423

422 SUZUKI

the exterior ofthe Eclo castle, abandoned after the Meiji Restoration ofrg68, NAYANJOT LAHIRI with numelons photogr:aphs taken by Yokoyarna Matsusaburo and hand-cols¡s¿ by Takahashi Yuichi rli.firìllI . (1828 q+). IN Morse, lapan Day by Day, z:ro6. LIVING ANTIQUARIANISM Morse, lapan Day by Day,2365.

Morse, lapan Day by Day, z:to6 7. Morse, Japan Day by Por, rtt r. Morse, Japan Day by D¡11t,2'.166.

Aoki Masaru ¡'f ,,li rl:IJ, Cltùka meibul:su ko tl li¡:Nt\;!lili (Tokyo: Shunjusha, 1959; reprint, Tokyo: Heibor.rsha, r988), r9-5r. Tl-retermantiquarianist?lmeansclifferentthingstoclifferentpeople.Thosewho of archaeology ancl history frequently 3o. For exhibitior-rs ancl lesealches sponsoled by tl-re govemment in early Meiji, a career oLlt of the study b¿ive rnade or -lokyo ,,the and clescriptio. of antiquities' see Koktu'itsu Hakubutsukan {rjil,ll ii.lrrlr]2fl'l , ecl., Tòkyo I(okuritsu it to refer to cliscovery, collection of I*clia' Hakubutsulcanhyalcunenshi 4ir;il,J¿l ìi. lr!ì14ifrì'll'i/lrt 'se Thus' historians lOne-hundled-yearhistoryof ;;;; .;",."r study of artefacts or lro'umentsl" the Tokyo National Mnser.rm] (lbkyo: Daiichi Hoki, 1973), rz2-rr4. antiquarian telìd to do who concern themselves with Practices For the politics of art history in the Meiji peliod, see Doshin archaeology who' Japtrnese Sato, the writings of European travelers of two things: either they explore Modern lapanese Art and the Meiji Støte: The Politics of Beauty, trans. Hiroshi olre their visited monuments and recorded (Los the sixteenth century onward' Nara Angeles: Getty Researclr Institute, zou), in particular pt, r, chap. 4, from and or they examine the surveys' excavations' t9-82. observations about such visits, civil and military officers For Masuda's life and activities, see Christine M. E. Art, Tea, and nineteenth-century 32 Guth, Industry: collections of eighteenth- ancl happened to be in Masuda Takashi and the Mitsui Circle (Princeton, N,l.: Princeton Ur.riversity Press, East India Company or rvho either served in the British the actors that 1993). elements and' on most occasions' India in other capacities' The For the provenance of the pair.rting, see the Goto BijutsLrkar.r Indians 33 /i1,1,):lliifù'í, ed., Donlo are primarily European' When nlake up this vision of antiquarianism no mq Masuda Dono no bi no sekai î,tijì Ø lll'l : ì,1lt lCrtín^¿) x lliiÐ lll.tl IUncler tlre antiquarian scholars' or founders oflocal in such histories' as collectors' eye of Masuda Don'o: The rnodern age of Japanese connoissenrship], exh. cat. frgure of collec- in the European antiquarian tradition (Tokyo: Goto Bijutsukar.r, 1998). societies, they too are molded tionandinterpretation'withstronglinkstotheinstitutionsofBritisblndia'' other kinds of antiquarians and parts of Inclia' though' there are In many their ofan antiquarian bent' who have spent autiquarian practices' Individuals and beyoncl' ancl sites in their neighborhoods lives searching out antiquities Schoolteachers out-of-the-way towns and villages' can often be eucountered in a sprightly common' fitendra Dutt Tripathi' with such interests are especially

seventy-nine-year-oldformerSchoolteacheriSonesuchantiquariarr;hehasof central painted rock shelters in an area spent his life discovering ancient with religioLrs affiliations who happen Inclia called Narsinghguril' Antiquarians fighter Swami quite well known' The freedom to be prolific coltectols are also called the Arya to the Hindu reformist sect Omanand Sarasvati' who had links today the larg- mold' He set uP in |hajjar what is Samaj, was a collector in that his vast collection of i' the state of Haryana, using e st archaeological mrseum is attached to a tracli- and weapons' The musettm trntique coins, idols, pottery' which shows tire and an ayurvedic pharmacy' tional Sanskr iÏ gurukul (school) differentwaysitlwhichaspectsoflndiashistoricknowledgearrdantiqrrities have been here' Preserve

Fis. l. pendent secular antiquarians-those whete who usually work as individuals ancl who Shrine of Sitala Mata, 8th- to 12th-centur)/-cE might occasionally have institutional support. Rather, it is about commurrity sculptulal f ragments are practices worshlpped, Mawa¡, lndia. rooted in religion, practices that preserve objects ofantiquaria¡ inter- est. These material traces are not seen as the dead past; instead, they are fre- quently viewed as integral elements of the living present. This essay explores and analyzes some of these modes of "seeing"-the distinctive ways that people look at the material past of the landscape that they inhabit, preserve various elel¡ents of that material culture, and then incorporate those remains into their lives in order to make sense of the past. Such practices, I argue, have implica_ tions for and require acknowledgment in the history of antiquarianisrn and antiquarian practices. I will focus first on the Ballabgarh region, which shares its border with Delhi, forming a segment that lies within the Faridabacl dis- (in trict the state of Haryana), and the Ghaziabad district (in the state of uttar Pradesh), which is located to the east ofFaridabad. In the course ofarchaeo_

