Music Science Today: the Permanent and the Changeable

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MUSIC SCIENCE TODAY: THE PERMANENT AND THE CHANGEABLE

Scientific Papers

M˚zikas zin‚tne odien: past‚vÓgais un mainÓgais Zin‚tnisko rakstu kr‚jums

3 (11)

DAUGAVPILS UNIVERSITY ACADEMIC PRESS SAULE 2019 Daugulis «., Ed. Music Science Today: the Permanent and the Changeable No 3 (11). Scientific Papers. Daugavpils: Daugavpils University Academic Press Saule, 2019. 192 p.

Editor-in-chief Dr. art., prof. «valds Daugulis, Daugavpils University, Latvia Associate Editor Dr. art., prof. Baiba Jaunslaviete, J‚zeps VÓtols Latvian Academy of Music, Latvia

Editorial Board Dr. hab. art., prof. Leonidas Melnikas, Lithuanian Academy of Music and Theatre, Lithuania Dr. art., prof. Baiba Jaunslaviete, J‚zeps VÓtols Latvian Academy of Music, Latvia Dr. hab. art., prof. Georgs PelÁcis, J‚zeps VÓtols Latvian Academy of Music, Latvia Dr. hab. art., prof. Tatjana Mdivani, Institute of Study of Arts, Ethnography and Folklore, National Academy of Science, Belarus Dr. phil., prof. M‚rtiÚ Boiko, J‚zeps VÓtols Latvian Academy of Music, Latvia Dr. hab. art., prof. Romualdas ApanaviËius, Vytautas Magnus University, Lithuania Dr. art., prof. «valds Daugulis, Daugavpils University, Latvia Dr. art., prof. JeÔena œebedeva, J‚zeps VÓtols Latvian Academy of Music, Latvia Dr. art., prof. Juozas AntanaviËius, Lithuanian Academy of Music and Theatre, Lithuania Dr. art., prof. Lolita F˚rmane, J‚zeps VÓtols Latvian Academy of Music, Latvia Dr. phil., prof. Christoph Flamm, Saarland University, Germany Dr. phil., prof. Vladimir Konecni, University of California, San Diego, USA Dr. phil., doc. Denis Collins, University of Queensland, Australia Dr. art., assoc. prof. J‚nis KudiÚ, J‚zeps VÓtols Latvian Academy of Music, Latvia Dr. art., musicologist Zhanna Knyazeva, Russian Institute of the Art History, Russia Dr. art., prof. Rytis Urne˛ius, –iauliai University, Lithuania Dr. art., assoc. prof. Nelli Macaberidze, Belarusian State Academy of Music, Belarus Dr. hab. phil., prof. Maciej Ko˘odziejski, Pu˘tusk Academy of Humanities, Poland Dr. hab. art., prof. Ryszard Zoledziewski, Karol Lipinski Academy of Music in Wroc˘aw, Poland Dr. art., Senior Scientific Researcher Elena Savitskaya, State Institute of Art Science, Moscow, Russia

English Language Editor: Dr. phil., assoc. prof. Ilze OÔehnoviËa Layout Designer: Marina StoËka

Issue supported by Daugavpils University and State Culture Capital Foundation.

LÓdz 2017. gadam zin‚tnisko rakstu kr‚jums M˚zikas zin‚tne odien: past‚vÓgais un mainÓgais publicÁts ar ISSN numuru 1691-6034. No 2017. gada kr‚jums Music Science Today: the Permanent and the Changeable tiek izdots ar ISSN numuru 2501-0344. Till 2017 the issue was published with the title M˚zikas zin‚tne odien: past‚vÓgais un mainÓgais and ISSN number 1691-6034. Since 2017 the issue is published with the title Music Science Today: the Permanent and the Changeable, ISSN number 2501-0344.

ISSN 2501-0344 © Daugavpils University, 2019 ISBN 978-9984-14-873-1 CONTENT

«valds Daugulis Preface. Music Science Today: the Permanent and the Changeable XI ...... 5

MUSIC AESTHETICS AND STYLISTICS GiedrÎ MuralytÎ-EriksonÎ Parallels Between the Songs by Henry Purcell and Benjamin Britten ...... 7 Nelli Matsaberidze Dialectics of ìDialogical World Outlookî as a Stylistic Paradigm of Contemporary Music ...... 17 Olesia Platonova ìLa Passion según San Marcosî by Osvaldo Golijov. From Bachís Tradition to Modern Interpretation ...... 28 Baiba Jaunslaviete Reception of Choral Music by Maija Einfelde as Manifestation of Changing Aesthetic Paradigms ...... 33 Elena Savitskaya From Rock Symphony to Metal Opera: Classical Genres and Forms in Rock Music ...... 40 Ryszard Zoledziewski Saxophone in Contemporary Work of Wroc˘aw Composers ...... 49

MUSIC PERFORMANCE Leonidas Melnikas Stylistic Identity in Music Performance: Laboratory Sterility vs. a Living Creative Process ...... 58 Alexander Koroteev Wind Art as a Socio-Cultural Phenomenon of the World-Historical Progress of Civilizations ...... 63 UgnÎ AntanaviËi˚tÎ-KubickienÎ Musical Interaction in Ensemble Performance: Coherence and Expression as the Main Aspects of Ensemble Performing...... 74 GiedrÎ ﬁarÎnaitÎ Role of Second Violinist in String Quartet. Essential Differences and Commonalities in Comparison to First Violinist ...... 85

MUSIC EDUCATION Rasa KirliauskienÎ, Jolanta AbramauskienÎ Assessment of Music Teachersí Competences: Approach of Heads of Schools ...... 90 Asta RauduvaitÎ, Sun Bo Future Teachersí Musical Competence and Its Expression at University...... 95 Asta RauduvaitÎ, Yadian Du The Importance of Music Teacherís Competences in Lithuania and China ...... 101 Jolanta LasauskienÎ, Yuqing Yang Reflections on Music Teacher Education: Current Models and New Developments ...... 109 Youdi Sun Bridging the Past, Present and Future in Chinese Music Education ...... 115

3 Lolita Jolanta NavickienÎ, Lina PokytÎ Versatile Teacherís Competences in the Context of Musical Education of Pregnant Women ...... 121 Maciej Ko˘odziejski, Ÿukasz Pulchny, Pawe˘ A. Trzos Diagnosis of Child Listening to Music in the Light of SUMS Application ...... 128 Vilius Tavoras Expression of Artistic Individuality within Context of Music Teacher Training ...... 139 Ewa Parkita, Anna Parkita Educational and Artistic Projects as an Important Element of Educating Future Music Teachers in Poland ...... 145 Urszula Mizia The Artistic Application of Ceramic Instruments ...... 151 GiedrÎ GabnytÎ Features of Education in Lithuanian Music Schools: Opinion of Students and Graduates ...... 159 Anna Stachura-Bogus˘awska Elements of Modern Musical Language in Selected Piano Pieces for Children by Silesian Composers (Poland) from 20th and 21st Centuries ...... 166 Ma˘gorzata Kaniowska Selected Issues in Methodology of Conducting a Primary Music School Orchestra ...... 174 EglÎ –eduikytÎ KorienÎ, ﬁivilÎ Meil˚naitÎ Interplay of Performance Expression Elements: Teaching Organists to Perform in Concerts ...... 179 Marija JonilienÎ, Vida PalubinskienÎ Forms of Ethnic Culture Activities in Non-Formal Education of Lithuania ...... 185

4 PREFACE

Music Science Today: the Permanent and the Changeable XI

Editor-in-chief «VALDS DAUGULIS

The collection of research papers includes 24 Ryszard Zoledziewski in the paper Saxophone articles by scholars representing five countries in Contemporary Work of Wroc˘aw Composers (Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Russia, and Belarus). analyzes a great range of contemporary composi- The thematic scope of researches is broad and tions for saxophone by composers from Wroc˘aw papers are organized in three sections: Aesthetics (a city in Poland); the author provides new infor- and Stylistics of Music, Art of Musical Performance mation on diverse approaches to the interpretation and Music Pedagogy. of contemporary music for saxophone in one and The first section includes six research papers. the same composition, as well as discusses the The interplay of different styles and aesthetic atti- acoustic possibilities from the aspect of the tudes in its various forms is discussed in GiedrÎ repertoire for saxophone. MuralytÎ-EriksonÎís paper Parallels Between the The section Art of Musical Performance com- Songs by Henry Purcell and Benjamin Britten. prises three research papers focusing on diverse Nelli Matsaberidzeís paper Dialectics of particularities of style awareness and performance ñ ìDialogical World Outlookî as a Stylistic Para- Leonidas Melnikasí paper Stylistic Identity in digm of Contemporary Music touches upon the Music Performance: Laboratory Sterility vs. a shift in the stylistic paradigms of contemporary Living Creative Process, UgnÎ AntanaviËi˚tÎ- music, the convergence of traditions, and provides KubickienÎís Musical Interaction in Ensemble Performance: Coherence and Expression as the a good insight into the stylistic spectrum of con- Main Aspects of Ensemble Performing and GiedrÎ temporary music by Belarusian composers. ﬁarÎnaitÎís Role of Second Violinist in String Olesia Platonova in her paper ìLa Passion Quartet. Essential Differences and Commonalities según San Marcosî by Osvaldo Golijov. From in Comparison to First Violinist. Bachís Tradition to Modern Interpretation presents Alexander Koroteevís paper Wind Art as a a thorough analysis of O. Golijovís composition Socio-Cultural Phenomenon of the World-Histo- from the cultural-historical perspective of 20thñ rical Progress of Civilizations surprises with the 21st century genre of passion. extremely broad chronological account of the Baiba Jaunslavieteís research Reception of evolution of wind instrument performance at Choral Music by Maija Einfelde as Manifestation different times. of Changing Aesthetic Paradigms is devoted to The research papers concerning the issues of th the choir music by the outstanding 20 century music pedagogy have been developed in different Latvian composer Maija Enfelde. The study con- ways. Their authors analyze a wide range of music siders the reception of Einfeldeís choir compo- pedagogy materials, present new information on sitions in different periods of time, as well as the future music teacherís competences, compare the factors (aesthetic paradigms) determining that currently available music education to that of the reception. international level, and pay special attention to The discussion of the relationship between the interaction between the educational and the classical and rock music is continued in the paper artistic components. There are several thematic From Rock Symphony to Metal Opera: Classical guidelines. One of them is general music pedagogy. Genres and Forms in Rock Music by Elena Rasa KirliauskienÎ and Jolanta AbramauskienÎ Savitskaya. The author of the paper raises an in their paper Assessment of Music Teachersí important question: how do classical and rock Competences: Approach of Heads of Schools con- genres interact and develop? The study also answers sider the issues of this sphere from the viewpoint and outlines new issues that are likely to be of heads of schools; Asta RauduvaitÎ and Sun addressed in the next study. Bo in the paper Future Teachersí Musical Compe-

5 tence and Its Expression at University analyse Future Music Teachers in Poland pay special atten- how future music teachersí competences manifest tion to the interplay of educational and artistic themselves during their studies at higher educational components, while Urszula Miziaís paper The establishments. Asta RauduvaitÎ and Yadian Du Artistic Application of Ceramic Instruments is in their paper The Importance of Music Teacherís devoted to various possibilities of artistic applica- Competences in Lithuania and China compare tion of ceramic instruments. Educational aspects the music education systems in Lithuania and in music schools are approached by GiedrÎ GabnytÎ China; Jolanta LasauskienÎ and Yuqing Yang in in her study Features of Education in Lithuanian their study Reflections on Music Teacher Educa- Music Schools: Opinion of Students and Graduates, tion: Current Models and New Developments Anna Stachura-Bogus˘awska in her paper Elements discuss various models of music teacher education, of Modern Musical Language in Selected Piano but Youdi Sun focuses on the Chinese system of Pieces for Children by Silesian Composers (Poland) music education in general. The paper Versatile from 20th and 21st Centuries and Ma˘gorzata Teacherís Competences in the Context of Musical Kaniowska in Selected Issues in Methodology of Education of Pregnant Women by Lolita Jolanta Conducting a Primary Music School Orchestra. NavickienÎ and Lina PokytÎ considers varied EglÎ –eduikytÎ KorienÎ and ﬁivilÎ Meil˚naitÎ, in competences necessary for teachers in providing their turn, discuss the aspect of expression of future music education to pregnant women; the aspect organistsí concert performance in the paper of the development of childrenís listening skills Interplay of Performance Expression Elements: is considered in the paper Diagnosis of Child Teaching Organists to Perform in Concerts; Marija Listening to Music in the Light of SUMS Applica- JonilienÎ and Vida PalubinskienÎ present the tion by Maciej Ko˘odziejski, Ÿukasz Pulchny and results of their study on the significance of folk Pawe˘ A. Trzos; the analysis of the artistic aspect music in non-formal education in Lithuania in of future music teachersí education is presented their paper Forms of Ethnic Culture Activities in in the paper Expression of Artistic Individuality Non-Formal Education of Lithuania. within Context of Music Teacher Training by The research papers included in the collection Vilius Tavoras, in which the author considers encompass various aspects of research ñ from the studentsí possibilities to express their artistic intention of the composition in the context of individuality. Researchers Ewa Parkita and Anna the era to different interpretations, the interaction Parkita in their paper Educational and Artistic of genres, music pedagogy, and other important Projects as an Important Element of Educating questions.

