the point of view and reputation of the Games.

Paralympic Games host cities.

Summer Paraly City Country Continent Year From To mpiad Rome Italy Europe I 1960 18 September 25 September Tokyo Japan Asia II 1964 3 November 12 November Tel Aviv Israel Europe III 1968 4 November 13 November Heidelberg West Germany Europe IV 1972 2 August 11 August Toronto Canada Americas V 1976 3 August 11 August Arnhem Netherlands Europe VI 1980 21 June 30 June United States New York Americas 17 June 30 June United VII 1984 Stoke Mandeville Europe 22 July 1 August Kingdom Seoul South Korea Asia VIII 1988 15 October 24 October Barcelona Spain Europe IX 1992 3 September 14 September Atlanta United States Americas X 1996 16 August 25 August Sydney Australia Oceania XI 2000 18 October 29 October Athens Greece Europe XII 2004 17 September 28 September Beijing China Asia XIII 2008 6 September 17 September United London Europe XIV 2012 29 August 9 September Kingdom Rio de Janeiro Brazil Americas XV 2016 7 September 18 September Table 2a: ( IPC 2003) IPC: International Paralympic Committee

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Winter Paraly City Country Continent Year From To mpiad Örnsköldsvik Sweden Europe I 1976 21 February 28 February Geilo Norway Europe II 1980 1 February 7 February Innsbruck Austria Europe III 1984 14 January 20 January Innsbruck Austria Europe IV 1988 17 January 25 January Tignes- France Europe V 1992 25 March 1 April Albertville Lillehammer Norway Europe VI 1994 10 March 19 March Nagano Japan Asia VII 1998 5 March 14 March Salt Lake City United States Americas VIII 2002 7 March 16 March Torino Italy Europe IX 2006 10 March 19 March Vancouver Canada Americas X 2010 12 March 21 March Sochi Russia Europe XI 2014 7 March 16 March Korea PyeongChang Asia XII 2018 9 March 18 March Republic Table 2b: ( IPC 2003) IPC: International Paralympic Committee

The rehabilitative nature of sport for disable will always be in the background, as athletes who suffer traumatic injury will need rehabilitation before being able to participate in sport. (Girgonov, 2010. pp.191)

Today the Games are the leading event, look at by billions of people all over the world, fascinating global interest and the athletes are the main reason.

3.1.3 IPC structure

International Paralympic Committee (IPC) is an international non-profit organization founded in Bonn, Germany. Not the IPC or the Paralympic Movement are political entities with political aims. The Paralympic Movement is based on the concept of the independence and good leading of sport, which identifies and respects the athlete’s individuality and reaches unity through diversity. Sport is a source for good and is an exclusive and indispensable tool for sustainable expansion, as well as a means to encourage peace, culture and education. Sport embraces a mirror to society, through which the Paralympic Movement’s guarantee to follow policies which endorse that the universal language of sport must be clearly reflected. The values of the Paralympic Movement have a solid message and generate many initiatives approved out by its diverse membership.

The Paralympic Movement uses sports as the dynamic belt for its fundamental values, which are: formative; pacifist; democratic; cultural; and ecological. Sports are 40 consequently the driving belt of the Paralympic Ideology and such an important base must be kept and preserved within its own principles, explicitly the values of sport. They are: Courage, Determination, Inspiration and Equality. Others of the principles present are respect; work; effort; dedication; commitment; integration; companionship; self-control; spirit of sacrifice; discipline; self-betterment; confidence; overcoming adverse results. These standards have stimulated sportsmen and women to accomplish: records; marks; and victory in their sport.

The Paralympic Movement is to be understood as a way of life and a guideline of the association of the body and mind. This philosophy, the Paralympic doctrine, has three Important Principles:

• Non-discrimination;

• The mission for peace;

• The mental and physical improvement of the human race.

The IPC ensure that the viewpoint behind the Games is accurately communicated and agreed by all the stakeholders, and it needs to discover innovative keys to effectively manage the dimensions, cost and complexity related with the staging of the Games. The IPC membership is comprised of independent listed organizations that have spontaneously agreed to be part of the IPC with the intention to support the growth of the Paralympic Movement, its Vision and Mission and to carry its responsibilities as members. The Vision and Mission of the IPC summaries the attention and importance of the IPC as the Movement’s governing body to allow Paralympic athletes to accomplish sporting superiority and motivate and stimulate the world.

Vision and Mission of the IPC is: (IPC Annual report 20011)

To guarantee and supervise the organization of successful Paralympic Games. To ensure the growth and strength of the Paralympic Movement through the development of National Paralympic committees (NPCs) in all countries and support to the activities of all IPC member organizations. To promote and contribute to the development of sport opportunities and competitions, from initiation to elite level, for Paralympic athletes as the foundation of elite Paralympic Sport. 41

To develop opportunities for female athletes and athletes with a severe disability in sport at all levels and in all structures. To support and encourage educational, cultural, research and scientific activities contributing to the development and promotion of the Paralympic Movement. To seek the continuous global promotion and media coverage of the Paralympic Movement, its vision of inspiration and excitement through sport, its ideals and activities. To promote the self-governance of each Paralympic sport either as an integral part of the international sport movement for able-bodied athletes, or as an independent sport organization, whilst at all times safeguarding and preserving its own identity. To ensure that in sport practiced within the Paralympic Movement the spirit of fair play prevails, violence is banned, the health risk of the athletes is managed and fundamental ethical principles are upheld. To contribute to the creation of a drug-free sport environment for all Paralympic athletes in conjunction with the World Anti-Doping agency (WADA). To promote Paralympic sports without discrimination for political, religious, economic, disability, gender, sexual orientation or race reasons. To ensure the means necessary to support future growth of the Paralympic Movement.