logical fleldwork in that area, I have had the privilege of observing the var.ious a shrine of Sitala Mata (the ways in which archaeological relics are understood and collected in many of Mathura sanclstone, have been kept' The other is the fragments (dating to the region's villages. I will demonstrate that these practices are not confinecl to goddess of smallpox), which contains more substantial (snake god) sculpture' a panel a slnall segment of north India but are also present in other parts of the subcon_ eighth to twelfth centuries CE), including a Naga of a full-breasted tinent. Finally, I will highlight that such antiquarianism was widely observed of seven or eight seated figures, and a detached sculpture and recorded by European antiquarians and archaeologists in the nineteenth female torso adorned with three necklaces (fig' r)' significant sculptural century, and, furtheç that these practices are likely to have premodern roots. Kheri Kalan is another village with an archaeologically and a memorial to collection. On a mound marked by both a modern temple shrine in an open-air sunken Visualizing Antiquarian Practices in and around Ballabgarh a locally revered holy man, there is a khera dadi The identifrable pieces' enclosure marked by sculptures cemented to its floor'. with the Hindu god The archaeological landscape in Ballabgarh is made up of many elements, fi-orn which range from Shiva lingas (phallic emblems associated the lower half of what mounds and scatters of artifactual debris to monuments, ruins, and sculptural Shiva) and the head of Ganesha (the elephant god) to relics.3 The collection, preservation, and worship of sculptural fragments in vil- seemstobeanimageofUma-Maheshwara(aformofParvatiandSiva'the to be generally lage folk shrines, as a modem practice, is both striking and widespread. vilrage divine couple, which symbolizes domestic harmony)' aPpear of Shiva (the god of destruc- shrines are of several types. The most ubiquitous are the various kinds of granra related to iconography associated with the worship sthanøs (village locations marked by worship), which are typicaly dedicated to tionintheholytrinityofHinduism).Apparerrtly,thesesculpturalpieceswere a kherø deota (homestead god), a khera dadi (o\d woman of the homesteacl), or unearthedfromthemoundwherethisshrinestands,andtheyhighlightthe shrine on the same spot' Bhumia (the god of the settled land).n These gods are all seen as manifestations possibility that Shiva was the tutelary deity of an earlier In Gharora' for of the inhabited, socially domesticated land and homesteads that constitute a In some villages, a singìe architectural fragment is worshipped' village. Architecturall¡ the shrines tend to be unpretentious, open-air platforrns example,asectionofwhatseemstobeanancientdoorjambliesonthewestern (see pl' r9)'' that either support miniature house-like structures or collections of stone; in edge of the village and is worshipped as akherø deotø several instances, the stones are broken sculptures frorn temples of premoclern Inmanyplaces,sucharchaeologicalandarchitecturalrelicsareviewed of miraculous cures of ail- antiquity that have now disappeared. through a filter of local religious beliefs. Expectations iron slag from the old At Mawai, for instance, fragmentary sculptures have been collected and ments, for instance, have come to be embodied in ancient placed in two worship aLeas.t One of these areas is a khera deota shrttte opposite villagerrrotrrrdatSilri.sTlrisplace,regarclecìlocallyasthebirthplaceofsurclas, with habitational debris goittg the Baba Surdas temple, where fragmentary sculpted pieces, mainly of mottled a medieval bhakti poet, is marked by a mound IN iNDIA 427 LIVING ANTIQUARIANISM 426

in a dramati- "evidence" because they have been preserved back to around rooo BCE that has also yielded large quantities ofslag. a body ofhistorical T¡... worship also speaks of modern folk worship' Their slag specimens are locally believed to be the bones of snakes and are sornetimes cally visible demonstration used as antidotes to ailments caused by poisoning. This residue volumesabouton-the-groundrealityandtheirrelevanceofscripturalsanctions of early rnetal- images' Texts dealing any worship of broken or mutilated working is believed to be imbued with a sacred character because of "restitu- that strictly forbid its Pratimanalakshanam' sPe' installation of images, like the tion" within a discourse grounded in an old religious tradition. with the creation and This traclition it be burnt' worn out' that "the image of a deity' if pertains to a sacrifice that was said to have been conducted by cifically warn worshippers fanmejaya, x tirne of its enshrinement' its establisl'rment or at the king in the Mahabharatø, broken, or split up, after the oldest religious epic of India. The sacrifice lv¿g a worn-out one image brings forth drought' always be harmful' A burnt intended to avenge the death of fanmejayat father, who had been bitten by will while one a forebodes death in the family' loss of wealth, a broken image serpent king. In the sacrificial fire, thousands ofsnakes were said to have died causes through the performance of a serpent spell; it was (and still is) locally thatissplitup,war""'Unmindfulofsuchproscriptions'villagersfrequently believed habitational bounty' on local shrines tneant to promote that this sacrifice was conducted at sihi. The connection between place broken images this legend- most striking is that' by of antiquarianism' what is ary "event" and Sihi's mound is definitely part of a tradition that circulated From the perspective in and mythologies' villagers have fragments in their shrines the sixteenth century. This is known from, among other things, the testirnony integrating these of Harirari, the author of Bhavaprakasha, who stated that Sur's Sihi was the aidedthesurvivalofatrcientartifactsandantiquitiesinthevicinityoftheirset-conservation may say so' "non-Western" This is an excellent and' if I place where lanmejaya had performed the snake sacrifice.' In this way, a local tlements. archaeological phenomenon has been interwoven with a textual image from the practicethathasensuredthepreservationofartifactsandsculpturecloseto that clestruction of sites and sculp- contexts' This is not to suggest Mahabharata, Through this process of restitution, the traditional meaning of their original an to emphasize that those images place in rural India but only epic event (as well as ture does not take the significance of the remnants of a past culture) has been through a filter of local that are perceived and incorporated transformed, as an important space for Sihi in the cultural geography of India and antiquities and preserved' Incidentally' are more likely to be revered is sought to be created. beliefs and practices An unusual integration ofantiquities into local socioreligious associations thisholdstrueforelementsofthenaturallandscape,especiallytrees,aswell.A can also be seen in the village of Bishrakh in the district of Ghaziabad. spectacularsacredforestspreadoverseveralacreshassurvivednearthevillage Local folk tradition; three villages of a similar religion-inspired legend associates Bishrakh with the father of Ravana, the mythical transgressor of Mangar because this forest'r2 in the Rømayana, the most beloved epic of India. Ravana, incidentall¡ is usu- support and sustain ally believecl to hail from peninsular India, The people of Bishrakh, however, of India Antiquarianism in Other Parts unintimidated by such beliefs, claim that a spot thickly covered with medieval Recognizing Living potsherds is the place where Ravana was born.t0 The village is situatecl on a in the for the first time in Ballabgarh antiquarian practices that I observed mound with occupation layers that go back to around looo BCE and continue The villagers view of the little-known ways in which the medieval early r99os made me aware well into period. From such deposits, a large number of stone well as how these in their physical surroundings' as Shiva have an traces of earlier habitations lingas been recovered. Some of these are now worshipped in The Ballabgarh expe- htlptd to to"tt'ut some, of those traces' open-air village shrine along with a sculpture depicting a decapitated Nandi perceptions huue course of fieldwork' such me to explore' during the bull (the mount of Shiva). Taken together, these objects seem to be the rem- rience' in turn, ittspìted nants of a medieval Shiva temple. Since Ravana is popularly represented as a practicesinotherpartsoflndiaandtoencouragestudentstoexaminetracesof in the course of their own research' Shiva devotee, these relics are treated as material evidence of the mythical vil- living antiquarianism a similar practice of col- dissertation' for example' highlights lains presence. As in the case of other village shrines, the example at Bishrakh Aditi Manns in several villages of north obeisance to broken sculpture shows how local beliefs that foster the valorization ofbroken sculpture in this lecting and paying within these fragments are placed as Ma'ns work revears, way can contribute to their preservation. Derhi.,. Sometimes, god- a temple that honors the At Narela' for example' in Such sculptural fragments in Ballabgarh and Ghaziabad, incidentall¡ fonn the premises of temples' of the goddess Durga)' there (wi