6 MUSIC AESTHETICS AND STYLISTICS

Parallels between the Songs by Henry Purcell and Benjamin Britten

Mag. art. GIEDRÀ MURALYTÀ-ERIKSONÀ Doctoral Student of Lithuanian Academy of Music and Theatre

Henry Purcell (1659ñ1695) and Benjamin Britten (1913ñ1976) are the main figures in English musical culture. Britten was particularly inspired by Purcellís illustrative approach to putting together music and text, thus creating fascinating connections between different historical and musical contexts. This paper will present the results of the analysis of the original songs of Benjamin Britten and Brittenís realizations of Henry Purcellís songs from the setting Orpheus Britannicus. The harmonious language of songs and different thematic motives and their relationship with the poetic text will be considered. It will demonstrate that Brittenís songs were very much shaped by thematic structure, intervals like could be found in Purcellís vocal music and they show the correlation between Brittenís realizations of Purcellís songs and the input in the original Brittenís vocal music. The parallels between the songs of Purcell and Britten will be considered in five aspects: linearity, melody, illustrativity, tonality shifting, and rhythm in vocal and piano parts. Keywords: Henry Purcell, Benjamin Britten, Michael Tippett, songs, realizations, musical analysis, Winter Words Op. 52, Sechs Hˆlderlin-Fragmente Op. 61.

INTRODUCTION music seem like the work of one man, Britten- Purcell (Carpenter 1992: 229). The composer was Music composed in the first half of the twen- inspired by Purcellís musical language, which tieth century is permeated by the music of the made use of texts in an expressive and free manner. past (Straus 1990: 1). The rebirth of the past music ideas was felt in post-war England, too. Compo- sers Benjamin Britten (1913ñ1976), Michael Tippett THE VOCAL MUSIC OF HENRY PURCELL AND (1905ñ1998) and others were inspired by English BENJAMIN BRITTEN Baroque music. They brought the personality of Henry Purcell (1659ñ1695) and his wonderful Purcell has written many secular and extended music back to life. Both ñ Britten and Tippett ñ songs, most of them for theatre. There are, however, composed the arrangements and realizations of nearly 90 that were not; and while the songs were Purcellís songs; they took and adopted some com- produced mainly in the last six years of Purcellís posing ideas in their subjective way. In Purcellís life these independent songs spanned the whole songs arrangements, Tippett followed the English of his career and provided a useful medium for musical tradition of the past making it relevant experimentation (Laurie 1984: 19). The phonetics, in the present. Indeed, Britten focused much more intonation of the native language in the vocal music on Purcell. He started to realize1 a few songs by made an impact to Purcellís music character, as Purcell in 1939 and returned to Purcell again with well as the use of texts in an expressive and free more attention and intensity from 1943 to 1948. manner really helped to understand the music. Brittenís Purcell realizations are idiosyncratic There were many unexpected harmonic and rhyth- rather than historically accurate, and make the mic changes in the compositions. The composer

1 Realize ñ to give full artistic life to music left by the composer in the contemporary style, to fill out the continuo bass line of a 17th or 18th century composition (Kennedy 1996: 595).

7 MUSIC SCIENCE TODAY: THE PERMANENT AND THE CHANGEABLE ñ 3 (11) used melismas, figurations to express the feelings, THE PARALLELS BETWEEN THE SONGS OF ideas or even realistic sounds or pictures. In PURCELL AND BRITTEN Purcellís keyboard temperament most of the chords in such remote keys would have sounded The following explanations and analysis will distinctly out of tune, and this is clearly a calcu- show similarities and parallels which could be lated part of the effect (Laurie 1984: 19). Purcell found across different songs composed in the regarded melody as the most important element years 1943 to 1961. The similarities between the in music. Most important of all is a capacity to songs of Purcell and Britten (realizations, folk match the emotional nuances of the text with song arrangements, and songs from the vocal illustrative melodic figures which, though still cycles Winter Words Op. 52 and Sechs Hˆlderlin- rudimentary in terms of Purcellís own develop- Fragmente Op. 61) will be analysed in the aspects ment, is already in advance of that of his predeces- of linearity, melody, illustrativity, tonality shifting, and rhythm. sors (Laurie 1984: 19). The use of melismas and appropriate textures was drawn from Purcellís musical legacy. Britten adopted that idea and Linearity transformed it in his own way. Comparing the songs ñ Brittenís realization Britten is one of the greatest British vocal of Purcellís song If Music be the Food of Love composers. He was writing vocal music all his (first version), Brittenís French song arrangement life and it shows the evolution of the composerís Sweet Polly Oliver and the song Die Jugend from manner, thoughts, and changes in the music the vocal cycle Sechs Hˆlderlin-Fragmente Op. 61, language. The compositions include: one can notice the similarities in the way of com- ó original songs; posing, i.e. polyphonic linearity. Britten was so ó the arrangements of English, Irish, French fascinated by Purcellís music that in realizing and songs; also performing (Britten together with the tenor ó realizations of Purcellís songs; Peter Pears were performing several recitals inclu- ó vocal cycles. ding the early music, as well as the works by Britten had an idea to revitalize English music Purcell) he naturally immersed himself in Purcellís Apart from the many musicological prob- and literature, to show the beauty, freedom, and music. lems which arise in producing a modern practical vividness of the English language. He was one of edition of music belonging to a lost tradition of the few 20th century composers who regarded performance, there is one important aspect of melody as the most important element in music. bringing Purcellís music to life which is highly The inspiration in Purcellís music could be also congenial to a vocal composer of Brittenís eclectic traced in the aspect of intertextuality. The identi- disposition: the realization of the continuo bass, fied patterns will be used to explain the linkages a lost tradition of improvisation which, within between the musical and the poetic text in Brittenís the limits of the harmonic implications of the realizations of several Purcellís songs, which are ëgivení lines to be filled in (Roseberry 1961: 7). expressive and free, more like improvisations, Britten himself explained the rules on realizing filled with strong notes diatonically and chroma- Purcellís songs in an article; he added to the bass tically. In the realizations, Britten was writing and harmonies prescribed by the figured bass and idiomatically for the modern piano or using the filled gaps, but only with material that had a voice fully in the freely sung manner of the most decent change of fitting happily on Purcellís music standard repertoire, as opposed to the restrained speech, keeping in mind that texture of a harp- tone that was often used in early music. Britten sichord, the difference between plucked and fully exploited the lower range of the modern hammered strings, honour the form of the song 20th century piano, which of course Purcell did and the mood of the words (Britten 1959: 7). not have at his disposal (...) (Hendsbee 2007: Example 1 shows the linearity in the realiza- 202). The parallels between these composers can tion of Purcellís If Music be the Food of Love. be an allusion or real influence. This paper will The arrangement of the English song Sweet analyse French and English song arrangements, Polly Oliver sounds very much like the realiza- the realizations of Purcellís songs and some songs tion. It was written two years later, but the poly- from the vocal cycles Winter Words Op. 52 and phonic way of thinking and putting lines together Sechs Hˆlderlin-Fragmente Op. 61. is very similar (see Example 2).

8 G. MURALYTÀ-ERIKSONÀ. PARALLELS BETWEEN THE SONGS BY HENRY PURCELL AND BENJAMIN BRITTEN

Example 1. Brittenís realization of Purcellís If Music be the Food of Love (first version, mm. 1ñ8), 1945

Example 2. Brittenís arrangement of Sweet Polly Oliver (mm. 1ñ10), 1947

One can also notice that idea of linearity modification in the song Die Jugend, composed in 1958. In this song, one can hear three voices: vocal line, piano right-hand and left-hand parts.

9 MUSIC SCIENCE TODAY: THE PERMANENT AND THE CHANGEABLE ñ 3 (11)

Example 3. Brittenís Die Jugend from the song cycle Sechs Hˆlderlin-Fragmente Op. 61 (mm. 42ñ53), 1958

In the examples above we analysed the musical Eyes realization here is a shift in the melody in fragments in the aspect of linearity and polyphony. the vocal line (see Example 6). Now we will consider the parallels in the aspect On comparing this fragment with Brittenís of melody. song Wagtail and Baby one can notice the same melody which can be better seen in the reduced Melody melody (Example 7). What is interesting is that Purcell used a rhetoric figure in order to express The examples below will demonstrate the the word meaning. Indeed, Britten does the same similarities between original Purcellís song Sound to express the movement of a bird. of the Trumpet (1694) and original Brittenís song The parallels between Purcell and Brittenís The Little Old Table from the vocal cycle Winter musical language can be traced when comparing Words Op. 52 (1953). In Purcellís song, the it not only in the vocal cycle Winter Words Op. 52 melody ñ melisma ñ from the words and gay is but also in Sechs Hˆlderlin-Fragmente Op. 61. the same as in the song The Little Old Table just On comparing the realization of If Music be the an octave higher. Of course, Britten has modified Food of Love with the song Die Jugend one can it and we see the different tonality ñ G major find the same melody hidden in the vocal line instead of G minor ñ and he has also used the from the notes G till E above. Britten hides and longer vocal line (see Examples 4, 5). modifies the melody but it is still very clear. Even The echoes of Purcellís melismas could be the tonalities are from G: the realization is written clearly traced not only in Brittenís realizations in G minor, Die Jugend ñ in G major. There are of Purcellís songs but even in Brittenís original the same tones GñB, BñDñE in the realization and vocal pieces including the song cycle Winter the melody augmentation in the song Die Jugend Words Op. 52 (1953). In the Turn Then Thine (see Examples 8, 9).

10 G. MURALYTÀ-ERIKSONÀ. PARALLELS BETWEEN THE SONGS BY HENRY PURCELL AND BENJAMIN BRITTEN

Example 4. Purcellís Sound of the Trumpet (mm. 28ñ31, from the words and gay), 1694

Example 5. Brittenís song The Little Old Table from the cycle Winter Words Op. 52 (mm. 13ñ22, from the words who gave you), 1953

11 MUSIC SCIENCE TODAY: THE PERMANENT AND THE CHANGEABLE ñ 3 (11)

Example 6. Brittenís realization of Purcellís Turn Then Thine Eyes (mm. 1ñ2 and reduced melody line)

Example 7. Brittenís song Wagtail and Baby from the cycle Winter Words Op. 52 (mm. 1ñ2 and reduced piano part of the right hand)

Example 8. Brittenís realization of Purcellís If Music be the Food of Love, third version (mm. 1ñ3)

12 G. MURALYTÀ-ERIKSONÀ. PARALLELS BETWEEN THE SONGS BY HENRY PURCELL AND BENJAMIN BRITTEN

Example 9. Brittenís song Die Jugend from the cycle Sechs Hˆlderlin-Fragmente Op. 61 (mm. 91ñ107)

It is interesting that even the metrical pulse Examples 10 and 11, we can notice the trumpet in these songs is familiar: Die Jugend ñ 3/4, If sound in Purcellís song and the creak of the table Music be the Food of Love ñ 3/4ñ3/8. in Brittenís song.

Illustrativity

In the Baroque period, composers used affects to raise and render the feelings of the listeners. They illustrated sounds from reality, used rhetoric figures with a specific meaning, special tonalities, Example 10. Purcellís song Sound of the Trumpet etc. It is interesting that Britten adopted the idea (mm. 7ñ8) about musical illustrativity from Purcell, too. In

Example 11. Brittenís song The Little Old Table from the cycle Winter Words Op. 52 (mm. 1ñ4)

13 MUSIC SCIENCE TODAY: THE PERMANENT AND THE CHANGEABLE ñ 3 (11)

The aforementioned example has similarities According to Roseberry, clashing major and with Brittenís French song arrangement Eho! minor seconds in the right hand of the piano part Eho! (Example 12). Clashing chords in the right- recalls a very personal feature of Brittenís own hand piano part is very much like in the song harmonic style (Roseberry 1961: 9). One can notice The Little Old Table (see Example 11). these clashing seconds also in Brittenís song The Little Old Table from the song cycle Winter Words Op. 52 (Example 11).

Example 12. Brittenís arrangement of French song Eho! Eho! (mm. 1ñ3), 1942

Tonality shifting era the center of tonality was indeterminate. But we do not find this indeterminacy in every Purcellís Tonality shifting is an important aspect that composition; therefore, we could expect that it connects Britten to Purcell. Sometimes, a feeling was made like that for the reason, perhaps for the of the instability of tonality can be found in Pur- specific effect. In Example 13 we see the fragment cellís vocal music. We could presume that the from Purcellís original song If Music be the Food reason behind this instability is that in the Baroque of Love where G minor is very slightly hidden.

Example 13. Purcellís song If Music be The Food of Love (mm. 1ñ4), 1961

14 G. MURALYTÀ-ERIKSONÀ. PARALLELS BETWEEN THE SONGS BY HENRY PURCELL AND BENJAMIN BRITTEN

Britten borrowed that idea and adopted it in common in Britten: there are not simply two poles his way. In Example 14 one can notice the modifi- but shifting modulatory process, in which each cation of the tonality center. chord contains a new contradiction (Evans 1979: The first song (At Day-Close in November) 367). Thus we could say that this is a borrowed relies on tonal complexity of a kind that is not and modified idea from Purcell.