The membership pulls together countless standpoints and backgrounds including the National Paralympic Committees (NPCs) expressive the national understanding, the sporting approach through the International Federations (IFs), the regional perspective through the Regional Organizations and the opinion of the International Organizations of Sports for the Disabled (IOSDs). Additionally the IPC is composed of a Governing Board, a Management Team in Bonn, various Standing Committees and Councils (Graphic 1). The IPC helps as an International Federation for numerous Paralympic sports, for which it administer and co-ordinates the World Championships and other competitions. Furthermore the IPC guarantees the day-to-day management responsibilities and technical direction for those sports.

The Paralympic Movement is the rigorous, organized, general and enduring action, carried out below the highest authority of the International Paralympic Committee (IPC), of all persons and entities who are encouraged by the values of Paralympism. It includes all five continents. It reaches its peak by bringing together of the world’s athletes at the

42 biggest sports festival, the Paralympic Games. Its symbol the official Paralympic logo was presented in 2003 (Photo 1). It is a symbol of movement with three focused Agitos oriented characters (Latin term meaning "to move"). The logo also mean the fact that the athletes in its highest performance level are the stimulation for the world, do not resign and go continuously forward. Agitos (characters from the logo IPC) have three colors that are most represented in national flags: red, blue and green.

The Paralympic brand demonstrates the principles of recognition and appreciation for people with a perceived disability through the lessons and examples of Para athletes and the Paralympic Games. The Paralympic brand is a bridge which links sport with social awareness to challenge stereotypes and ultimately leads to equality.

Official Paralympic symbol.

Picture 1: (IPC, 2003)

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IPC Operational structure.

Graphic 1: Annual Report 2011, p. 8

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The IPC is an international non-profit organization with an extensive membership base, which is made up of: (International Paralympic Committee, 2003)

171 National Paralympic Committees (NPCs). 4 International Organizations of Sport for the Disabled (IOSDs). 11 International Federations (IFs). 4 Regional Organizations.

3.1.4 Paralympism and Youth.

The infancy of the world, from whom the athletes of the future are selected, are the heart of the Paralympic Movement. The Paralympic Movement must attempt to spread its responsibility and to rise its impact in young people around the world, using sport as a promoter for their education and development. To guarantee improved participation in physical activity and sport and to encourage healthy life styles, governments should be stimulated the intensify their efforts to work with sports organizations and young people so that sports events have an important place in schools, at all ages and at all levels.

To participate in sport is a human right. Every person must have the chance of practicing sport, without judgment of any type and in the Paralympic spirit, which needs common understanding with a spirit of friendship, solidarity and fair play.

One of the IPC’s main aims is to grow the number of people with an impairment play a part in sport at all levels from the basics through to the elite level and the Paralympic Games. Athletes are the heart of the Paralympic Movement and it is the aim to embrace Para-athletes at all levels to appreciate the chance to practice sports.

To accomplish this, the IPC’s Improvement initiatives consist of seven strategic priorities:

Administrative Development: create and organize learning and working facilities for National Paralympic Committees and International Federation staff in the areas of governance, management, leadership and sports promotion, including coaching, classification, medical and science. Athlete Pathway: create programmes from the ordinary to the elite level increasing athlete involvement and career growth.

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Elite Competitions: Work with suitable groups to organize and encourage local, regional and international sporting events, and contribute to the adequate classification opportunities for athletes. Respect Fair Play: Guarantee sports are accomplished in a manner that defends the health of athletes, respect fair play and ethics including obedience with the World Anti- Doping Code and the IPC Classification Code. Support International Federations: Guarantee all have solid system and technical abilities to ensure the reliability and regular standards for their sport. Minimum Standards: Underline minimum eligibility, organizational principles and same services to all IPC members to reach obedience and commonly acknowledged service levels. Develop Strategies: Create a system to keep the effective raise of sports activities for Para-athletes from ordinary to elite level concentrating on those countries, sports and organizations most in need.

The idea behind Paralympic education is to incorporate Paralympic principles and standards in a structure of education which generates consciousness and understanding headed for people with a disability.

The goals of Paralympic education are reached by means of the succeeding aims:

- To rise awareness and consciousness of Paralympic Sport.

- To build a better awareness of useful application of inclusion in physical education/activity.

- To advise about the different concepts in para-sports.

- To rise the usage of disability sport for reverse integration.

- To facilitate the change of perception and attitude towards persons with a disability.

- To encourage scholarly research activities and studies about Paralympic education.

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3.1.5 IPC Digital Revolution.

Today’s worldwide society is one of speedy communication. Developments in communications technology have ushered in a new digital era, which has transformed information-sharing and distribution and which continues to renovate our society into a worldwide network.

The Digital Revolution has transformed the way we interact with others, generating an atmosphere that is more addressable, interactive and connected. The consequences are that media will be changed in the future. Media will be more:

1. Addressable. Messages will be more targeted and gritty, down to the household or individual level.

2. Portable across stages, time, device and place. Products will need to earn assignation and create a real value exchange.

3. Searchable. Products, actions, messages, whether positive or negative, will be everywhere. There will be nowhere to hide.