Pradesh' In several places' two figures in a clar.rcing pose (see many such groups in Madhya pl l.rave docutnented 1 temples' What is particu- with vermilion sprinkled all over; are kept within the precincts of it these collections clisplayed in an open-alr and by others as the lnale deity at first glance' they seem to be Bha lady striking is that, boundary walls architectural sandstone fragment (w in shrines' lined up along the shrine mrrsettnl-like arrangemeut often secured into second century CE to the eighth iu museums' however' they are or n or placecl in niches' Unlike a village deity known as Dacla Saangl cement' the walls ancl niches with is the Martlti temple' dedi- the shrine, is carved on three sides (se An otttstanding exarnple of this traclition full the Ujjain district' Kayatha is a bloom, another shows engraved to the god Hanuman' at Kayatha in c¿rted Kali lingam, and the third on the right bank of the Chhoti side has human village located on ancient mouuds cultural periods documented this shrine, the 196os revealed a seq'ence of is of the vie River. Excavations there i' ternple, site continued to be inhabited until ancr she points out that this a'cient fragment's preserlt back to about zooo BCE'" The worship is simi- going lar to the way in which a srriva linga'r is worshippecr.', on a dairy bìsrs, but ¿rbottt6ooCE,whichisarounclthetimewherrlndiasmostcelebratedancientThe with the to have been born at Kayatha' greatest frequency o' Mondays, womell assembre Varahamihira' was believed at the srrr.i'e and astronomer, pour water and milk or.r this fragme't-the traditional way of wors'ipping archaeologicaldiscoveryofthissiteanditssignificancearedoctrmentedin shiva. whire Mar.rn's work revears that in north Derhi,s villages sculpt'rar theformofalongtwentieth-centuryinscriptionthatisprominentlydisplayed rer_ is remarkably rare in vil- ics can be worshippecr as representationar ternple; this type of modern epigraph forms of deities that bear no resem_ in the Maruti number of architectural blance to their origi'al iconic form, is even more interesting is that a this behavior can also be seen in ternpres lage shrines. What at line the bounclary major centers of Hindu been secured in the niches that pilgrimage. Some three decacres ago, the belr fragments and images have capitar of rottte to the an Ashokan pillar was "discoverecr" of the wall that demarcates the approach i'the Nageshvara Natha temple at Ayodhya wall as well as that part is a medieval life- (in uttar Pradesh), where it was, and best preserved of the Kayatha sculptures contirues to be, as the base on which temple (ñg. ,)' The 'sed platform itself' the temple's Shiva ringam is worshipped.ru which has been kept on the temple The capital crowned a pitar that, size image of vishnu, more than a millennia ago, was set up on the orders of an emperor with strong Fig.2. Buddhist inclinations, (ca. 7th-8th but that history evide'tly does not matter, either Old images to the centurY CE) ¡n n¡ches devotees Placed or to the caretakers of the temple. of the boundary wall of the lndia' Beyond India, Maruti temPle, KaYatha, the tradition of collecti'g ord irnages and i'scriptions around temples in different areas of western Nepal has been highrighted in the research of Dilli Raj Sharma." For exampre, the priest at the Bhairava ternple in Padukasthan (Dailekh district) is said to have colected figures ofrio's ard bulls, sto'e pi'nacles of a former tempre, amarakødisks, and eve, frag'rerts of finials of Buddhist chøitya shrines when they were exposed by the cutting of the stream called Paduka Khola, which flows nearby.', Another simirar asserr- blage described by Sharma is in Bajhang district. rn pata Dewar village, o' the premises of the Khapar Mandu tempre, there is a coilection of carved irnages, slabs with miniature shikhqradesigns, and a stele with an ereventh-century-cE inscription'Ie pradesh Here, as in uttar and Delhi, the worship of architect'ral pieces car.r be observed. At Tharhara, a broken piece ofan ancient carvecr croor- jamb has been placed or a raised pratform under a pipar (Ficus rerigiosa) tree; iï is worshippecl by the local people as a form of the god Bhairava.20 Moving away fiom the north, there are miscellaneous gro*ps of scurpt're i' shriues of worship at a number of praces south of the vindhya Mountains, ancl 430 LAHI RI LIVING ANTIQUARIANISM IN INDIA 431

Fig. 3. Fig.4. lmages (7th-9th century CE) Carved stone panel (9th-10th kept in the courtyard of the century CE) in the Shantinath Vikrant Bhairav temple, Ujjain, Digambar , lndia. Hastinapur, lndia.