Example 14. Brittenís song At Day-Close in November from the cycle Winter Words Op. 52 (mm. 1ñ6)

Rhythm waves, and astonished modulations of the melody. The composer used a very interesting musical I would like to note the similarities in the beat ñ the meter is 3/4, but the pulse goes in the rhythm and piano parts in the realization Fairest second and the first part of the bar (Example 15). Isle and the song At Day-Close in November. In Later Britten adopted that irregular pulse idea the realization Fairest Isle, the melody line and in the song At Day-Close in November and one accompaniment used by Purcell (and Britten) can notice a very similar way of composing the consists of frequent syncopes, irregular rhythmic piano part in here.

Example 15. Brittenís realization of Purcellís Fairest Isle (mm. 1ñ4), 1945

Example 16. Brittenís song At Day-Close in November from the cycle Winter Words Op. 52 (mm. 1ñ6)

15 MUSIC SCIENCE TODAY: THE PERMANENT AND THE CHANGEABLE ñ 3 (11)

CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES

Comparing Purcellís and Brittenís songs in Britten, Benjamin (1959). On realizing the continuo the aspects of linearity, melody, illustrativity, in Purcellís song. Henry Purcell 1659ñ1695: Essays rhythm and tonality shifting one can notice that on His Music. Edited by Imogen Holst. London: Britten borrowed some ideas from Purcell and Oxford University Press. adopted, modified them in his own way. Henry Carpenter, Humphrey (1992). Benjamin Britten. A Biography Purcell (1659ñ1695) and Benjamin Britten (1913ñ . London: Faber & Faber. Evans, Peter (1979). The Music of Benjamin Britten. 1976) were the main figures in the English music, London: J. M. Dent. like a bridge between the Baroque and the twentieth Hendsbee, Blaine Gregory (2007). The Britten-Purcell century. Britten created not only original compo- Realizations: Connecting the Past to the Present sitions but also arrangements of English, Irish Through the Voice of Peter Pears. Doctoral Thesis. and French folk songs (with piano, harpsichord, The University of British Columbia. and guitar) and realizations of Purcellís songs. Kennedy, Michael (1996). Oxford Concise Dictionary In these experimental fields, Britten inspired and of Music. Oxford: Oxford University Press. adopted some musical ideas from Purcellís songs. Laurie, Margaret (1984). Purcellís extended solo songs. In that way, comparing Brittenís realizations of The Musical Times 125 (1691): 19ñ25. Purcellís songs with the arrangements and vocal Roseberry, Eric (1961). Brittenís Purcell realizations cycles Winter Words Op. 52 and Sechs Hˆlderlin- and folksong arrangements. Tempo No. 57 (Spring): Fragmente Op. 61 composed in the period 1943ñ 7ñ28. Straus, Joseph N. (1990). Remaking the Past. Musical 1961, one can notice the parallels and the simila- Modernism and the Influence of the Tonal Tradi- rities in the aspects of melody, melismas, illustra- tion. USA: Harvard University Press. tivity, rhythm, etc. The analysis has shown that Winter Words op 52 and Sechs Hˆlderlin-Frag- mente Op. 61 were directly inspired by the musical language of Purcell, especially the experimental aspects of Brittenís musical language such as the invention of a lively figuration.

16 Dialectics of ìDialogical World Outlookî as a Stylistic Paradigm of Contemporary Music

Dr. art. NELLI MATSABERIDZE Associate Professor, The Belarusian State Academy of Music

Contemporary music is recognized for its promiscuity, diversity, and multidirectionality of its artistic manifestations, therefore leading to its stylistic promiscuity. The style is being modified and imbued with the new content, which reflects the change in the semantic field of musical pieces. Along with the settled parameters of the style, such as artistic (figural, technologic, formalistic), aspect of the composition, its figural component (contextual and functional side of a piece) is subjected to metamorphosis and modification. These changes in style are alleged by the transformation of spiritual atmosphere and the life itself, forming a new mindset. The mindset can be characterized by its ability to create a variety of associative links and paradoxical ability to draw together distant phenomena, creating the dialogical world outlook (Медушевский 1984: 16). The situation is being manifested through a special kind of dialectic, which combines authorial and non-authorial origins, oneís own and anotherís word, authorial and foreign (from other styles, schools) material. This kind of phenomena obtains the status of a stylistic paradigm of contemporary music by actively manifesting themselves in musical practice. An attempt of the systemization of the dialogical world outlook and its substantiation as a stylistic paradigm had led to the discovery of certain models in the musical practice of 20th/ 21st centuries. The principle of communication between authorial and foreign materials (oneís own and anotherís) is forming the basis of the following systemization. As a result, the following models can be noted: ó an exact reproduction of oneís style as a stylistic reconstruction, or with a slight change as a stylistic transcription; ó composerís interpretation of anotherís word via citing, stylization or allusion; ó inner communication of authorial and borrowed vocabulary, when anotherís word is passed through oneís own perception, i.e. stylistic experience; ó stylistic polyphony as a combination of styles simultaneously; ó anotherís word as hypertext is an embodiment of one borrowed idea by different authors. Thus, the expansion of the inner structure of style by means of the dialectic unity of authorial and borrowed material is uncovering the essential constant of contemporary music. Keywords: contemporary music, stylistic paradigm, dialectics of oneís own and anotherís, model works with anotherís word in contemporary Belorussian music.

Music is a thought about the world, a relationship to it, which is expressed in a form of sound. Alfred Schnittke (quoted after: Холопова 2014: 41)

INTRODUCTION directionality of its artistic phenomena, predeter- mining the stylistic inhomogeneity. The category Each epoch is represented by a complex plexus of style is being modified and filled with new of various spiritual processes, which portray the content, reflecting the changing semantic field of reality in their own way. Contemporary music is musical pieces. distinguished by its diversity, richness, and multi-

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The category of style is a sphere of the dialog men. This concept signifies a concrete framework of the essence with its surrounding diversity. of concepts and templates of thinking, including According to Aleksei Losev (Лосев 1994: 29), theories, methodology, postulates, and standards, the category of style asserts itself in the stylistic with respect to which the upcoming composition, structure of the form, or in a variety of stylistic clustering, and experiments are conducted in one alternatives of one and the same epoch. This way, or another area of knowledge (Definition of para- one or another cultural epoch can be seen as an digm 2018). original personality, individuality, which is able Taking the concept of style from these posi- to have a dialog with the other epochs. It is cur- tions, we are consequently approaching the unco- rently central to examine the contemporary poly- vering of a close interrelation of style with a specific phony of musical practice, which is composed of type of thinking. As it is known, the constant an array of individualized authorial styles, from parameters, which can not undergo a substantial this perspective. change, can be found in the definition of style. The target of research is the category of style The artistic aspect of a composing, such as pictural, in modern reality. technologic, performing, can be classified as one The subject is the paradigm of the dialogical of the parameters. Its figural component, which world outlook in the contemporary musical style. includes the content-related and functional parts The aim is to elicit the essential constant of of the piece, undergoes modification. the contemporary musical style and its manifes- The principle of dialectic unity of constant tation in practice via stylistic models. parameters (convergence, or saving, process) and The methods of research are clustering, com- varying parameters (divergence, or changing, parison, systematic and musicological analysis. process) can be traced (Назайкинский 2003: 22). As it is widely known, the concept of style The principle of stylistic divergence, in the implies the alliance of stylistic characteristics in core of which there lies the idea repeat nothing, a musical piece, which is rooted in the socio-histo- that was found by others, flourishes the most in rical situation, in the world outlook and the mindset the 20th/21st centuries due to the fact that the idea of artists, as well as in their artistic methods and of individuality in creative work becomes one of in a common regularity of musical and historical the leading. On the other hand, this principle processes. However, the modern reality of musical allows, within a selected musical piece to enter practice often manifests absolutely new approaches into a dialog with someone else, thus enriching to the rendering of endurant paradigms of art the individuality and unfolding oneís own under- studies. There are no contradictions; on the other standing. hand, this can be seen as an occasion to discover All the changes of style are justified by the new tendencies of development of music, as well transformation of the spiritual atmosphere and as to reflect on the novelty of the understanding the life itself, which consequently form a new type of famous phenomena in practice and theory. In of thinking. It has been defined by Medushevsky this regard, the category of style, in the condition as follows: style is an enormous artistic world, of a variety of manifestations and renderings, is imbued with the authorís senses (Медушевский really interesting for com prehension and 1984: 17). The emphasis is put on the fact that determination of its paradigm essence. the style is closely related to thinking1, and its According to the Oxford Dictionaries, in types are characterized by the ability to create a science and philosophy, the word paradigm comes variety of associative connections and parado- from the Ancient Greek word para´deigma, which xical converging of distant phenomena, leading in translation means a template, example, speci- to the dialogical world outlook.

1 The essential characteristics of artistic thinking of the second half of the 20th century come from the following aspects: Reflection as a universal philosophical and esthetical category, which reflects altogetherness of the contemporary, new-eclectic stage of culture. Postmodernism as a universal method of artistic creative work, reflecting in a meta-historical style of art and music of the last decades of the 20th century. The generality of the principle of citing has made the intertextual connections universal, the analysis of which manifests the effect of hidden meanings of many pieces.

18 N. MATSABERIDZE. DIALECTICS OF ìDIALOGICAL WORLD OUTLOOKî AS A STYLISTIC PARADIGM OF CONTEMPORARY MUSIC

This term, given by the researcher, needs some oneís own and anotherís word, authorial material clarification. The dialog here does not imply a and borrowed from pieces of authors of other conversation between two individuals, but rather styles, schools, and genres. The problem of inclusion a principle of thinking, based on a multiphase of anotherís saying in oneís own text is emerging. comparison of several stylistic positions, which The situation of a principal openness of style is creates a polylog. The artistic mindset becomes appearing, which has got a name of polystylism multidimensional in stylistic regard; it responds or intercontextuality (if a style in its wider under- to all new phenomena and it assimilates them, standing is suggested, and it is not perceived as a 2 becoming polystylistic in its essence. text)4. What is then a style on a polystylistic basis? This kind of phenomenon, actively appearing It is a dialogical world outlook, which is actively in the musical practice of the 20th/21st centuries, and deeply absorbing other points of view, sub- becomes an attribute of contemporary music; the merging in them, and coming out of them renewed dialogical world outlook becomes a stylistic para- and modified Ö The inclusion of other artistic ( ). digm of contemporary music, as it is evidenced worlds into the soul of a style does not put in by wide musical practice. question its [musicís] own entirety, on the other An attempt of systematization of dialogical hand, it is expanding it. As in the life itself, the world outlook and its substantiation as of a stylistic understanding of someone elseís mind does not paradigm has led to the discovery of specific models belittle oneís own, but rather upraises and enriches of working with anotherís word in the musical it, moving it away from monological egocentrism th st 5 (Медушевский 1984: 16ñ17). paradigm of the 20 /21 centuries . The principle of polyphonism of thinking, Several factors are taken into account: mentioned by Mikhail Bakhtin while investigating ó The manifestation of authorial identity in the the creative work of Fyodor Dostoevsky3, has had selection of material, in its processing and in a great impact on the stylistic situation. The prin- the approaches of working with text when ciple can be discovered in plurality and in the building the main composition. disclosure of mind. ó The degree of intervention of an author to The situation of polyphonism of thinking in the original, which allows concentrating the contemporary musical practice has revealed itself attention on the relationship of the creator through the dialectics of a special kind of saying, of the primary source and the author of the which combines authorial and non-authorial origin, new piece.

2 Polystylistics was not an accidental pestilence. It had inaugurated the beginning of a new stage in musical development, the process of change, which has not come to its end up to the present moment. Polystylistics had changed the outlook on the essence of a musical piece, in which the content of composition could have been the music itself, its history, the value of separate phenomena. Polystylistics had influenced the structure: anotherís word could have acted as a theme, or a dramaturgic unit, or become a means of development and contrast, etc. Polystylistics had demonstrated the unique features of the contemporary style, its anti-hierarchical principle, openness, and diffuseness. 3 The investigation of Bakhtin Problems of Dostoevskyís Creative Work is known, where he distinguishes the numerosity of individual voices and minds, a genuine polyphony of full-bodied voices, indeed, is the main particularity of Dostoevskyís novels (Бахтин 2000: 12). 4 The definition of anotherís word has come from a famous Poem Without a Hero by Anna Akhmatova, which is one of the most intercontextual pieces of the 20th century. Such lines can be read here: (Ö) and since my paper has run out, Iím using your rough draft for writing. And here a word not mine shows throughÖ The first investigation of ìanotherís wordî in a text has been conducted by Bakhtin (Бахтин 2000). Yuri Lotman (Лотман 1996) based himself upon Bakhtinís conception, expanding the phenomenon to anotherís text. In contemporary literary studies, a concept of intertext has been introduced. The terms intertext and intertextuality were introduced in 1967 by Yuliya Kristeva in the article Bakhtin, a Word, a Dialog and a Novel (Кристева 2000: 427ñ457). The main characteristic of the examined phenomenon is the ability of any text to get into a dialog with other texts. The intertextuality is introduced to a text via allusion, citing, reminiscence. 5 In the core of the given systematization there lies the principle of interaction of authorial and borrowed material (oneís own ñ anotherís), suggested by Irina Stogniy (Стогний 2011).