4. Social. Our instinctive human actions will be supported by technology that will create better communication networks and more cooperation.

5. Collaborative. Think of merchandises like Guitar Hero, Xbox Live and Facebook. These products permit you to join with and dare friends or strangers from all over the world in a specific game.

6. Transactional. Media space, such as billboards, will become ledge space.

7. Media will be in all places.

Direct profits of the “digital revolution:

1. Being capable with no trouble to reach big, world-wide viewers, and create consciousness of event through search instruments on the internet.

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2. Being competent to time and object explicit messages for diverse stakeholders and consequently remove some of the “noise” they get, which means message, has a better opportunity of being customary and understood.

3. being capable to link/join the international sports community through the website, our conference, our networking initiatives and our ongoing Sport-Accord offerings.

The Digital Revolution is a chance for sport. Sport is well fit to new media, as it offers daily content of very big awareness and suggests the opportunity to simply test new technologies. Additionally, as the newer generations of digital natives hold up technology at a faster step, the Paralympic Movement, and the IFs in particular, will be capable to influence these generations, endure relevant to them and keep them interested in sport (as audiences and athletes), if the Revolution is completely embraced.

The Digital Revolution is not about profits (only). As a result of all the above, the search for direct income should not be an IF’s (sole) motivation in increasing/assuming new technologies. The alterations should be geared principally to helping accomplish strategic goals and guaranteeing a long-lasting competitive improvement for the organization itself, its members and the sport.

3.2 IPC research segments. (International Paralympic Committee, 2011)

Sport Science, precise discipline that studies the human movement with the purpose of developing the sporting performance, found its application in disability sport. Sport Science incorporates research in areas such as physiology, psychology, biomechanics, performance analysis, nutrition and sports technology.

In 1993, the IPC established a Sport Science Committee as an indication of its commitment to the advancement of knowledge of Paralympic Sport. Since then, research has become a prominent feature on the agenda for the IPC.

The IPC is committed to furthering research in the areas of interest of the Paralympic Movement. This includes, but is not limited to research in Paralympic Sport, Disability Sport Classification, Sport Counseling, Assistive Technology, Athletic Identity Marketing and Branding, Development and Public Awareness.

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The Paralympic Movement for athletes with impairments has changed dramatically over the last decade and with this, the importance of and interest in sport science has increased.

The IPC Sports Science Committee actively seeks interaction with the scientific community by formulating research questions relevant to the Paralympic Movement, and activates strategies to come to solutions. Providing opportunities for research at the Paralympic Games is one of these strategies. Research applications are received by the IPC no later than one year prior to the event, reviewed by the Sports Science Committee, the affected sport and the venue/competition management at the Games locations.

The IPC received an unprecedented number of research applications of investigators from various countries wanting to conduct studies of different nature at the occasion of the London 2012 Paralympic Games. The approved projects have been categorized in two groups:

1. Studies that will be conducted on-site during the London 2012 Paralympic Games.

2. Studies that will be supported by the IPC by inviting London 2012 Paralympic Games athletes to participate in questionnaire type studies on various themes launched on the IPC web site.

3.3 IPC Finance. (International Paralympic Committee, 2008-2011)

The IPC’s responsibility is to identify and develop diversified funding streams leveraging its brand and capabilities (Table 3). Having sufficient funding to carry out the core activities will allow the IPC to focus its creative energies on its core strategic objectives.

The IPC has continuously collaborated with organizations that have common interests to help achieve its objectives. It has created synergy within the Paralympic Family, strengthened its ties with the IPC Honorary Board and further developed its relationship with the IOC.

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Statement of Financial Position

Statement of Financial Position 2007(€) 2008 (€) 2009(€) 2010(€) 2011(€) ASSETS Fixed Assets 198,867 184,592 449,838 378, 380 1,327,069 Current Assets 185,578 105, 320 175,582 566,513 178,014 Cash and Bank Balances 1,410,567 2,202,529 1,825,698 2,574,054 1,765,981 Prepaid Expenses 29, 900 230,945 493,379 893,366 203,497 Total Assets 1,824,912 2,723,386 2,944,498 4,412,313 3,474,562

EQUITY AND LIABILITIES Equity 258,261 470,992 493,029 632,632 645,692 Provisions* 430,094 704,294 713,713 858,094 1,128,920 Liabilities* 993,413 1,161,856 1,238,159 1,294,275 1,089,002 Deferred Income 143,144 386,244 499,597 1,627,312 610,949 Total Equity and Liabilities 1,824,912 2,723,386 2,944,498 4,412,313 3,474,562

REVENUE Membership fees 211,838 218,24 217,218 216,581 220,189 IPC Sports Revenue* 1,448,561 1,441,344 2,473,642 Marketing/Sponsoring/Fundraising * 3,161,663 3,774,708 3,778,269 4,171,979 4,038,085 Grants * 467,554 305,088 33,683 138,291 50, 000 Other 220,175 269,006 228,061 280,855 319,852 Specific Project Funding 273,749 1,806,070 377,903 890,822 503,284 Total revenue 4,334,979 6,373,112 6,083,696 7,139,873 7,605,052