and sculptural parapherna- I have encou'tered many such and medieval architectural curious antiquarian colrections in other parts Keeping ancient is much less common of Madhya Pradesh. and worship areas of Jain temples I'the city of ujjain, for example, at the vikrant Bhairav lia in storehouses in bhøndørs' However' there is one temple, a large quantity of sculpture has been manuscripts and books kept in much the same way as at than collecting Digambar Jain temple Kayatha' Sculptures of of the former practice at Shantinath vishnu and Shiva, along with shiva ringas and architec_ excellent example early part of the tural relics, Uttar Pradesh)' Built in the are built into the walrs and floor of the tempre's courtyard (fig.:). in Hastinapur (Meerut district' that are worshipped' Similarl¡ a few temple houses some old images hundred kilometers awa¡ in the remote town of Narsinghgarh nineteenth century, the (Rajgarh district), the local shiva tempre incrudes preserved scurpturar pieces TwooftheseimagesarekeptinthemairrsanctumsanctorLrm,alongwithsev- a subsidiary shrine there that have been built into the and there are some old images in walls that demarcate the shrine as well as the wails eral newer ones, a collection that fringe temple has a small museum with the steps that lead up to the temple. as well. Most significantl¡ the CE with occasionally, panels of the rrinth to tenth century temples have attached storehouses where sundry of bronze images, carved stone images a'd religious sculptural pieces (frg' +)' and early-twentieth-century are collected and stored, and sometimes displayed and multiple )ina representations rvor- Sahastra shipped' This Similarly' at another Jain temple-the is especially visibre, as a living practice, in temples. photographs and paintings' /ain The |ain panel that community's complex-a premodern sense of history, incidentalr¡ is wel known from its tradition of Kuta Jinalaya, in the nearby Jambudvipa room along with the cen- collecting handwritten has been placed in the worship manuscripts in bhandars (warehouses). These ma^r- depicts a Jain monk This panel was appar- scripts are seen is the real object of devotion here' as a means of preserving Jain knowledge and some bhandørs in tral fina panel, which Rajasthan and in Gujarat are known to house as many as ten thousand manu- entlydiscoveredwhenthefoundationsfortheconstructionoftheSahastra scripts and dug' books' The establishment of bhøndars in the medieval is Kuta )inalaYa were being period years old' widely documented; temple is at least two hundred |ai'kings and merchants established libraries, and some The Shantinath Digambar Jain of the twentieth of those libraries temple dates to the latter part still exist-for instance, the shri Hemachandr but the Sahastra Kuta Jinalaya lai' can be seen at keeping and worshipping old images Jnananmandira in Patan, which holds manuscripts that go back to the fifteenth century. The practice of Vallabh Smarak and sixteenth One of these is the Shri Atman centuries cE.'z2 Interestingly, ma'uscripts and books in libraries other rnodern day Jain shrines' very close to and bhøndars Highway No. r, on the way to chandigarh, are worshipped as sacred objects once a year-on the fifth day located on National vallabh Suri, a Jain after year, by the foilowers of vijay the adve't of the New known as panchami (Knowledge Derhi. It was constructed in rgsa fnan Fifth)- however' preaching in Punjab''o The Smarak' with hymns and offerings.2. achøryøwho spent rnost of life IN INDIA 433 LIVING ANTIOUARIANISM 432 LAHTRI

of this * *ïnï clelightftrl account bv a Shiva lingam) some nrarked lttli^:': is worth quoting iu to the Asiatict:.ï:i-:i,:"":i;: in a tetter the local ;:iï:,';il;:T::::ffi;i rä; thi.gs' the reverellce felt bY it captures' arnons other panels ofyaksáas autl yakshis_ :.i;;;,;.:;;'e celts: people toward Prehistoric the rate Nityanand r".,, .."rïä:i:*ïï:iiliJ:î:::îilîí'ji?,î and Peepul tree' While near the village Mahadeo lages and small towns' The halted my riding camel images are mainly from places in Gujarat, I{alasth"r, I of the stones resting my eye caught the outline and Maharashtra that boast of important talking to the Zemindar fain mercantile gro'ps. R, in once recognized as celts' m.nl ltoh"dto' which stones I at such ar.rtiquarian collections, sculpture against the upright has been kept, without uny ..ur. slzes' trore or less perfect o'f five celts of various incongruit¡ alongside I dismounted and found the persor.ral belongings of Acharya vijay vallabh. said' he did not know T]¡s emblenl' The Zemindal acharya's arouncl the Hindu clothes and utensils, even his del.rtures and his inkwell, are shou,cased strewn, had placed thenl but he concluded his forefathers in the same space as fain images and panels. where they tu-t f'o-' th e'n' o n cl n .,'n"l'Ï,: whe re I n ow s aw : forms and ceremonles :ÏîI :iT::îî:ïi-'.tî Living Antiquarianism the Nineteenth Century thern with the same officials and work- along with other railway collecting and preserving antiquities Subsequently' I-e Mesurier' delin- and sclrlpture in religious shr.ines and their discovery' l're more celts' and through spaces is, thus, a widespread practice and found o"" ftu'la"a of India' it is one that, since the r99os, has ers, district in this part as the celt-producing been integral to my ur.rderstanding of the what he described regional clifferent ways in which ancient para_ eated in villages but also at were found not only phernalia has survived in modern India. ,rhe celts, incidentall¡ much At the same time, as I now knou,, this and Kirwee are places "Chittiote' the Pysunnee Nuddy antiquarianism has an olcler genealogy. In fact, in the seconcl halfofthe nine_ pilgrim spots' appear to abound in celts"' n: *t:ttl'-lhich teenth by the Hindus' and century, railway engineers, geologists, archaeologists, ancl many otl.rers veneratecl pilgrims coming across in the course of ages, by who undertook systematic archaeological research and published the results have been co[ected;;;;;., them in the spots the district' who found by the iniabitants of of their investigations drew attention to many instances of such practices in the hill, and rhe celts by their original proprietors'"'u had been abandoned clifferent parts of India. It is, of course, llecessary to point out that, rvith rar.e where they exceptions, the significance of what was chanced upon in rural ancl village themselves*t""nt'utmillenniaoldandutt"togni"dtodayasneoliths'In shrines pos- escaped the understanding of these officials as well as later scholars fact,LeMesurier's¿"t"-tntutionisregarcledasthefirstrecordeddiscoveryevidently was made India' a "discovery" that who studied their implements in them work. By this, I mean that they clocumentecl the facts, but of Neolithic and then displaying of collecting suctr ceits they the village practice did not, in their accounts, identify the activities as antiquarianism or ¿is sible by preservation practices. But because these were recorcled in their writings, it -'i:JJllï:#1|åi:;", to trre Asiatic Societv or Le Mesurier was writing is possible for modern scholars to appreciate the extent of antiquarian actir,- official' this one an archaeo- his discoveries' another ity in India. It also leads to the recognition that these practices were in fact Bengal about Intish of large parts of north about to begin an investigation extensively highlighted in the works of the nineteenth-century logicat surveyor' was to clirect antiquarians was appointed in 186r Inclia' Alexaucler Cunningham and archaeologists of the European tradition. cruciall¡ as their writings reveal, and central sometimes a chance encounter with such traditions providecl clues abont the thefirstcomprehensivegovernment-sponsoredarchaeologicalsurvey.Later'of the newly created Utltu-t the ñrst director generai antiquity of these places, which, in turn, became the starting point for more in r87r, Ct'nrtl'lgllo; His archaeologi- that he held untii rBB5' Survey of Inclia' a post systernatic investigations. Archaeoiogical in twenty-three volumes' from r86r to r885 were published A' early example of this is the group of polished stone that Hen'y cal investigations sotirce for celts it*t been an inclispensable original publication' tt'"y Peveril Le Mesurier, chief engineer of the East Indian founcl in ancl, since their through tl-re Railwa¡ catrre to be fleshecl otrt rnaìo,, historical past and around the Kaimur and vindhya mountain rallges of central Inclia. Le unclerstanding t'oi Mesurier''s intelest in tl.rir.rgs antiquariar.r was kindled these ir-rclefatigableexplorationsandexcavationsofCunninghamandhisassistants.sculptural when he saw five of documentation of broken also reveal an extensive stone celts at a Mahadeo shrine (a place where shiva is worshippecl, usually Those reports IN INDIA 435 434 LIVING ANTIQUARIANìSM