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As a result of the analysis of music by contem- Voytik, the concert transcription of Poem by porary Belorussian composers, the following models Zdenek Fibikh for cembalo (2005). can be mentioned. It should be mentioned that any of the pieces listed above pose a solicitous authorial interpretation with maximum accuracy in regard to the STYLISTIC RECONSTRUCTION AND original text. STYLISTIC TRANSCRIPTION Let us examine the described stylistic model which is put into practice in the cycle for guitar solo Intavolatura (1991) by Litvinovsky. This com- The essence of work with anotherís word is position, which consists of nine parts, was one oriented to the exact reproduction of a foreign of the first composerís experiences with anotherís style or reproduction with a slight reinterpreta- material in his authorial compositions. The author tion of the borrowed material. The created tendency has a fine dialog with musical material of ancient of a stylistic reconstruction, or transcription of the foreign material with great solicitude, has European lute music of Renaissance epoch. The become sui generis a specific genre in composing usage of semantic characteristics of the epoch work and therefore poses a specific form of inter- becomes one of the principal factors of anotherís action between oneís own and anotherís word. word. Such characteristics include thematic inven- There is a fair number of examples in Belorus- tion (a generalized intonation of Renaissance sian musical practice of the turn of the century music), timbre (the guitar as a carrier of sound which testify about composersí interest in such image of Renaissance), genre (Italian dances and stylistic manifestations: Sergei Yankovich, the instrumental plays such as galliard, canzona, transcription of the ballet Venus and Adonis of saltarello, siciliana), notation (tablature6), the Ernest Vanzhura (1992); Vyacheslav Kuznetsov, composition of a cycle (the suite principle of con- orchestral versions of three polonaises of Maciej trasting siciliana comparison of ancient Italian Radziwi˘˘ (1992); Gaetano Donizettiís opera Rita, dances (fast ñ slow ñ fast ñ slow) and a detached Johann Sebastian Bachís Italienisches Konzert sonorant coloristic of the modern language in (2004) and Ouverture nach Franzˆsischer Art four interludes are combined in the resulting (2005); Te Deum Laudamus by Osip Kozlovsky coda). As a result, Litvinovsky is very convincing (2010); Alexander Litvinovskyís two cycles of in both of his musical apparels. Anotherís word instrumental versions of early Belorussian music of Renaissance (Example 1. Galliard) harmo- Vilenskie tabulatury (Anonymous, 16th century, nically co-exists with authorial musical stylistics 1992) and Polotskaya tetrad. Novye melodii (Example 2. Interlude I), thus creating a harmonic (Anonymous, 16ñ17th centuries, 1992); Victor polylog.

Example 1. Alexander Litvinovsky. Intavolatura (Galliard)

6 Tablature (Ger. Tabulatur, ital. Intavolatura) is a literal or digital system of notation of instrumental music, which was used in European countries in the 14ñ18th centuries; it had a schematic form of notation of music for the keyed instruments (organ, harpsichord), some of the string instruments (lute, guitar) and (rarely) wind instruments. In modern musical practice, only the tablature for a 6-string guitar has remained.

20 N. MATSABERIDZE. DIALECTICS OF ìDIALOGICAL WORLD OUTLOOKî AS A STYLISTIC PARADIGM OF CONTEMPORARY MUSIC

Example 2. Alexander Litvinovsky. Intavolatura (Interlude I)

THE THEATRE OF PERFORMANCE and a coda) and the signature intonations of the 20th century, i.e. jazz. The author has implemented The Theatre of Performance is an artistic dialog the reflection through the integration of indivi- with anotherís word; its interpretation is done dual musical thinking with the system of musical by the composer via citing, allusion, stylization. and linguistic characteristics of Baroque, Classicism The author separates himself from the recreated and jazz. style. The constructive idea, which lies in the core The quotation includes 38 bar-lines of Prelude of the created piece, is to integrate oneís own and in C minor played by the piano, to which Voytik anotherís in such a way that the borrowed elements has added a contrapuntal part of the trumpet (the are used in the organization of the whole, growing comparison of the beginnings of the works by into the main dramaturgic process. The author is Voytik and Johann Sebastian Bach is presented constructing his piece in a foreign stylistic manner. in Example 3). Let us look at the process on the example of As a result, the composer used the method of a single movement Fantasy-Sonata for trumpet and Charles Gounod who had written the vocal line piano Tak govoril starina Bach (2009) by Voytik. Ave Maria to Prelude in C major (Das wohltem- The composerís creative process was based on perierte Klavier, vol. 1) by Bach. several stylistic models: the principles of musical However, in the Sonata-Fantasy counterpoint rhetoric of Baroque (the teaching about the of the solo instrument has the nature of the develop- shapes), the principles of compositional logic of ment section of expositional material (Example 4), Classicism (sonata-allegro with an introduction which is a four-time repetition of the fate motif. a) b)

Example 3. a) Victor Voytik. Tak govoril starina Bach (beginning); b) Johann Sebastian Bach. Das wohltemperierte Klavier, vol. 1, Prelude in C minor (beginning)

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Example 4. Victor Voytik. Tak govoril starina Bach (the beginning of the development section)

In the development section, a new theme is melodic line of improvisational nature, woven introduced, it is named chaconne. The theme of from the theme of the exposition and typical jazz chaconne is a jazz harmonization of monogram- devices. The location of the section corresponds theme BACH (Example 5). The nine variations to the cadenza of the soloist in the classical form of the lead trumpet are a thoroughly written of the solo concerto.

Example 5. Victor Voytik. Tak govoril starina Bach (the development section, the theme of the chaconne, mm. 81ñ84)

Thus, by entering the dialog with Bachís STYLISTIC EXPERIENCE music, the author seamlessly twines the famous musical themes of the composer into the authorial This model reflects the internal communication music. The authorial context fills the themes with of authorial and foreign lexicon, when anotherís new content, consonant to the contemporary word is put through the prism of oneís own per- reality: Bach is all-embracive, he is an enduring ception. It is characterized by the fact that the value; he is the fate, he is the ideal harmony, distance between the oneís own and anotherís which opens oneís own internal dialog with the style noticeably diminishes or disappears com- composer. pletely. The composer reconstructs foreign stylistic This kind of artistic dialog with ìanotherís attributes, preserving his own lexicon. The language wordî appears also in the following pieces: of a musical piece, a priori, becomes dialogical. Alexander Gulay, Paraphrase ProstoÖ Mozart This is a dialog with the experience of the past for piano, tympani and orchestra (on the themes when the author does not simply use the material of the Symphony No. 40, an individual contem- for his own self-actualization, but he rather sees porary view of the music of Austrian genius in the past as a rightful dialog partner, who helps jazz stylistics, 2010); Vladimir Korolchuk, Ama- to understand the reality. deus-Sonata for flute and piano (2002); Vsevolod Let us examine the model on the example of Gritskevich, Symphony-Paraphrase in jazz style Galina Gorelovaís play for a violin and double on the themes of spiritual concerts of Duke Elling- bass Poklon seníoru Bottesini (A Bow to Senior ton (1999); Valery Voronov, Orchestration and Bottesini, 2010). The composer possesses her own composition of the second act of the opera Zhenitba vivid authorial style, which seamlessly synthesizes by Modest Mussorgsky (2008); Victor Voytik, Pan-European and national traditions. Rarely Symphony Litaniya. V chestí D. D. Shostakovicha does she use the citation of anotherís material. for a chamber orchestra (2012). Poklon seníoru Bottesini is the second half of a diptych for violin and double bass. Gran

22 N. MATSABERIDZE. DIALECTICS OF ìDIALOGICAL WORLD OUTLOOKî AS A STYLISTIC PARADIGM OF CONTEMPORARY MUSIC

Duo Concertante for soloing violin and double tante directly. The author did obeisance to Botte- bass of the Italian 19th-century composer Giovanni siniís composing mastery in the named piece. Bottesini has become an example of the organi- Intentional usage of a foreign material acts as a zation of tone quality interaction of the instruments. fillip to the formulation of the conception of Poklon In the beginning, Bottesiniís musical piece seníoru Bottesini, where appears a citation from was treated only as a mere model of emulation the original composition (the violin cadenza for the authorís own creative work. However, material from Bottesiniís Gran Duo Concertante while gradually analysing the pictorial and figural included in the music piece of Gorelova presented components of the diptych, the author decided in Example 6). to use the musical material of Gran Duo Concer-

Example 6. Giovanni Bottesini. Gran Duo Concertante. The violin cadenza

The borrowed material, which is interpreted mising. The need for more complex processes of as a perfect embodiment of the tone quality con- the interaction between oneís own and anotherís nection of the violin and the double bass, was word in compositions has emerged in the condi- gradually transforming in the mind of the author tions of dialogical polyphonism. Bakhtin described into an artistic image, representing the ideal. This them as the shifting of the line between oneís own is where the conventional program of the piece and anotherís word, gradual oblivion of authors ñ comes from: it is a search and an aspiration to bearers of anotherís words, leading to anotherís the lost ideal; it is the gain of the true meaning in word becoming anonymous, like the fine transitions the unstable modern world. from foreign ñ own to own ñ foreign (Бахтин This model of dialogical world outlook can 1986: 35). be found in the following compositions by other In these conditions the borderline between Belorussian authors: Sergei Beltukov, Grustnoe allusion and citation is blurred; the citation can be prinoshenie Mozartu for flute, piano and orchestra camouflaged so that it is not perceived as anotherís (2008); Konstantin Yaskov, I raz, dva, triÖ po music, but rather as a deliberately emphasized motivam valísa J. Straussa in C for piano, flute, allusion. This way it does not have anything foreign clarinet, violin and cello (2009). in it, but it rather becomes an authorial statement, As it is known, anotherís word in musical delivered as anotherís word. practice can manifest itself in various ways. The This process can define the emergence of technique of allusion has shown itself as very pro- another model of working with anotherís word.

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STYLISTIC POLYPHONY lism of the composerís thinking are convincingly demonstrated as well. Stylistic polyphony is a simultaneous combi- A number of anthropomorphic portraits of nation of different styles. The composer comments insects are created in the cycle, where the musical on the styles as on formed cultural systems, signs, which have gotten a specific semantic narrating about them in his own language, thus meaning, are incorporated. For instance, the folk engaging them in the revelation of his own figural tunes of Christmas carol are Kuznechik (ìCricketî), realm. the imitation of the Soviet-pop style balalaika The usage of the following stylistic model with the guitar is Ptichka (ìBirdyî), the quotation can be examined on the example of the music from Dmitri Shostakovichís Pesnya o vstrechnom piece by Valery Voronov, who is a contemporary is Smorodina (ìCurrantî), the tango images and composer with a vivid authorial position and indi- the dead march are Smertí geroya (ìCharacterís viduality. A vocal cycle of Voronov on the poem Deathî), the polonaise and the stylistics of Alex- of Nikolay Oleynikov (Makar Svirepiy) Iz zhizni ander Varlamovís novel Beleet parus odinokiy nasekomykh (From Insectsí Life) for a singing are Blokha Petrova (ìPetrova The Fleaî), etc. actress, violin, thereminvox and piano has, in The musical material has been held in Baroque many ways, become innovatory in Belorussian traditions in the act called Mukha (ìThe Flyî). contemporary music. The usage of melodic and harmonic formulas Voronovís music is hyper-contextual, and it (quarter notes in the bass and the sixteenth, thirty- is filled with allusions, associations, elements of second, sixty-fourth rhythmic values in the upper polystylistism; the paradoxicality and theatrica- voice: Example 7) is indicating that.

Example 7. Valery Voronov. The vocal cycle Iz zhizni nasekomykh. No. 9 Mukha

The structure of the act reminds Bachís pre- by the visual imagery. The view screen is taken ludes, in particular, the preludes in D major and by the Fly, demonstrating a video from the life D minor from Volume 1 of Das wohltemperierte of a regular fly. In the named video neither are Klavier. there the hints of Baroque elements nor of love The poetic text and music are contrasting. flush and the charm of the heroine7, inherent to The comic element of Voronovís Mukha appears Romanticism. due to the discrepancy of the lyrics and the music This way, through the game of meanings and (Example 8, see on the next page). the understanding of all the characteristics (musical, tonal, poetical, dramaturgical, and visual), a won- The concluding fragment derful polyphony of images is created, which reflects the richness and the polysemy of the whole artistic The grotesque accents of the musical piece conception. are intensified by the semantic discrepancy of the And, finally, the last model, which refers to musical and the verbal sequences and the para- the broad understanding of the dialectic world doxical application of genre and stylistic musical outlook, accounting for the music as a phenome- compositions. The experience is also intensified non, can be seen below.