EXPENDITURE Executive Office 549,136 329,225 409,538 372,711 499,562 Paralympic Games* 140, 430 536,845 165,795 323,166 144,064 Administration* 2,093,382 2,180,103 2,531,137 2,827,558 2,988,984 Sports Budget* 512,603 619,766 1,654,163 1,697,496 2,665,317 Sport and IPSFs Relations 138, 810 87,282 64,144 43,816 26,155 Medical and Scientific 78,301 78,004 103,704 69,104 78,367 Finance 97,788 115,021 101,405 117,767 Media and Communication 102,944 62,606 110,238 110,605 108,085 Marketing and Fundraising 138,767 106, 600 146,731 159,752 164,288 Membership Services and Solidarity 34, 390 22,638 27,531 0 62,515 Development 112,188 142,985 96,121 0 161,353 Specific Project Expenditure* 273,749 1,879,307 651,152 1,089,736 693,299 Allocation to unrestricted capital reserve 200, 000 0 125, 000 0 Total Expenditure 4,272,488 6,360,381 6,061,659 7,125,271 7,591,992

Result 62,492 12,731 22,037 14.602 13, 060 S Table 3: IPC Annual Report 2008-2011)

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Approximately 50 percent of the IPC’s funding comes from the Paralympic Games revenue as the IPC grants all the related marketing rights to the local Games Organizing Committees in exchange for a fixed rights fee.

Additional funds are also source from other, smaller sporting events, however longer term these have the potential for revenue growth.

PARALYMPIC SPONSORSHIP

Paralympic sponsorship is an agreement between an Paralympic organization and a corporation, whereby the corporation is granted the rights to specific Paralympic intellectual property and Paralympic marketing opportunities in exchange for financial support and goods and services contributions. Paralympic sponsorship programmes operate on the principle of product-category exclusivity. Under the direction of the IPC, the Paralympic Family works to preserve the value of Paralympic properties and to protect the exclusive rights of Paralympic sponsors.

Paralympic sponsorship programmes are designed to meet the following objectives established by the IPC:

To contribute to the independent financial stability of the Paralympic Movement. To generate continual and substantial support through sustained, long-term partnerships. To provide equitable revenue distribution throughout the Paralympic Family. To ensure the financial and operational viability of the Paralympic Games. To prohibit the uncontrolled commercialization of the Paralympic Games.

Paralympic sponsorship programmes benefit the Paralympic Movement in the following ways:

Sponsorship provides valuable financial resources to the Paralympic Family. Sponsors provide support for the staging of the Paralympic Games and the operations of the Paralympic Movement in the form of products, services, technology, and expertise and staff deployment.

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Sponsors provide direct support for the training and development of Paralympic athletes and hopefuls around the world, as well as essential services for athletes participating in the Games. Sponsors provide essential products and services for broadcasters, journalists, photographers and other media. Sponsorship activation enhances the Paralympic Games experience for spectators and provides the youth of the world with opportunities to experience the Paralympic ideals at the global and local levels. Sponsorship support contributes to the success of the educational, environmental, cultural and youth-oriented initiatives of the Paralympic Movement. Sponsors develop advertising and promotional activities that help to promote the Paralympic ideals, heighten public awareness of the Paralympic Games and increase support for the Paralympic athletes.

WORLDWIDE OLYMPIC PARTNERSHIP

The Paralympic Partners.

The Paralympic Partners (Photo 2) programme is the worldwide sponsorship programme managed by the IPC. The programme operates on a four-year term in line with the Olympic quadrennium.

The Partners generates support for the Organizing Committees of the Paralympic Games and Paralympic Winter Games, the NPCs and the IPC.

The Partners provides each Worldwide Paralympic Partner with exclusive global marketing rights and opportunities within a designated product or service category. The global marketing rights include partnerships with the IPC, all active NPCs and their Paralympic teams, and the two OCPGs and the Games of each quadrennium. The Partners may exercise these rights worldwide and may activate marketing initiatives with all the members of the Paralympic Movement that participate in the programme.

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Paralympic Partners

Picture 2: (IPC 2003)

The IPC enjoys the support of a number of IOC and Olympic Games TOP (The Olympic Partners) partners (Photo 3) as well as other large global players in the corporate market. TOP (The Olympic Partners)

Picture 3: (IOC, 2009)

The IPC must continuously raise sufficient funding to meet the rapidly increasing demands and opportunities of running major international events and support the development of its members.

FUNDAMENTAL OBJECTIVES OF PARALYMPIC MARKETING

To ensure the independent financial stability of the Paralympic Movement, and thereby to assist in the worldwide promotion of Paralympism.

To create and maintain long-term marketing programmes and thereby to ensure the future of the Paralympic Movement and the Paralympic Games.

To build on the successful activities developed by each Organizing Committee for the Paralympic Games, and thereby to eliminate the need to recreate the marketing structure with each Paralympic Games.

To ensure equitable revenue distribution throughout the entire Paralympic Movement – including the Organizing Committees for the Paralympic Games (OCPGs), the National Paralympic Committees (NPCs) and their continental associations, the Ifs and

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Other recognized international sports organizations – and to provide financial support for sport in emerging nations.

To ensure that the Paralympic Games can be experienced by the maximum number of people throughout the world principally via television coverage.

To control and limit the commercialization of the Paralympic Games.

To protect the equity that is inherent in the Paralympic image and ideal.

To enlist the support of Paralympic marketing partners in the promotion of the Paralympic ideals.

PARALYMPIC MARKETING REVENUE DISTRIBUTION

The IPC distributes over 90% of Paralympic marketing revenue (Graf 2) to organizations throughout the Paralympic Movement, in order to support the staging of the Paralympic Games and to promote the worldwide development of sport.