Inclus civiiization' but when relics ard the the third-rnillenniurn-BCE man'er in which they were revered, collected, ¿¡d wor.shipped the largest cities of around religious shrines and trees. Ctrnninghanrwasdiggingarotrnditsancientrtrinsitsantiqtritywasnotyetwalls' stone there revealed masses of brick ons in all kinds of Cunninghams e*lavatious places_f¡qm knowu. ancl the legends described local shrines ancl Khujaraho u'-'d pottttf'" He also in Madhya pr.adesh, implernents, notable who of Baba Nur (a local I clistrict of puùab. them' ¡'t the tomb These that surrouncled which we recog- circular perforated stones' d around temples. So, as a fakir)' large for instauce, the was worshipped Bageshwari temple "small at KLrrkihar'-a rude Hinclu temple of br.ick,,, rrizetodayasaspecificclassofciralcolitl.ricringsoflncltrsvirrtage,werekept. as inhabitants as the ban- described by Harappas cunni'gharn put it-co'tained a large collection of Hi'clu these were sometimes and Buclclhist However, thumb rings' One on other occasions as his images.tt These i'cl'ded a life-size stat'e of the goddess of the putative fakir' Durga co'quer_ gie bracelets the bangies or could be seen to serve as ing Mahishasura (the buffalo dernon); an image woncler how stich large stones called Bageshwar.i, rvliç|¡ may well be learned renowned' The answer can c'r.rningham believed was either the of a mere mortal' however deity Indrani with her son, or. srrasti, tiruqb rings Burnes' a especially that of Alexander the goddess offecundity; a life-size descliptions' a'd stat.e ofAkshobhaya, a for'r ofthe from nineteentlt-century tells us the sttmmer of r83r' IJurnes Buddha, identified by an inscription who visited in that mentionecl his name ancl a halo traveler-explorer which fakir was of giant proportions' arouncl his heacl inscribed with the Budclhist fon¡ula: "ye to legencl' the fabulous Dharnma . . J,Apart that, according so the word s lhemeasure of clistance' frorn villages, such collections ar-e called a Naogaza-g aza arso describecl by cunningharl i'r tem- is wlry he was saint'3' p""'-ubly the height of the buried ples at some of the famous places of pilgrimage in India. 9 yarcls' which *^ At Gaya, aro''cl a NaogøzaLneans by Cunning- worship practice was recorded ternple dedicated to Surya, the sun god, in the vicinity of Bahamani similar, and equally notable' Ghat, A Bihar' He identified southwest of in cunningham saw nlrmero*s pieces of Brahmanical sculpture at the -o"'ld' along with a ham Jagdishput Buddhist monk and where' according to the votive stnpa with "the Buddhist forrnula of faith inscribed on it.,'rs mound as Kulika' Similarl¡ Jagdishpur's as Maha Mogalana disciple of the Bucldha known at Haridwar, another revered Hindu place of pilgrimage, in the Narayana-sila traveler Hsuan Tsang' the in all likelihooil, was the distauce temple, cunningham saw a silnilar mix of Brahmanical The basis íor this identiñcation, a'd Bucldhist sculp- was born. Chinese pilgrim' been mentioned by the tures. "collected around it are numerous ancl Kulika that had squarecl stones and broken sculptur.es," between Nalanda beeu pre- Buddhist sculpture that had c'nningham tells us, and one of the of an outstanding stones appeared to be part of the cleeply Perhaps th. prtttr"t Apparentl¡ have promoted this identifrcation' carved, cusped roof of an older temple.'e cunr.ringham by iocal peopie rnay also was able to identify served had been col- southern edge' several statues these stones as well as a small figure of the Bucldha, surrounded by attenda'ts. a nim tree on )agdishpur's under figure of the ascetic that one of these statues-a Apart from temples, cu''ingharn also described images and fragme'ts lected. cunningham rJlates and surrouncled by horrible Bodhi tree at Bodh Gaya placed around trees and in groves. so, for instance, in the tamarind gro'es Buddha seated under the outside the town of Kulharas, on the road betwee'Gwalior ancl Indore, alo'g demonsandalluringwoìnen-was..thefinestandlargestpieceofsculpttrre', Rukmini by the ignorant figure' he adds' "is called with nurnerous wells and meclieval sati monuments (which were constructecl to that he had ever *" "ti' with leacl' and pour milk commemorate itslorehead and nose [red] the self-immolation of women on their husband's funeral pyres), villagers, who daity smear effacious lsicl; but the of milk is considered very people had'grouped all the fragments of sculpture collected from their rui'recl over the mouth. The offering my visit' the ground was goat; and at the time of temples."3o several hundred kilometers away, at Bhita, near Allahabad in nortl.r acceptable offering is I most Undoubtedl¡ the nonvio- u re.ently killed goati'3', India, cunningham noted, under pipal trees, similar collections of broken stat- still wet with the utooior ues and fragments of pillars and railings (including the railing of a Buddhist lentBuddhawouldhavebeenamazedthathismid-nineteenth-centtlryavatarwith goat sacrifices! and one who was propitiated structure), as well as a stone umbrella (usually known to crown a Buddhist was a woman in Jagdishpur ancl descriptions from the large bocly of allusions stupa) that was being "used as a receptacle of a lingam.,,3, These are few vignettes It is evident from cunningham's accounts that old artifacts and images innineteentb-centuryliteraturepertainingtothearchaeologicalsitesoflndia'early anti- tried to de[ronstrate that these were frequently worshipped as deities tn..".årllptes, I have with visages that were completely ctif- But through antiqr'rity and quest for clues about the fel'ent frorn their oliginal iconic archaeologists' in their ones. Exarnples of this phenomenon can bc cluariaus aud collections th.y surveyed, frequently encountered found at the famous site of Harappa. Toda¡ Harappa is regardecl as one of character oftn. turld..oi.. LAHIRI 436 LIVING ANTIQUARIANISIVI IN INDIA 437