7 The theatricalization is independent of the other rhetorical devices; the actress is telling her story. Two acting figures can be seen on the stage (a character reminding of a fly, and the Fly herself). The actress is sitting at the table, there is a plate with food and a wineglass on it. The first verses, which tell about the youth Davno

24 N. MATSABERIDZE. DIALECTICS OF ìDIALOGICAL WORLD OUTLOOKî AS A STYLISTIC PARADIGM OF CONTEMPORARY MUSIC

Example 8. Valery Voronov. The vocal cycle Iz zhizni nasekomykh. No. 9 Mukha

ANOTHERíS WORD The Prelude in C major by Bach is the basis for the thematic invention of many pieces of the th st Anotherís word is a hypertext that takes the 20 /21 centuries, such as Prélude from Prélude, form of a whole complex idea (multiple versions arioso et fughette sur le nom de BACH by Arthur of one idea), written by different authors. It Honegger, Prelude No. 1 from the cycle of 24 becomes crucial for the theme to be given the Preludes and Fugues of Shostakovich, the frag- semantics of a symbol, which is recognizable on ments from Schnittkeís Sonata for Piano No. 2. different levels. Such levels are the intonation There are numerous versions of George Bizetís (Bachís Prelude in C major), the artistic image opera Carmen, both classical and avant-garde (the image of Carmen), or of the symbol of the (the musical theatre Gelikon-Opera (Russia), the stylistic epoch (the artistic personality of Wolfgang Theatre of Opera and the Philharmonia of Pod- Amadeus Mozart). laska (Bia˘ystok, Poland), the reinterpretation of There are many examples of such phenomena the genre in Rodion Shchedrinís ballet, Alexander in musical practice. For instance, the theme of Rosenblattís Fantasia on Themes from Carmen Moonlight Sonata can be found in the conception in jazz style, etc. of stylistic dialogs in the sonata for viola by Shos- The theme related to Mozartís creative work takovich, the third symphony by Schnittke, the and personality stands apart. In the 21st century, second symphony by Boris Tchaikovsky. Mozart has become a symbol of Classicism. It is

eto bylo, druzya (ìIt was long ago, friendsî), the actress is eating, wafting her hand over the plate, whisking aside the annoying fly; according to the poems, it was loved to distraction (ìlubimaya do bezumiyaî). In the instrumental part, the actress changes into the insect by putting on a mask with the flyís eyes. She is flying over the plate, settling and having lunch with her beloved.

25 MUSIC SCIENCE TODAY: THE PERMANENT AND THE CHANGEABLE ñ 3 (11) hard to come up with another creator, whose Sergei Beltukovís Grustnoe prinoshenie Mozartu personality and creative work have given rise to for flute, piano, and orchestra (edited in 2008) is so many contradictory representations. Each epoch infused with romantic feeling. It is a one-part piece, perceives the phenomenon of Mozart in its own in which the classical intonations neighbour with fashion. At the turn of the 20th/21st centuries, due modern ones, thus creating a nostalgic mood of to the two anniversaries (in 1991 and 2006), there the lost beauty and perfection. The dialog with appeared numerous opuses in which authors used Mozart and the aspiration for perfection are the most popular themes as quotations and allu- apparent. sions. Not only have the famous themes become the carriers of Mozartís style in those musical pieces, but they have also become a personifica- tion of the composer. In such pieces, Mozart CONCLUSIONS appears as a real character. Thus, the entire stylistic tapestry of the 20th/ This way, the widening of the internal struc- 21st century music is expressed in the motifs by ture of style via the dialectical unity of authorial Mozart in a polystylistic or non-romantic compo- and foreign materials uncovers the essence of mo- sition, or in a Post-Modernist quotation opus. dern music. The identified methods (i.e. stylistic Each time it is a brand new image, and the quota- reconstruction, composerís interpretation of tions from Mozartís themes play a different role. anotherís word, stylistic experience, stylistic poly- Mozart can be an ideal, an unattainable example, phony and anotherís word as hypertext), used a model or a subject of nostalgia, but he can also by composers form a new artistic world outlook be a dialog participant, for instance, in a dialog on the contemporary music. The specificity of of epochs or, on the contrary, in a head-to-head their usage in musical practice brings out several dialog of two people, who have met in the same regularities in artistic thinking and reflects the time-space of art. paradigm essence of contemporary music style. However, most of the musical pieces in com- Considering the dialectics as a form and a positional practice emerge as a creative dialog means of reflective and theoretical thinking, which with Mozart. There are numerous examples, and investigates contradictions found in the contents the list remains open. There are many methods of of this thinking, the dialectic world outlook acts application of Mozartís material, such as: variations as a basis for the stylistic paradigm of modern on Mozartís themes (Edison Denisov, Dmitri music. Marina Lobanovaís conclusion on the Smirnov, Nikolai Korndorf), quotations, quasi- current stylistic situation and the vital need of quotations, allusions to the composerís music, modern musical practice lends evidence for it: composition of continuations to Mozartís works The creation of the theory of a mixed style is (Bachís Festival was dedicated to this; it took place needed, in which the so-called ìclean stylesî would in Stuttgart and was dedicated to the 200-year create sub-systems, and an individual style would anniversary since Mozartís death), cadenzas to be considered from the position of a dialog (Лоба- Mozartís concerts (for instance, the cadenzas by нова 2015: 150). Schnittke to concertos in C major KV 467 and C minor KV 491, the cadenzas by Denisov to Con- certo for flute and harp KV 299). Many and various reflections of Mozartís REFERENCES themes can be found in the works of Belorussian composers. For instance, a full-fledged instrumental Definition of paradigm. https://en.oxforddictionaries. cycle in Amadeus-Sonata for flute and piano com/definition/paradigm ñ visited on April 5, 2018. (1995) by Vladimir Korolchuk, Dmitrij Dovga- Бахтин, Михаил (1986). Автор и герой в эстетичес- levís rondo S lubovyu k Mozartu (2008), Vyacheslav кой деятельности. Эстетика словесного творче- Kuznetsovís Kolybelnaya dlya Mozarta for alpine ства. Москва: Искусство. horn (corno), bassoon (or cello), double bass and Бахтин, Михаил (2000). Проблемы творчества До- snare, the paraphrase by Gulay ProstoÖ Mozart стоевского. Собрание сочинений в семи томах. Т. 2. Москва: Русские словари, 11–78. (2010) for piano, kettledrums, and orchestra, which Кристева, Юлия (2000). Бахтин, слово, диалог и refers to 40 themes of the genius Austrian composer роман. Французская семиотика: От структура- and which gives a modern outlook on the music лизма к постструктурализму. Москва: Прогресс, th of the 18 century in jazz stylistics. And, finally, 427–457.

26 N. MATSABERIDZE. DIALECTICS OF ìDIALOGICAL WORLD OUTLOOKî AS A STYLISTIC PARADIGM OF CONTEMPORARY MUSIC

Лобанова, Марина (2015). Музыкальный стиль и Медушевский, Вячеслав (1984). К проблеме сущ- жанр: история и современность. Москва; Санкт- ности, эволюции и типологии музыкальных сти- Петербург: Центр гуманитарных инициатив; лей. Музыкальный современник. Вып. 5. Москва: Университетская книга. Советский композитор, 5–17. Лосев, Алексей (1994). Некоторые вопросы из исто- Назайкинский, Евгений (2003). Стиль и жанр в рии учений о стиле. Проблема художественного музыке. Москва: Гуманитарный издательский стиля. Киев: Collegium, 2–16. центр ВЛАДОС. Лотман, Юрий (1996). «Чужое слово» в поэтичес- Стогний, Ирина (2011). Модусы интертекстуально- ком тексте. О поэтах и поэзии. Санкт-Петербург: сти в музыке. Musicus 3–4 (июль-декабрь): 28–34. «Искусство – СПБ», 109–116. Холопова, Валентина (2014). Феномен музыки. Москва, Берлин: Директ Медиа.

27 ìLa Passion según San Marcosî by Osvaldo Golijov. From Bachís Tradition to Modern Interpretation

PhD OLESIA PLATONOVA Assistant Professor, Nizhny Novgorod State Conservatory named after M. I. Glinka (Russia)

The article focuses on La PasiÛn según San Marcos by Argentinian composer Osvaldo Golijov. The main research problem is the interpretation of different genres and styles: from Spanish flamenco and Jewish Klezmer to Gregorian chorale and modern minimalism. The Latin American component plays the main role in Passion. It is expressed in the reliance on typical genres (as salsa, rhumba), the unity of singing, instrumental music and dance. The special role of rhythm and improvisation is also marked. Golijovís composition emphasizes the socio-political, rather than religious sound of the plot, as well as the idea of dialogue, modulation of cultures, which is the basis of the whole composerís work. Keywords: Passion as a musical genre, Johann Sebastian Bach, Osvaldo Golijov, Latin American music.

INTRODUCTION ness of Bach. After reaching the top, the crisis of the genre happened in the 19th century, but quite Passion is a type of musical work dedicated unexpectedly in the 20th and 21st century, when to the events of Holy week and based on gospel the idea of the crucifixion and suffering of Christ texts. Since the 4th century, when Passion became came into resonance with the theme of global for the first time a part of Catholic Church music, cataclysms and suffering of humanity, the revival and until the 21st century when a variety of musical of the Passion began. versions of the Passion appeared (one of them Thus, in the second half of the 20th century belongs to Osvaldo Golijov), certain typical features St. Luke Passion by Krzysztof Penderecki (1965) have been formed. It allows us to talk about Pas- and St. John Passion by Arvo P‰rt (1982) were sion as a separate genre. created. And in 2000 the whole project Passions- What are these features? The author of the 2000 was implemented. Osvaldo Golijov, among article The Passions: History and features of a other famous composers, participated in this Genre Archetype E. Rau points to the following project. components. First, it is the plot of Passions which The necessity of the analysis of the genre of is based on the text of Gospel. The second is the Passion at the present stage of its evolution explains dependence of music on the text. The third is the the relevance and the scope of the research, as unity of the epic, lyric and dramatic beginnings, well as the research object. It is the implemen- the inclusion of works of various inserts (interpo- tation of the genre in the musical work of the lations) such as biblical fragments, spiritual or composer Osvaldo Golijov. even secular poetry and prose. Fourth is the sense Thus, the main purpose and aim of the article of certain theatricality, associated with the is the analysis of Golijovís Passion through the influence of Opera, and with traditions of medieval prism of different cultures (German and Latin religious performances (Pay 2013: 90ñ91). American), musical epochs (the 18th and the 21st The quintessence of these signs in some ways centuries), as well as the composerís styles (Bach was the Passions of Johann Sebastian Bach. We and Golijov). It requires the following objectives: can also note that in Bachís Passions a specific 1. To determine the role of La PasiÛn según (oratorical) type of the genre was created. It might San Marcos by Golijov in the context of the seem that no one would be able to reach the great- evolution of the genre in the 21st century;

28 O. PLATONOVA. ìLA PASSION SEGÚN SAN MARCOSî BY OSVALDO GOLIJOV. FROM BACHˇS TRADITION TO MODERN INTERPRETATION

2. To identify the main stylistic features of the This work deeply relates to the spirit of the work through the prism of the integral Russian Orthodox Liturgy. Thus, the part of the creative evolution of the composer; Evangelist (bass) reminds the Russian Orthodox 3. To briefly analyse the main components of psalmody, and the sound of two choirs (large the musical language of the Passion and chamber), create a specific space reminiscent (European, Spanish and Latin American). of both the space of the Cathedral and the spiritual heights of the Human soul. The St. John Passion The specificity of the topic required the use by Gubaidulina has become the quintessence of of complex research methods which is typical for her work and the expression of her creativity. musicology, ethnomusicology and cultural studies. Iím a religious Orthodox Christian and religion It was also necessary to involve systematic, com- is understood literally, as a religio ñ the relation- parative and musical-analytical methods. ship between life and the ideal height of the units and absolute values, the constant recreation of the ìlegatoî of life. Life is tearing a man apart. STUTTGART PROJECT PASSIONS-2000 He must restore his integrity. This is religion. Aside from spiritual recovery, there is no more serious reason for composing music (Холопова 2001: st At the dawn of the new 21 century in Stutt- 3ñ4). gart (Germany), the project Passions-2000 was Tan Dun has created Water Passion in English conceived and then implemented. It was dedicated by using the text of the Gospel according to th to the 250 anniversary of Johann Sebastian Bach. St. Matthew. He contemplates the Biblical history The conductor and head of the International Bach through the prism of Eastern philosophy, mysti- Academy, Helmut Rilling was the author of that cism, and Chinese music traditions. He uses not idea. According to his plan, four composers of an orchestra, but a chamber ensemble (quintet) different cultures and languages had to write four of soloists consisting of a violinist, a cellist, and versions of Passions based on four different three percussionists. Tan Dun also applies unusual Gospels. They had to enter a musical and stylistic vocal techniques as throat singing, chorus sono- dialogue with great genius of the past. Then famous ristic effects, techniques from Mongolian overtone German composer Wolfgang Rihm, Russian author singing to the ìcalligraphicî style of the Beijing Sofia Gubaidulina, Chinese-American composer Opera (Сигитов 2007: 120). Finally, the composer Tan Dun and Argentinian musician Osvaldo utilizes in his score not only rich ensemble of per- Golijov were invited to the project. And just like cussion instruments (as timpani, big drums, bells) the Evangelists presented their vision of the image but also water. of Christ, thus also each of the composers created Water is a drum (musician hits the surface a completely individual work. of water cups). Water is a resonator (hollow glass Wolfgang Rihm wrote his St. Luke Passion tube differently voiced blow rubber ìmarkî depen- in German. Fascinated by the ideas of the musical ding on the depth of immersion in water, the avant-garde in the past years and turned nowa- water calms down the buzz of a metal plate after days to new simplicity he was closer like no other the bow on it or hitting a drumstick, finally, gur- to Bachís musical ideas. Rihm connected the gling air bubbles from a submerged empty bottle). sufferings of Christ with the sufferings of modern Water itself is a sounding instrument that allows humanity. Thus he used in the final chorus a poem the musician to work with their hands to extract by Paul Celan Tenebrae dedicated to the victims the sound of a splash (Жирмунский 2001: 1). of the Holocaust. Water becomes the most important religious Sofia Gubaidulina, who is known for her deep symbol in the work, and it seems that even the religiosity, presented St. John Passion. She used very formal (fluid and improvisational) structure the Russian canonical text of the Gospel of John of the music relates to water. and the excerpts from the Book of Revelation Tan Dun with the magic water effects, musical (Apocalypse). In Gubaidulinaís Passion, the theme experiments, and fresh ideas could be the leader of Christís suffering became a symbol of the suffe- of the Stuttgart project, but all the viewers were ring of mankind. She warns of the terrible catharsis really eclipsed by Golijovís La Passion según San and global death of all living beings. Marcos.