Marketing revenue distribution

1. NPCs/IFs/OCPG s 2. IPC

Graf 2: IPC 2003

The Paralympic Movement is also a network bound by the concept of solidarity, whereby the wealthier nations provide support to those with more limited economic means. The International Paraylmpic Foundation was set up to attract funding to support the vision and development of the Paralympic Movement through specific initiatives and projects.

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4. PROBLEMATIC IN THE MODERN PARALYMPICS GAMES AND PERSPECTIVES FOR THE PARALYMPICS GAMES IN THE ERA OF GLOBALIZATION.

Historically, people with disabilities have not been treated well by society. Over times they have been the focus of varying grades of pity, ridicule, refusal and isolation as the consequence of being 'different'. In that time and maybe now by some individuals common view of disability is as tragedy, disgrace, the result of sin, and God’s punishment.

Some of the problem regularly showed in the Paralympic sports, Paralympic Movement and Paralympic Games are the follow:

Lack of sporting facilities.

Poor resourcing of sports within the school system.

Difficulties in communication and access to individuals living in remote areas.

An ever-increasing demand on children’s time for study purposes.

Parents and the community in general being poor role models.

General misunderstanding of the important role of sport and exercise on the body’s health and well-being.

Another problem presented during the organization of some Paralympic sports events is that the Athletes are not included within the decision-making. As a result of this come complications for the athletes within the infrastructure for example the accommodation facilities, transport, stadiums, etc. That put athletes in non-comfortable situations. Also Athletes’ health during training and competition is an issue which spans the areas of education, information, treatment, prevention and anti-doping.

In the other point of view the IPC sees a bright future and is ready to match the challenges. This allows the Paralympic Movement and the IPC as its lead body to become more visible and more present. Therefore there are some points to present for future examination:

1. The IPC need the best Athletes at the Games but also need universality to ensure global representation – Top level competition is one of the most important components of

55 the Games’ success. Therefore, ensuring that top Athletes complete in each Paralimpic sport.

2. Fair play in all aspects - to keep the Games in its premier position, fair judging and fair qualifying processes are basic things.

3. The Games are the most peaceful and “touching” event for most participating countries, so we must treasure and develop it - counting the member NPCs, the Paralympic Games have more member countries than the United Nations and are definitely the most universal and unique movement bringing together people and building international goodwill, co-operation and interaction. Not just in terms of its values and diversity, but also the beneficial effects of the Games, which transcend the sporting field.

4. The benefits for participants, spectators, viewers, consumers and stakeholders. - To stay in a premier position in today’s society and given the current economic situation. It is necessary to share its benefits. For the Paralympic Games to remain vibrant and appealing, it is also need to think about the commercial partners while giving priority to athletes and spectators.

5. Make the Games unique

6. Ensure the Paralympic brand is properly understood and managed.

7. Strengthen the IPC’s organizational capability and generate greater and more secure financial resources.

8. Build on current partnerships in particular with the IOC as well as developing new strategic partnerships.

9. Change perceptions about people with a disability and existing stereotypes.

10. Prioritize and facilitate the development of members in developing countries both through direct support and the support by other members.

11. Provide mechanisms to leverage the capabilities and resources of the members across the global community.

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12. Ensure, together with the members, the quality and integrity of the athlete classification systems and athlete pathways.

13. Ensure, together with the members, the development and retention of volunteers.

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CONCLUTION

This work demonstrated how “The Paralympic Movement” is at a point where it needs a renewed impetus and a new rush of hyper energy so that it can maintain the standards achieved and provide the platform for a new and far wider and deeper pool of Para athletes from grassroots to elite all over the world. The Paralympic Movement and Paralympic sports does not erect walls it builds bridges which links sport with social awareness thus contributing to the development of a more equitable society with respect and equal opportunities for all individuals.

There are not enough broadcasters in Paralympic sport. And since the last Paralympic Games, there have been a bit of contact with a broadcaster who didn’t do much Paralympic sport that are now willing to listen all the things about the Games. That’s all because now sports for people with a disability have changed drastically over the last few decades, drawing an increase in public awareness, in addition to researchers and scientists. The Outlook for the IPC and the Paralympic Movement is extremely promising. Membership is increasing, as are the number of people participating in Paralympic Sport across the world. We can see all that progress in the exciting signs that London 2012 did not just create a bubble, but that its legacy may be a lasting one. It has made people realize that athletes are athletes and people are people. It doesn’t matter if you’re an elite Olympic athlete or in a wheelchair, we’re all people. And everyone just wants to talk about the sport now, so that’s a big step in the Paralympic Movement. Even “The Mirror”, one of the biggest selling newspapers in the UK, stated: “The Olympics were glorious, and the Paralympics even better.” Even now day when a child sees a man pictured with an eye patch, a hook for a hand, a parrot on his shoulder and a wooden leg was an athlete as opposed to a pirate. Therefor there are children who now excitedly play “Paralympians” with dolls with missing arms, which might previously have been discarded as “broken”. This all brings us to look ahead to the coming seasons which herald a new arrival in Para- sports. Athletes have proven that the public is genuinely interested in those athletes and they don’t just have to wait for the Games to come for them to be genuinely interested in them. The aim of this thesis was to present some of the problems presented in the sports for an athlete with a disability and also during the organization of the Games. Also where are the Games heading in this time of changes and its perspective. Thus this work I was able to address some of them, but there is still more to learn about this Movement.