of artifacts' sculpture' ancl architectural pieces in rerigious places Notes of and the in r¡uch the same way that their successors Discovery of Ancient lndia: Early Archaeologists do tocray-t"'- -'-t '¡ qr^t ..""Jal'orlnd To*trtp r Upincler Singh, The shrines ""0 village (Delhi: Perrnaner.rt Black' zoo4)' t ancl city temples. n)ginnings of Archaeology ,'rt]"...wereatltrtnberofstrclrirrdividtralsatlclinstitutionsirrdiflererrtparts Ancient Roots of Antiquarianism oflndia.ForBengal,seeSanjuktaDatta"ArtefactsandAntiquitiesirlBer-rgal: Non-Oficial Archaeological Spherei' Some Perspectives within an Emerging (New l'ahiri' eds'' Anciertt b dia: New Research ir-r Upinder Singh ancl Nayanjot This essay has focusecr on antiquaria'ism in I'cria tocray ar.rcr in trre uiueteenth Delhi:oxforcluniversityPress,zoog),ir-38.ForAssatn'seeNayanjotLahiri' century; however, Assam between the Fífth and I wiil concrucle by posing a more generar pre-Al'tom Assant: Studies in the Inscriptions of questio' about antiquity the of such practices: when cricr the practice rf colrecting ola oblects theTllit.teettthCenturiesAD(NewDell-ri:MtrrrshiramMarrohar.lai,rggr)'0_8. first frorn Akshay Kutnal Maitra to appear in the Inclian historical recorcl? Datta looks at scholals frorl Bengal' rar-rgir-rg they were associated with' such I do not Rarnaprasacì Chancla, ar-rcl the il-tstitutions lcnow for certain, but I s'spect the practice , may we, be rooted Research Society Her work in the Bangiya Sahitya Parishacl ancl the Varendra ancient times. Ar.rcr this, as indeed, is wrrat the curious.¡'xtapositiors backgrouuds we[e of prehis_ hor,Jln,lian scholars ancl archaeologists from such toric artifacts .ho*, in historicar strata srggest. For this reason, I can imagine recrtritedbyBritishlnctiailrstitLrtionsliketheArchaeologicalstrrveyoflllclia in the early that centuries cE, at Bhita, an ancient in Calcutta' town near Alrahabaa (men_ ancl the Il-rdiau Museuln, tioned in the section Uberoi' "Prelirninary Fielcl Report otr above), there were people who collected Nayanjot Lahiri, Upinder Sir.rgh, and Tarika such curios. 3. zt' This is what The Ballabgarh Tehsil"' Man and Environmettt the excavations at Bhita have reveared when, the Archaeology of Falidabad: for exa'rple, it was found that some of those who resicled ro. t (1996):32-57' in what is calred Buirding r3 of that Upinder Sir.rgh' "In the Shaclow of New Delhi: town placed two neorìths in 4. Nayanjot Lahiri ancl rool¡ I..'Incidentall¡ the use of neoiit-hs Layton eds" The in Bhita the Landscape]' ir-r Peter j' Ucko and Robert ' cortinued for severar Unclerstanding hundred years, until the earry medievar Shaping Your Landscape (Lor.rdon: period. John Archaeology ancl Anthropology of Landscape: Marshall, the excavator of Bhita, ofered two expla'ations for th. presence of Routledge, r999), 185. neoliths there. Either they were the implements of ju'gle Lahiri, Singh, ancl Uberoi, "Ballabgarh Tehsil"' lz' 'eighbori'g tribes 5. who occupied Bhita when it was sacked, Singh, ancl Uberoi, "Ballabgarh Tehsil"' +6' or, he believed, they were being used 6. Lalriri, "Ballabgari.r Tehsil"' 43-44' for religious p'rposes by people who hacr Lahiri, Singh, and Ubeloi, emerged centuries before from the 7 Neolithic Age. S.NayanjotLahiri,..IrrdiarrMetalanclMetal-RelateclArtefactsasCulttrralSigrlifìers: There is, though, another prehistoric AnEthr-rographicPerspectivei'WorldArchaeologyzT'rro'r(r995):116_3z.ForSilri, possible explanation. artifacts rnay welr 129-3O' have been see worshippecr the way neoliths were in trre ninetee'th ce'tury, but 9.K.C.Yadav,..Stlrdasl'IournalofHaryanastudiesll'tros.randz(t979):l'.5o. they neecl not have been continuousry of New Delhij' r84-85' used si'ce Neolithic times. Just as hap- ro. Lahiri ar.rd Singh, "In the Shadow pens toda¡ reside'ts of Bhita may have colrected curious objects that resembled rr.|iter-rclraNathBaner.jea,TheDellelopmentofHindulconography(1956;reprirrt' their own religious Muushirarn Manoharlal' r985)' 6r5' pa'aphe'raria; they too may have found that these Stone New Dell.ri: Delhil' rz6' Age relics, which rz. Lahiri ar.rd Singh, "In the Shadow of New they chanced upon in fields and paths, bore a reseml¡rance to the lingas that they 13.AditiMarrn,.ArchaeologyofRetigiousWorshipir-rNorth-WestDelhi''(M.Phil. were familiar witrr and that were widery worshipped as the of Delhi, zon)' emblems of diss., UniversitY the god Shiva. For that reaso', the found objects were thought to 14. Maun, 'Archaeology of Religiotts Worship"' 6+' be worthy of pr.eservation ancl, perhaps, ro6' of worship. r5. Maun, 'Archaeology of Religious Worship"' If that is indeed aj Prakash Gupta' Tre Roots of Inàian the case, then the diverse practices that make up living 16. This was cliscovered by R' S Bisht' See Swar a'tiqttariauism Corp'' r98o)' z7' in India today may welr be only the ratest phase of a' ancient Arf (New Delhi: B. R Publishing of Delhi' way of "Stor.re Alt iu Westeru Nepal" (PhD diss" University looking at past retnains and imbuing them with religious m¡hologies r7. Dilli Raj Sharrna, and beliefs. zoo6). r8. Sharma, "Stone Art in Western Nepali'64-66' i+8-+g' 19. Sharma, "Stone Art in Westertr NePali' 175-76' 20. Sharrra, "Stone Art in Westem Nepalj' Keshav Dhavalikar' Excattations 2t. Zaintrddin Dawood Ansari ancl Madhukar A AC) 438 LAHIRI