29 MUSIC SCIENCE TODAY: THE PERMANENT AND THE CHANGEABLE ñ 3 (11)

LATIN AMERICAN VIEW OF Thus, the style of the composer has formed. THE GOSPEL STORY Now it is associated with the idea of a constant state of semi-chaos, the lack of strong hierarchy It should be noted that Golijov today is quite in music, the achievement of freedom. Thus, in a famous composer. He is the author of more his work there appeared the idea of the modula- than 20 opuses, including works for chamber tion of cultures. orchestra, vocal cycles, and choral works. The In the past composers associated certain keys cantata Oceana (1996), the Spanish-language with certain moods, emotions or dramatic situa- opera Aindamar (2003) dedicated to the life of tions, like E flat with nobility, C minor with tragedy, Federico García Lorca, the vocal cycle for soprano and E major with paradise. They went from key and chamber orchestra Ayre (2004) are among to key in search of archetypal moods and situa- his most significant creations. Golijov also colla- tions. It was a code they shared with the audience. borated with the famous film director Francis Today, people donít necessarily hear modulation. Ford Coppola; he wrote music for the motion But they are very aware of cultures, and so cultures pictures Youth without Youth (2007) and Tetro become like keys. You can modulate from flamenco (2009), and with Sally Potter, creating the sound- to Gregorian chant and people will follow (quoted track for The Man Who Cried (2000). after: Berger). As for the La PasiÛn según San Marcos, it is The combination of Spanish flamenco and one of the composerís key musical works. It per- Afro-Caribbean folklore is already heard in the fectly reflects the specifics of the composerís method opera Aindamar. The intonations of Jewish music which can be characterized by the combination appeared in Yiddishbbuk. Elements of American of various techniques and different musical genres minimalism could be heard in the composition and styles as Gregorian choral, Jewish Klezmer, Tekiyah, written for a film dedicated to the Holo- Argentinian tango, Brazilian bossa-nova, Spanish caust. In the Passion, the idea of stylistic synthesis flamenco, Afro-Caribbean Rumba, American and modulation of cultures reaches its apogee. salsa in conjunction with the elements of European This is connected to the fact that Golijov is trying and American academic music. to show how the history of the Passion of Christ Generally, such eclectic musical preferences could be perceived by a person who has grown are directly connected with the life circumstances up in modern Latin America, and what would it of the composer Golijov himself. He was born in be if Jesus himself could live in Latin America Argentina in a multinational family which had nowadays. The main thing in this Passion is to Russian, Jewish and Romanian roots. His mother present a dark Jesus, and not a pale European was a classical pianist and thanks to her Golijov JesusÖ Itís about Jesusís last days on the earth was fascinated by the music of Beethoven, Schubert, seen through Latin American experience (Rich Tchaikovsky, Mahler, Strauss, Bartok, and Stra- 2010: 13). vinsky. In his childhood, he also had the experience Moreover, Golijov, being reared in the tradi- of singing in the Synagogue and playing Klezmer. tions of Judaism, embodies in his work the social As for his father, he adored tango. He instilled in and political idea and not the religious one. So I his son the passion for tango and, more broadly, imagined my Passion as a popular celebration in for Latin American folklore and popular music. a Latin-American slum, with Jesus as a sort of Composer grew up with Piazzollaís music which Che Guevara, a political martyr, not the son of showed to him that serious academic music can God (quoted after: Conrad 2006). be perfectly combined with the music of the city From this point of view, other musical works streets. can be recalled. For example, Andrew Lloyd Web- Then Golijov spent three years in The Rubin berís rock opera Jesus Christ Superstar in which Academy of Music in Israel, where he discovered all the characters speak with the listeners in the the world of Arabian music with its concept of language of rock music. perpetual variations, variations without a theme In Golijovís Passion, they speak the language with its eternal development. Finally, he completed of Spanish flamenco, Afro-Cuban Rumba and his training at the University of Pennsylvania salsa, and finally, the language of European music. where he met the avant-garde composer George In the concept of European music, we include Crumb who was also close to the idea of freedom, a rich range of different elements such as Grego- the connection of West and East, tonal and atonal rian chant (No. 14 Eucaristia, No. 15 Demos music. Gracias al Senor), Bachís music stylization (No. 26

30 O. PLATONOVA. ìLA PASSION SEGÚN SAN MARCOSî BY OSVALDO GOLIJOV. FROM BACHˇS TRADITION TO MODERN INTERPRETATION

Lua descolorida, Aria of Peterís Tears) and con- Spanish text of St. Markís Passion. In the scene temporary minimalism (No. 1 Vision Bautismo of the Mystical supper (No. 15 Demos Gracias en la Cruz, No. 2 Danza del Pescador Pescado, al Senor) the quotes of Psalms 113ñ118 are used. No. 33 Muerte, No. 34 Kaddish). In No. 26 (Lua descolorida), which is also known The original rhythms and ornate melodies as Aria of St. Peter, the text of a poem written in of the flamenco spontaneity can be found in the Galician language is applied. And finally, in No. 10 (El Primer Dia), No. 13 (Quisiera Yo No. 34 the Kadish, the Jewish prayer in Aramaic Renegar, Aria of Judas), No. 19 (Agonia, an aria praising the Lord is used. of Jesus), No. 27 (Amanecer: Ante Pilato). This diversity of languages, Babylonian pan- As for the Latin American component, it still demonium of musical genres and styles relates can be seen on the different levels of musical to a very important idea. The image of Christ development. First, it concerns the orchestration becomes the image out of time and space. It is of Passions, in which the traditional composition not a personal drama of a common man (here of the Symphonic orchestra (violin, cello, double Golijovís Christ is fundamentally different from bass, trumpets, and trombones) is expanded by Webberís Christ). Christís image is imprinted in a whole group of local instruments. In addition every living person, belonging to different cultures, to the classical Spanish guitar, the composer used nationalities and even faiths. As the composer Brazilian string instrument cavaquinho and Cuban himself says, Jesus represents the voice of the tres. In the score of the Passion one can also find people, transformed into a collective spirit (Rich the richest collection of percussion, sometimes 2010: 14). very exotic. There are a Brazilian berimbau and Therefore, in contrast to Bachís Passions and caxixi, drums surdo cortador, surdo resposta and Passions of the participants of the Stuttgart pro- surdo marcacao used in Samba, Cuban bongos, ject, in Golijovís version, Christís party is trans- congas, maracas and quiro, Sacred drums of San- ferred to the choir and different soloists (male teria Bata as well as sea shells, cymbals, cajon, etc. and even female). The same can be applied to the We can also note the specific vocal colours images of other heroes (Evangelist, Judas, Peter, used by the composer: open sound singing, great Pilate). role of improvisation, dry recitation. It is still pecu- Thus, Golijovís La PasiÛn según San Marcos liar not only to the soloists (Afro-Cuban vocalists is perceived not just as a statement of distant events, Reynaldo Gonzales-Fernandez, Gioconda Cabrera, but as a living reaction to what seems to be hap- Manolo Mairena) but even to the choir. pening here and now. At the same time, as the Let us also note one more characteristic feature composer himself says, the characters swing like of the score of Passions. It is amazing Trinity of a pendulum between the forms of absolute good instrumental music, singing, and dance, which is and absolute betrayal without any clear distinc- so typical of Latin American music. Some of the tions (Rich 2010: 14). key scenes are linked with the dance. It is No. 2 (Danza del Pescador Pescado), No. 21 (Danza de la Sabana Blanca), and No. 31 (Danza de la CONCLUSIONS Sabana Purpura). In addition, the choirís work is also impressive. Through stage movements, gestures and Formally based on the structure of Bachís grimaces, it often shows all the colours of emo- Passions, retaining all the features of the genre tions ñ from prayer contemplation to rage and (the structure of numbers, the participation of euphoria. the Choir and the soloists, the figure of the Evan- The composer uses only two musical quota- gelist, the unity of the dramatic, epic and lyrical tions. Thus, in No. 13 the melody is based on principles, the visibility of images), using the flamenco, performed by Nina de los Peines (Spanish genres of Latin American folklore and musica Singer of the first half of the 20th century); and in popular, the Argentinian composer has created No. 15 he creates choral variations on the theme a musical work that perfectly expresses the idea of the song Todavia Cantamos by the Argentinian of dialogue of cultures or cultural modulation. composer and songwriter Victor Heredia. This idea runs through all the creative space of But, in the libretto, Golijov uses several quite Golijov. diverse literary and poetic sources. First, it is the

31 MUSIC SCIENCE TODAY: THE PERMANENT AND THE CHANGEABLE ñ 3 (11)

REFERENCES 2001-06-26/7_kinds.html?print=Y – visited on July 7, 2018. Рау, Е. (2013). Пассионы: история и черты жанро- Berger, Kevin. Golijovís world. Osvaldo Golijov.com. вого архетипа. Известия Российского государ- http://osvaldogolijov.com/npd10.htm ñ visited on ственного педагогического университета им. July 7, 2018. А. И. Герцена. Санкт-Петербург: Российский го- Conrad, Peter (2006). Golijovís gospel truths. The сударственный педагогический университет им. Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/music/ 2006/jan/01/classicalmusicandopera ñ visited on А. И. Герцена, 89–92. July 7, 2018. Сигитов Сергей (2007). Сокровенное искусство Golijov, Osvaldo. The Passion of Osvaldo Golijov. Габриэля Форе и творческие искания XX века. Bluefat. http://www.bluefat.com/1006/Osvaldo_ Известия Российского государственного педагоги- Golijov.htm ñ visited on July 7, 2018. ческого университета им. А. И. Герцена. Санкт- Rich, Alan (2010). Osvaldo Golijovís PasiÛn según Петербург: Российский государственный педа- San Marcos. Liner notes. In: Osvaldo Golijov. La гогический университет им. А. И. Герцена, 109– PasiÛn según San Marcos (CD, Album). Deutsche 123. Grammophon. Холопова, Валентина (2001). София Губайдулина. Жирмунский Михаил (2001). Три вида «страстей». Путеводитель по произведениям. Москва: Компо- Независимая газета. http://www.ng.ru/culture/ зитор.

32 Reception of Choral Music by Maija Einfelde as Manifestation of Changing Aesthetic Paradigms

Dr. art. BAIBA JAUNSLAVIETE Associate Professor at J‚zeps VÓtols Latvian Academy of Music

The paper is devoted to the choral music by the Latvian composer Maija Einfelde (b. 1939). This genre has brought her international recognition since the latter half of the 1990s (the win at the prestigious Barlow Endowment for Music Composition competition in the United States in 1997, and collaboration with world-renowned musicians). The research object is the reception of the choral works by Einfelde in different time periods, as well as the factors (aesthetic paradigms) that determined this reception. The conclusion is that not only well-known mature works but also the composerís early choral compositions deserve the attention of both musicologists and performers. Keywords: Latvian choral music, international recognition.