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SUMMARY

This bachelor thesis was aimed to address some of the problems presented in the sports for an athlete with a disability and also during the organization of the Paralympic Games and Paralympic Movement. Also where are the Games and the Movement heading in this time of changes and its perspective. It demonstrates the obstacles that a person with an impairment has to deal within sport. The thesis also addressed the Paralympic Movement classification and the different sport classes.

SHRNUTÍ

Tato bakalářská práce byla zaměřena na řešení některých problémů uvedených ve sportu pro sportovce s postižením a také při organizaci paralympijských her a paralympijských hnutí. Také, kde jsou hry a pohyb míří v této době změn a jeho perspektivy. To ukazuje na překážky, které osoba s postižením má řešit v rámci sportu. Práce také řeší paralympijského hnutí klasifikaci a různé sportovní třídy.

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LITERATURE

- Goldstein, T. (1994). Succeeding together: People with disabilities in the workplace. Northridge, California: California State University. Retrieved from http:// www. csun.edu /~sp20558/dis/physical.html

- International Paralympic Committee, (2007). Layman’s guide to Paralympic classification in Paralympic Summer Sports. Bonn, Germany: International Paralympic Committee. Retrieved from http:// www. paralympic. org/ sites/ default/ files/ document/ 12 07 16 15 20 47682_ClassificationGuide_2.pdf

- International Paralympic Committee, (2007). Layman’s guide to Paralympic classification in Paralympic Winter Sports. Bonn, Germany: International Paralympic Committee. Retrieved from http:// www. paralympic. org/ sites/ default/ files/ document/ 12 12 03 164523073_WinterSportLaymens.pdf

- Girgonov, Vassel. The Olympics: a critical reader. Oxon: Routledge, 2010. p.451.

- Trinidad and Tobago Olympic Committee. (2010). What is the history and evolution of the olympic movement. Retrieved from http:// www. ttoc.org /index.php ?option =com_ content&view= article&id= 167&Itemid=216>

- Bloomsbury. (2011). Post olympism. Retrieved from http:// www. bergpublishers. com/ Default.aspx?TabId=847

- Olympics. (1999). the olympic games. Retrieved from http:// library. thinkquest. org/27528/ main.htm

- International Paralympic Committee. (2006). International paralympic committee. Strategic plan 2006 - 2009, Retrieved from http:// paralympic. netempire.de /export/ sites/ default /IPC/Reference_Documents/2008_05_Updated_Strategic_Plan.pdf

- International Paralympic Committee. (2010). International paralympic committee. Strategic plan 2011 - 2014, Retrieved from http:// www. paralympic. org/ sites/ default / files /document/120118143826469_RZ_IPC_11_Strategic_brochure_long_0.pdf

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- Awoyera, O. (2011). Attitudes of student nurses'toward people with disability. (Master's thesis, UNIVERSITY OF APPLIED SCIENCES)Retrieved from http:// publications. theseus.fi/bitstream/handle/10024/34398/Thesis.pdf?sequence=1

- Disabled World. (n.d.). Disabled world - disability news and information. Retrieved from http://www.disabled-world.com

- International Olympic Committee. (2009). Official website of the olympic movement. Retrieved from http://www.olympic.org/content/Olympic-Games/Paralympic-Games

- International Paralympic Committee. (2008). Annual report 2008. Retrieved from http://www.paralympic.org/sites/default/files/document/120201082326112_2009_05 _Annual_Report_2008_web.pdf

- International Paralympic Committee. (2009). Annual report 2009. Retrieved from http://www.paralympic.org/sites/default/files/document/120201082427810_Annual_ Report_2009_web.pdf

- International Paralympic Committee. (2010). Annual report 2010. Retrieved from http://www.paralympic.org/sites/default/files/document/120118144049350_IPC_An nualReport_2010_final_web.pdf

- International Paralympic Committee. (2011). Annual report 2011. Retrieved from http://www.paralympic.org/sites/default/files/document/120918161220703_WEB_IP C_AnnualReport_2011_final.pdf

- International Paralympic Committee. (2011). Anti-Doping Code 2011. Retrieved from: http:// www. paralympic. org/ sites/ default/ files/ document/ 120731104333299 _Anti% 2BDoping% 2BCode_1.pdf

- International Paralympic Committee. (2003). Official website of the Paralympic movement. Retrieved from http://www.paralympic.org/

- International Olympic Committee. (2009). Olympic marketing fact file. Retrieved from http: //www. olympic. Org /Documents /IOC _Marketing /OLYMPIC - MARKETING