at Kq)atha (Pune, Inclia: Deccan College, r975), Also see Amalananda Ghosh, NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS ed., An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology, vol. z (New Delhi: Munshirarn BIOGRAPHICAL Manolrarlal, ry89), zr7 -zo. and EFEO profes- zz. E. Cort, "The Knowledge Warehouses: time traveì as ¿r fapauese civiliz-ation) lohn Jain Traditional Libraries in India," BAI is an associarte profes- the Abbasid per:iocl, QIANSHEN Studies dePartnlent clevice, and Maltese language sor in the Religious Journal of the Anterican Oriental Socie\/ :n5, no, t þ99): 77-87, sor of Chinese at't ât Bostoll Ulriversity' literary École pratique cìes hautes études and literatnte. ofthe 23 Col't, "The Knowledge Warel-rouses," He received his PhD from Yale Univet'- Jain 87 (faparr-rese Buddhism). ln zorl rz, he rvas sity. 11re autlror of Fu Shan\ World: The 24 Aditi Manrr, "On National Highway No. r, a Slice of Secret Indial' Hindustan iS a Smithsouiarl Senior History of Art 'liansþrmation of Chinese Calligraphy LOTHAR VON FALKENHAUSEN at the Arthur M. Sackler Gallely Times, l:.:ly 26,2oo8,18. oÉ Chinese archaeology and Fellorv lhe Set,enteenth Cenlury (zoo3), he is a professot in Since zorz' he irsstlci¿rte clireclor oltl.re ir-r Washingtor.r, D.C. 25. H. P. Le Mesulier, "Letter from Mr. H. P. Le Mesnrier, Jubbulpore Line, E.I.R.," rvorkitrg on a book orl Wtt art tristory ancl currently fcllorv at the Cotsen Illstitute of Archaeology at the has beert a cut'atori¿rl Iournal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal 4o, nos. r-4 (186r): 8r. Dacheng, a ttineteeuth-cetltury govern- Los Angeles, Freer Gallery of Al t âllcl the Artìrtu M scholar, collector, atrd University of Cali[ornia, 26. Le Mesurier, "Letter;' 82. nrcnt ofhci¿rl, ìras taught since 1993. Edtr- Sackler Gallery. artist. Bâi is also an accornplished callig- rvhere he 27. Alexander Cr.rrl-ringharn, Archaeological Survey of India: Four Reports Made the Unlversity of Bontr, Pekirrg laplrer and seal carver. catecl at NAYANJ0T LAH lR I is a itr during the Years ß62-6j-64-65 vol, r (Calcutta: Office of the Superintenclent of Unìr,ersity, and lÇoto Universit¡ he was Professor of Flistory at tl.re Uni his PhL) frorn Hatvard Unive r- the Depâi:ttr-rellt Govemment Printing, r87r; r'eprint, New Delhi: Alcl-raeological Survey of India, PAUL-ALAIN BEAULIEU is ¿r native awarded She h¿rs u't itten exten- Fle has published witlely on versity of Delhi. of MonLreal. He began his stndies at [he sity in 1988. zooo), r5. on ancient Inclia, ar:clraeology, and Chir-rese ritual and t.nttsic, brotrz'e sively Ur.riversité cle Mol.rtr'éal ancl received his early 28. Alexar-rder Cnnninghar-n, Archaeological Survey of India: Report Year helitage, She has authorecl arrd editecl for the ú7r He vessels ancl their inscriptions, regiotral PhD frorn Yale Univer:sity in r985 'Ihe and ;.nany books, incltrcling Archaeologl' 72, vol. 3 (Calcutta: Ofice of the Superinter-rdent of Government Printing, r873; Yale, Flarvalcl' and ctrltures, tIalls-Etlrasiatl contâcts, helcl appointrrents ât (t992) and ofalcl-raeology in F'ast Asia' of Indian'frade Routes reprint, New Delhi: Archaeological Survey ofIndia, zooo), rrz. the Uliversity of Notre Datne before the lristoly Fintlirtg Forgotterr Citles (zoo5), which Lhe University of 29. Alexandel Cur-rningharn, Archaeological Surtey of India: Four Reports Made joining the faculty of assistaut profes- was a finalist for the Hutcli-Crossword zoo6, where he is now a YA-HWEI HSU is an Toronto in was coeditor during the Years ß62-6j-64-65, vol. z (Calcutta: Office of the Superintendent of DePal:trllellt of History at Awarcl in zoo6. Lahiri professor of Assyriology in the DePart- sor in the issne of World Archaeology Government Printing, r87z; reprint, New Delhi: Archaeological Survey of India, National Taiwan University, Taipei' of a special t.nent of Near attd lvliddle Easterrl ol Origirrally trained as al.