INTRODUCTION they already predict the mature style of the composer. This raises a question: what is the reason For already half a century, since she graduated why early choral works by Einfelde have not been from the Latvian State Conservatory in 1966, properly assessed although they are not stylistically Maija Einfelde has been actively composing. She quite different from her mature and internationally has witnessed many different processes in Latvian recognized works? music, but at the same time, she has pursued her The aim of the paper is to answer the above- own path, never affiliating herself with any group mentioned question. Thus, the research object is of like-minded artists. The composer has always the reception of the choral works by Einfelde in managed to turn musical trends typical of her different time periods, as well as the factors (aesthe- time into a slightly less common direction. This tic paradigms) that determine this reception. The is true of the chamber music that dominated her research methodology includes the comparative early work as well as of her organ compositions, stylistic analysis of certain musical parameters symphonies and, particularly, her choral music, in several choral works (the representatives of the genre that has brought her international both early, and mature style), and the content recognition since the latter half of the 1990s (the analysis of different opinions on the choral music by Einfelde ñ the insights of the composer herself, win at the prestigious Barlow Endowment for several choral conductors, and (regarding mature Music Composition competition in the United works) also the reviews of music critics. States in 1997 with the chamber oratorio Pie zemes t‚l‚s... [At the Edge of the EarthÖ]; her subsequent collaboration with world-renowned musicians). However, less known are many choral works 1. CHORAL MUSIC OF THE SOVIET PERIOD that Einfelde has created already before the success (UNTIL 1990) of Pie zemes t‚l‚sÖ . Most of them are not a part of the contemporary choral concert repertoire and Since graduating from the conservatory (1966), are kept untouched on the shelves either in the Einfelde has returned again and again to writing National Library of Latvia or even in different choral music. This genre, however, remained in personal archives. Nevertheless, studying the early the shadows of her work for quite a long period works leads to conclude that, in many aspects, of time. The composer says: Conductors were

33 MUSIC SCIENCE TODAY: THE PERMANENT AND THE CHANGEABLE ñ 3 (11) not very keen on accepting compositions that I with lyrics by Oj‚rs V‚cietis is of particularly offered them. They made excuses, saying that the noteworthy. It was premiered in 1978 by the State music was too complicated for choirs in terms of Academic Choir (nowadays the State Choir Latvia) intonation. Of course, it wasnít distinctly melodic under the direction of DerkÁvica. The sorrowful music for the song-festival stage or, more generally, mood of this work is largely determined by the for masses of singers and listeners. I had already text of V‚cietis, especially the lines: Ap manu almost come to terms with the fact that, come bÁrnÓbu apkritis ir pelÁku lapu pelÁks lapkritis what may, but choir music was probably not the (ëA grey autumn of grey leaves has fallen around sphere in which I could hope for much success my childhoodí). It is not surprising that the influ- (Einfelde 2016). ence of Dmitri Shostakovich is felt in this work: However, among the choral conductors of Einfelde has loved his music since her youth that time, there were also two exceptions: already (watching a performance of Katerina Izmailova in the 1970s and the 1980s, Einfelde developed as a student, she first understood that good music a close collaboration with Ansis Alberings (1925ñ is also able to ëtortureí the listener). The arch 1999) and Ausma DerkÁvica (1929ñ2011). The with Shostakovichís style is reflected in the mono- latter once said: I grew to love Einfelde already logue-like expression with a frequently changing long before her fame in America1 (DerkÁvica time signatures as well as the scale characteristic 2010). of several of Einfeldeís early works for choir; these Among the choral compositions from the include the intensified Phrygian mode, with lowered 1970s, the poem DzÁrves (Cranes, circa 1978) second and fourth (and sometimes also other) for mixed choir, three percussionists and piano degrees, which gives the sound a darker colour.

Example 1. Maija Einfelde, DzÁrves: choral parts (the beginning)

The intensified Phrygian mode has not Shostakovich (–nÁ 2006). Einfelde admits that migrated to Einfeldeís later works; nevertheless, the Russian composerís typical technique also has the monologue-like expression has remained. Nor- served her as stimulation: Iím most surprised by munds –nÁ mentions it when describing Simfonija how he can take a small grain, a thematic impulse (Symphony, 2003), the premiere of which he con- and gradually grow it into a sweeping thought. ducted: I particularly like Maijaís slow monologues As a solfeggio teacher, I once wanted to play the in the string instruments ñ so deep, intellectual flute theme from his Symphony No. 15 as a dicta- and emotionally saturated, something similar to tion exercise for my students, and... I realized

1 By fame in America DerkÁvica means the international success of the chamber oratorio Pie zemes t‚l‚s... (At the Edge of the Earth...) in 1997.

34 B. JAUNSLAVIETE. RECEPTION OF CHORAL MUSIC BY MAIJA EINFELDE AS MANIFESTATION OF CHANGING AESTHETIC PARADIGMS that I didnít know where to stop it, the endless only later did she change her opinion (Einfelde flow of the melody is so solid and monolithic 2016). Thus the song entered the concert reper- (Einfelde 2013). toire more than twenty years after it was composed, A work of a quite different character is the but it was immediately successful in local compe- lively and naughty Vilku dziesmiÚa (Wolvesí Song), titions as well as the World Choir Games in Riga set to the lyrics by M‚ris »aklais. It was created (2015, gold medal) and the 34th Festival Interna- in approximately 1987/1988 for Cantus, the choir cional de Música de CantonigrÚs in Spain (2016, of the Ernests VÓgners KuldÓga Childrenís Music second place). Itís a complex song, [they] must School. Einfelde recalls that the choir conductor sing in parallel seconds. The Cantus choir made Maruta RozÓte initially thought the piece was it very effective and interesting by adding drums, difficult and was afraid of giving it to her students; comments Einfelde (Einfelde 2016).

Example 2. Vilku dziesmiÚa by Maija Einfelde (an excerpt): the composerís handwriting

In this case, the conductorís own assessment freer and worldwide open cultural space, and of the skills of her choir reflects a change in the precisely they have become enthusiastic and suc- prevailing aesthetic paradigms. Since 1967, the cessful performers of the work. choir Cantus is directed by its founder RozÓte, and it is generally considered as one of the best Latvian childrenís choirs. However, the skills of 2. CHORAL WORKS OF THE POST-SOVIET TIME this choir in the late 1980s were influenced by the pedagogical repertoire of the children music schools in the Soviet time, namely, by the domi- In the first half of the 1990s, Einfelde created nance of the tonal music rooted in the functional one of her most performed works, Ave Maria for harmony. Therefore, the dissonant Vilku dziesmiÚa womenís choir (1994). The piece was written in by Einfelde had to wait the above mentioned more honour of the conductor Ausma DerkÁvicaís 65th than twenty years for another childrenís genera- birthday. DerkÁvica, who considered Ave Maria tion ñ children who grew up in another, much her favourite composition, commented: The drama

35 MUSIC SCIENCE TODAY: THE PERMANENT AND THE CHANGEABLE ñ 3 (11) of this composition is surprising: Ave Maria is After the above-mentioned win at the Barlow usually not tragic, but Maija brings to it truly competition, the chamber oratorio Pie zemes t‚- tragic nuance, especially in the culmination (Der- l‚s..., as well as future choral works by Einfelde kÁvica 2010). have been performed worldwide and have frequently Special attention should be paid to Einfeldeís attracted the attention of music critics and other choral work that marked a radical turn in the reviewers from different continents. What are the composerís career ñ the chamber oratorio Pie main features characteristic of their reception of zemes t‚l‚sÖ (At the Edge of the EarthÖ) for the choral music by Einfelde? Further, the paper mixed choir (based on motifs from Aeschylus offers an insight into this topic. tragedy Prometheus Bound, 1996). Competing The first significant group of statements is with 299 choral compositions, that work has won related to the emotional content of the music by the main prize in one of the worldís most presti- Einfelde. In this respect, the opinions of foreign gious international composition competitions, the critics generally correspond with the insights of Barlow Endowment for Music Composition Com- their Latvian colleagues that usually highlight the petition in the United States (1997). tragic notes in the works by this composer. The work was created on the initiative by Thus, the reviewer of the portal New York Music Kaspars PutniÚ, the artistic director of the vocal Daily resumes his impression from the chamber Pie zemes t‚l‚sÖ group Latvian Radio Singers. At that time he oratorio that he heard on March 12, 2016, by the Cantori New York chamber choir encouraged many Latvian composers to vocal under the direction of Mark Shapiro at New York experiments. In the interview, Einfelde admitted Cityís Church of St. Luke in the Fields: The abyss, that when writing Pie zemes t‚l‚sÖ she had to for this particular Prometheus, is a deep and frigid overestimate also her own opinions on choral place (New York Music Daily 2016). music: Jeff Foley, a member of the Tanglewood Fes- Conductor Kaspars PutniÚí only condition tival Chorus, describes figuratively his reception was that it [the chamber oratorio] must be for of Lux aeterna by Einfelde; he was a participant twelve singers. At first, that shocked me. Iíve of its performance on October 25ñ30, 2018 in always liked that a choir is a large mass of people Boston, under the direction of James Burton: and that when they open their mouths, it feels as While the beginning of the Einfelde certainly if the air lightly shimmers ñ maybe thatís an asso- shimmers; I hear uncertainty, concern, and maybe ciation I have from the Song Festivals. And now even desperation within that eternal light. I hear suddenly ñ just twelve people. But as soon as I prayers being offered as a plea, by disturbed mour- decided that I would have twelve soloists, and ners who arenít convinced that their loved ones accepted this idea as my own, the process became are at rest. After the first two minutes of those interesting for me. Seeing that I had no other con- questions, we get this amazing (and vocally chal- ditions to fulfil, I could spread my wings creati- lenging!) tone cluster of voices, with layers of vely from [the pitch] E1 to E6 (Einfelde 1998: 15). complexity, undulating like a turbulent sea in the The conductor PutniÚ, on describing this wind, and a pleading soprano line rising out of work, especially stresses: She feels the choir like it. (...) Finally, and only at the very end, do we an instrument (PutniÚ 2010). In this regard, it achieve a deep and satisfying consonance ñ rein- is interesting to note that in the chamber oratorio forced by the low basses as we drop down to Pie zemes t‚l‚sÖ, Einfelde has partially used the confirm a powerful C major chord, hidden until musical material from her vocal chamber work ñ then (Foley 2018). the mono-oratorio SaistÓtais Prometejs (Prometheus In a way, this reception coincides with the Bound, 1986) for baritone, violin, cello, clarinet, above-quoted conductor DerkÁvicaís words about French horn, and piano. The transformation of Ave Maria by Einfelde where she highlights the the instrumental parts into choir parts is also tragic mood, unusual for the interpretation of indicative of her style as a composer; this feature this sacred genre. Another interesting moment is highlighted for example in the article by Gundega in the text by Foley is the mention of the sea. Simi- –mite (Maijas Einfeldes korm˚zika a cappella: lar parallels have been observed also by another instrument‚l‚s dimensijas un dzejas teksta author from the USA, the conductor Dr. Todd J. traktÁjums / ëA Cappella Choral Music by Maija Harper, who describes Lux aeterna by Einfelde Einfelde: Instrumental Dimensions and Interpre- as follows: Moving into the end of the first choral tation of Poetryí; see –mite 2016). section, the texture opens to twelve parts at ...

36 B. JAUNSLAVIETE. RECEPTION OF CHORAL MUSIC BY MAIJA EINFELDE AS MANIFESTATION OF CHANGING AESTHETIC PARADIGMS quia pius es, and the universality of the text is the description of the performance of the chamber coupled at largo with an undulating rhythmic oratorio Pie zemes t‚l‚s... by the Cantori New augmentation which recalls what musicologist York chamber choir under the direction of Mark Baiba Jaunslaviete referred to as Einfeldeís ìparti- Shapiro at New York Cityís Church of St. Luke cular attraction to the seaî (Harper 2013). Indeed, in the Fields: (Ö) the ensemble made their way sea as a symbol of the power of nature methodically through minimalistically pulsing, in its different manifestations, from calm beauty tightly wound harmonies, jarring melodic adja- to cruelty, is depicted in many works by Einfelde cencies and a very subtle and intricate game of (TrÓs j˚ras dziesmas / Three Songs of the Sea; telephone where notes would be handed off from J˚ras saga / The Shawl of the Sea, etc.), and this voice to voice (New York Music Daily 2016). topic is also reflected in the article by Ilma Grauz- The highlighting of the instrumental diÚa, J˚ras tÁla metamorfozes Maijas Einfeldes dimension of the voice is mentioned by m˚zik‚ (ìThe Metamorphoses of the Musical reviewers as one of the main novelties of the Image of the Sea in the Compositions by Maija choral music by Einfelde. In this respect, there Einfeldeî, GrauzdiÚa 2016). In this context, it is are also some interesting comparisons. For example, even more interesting that the two above quoted Harry Rolnick, when describing the American American authors independently of each other premiere of the Lux aeterna on November 14, have noticed the indirect influence of the sea motif 2017, at the Church of St. Mary the Virgin in also in the sacred composition Lux aeterna. New York City (Swedish Radio Choir conducted Most of the reviewers emphasize that tragic by Peter Dijkstra), notes parallels between choral or simply sad moods in the choral works by Einfelde voices and organ, as well as their possible auto- have been revealed convincingly. Perhaps the most biographical determinant: seductive contribution comes from Maija Einfeldeís Yet from the first work, Maija Einfeldeís Lux dark, slow-breathing and slow-bending settings aeterna, one had the feeling that the precision had of the Latvian poet Fricis Barda, it is a judgement muted personality, that these 32 singers had sur- of BBC Music Magazine about the CD album rendered their own voices to be part of a musical Baltic Exchange (2014, music by several Baltic composers) recorded by the Choir of Trinity College automaton. Such thoughts were quickly diffused Cambridge under the direction of Stephen Layton by the intensity of the work itself. The compo- (quoted after: Finch n.d.). (Ö) a searing setting sition of Ms. Einfelde ñ the daughter of a Latvian of excerpts from Aeschylusí Prometheus Bound organist and organ-builder ñ replaced organ color which culminates in stratospheric soprano lines for purely vocal timbres. Starting with a soft con- that burn images of injustice and protest into the cord, building into a great dissonant crescendo listenerís brain. A staggering piece, staggeringly and concluding with the softness for ìlux perpetua well performed, in such words, the reviewer from luceat eisî (Rolnick 2017). the Daily Telegraph describes the impression It should be added that Einfelde at the end about the performance of Pie zemes t‚l‚s... at the of the 20th century was one of the leading Latvian Huddersfield Contemporary Music Festival (the composers of organ music. For this reason, too, program of Latvian Radio Singers, Choral Excel- the above-mentioned parallels between this instru- lence from Riga, 2000; see Daily Telegraph 2000). ment and the choir could be perceived as justified. Another topic that deserves attention is the Another aspect is reflected in the statement reception of certain musical parameters in the of Dace Aper‚ne ñ Einfeldeís colleague and active choral works by Einfelde. On the one hand, revie- promoter of her music. Aper‚ne notes the influ- wers notice the arch with the tradition of tonal ences of the Latvian folklore in the works music. Thus Boston Classical Review writes about by Einfelde, however, at the same time, she high- Lux aeterna which was performed in Boston on lights also the interest in very glamorous and even October 25ñ30, 2018: [Ö] Her music possesses exotic timbres as a specific feature. She [Ein- the same intimacy and broadly tonal style as does felde ñ B. J.] frequently employs unusual vocal that of her popular compatriot, «riks Eenvalds techniques, for example, the ìbendingî of the (Keebaugh 2018). sounds that affect the tone and colour of voice in On the other hand, the critics see in this tonal natural but also exaggerated ways. (Ö) In this music also individualized harmonic and timbral sense, the composer [Einfelde ñ B. J.] has been at effects. They are highlighted almost in every review least partially influenced by various recordings of the choral works by Einfelde, for example, in of the world music (Aper‚ne 2000).