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APPENDIX

IPC National Committees

Africa

Algeria - Algerian National Paralympic Committee Angola - Comite Paralimpico Angolano Benin - Federation Handisport du Benin-Comité National Paralympique Botswana - Paralympic Association of Botswana Burkina Faso - National Paralympic Committee Burkina Faso Burundi - Burundi Paralympic Committee Cameroon - Cameroonian Paralympic Committee Cape Verde - Comité Caboverdeano Desp. Para Deficientes Central African Republic - Comité National Paralympique Centrafricain Comoros - Comité National Paralympic des Comores Congo - Comité National Paralympique Congolais DR Congo - Paralympic Committee of the Democratic Republic of Congo Côte d'Ivoire - Fédération Ivoirienne des Sports Paralympiques Djibouti - National Paralympic Committee of Djibouti Egypt - Egyptian Paralympic Committee Ethiopia - Ethiopian Paralympic Committee Gabon - Federation Gabonaise Omnisports pour Paralympique pour Handicapées Gambia - Gambia Association of the Physically Disabled Ghana - National Paralympic Committee of Ghana Guinea - Guinea Paralympic Committee Guinea-Bissau - Fédération des Sports des Handicapés Kenya - Kenya National Paralympic Committee Lesotho - National Paralympic Committee of Lesotho Liberia - Liberia National Paralympic Committee Libya - Libyan Paralympic Committee Madagascar - Fédération Malagasy Handisport Malawi - Malawi Paralympic Committee Mali - National Paralympic Committee of Mali Mauritania - National Paralympic Committee of Mauritania Mauritius - Mauritius National Paralympic Committee Morocco - Royal Moroccan Federation of Sports for Disabled Mozambique - Paralympic Committee Mozambique Namibia - Namibia National Paralympic Committee Niger - Fédération Nigérienne des Sports Paralympiques Nigeria - Nigeria Paralympic Committee Rwanda - National Paralympic Committee of Rwanda Senegal - Comité National Provisoire Handisport et Paralympique Sénégalais Sierra Leone - Sierra Leone Paralympic Committee Somalia - Somali Paralympic Committee South Africa - South African Sports Confederation and Olympic Committee Sudan - Sudan National Paralympic Committee Tanzania - Tanzania Paralympic Committee Togo - Federation Togolaise de Sports pour Personnes Handicapees 62

Tunisia - Tunisian Paralympic Committee Uganda - Uganda National Paralympic Committee Zambia - National Paralympic Committee of Zambia Zimbabwe - Zimbabwe Paralympic Committee

Americas

Antigua and Barbuda - Antigua and Barbuda Paralympic Committee Inc. Argentina - Comité Paralímpico Argentino Barbados - Paralympic Association of Barbados Bermuda - Bermuda Paralympic Association Brazil - Brazilian Paralympic Committee Canada - Canadian Paralympic Committee Chile - Federación Paralímpica de Chile Colombia - Comité Paralímpico Colombiano Costa Rica - Comité Paralímpico de Costa Rica Cuba - Comité Paralímpico Cubano Dominican Republic - Organ. Dominicana de Ciegos Inc. Ecuador - Ecuadorian Paralympic Sport Federation El Salvador - Comite Paralímpico de El Salvador Guatemala - Comité Paralímpico Guatemalteco Haiti - National Paralympic Committee of Haiti Honduras - Honduran Paralympic Committee Jamaica - Jamaica Paralympic Association Mexico - Comité Paralímpico Mexicano Nicaragua - Comité Paralímpico Nicaragüense Panama - Paralympic Committee of Panama Peru - National Paralympic Committee Peru Puerto Rico - Comité Paralímpico de Puerto Rico Suriname - National Paralympic Committee of Suriname Trinidad and Tobago - Trinidad & Tobago Paralympic Committee United States of America - US Paralympics Committee Uruguay - Uruguayan Paralympic Committee U.S. Virgin Islands - National Paralympic Committee US Virgin Islands Venezuela - Comité Paralímpico Venezolano

Asia

Afghanistan - Afghanistan Paralympic Committee Bahrain - Bahrain Disabled Sports Federation-Bahrain Paralympic Committee Bangladesh - National Paralympic Committee of Bangladesh Brunei - Paralympic Council of Brunei Darussalam Cambodia - National Paralympic Committee of Cambodia China - National Paralympic Committee of China Chinese Taipei - Chinese Taipei Paralympic Committee Hong Kong - Hong Kong Paralympic Committee & Sports Association for the Physically Disabled India - Paralympic Committee of India Indonesia - National Paralympic Committee of Indonesia

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Iran - I.R. Iran National Paralympic Committee Iraq - Iraqi National Paralympic Committee Japan - Japan Paralympic Committee Jordan - Jordan Paralympic Committee Kazakhstan - National Paralympic Committee of Kazakhstan Korea, North - National Paralympic Committee of Democratic People's Republic of Korea Korea, South - Korean Paralympic Committee Kuwait - Kuwait Paralympic Committee Kyrgyzstan - National Paralympic Federation of the Kyrgyz Republic Laos - Lao Paralympic Committee Lebanon - Lebanese Paralympic Committee Macau, China - Associacion Recreativa dos Deficientes de Macau Malaysia - Malaysia Paralympic Council Mongolia - Mongolian Paralympic Committee Myanmar - National Paralympic Committee of Myanmar Nepal - National Paralympic Committee Nepal Oman - Oman Paralympic Committee Pakistan - National Paralympic Committee of Pakistan Palestine - Palestinian Paralympic Committee Philippines - Philippine Sports Association of the Differently Abled - (PHILSPADA) - NPC Philippines Qatar - Qatar Paralympic Committee Saudi Arabia - Paralympic Committee of Saudi Arabia Singapore - Singapore National Paralympic Council Sri Lanka - National Federation of Sports for the Disabled Syria - Syrian Paralympic Committee Tajikistan - Tajik Paralimpic Committee Thailand - Paralympic Committee of Thailand Timor-Leste - Comité Paralimpico Nacional de Timor-Leste Turkmenistan - National Paralympic Committee of Turkmenistan United Arab Emirates - UAE Paralympic Committee Uzbekistan - Uzbekistan National Paralympic Association Vietnam - Vietnam Paralympic Association