ì art focusiug on the arcl.raeology zooo),233. Civilizations. He has published exteu- Taiwan. Bronze Age, I-Iinduism. and culture of Mes- historian of the Chinese 3o Cunrringham, Archaeological Survey, vol. z> 3o2-3. sively on tlre history now stuclies eleventh-'ancl twelfth- opotamia in the first millenniurn BCE she Cr,rnningharn, Ar chae olo gi cal Sur v ey, v ol. LÓPEZ LUJÁI''I IS A 3t 3, 52. century Chinese antiquarian art aucl LEONARDO at the Alexander Archaeological She is particularly senior t'esearcher in archaeology 32 Cunningharn, Survey of lndia: Report for the Year ß7t- CESERANI is au associ- collecting culture. GIOVANNA MaYor in Mexico the significance of the Museo del TemPlo 72, vol. 5 (Calcutta: Offìce of the Superintendent of Govemrnent Printing, 1875; ofclassics at Stanfold Uni- interested in ate professor beetl director oftbe books in n.recliating irnages City ancl has S[.re works on the classical printecl reprint, New Delhi: Archaeological Survey oflndia, zooo), r53-55. versity. Mayor siuce r99l He knolvledge across the elite and the Proyecto Tet.nplo tr¿rclition with an emphasis on the intel- ancl 33 Alexander Burnes, Travels into Bokhara'logether with a Narrative of a VoTage on holds a PhD in archaeology fror¡ the of classical scl.rolarship, popular culture. Iectual histoly re. He spe- the Indus, vol. (London: Murray, 1834; reprint, : Université cle Paris X Nanter 3 lohn Oxford Univelsity ancl archaeology fi' histor:iographl', religioll, ar.rcl art H LER is ei cializes in the Politics, Press, 1973), r37. centttry olrwarcl The SU SAN N E K ÜC Professor the eighteenth societies iu atrcl lnaterial culture of ple-Columbiau ltrbatl of lúdl),! t ost Greece: Magna of anthropology 34 Cunningharn, Archaeological Survey, vol. r, 29. author He has autbored thir- University College London. She has ceutral Mexico Graecia and the Making of Modern at 35 lohrr Hubert Marshall, "Excavations at Bhita," Archaeological Survey of India: books, includir.rg 71rc O.ffet ittgs of conclttcted ethr-ro grapl.ric fìeldwork teerr Archaeology (zorz), she is cltrretltly 'lenochtitlan (zoo5)' Annual Report, (Calcttta: Poly- the Tenplo Mayor of ryu-tz Office of Superintendent of Governrnent of rnoclern ir.r Papua New Gr.tinea eiud eastern writing otr the emergetlce (with Alfi'edo twenty-fir'e years, Mexico\ Indigenous Pasl Plinting, r9r5; reprint, Delhi: Swati, r99o), B9. of aucietlt Greece anci otr the nesia over the past histories (zoo5)' and Mexica Mon creativity, il.lnovatioll, ând López Austin) eighteenth-centltry Grand Tour of Italy stuclying Snilpturz (with Dcluardo Matos fi,rturity in political economies of knowl- wnental Moctez-urna) (zoo9) edge fi'om â comParative Perspective' lvl ICHAEL COOPERS0N is a Pro- clotlr University of Her work on the history of using fessor of Arabic at the art "lrew" lnateriaì in the HANS-R U DOLF M EIER is an Los Angeles. His recerlt pr'tb- ar.rcl clothing as California, interests in lnedi- focused orr social historiart with special incltde Al Ma'ntun (zoo5) as Pacilìc region has licatiorrs and archereology and and tnatelial translation as well eval alchitecture well as translations of Khairl' Shalaby's tneu.toi:)' tt.reir histories, and the tt.reory al.rd his- as on the epistet.nic tl¿rtttre of materials Tinte Tt'avels of the Man l\rho Sold Píck of the preservation of not.lttlnents alrd their'::ole irl long-tet'rn social tory Ies and Sweets (zoro) and furji Zaidan's sites. He completed his PhD ar.rd change. ancl The Caliph\ Heirs (zotz) He is coeditor'' postdoctoral thesis at the Univer- 'Ioor¿rw¿r, of 'flrc Diclíott- wìth Shawkat universities is a sität Basel, tâught at sevel'al B¡ograPlry: Arubic FRANÇOlS LACHAUD Ptofessot' Lry, of LiterarY and Gertnar.t¡ atrcl is tlou' oI stuclies at tlie Éco]e frauç:rise in Srvitzerlancl Literary Culture, -soo-9r5 (zoo5) l-Iis Japar.rese (lltLtlclhisn.r and ir plofessol of historictrl presen'atiot.t intelests iuclude tlre culttlral history of cì'Extrême-Orieìrt