Europe

Albania - Albanian National Paralympic Committee Andorra - Committee Paralimpic Andorra Armenia - Armenian National Paralympic Committee Austria - Austrian Paralympic Committee Azerbaijan - National Paralympic Committee of Azerbaijan Republic Belarus - Paralympic Committee of the Republic of Belarus Belgium - Belgian Paralympic Committee Bosnia and Herzegovina - Paralympic Committee of Bosnia & Herzegovina Bulgaria - Bulgarian Paralympic Association Croatia - Croatian Paralympic Committee Cyprus - Cyprus National Paralympic Committee Czech Republic - Czech Paralympic Committee Denmark - Paralympic Committee Denmark Estonia - Estonian Paralympic Committee 64

Faroe Islands - Itrottasamband Fyri Brekad - Faroese Paralympic Committee Finland - Finnish Paralympic Committee France - French Paralympic and Sports Committee Georgia - Georgian Paralympic Committee Germany - National Paralympic Committee Germany Great Britain - British Paralympic Association Greece - Hellenic Paralympic Committee Hungary - Hungarian Paralympic Committee Iceland - Icelandic Sports Association for the Disabled Ireland - Paralympics Ireland Israel - Israel Paralympic Committee Italy - Italian Paralympic Committee Latvia - Latvian Paralympic Committee Liechtenstein - Liechtensteiner Behinderten Verband Lithuania - Lithuanian Paralympic Committee Luxembourg - Luxembourg Paralympic Committee Macedonia - Macedonian Paralympic Committee - Federation for Sport and Recreation for Disabled of Macedonia Malta - Malta Federation of Sports Associations For Disabled Persons Moldova - Paralympic Committee of Moldova Montenegro - National Paralympic Committee of Montenegro Netherlands - National Paralympic Committee of the Netherlands Norway - Norwegian Olympic and Paralympic Committee and Confederation of Sports Poland - Polish Paralympic Committee Portugal - Portugal Paralympic Committee Romania - Romanian Sport Federation for Disabled People Russia - Paralympic Committee of Russia San Marino - San Marino Paralympic Committee Serbia - Paralympic Committee of Serbia Slovakia - Slovak Paralympic Committee Slovenia - Paralympic Committee of Slovenia - Sports Federation for the Disabled of Slovenia Spain - Spanish Paralympic Committee Sweden - Swedish Sports Organization for the Disabled and Swedish Paralympic Committee Switzerland - Swiss Paralympic Committee Turkey - Turkish Paralympic Committee Ukraine - National Paralympic Committee of Ukraine

Oceania

Australia - Australian Paralympic Committee Fiji - Fiji Paralympic Association New Zealand - Paralympics New Zealand Papua New Guinea - Papua New Guinea Paralympic Committee Samoa - Samoa Paralympic Committee Solomon Islands - Solomon Islands National Paralympic Committee Tonga - Tonga National Paralympic Committee Vanuatu - Vanuatu Paralympic Committee

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INTERNATIONAL PARALYMPIC COMMITTEE INTERNATIONAL SPORT FEDERATIONS

The IPC currently recognizes 13 International Federations:

International Archery Federation (FITA) International Equestrian Federation (FEI) International Wheelchair Basketball Federation (IWBF) International Table Tennis Federation (ITTF) International Tennis Federation (ITF) International Federation for Disabled Sailing (IFDS) International Rowing Federation (FISA) International Cycling Union (UCI) World Organization Volleyball for the Disabled (WOVD) International Wheelchair Rugby Federation (IWRF) World Curling Federation (WCF) International Triathlon Union (ITU) International Canoe Federation (ICF)

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INTERNATIONAL PARALYMPIC COMMITTEE REGIONAL ORGANIZATIONS

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IPC STYLE GUIDE

CORRECT TERMINOLOGY

Athlete and Sports Terminology and Preferred Language

disabled athlete(s)) Movement from grass roots to elite level) Games. NB. A Paralympian is never a former/ex-Paralympian, if you have taken part once, you are a Paralympian “for life”)

h a visual impairment/blindness and visually impaired/blind (not vision impairment)

-bodied for a person without a disability Paralympic Programme Dance Sport)

s) = all bodies governing a sport on the Paralympic Programme (i.e., IFs, IOSDs, IPC) regardless of whether they feature on the Paralympic Programme or not a promotional opportunity/an event opportunity, the purpose of becoming a sport on the Paralympic Programme, e.g., Sailing was a demonstration event at the Atlanta 1996 Paralympics Paralympic/IPC Terminology

ersons belonging to the IPC*, Paralympic Movement)

ses all athletes and officials belonging to the NPCs, the IOSDs, the International Federations (IFs), the Regional Organizations (ROs), the IPC Regional Committees, the IOSD Sports, the IPC Sports Committees, IPC Councils,

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IPC Standing Committees, other IPC bodies and any other persons or organizations who agree to be guided by the IPC Constitution and Bylaws. The criteria for belonging to the Paralympic Movement is formal membership or recognition by the IPC, Paralympic Family)

alympic Spirit

araEmotion (Magazine on ParalympicSport.TV)

*IPC: governing body incorporating all member organizations (NPCs, IOSDs, Regions, IFs, IOSD and IPC sports), committees, councils, Governing Board and Management Team.

NAMES AND TITLES

Titles of IPC Governing Board Members

Titles of IPC Sport Technical Committee (STC) Chairpersons

sport: Skiing

t Titles of IPC Management Staff Members The current list of titles of IPC Management Staff members can be found at http://www.paralympic.org/IPC/Organization/Management_Team.

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SPORTS CLASSIFICATION FORM

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