37 MUSIC SCIENCE TODAY: THE PERMANENT AND THE CHANGEABLE ñ 3 (11)

Aper‚ne quotes also the words by Einfelde: Einfeldeís work. It appears only in short, albeit I try everything with my voice! I listened to Sha- timely flashes of exotic colour, for example, in manic records ñ from Tuva, from the Himalayas. her works inspired by ancient Greek myths, such The intonative material is very simple, but the as Pie zemes t‚l‚s... (At the Edge of the Earth...; manner of producing sound is extremely strange ñ the melismatically free half-tone or microtone like the howling of the wind or the howling of slide in measures 102ñ104 of the first movement) wolves. (...) Itís something unimaginably beauti- and SirÁnu sala (The Island of the Sirens; from ful (Aper‚ne 2000). the beginning until measure 21, as well as in a However, to be honest, the influence of few other places, such as the primitively simple southern/eastern singing traditions does not intonation formulas perceived as arrested signal- manifest itself very strongly or for very long in type calls in various voices).

Example 3. SirÁnu sala by Maija Einfelde (an excerpt)

On the whole, however, it is the subjective jective directness, and the manifestation of an experience rather than national or regional colour individualized, refined personality became more as a value in and of itself that comes to the fore and more strongly expressed also in choral music. in Einfeldeís work. These qualities were especially appreciated by many chamber choirs. Therefore, it is not surprising that inspired by the Latvian Radio Chamber CONCLUSIONS Singers, Maija Einfelde in 1996 changed also her own view on choir and composed for it as a group of soloists; precisely the works created with this Trying to answer how changes of the domi- approach brought her an international success. nant aesthetic paradigms have influenced the The ësubjectivizationí of the choir was manifested reception of the choral music by Einfelde, we can in the highlighting of the instrumental dimension conclude: in choral music, the spirit of the collec- of several voices (parallels with timbres of certain tivism as an aesthetic value has always had an instruments). However, the preconditions for this important role, and possibly its lack was the reason transition to a new understanding of choir were why the early works by Einfelde mostly were not present already in Einfeldeís early works with valued by conductors. However, at the turn of their monologue-like expression. the 20th/21st century, the tendency towards a sub-

38 B. JAUNSLAVIETE. RECEPTION OF CHORAL MUSIC BY MAIJA EINFELDE AS MANIFESTATION OF CHANGING AESTHETIC PARADIGMS

A new aesthetic paradigm of the 21st century, Einfelde, Maija (1998). Sevis drupin‚ana. Interview which encouraged many Latvian composers to with Maija AmoliÚa. M‚ksla Plus 4: 14ñ15. experiment, was the interest in Non-European Einfelde, Maija (2013). Interview with Baiba Jaunsla- cultural traditions. In this sense, and concurrent viete. Transcript in Jaunslavieteís personal archive. Einfelde, Maija (2016). Interview with Baiba Jaunsla- with some of her contemporaries, such as Imants viete. Transcript in Jaunslavieteís personal archive. Zemzaris and Juris ¬bols (although unlike PÁteris Finch, Hilary (n.d.). Baltic Exchange ñ BBC Music Vasks, who describes himself as a principled Euro- Magazine. TrinityCollegeChoir. http://trinitycollege centrist; Vasks 2011), Einfelde anticipated the choir.com/recordings/review/bbc-music-magazine/ ñ trend that is now being vividly continued in the visited on December 16, 2018. 21st century by Latvian composers of the middle Foley, Jeff (2018). The enigma of Einfeldeís Lux Aeterna. generation, including Santa Ratniece, M‚rtiÚ Just Another Bass. Thoughts and Experiences from ViÔums and others. It should be added that also Choral Singing. October 20. https://justanother bass.com/2018/10/20/the-enigma-of-einfeldes-lux- some of Einfeldeís early choral works reflect a aeterna/ ñ visited on December 16, 2018. certain interest in oriental motifs; for example, GrauzdiÚa, Ilma (2016). J˚ras tÁla metamorfozes the song-ballad Pasaka manai m‚elei (A Fairy Maijas Einfeldes m˚zik‚. Maija Einfelde dzÓvÁ un Tale for My Sissy, lyrics by the Azerbaidzan poet m˚zik‚ (M˚zikas akadÁmijas raksti XIII). RÓga: Ramiz Rovshan, no later than 1976). JVLMA, 307ñ328. The underestimation of Einfeldeís early choral Harper, Todd J. (2013). Beneficence refined: An explo- works is by inertia continued also nowadays ñ ration of sacred choral settings by women composers one of the reasons is the composerís indisposition from Northern Europe. International Choral Bulletin 32 (2): 92ñ96. http://icb.ifcm.net/en_US/beneficencia- to the actualization of these works or offering them perfeccionada/ ñ visited on December 16, 2018. to conductors. Nevertheless, these compositions Keebaugh, Aaron (2018). Nelsonsí Mahler mastery deserve the attention both on the part of musico- on display in BSOís Heavenly ìResurrectionî Sym- logists and performers: they predict also new phony. Boston Classical Review. October 26. aesthetic paradigms characteristic of the choral http://bostonclassicalreview.com/2018/10/from- music of the 21st century. Thus, their performances here-to-eternity-nelsons-mahler-mastery-on-display- could become important events and significantly in-a-heavenly-resurrection-symphony/ñ visited on enrich the repertoire of contemporary choral December 16, 2018. New York Music Daily (2016). Cantori New York music. Debut a Haunting, Relevant Program of Choral Works. https://newyorkmusicdaily.wordpress.com/ñ visited on December 16, 2018. REFERENCES PutniÚ, Kaspars (2010). Interview with Baiba Jaunsla- viete. Transcript in Jaunslavieteís personal archive. Rolnick, Harry (2017). A wee bit of heaven. Aper‚ne, Dace (2000). Ieskats Maijas Einfeldes m˚zik‚. ConcertoNet.com. The Classical Music Network. Jaun‚ Gaita 222: 33ñ35, 60. https://jaunagaita.net/ http://www.concertonet.com/scripts/review. jg222/JG222_Aperane-par-Einfeldi.htm ñ visited on php?ID_review=12728 ñ visited on December 16, December 16, 2018. 2018. Classical-music.com. Baltic Exchange. http://www. –mite, Gundega (2016). Maijas Einfeldes korm˚zika classical-music.com/review/baltic-exchange ñ visited a cappella: instrument‚l‚s dimensijas un dzejas teksta on December 16, 2018. traktÁjums. Maija Einfelde dzÓvÁ un m˚zik‚ (M˚zi- Daily Telegraph (2000). [Pie zemes t‚l‚s... by Maija kas akadÁmijas raksti XIII). RÓga: JVLMA, 202ñ Einfelde at the Huddersfield Contemporary Music 229. Festival]. October 22. Copy of the article in Ein- –nÁ, Normunds (2006). Interview with Baiba Jaunsla- feldeís personal archive; its author and title are not viete. Transcript in Jaunslavieteís personal archive. mentioned. Vasks, PÁteris (2011). DzÓvojiet nesteidzÓgi! Pierak- DerkÁvica, Ausma (2010). Interview with Baiba Jaun- stÓjusi Inese L˚siÚa. Diena (pielikums Kult˚ras slaviete. Transcript in Jaunslavieteís personal archive. Diena). 28. janv‚ris.

39 From Rock Symphony to Metal Opera: Classical Genres and Forms in Rock Music

Dr. art. ELENA SAVITSKAYA The senior scientific researcher at State Institute of Art Science (Moscow)

The process of incorporating classical symphonic and scenic genres in rock music began at the turn of the 1970s. It became a field of interest of both rock musicians and professional composers. Many bands expanded their compositions, used symphonic sounds, even toured with orchestras (Procol Harum, ELP, Camel, etc.). The use of the terms symphony, concerto in titles of rock compositions does not always mean exact accordance to sonata-symphonic patterns because of an important role of rhythmic and melodic ostinato, timbre and dynamics progressions in rock music. Two different approaches to ìcommunicationî between rock stylistic and symphonic genres ñ combination and integration ñ were demonstrated by Deep Purple in their Concerto for Group and Orchestra and by Imants KalniÚ in Symphony No. 4 respectively. Another important field of genre/style dialogue is rock opera (first examples ñ Tommy by The Who and Jesus Christ Superstar by Andrew Lloyd-Webber). In the second half of the 1990sñ2000s, rock operas received fresh attention by musicians from heavier styles, with several successful examples of metal operas ñ such as Tobias Sammetís Avantasia, Arjen Lucassenís Ayreon, etc. The influence of symphonic and opera genres can be traced also in the so-called concept albums. Thus, classical musical genres received a new life in rock music. Keywords: rock music, genre, form, rock symphony, rock opera, metal opera, a concept album, dramaturgy.

INTRODUCTION 1986). Valentina Konen draws even deeper parallels, seeing the historical, stylistic and social origins The development of genres, forms and ways of modern mass genres in the third layer of artistic of expression from the arsenal of classical music culture, which existed long ago along with profesin rock began at the end of the 1960s, on the wave sional creativity and folklore and interacted with of intellectualization of rock music, its interest them (Konen 1994). To achieve a large form in high art. The primary impetus to these contacts (Didenko 1987), rock music gets involved in diverse came from rock musicians, who in the late 1960s experiments with various classical genres, styles, became cramped in a simple verse/chorus form and principles of composition. and three-chord harmony. They wanted to address The object of the study is the life of classical the listener with serious topics and problems that (according to the professional musical tradition) required a more complex musical language. At the genres in rock music. Among them, one can name same time, composers of art music became inte- an opera, an oratorio, a concerto, a symphony, rested in the facilities of rock music, trying to and a suite. The process of mutual dialogue of update their musical dictionary, to find new ways genre and style was not simple. Some genres were of communication with a young audience. The compatible with the aesthetic foundations of rock, rapprochement of professional and mass spheres, while others persistently resisted them. The aim of course, began much earlier ñ in the interaction of the paper is to identify the reasons for this between classical music and jazz, which the Ameri- affinity or the lack of it; to trace the processes of can jazz musician and theoretician Gunther Schuller assimilation at different levels of the musical in 1957 described as the Third Stream (Schuller language and form.

40 E. SAVITSKAYA. FROM ROCK SYMPHONY TO METAL OPERA: CLASSICAL GENRES AND FORMS IN ROCK MUSIC

The relevance of the study is due to the growing associated with loud and heavy sound, intense intensity of such contacts in contemporary musical performance and excessive energy. Therefore, the culture. Vividly manifested at the turn of the 1960s exploration of large classical forms began, one and the 1970s, the attention to various types of might say, with a boom note. However, the style interaction is intensifying significantly in the 2000s. system of rock music in the late 1960s was only Especially significant is the revival of the genre being formed, and there was still no strong segre- of rock opera, which is marked by the emergence gation between different directions, as it happened of new kinds and labels like punk-, space- and later. metal operas, a rise of the numbers of both theat- A Concerto for Group and Orchestra was rical productions and studio-only projects. written by Deep Purple keyboardist John Lord. The aspects of this interaction are very He was a great admirer of classical music and diverse. The focus of research interest was mainly wanted for a long time to create a work that would directed to the works of professional composers. combine the features of classics and rock music. Meanwhile, the first initiative in those contacts Lord had to overcome both the resistance of his came from rock musicians, whose works have colleagues in the band and the arrogance of the not been sufficiently studied yet. This causes the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra musicians, who, novelty of the view of the problem. The stated however, quickly became involved and even thrilled topic required the elaboration and the generaliza- at the project. John Lord himself did not have tion of a large amount of material. Therefore, to professional music education, but took piano some extent, the paper is of a survey nature, lessons in his childhood, was a great connoisseur although the most important, in the authorís and admirer of Johann Sebastian Bach and Edward opinion, works are examined in more detail. Elgarís music. Even the timbre of John Lordís The research methodology combines musico- instrument, Hammond organ, originally created logical and socio-cultural approaches. The problems as an alternative to the church organ, and his of the dialogue between genre and style, between sound and playing style followed both Baroque classical and popular music are studied in the and jazz/gospel traditions. works of Tatyana Didenko, Valentina Konen, In his Concerto, Lord applies the features of Valery Syrov, Andrey Vinichenko, Anatoly Zucker, a Baroque concerto grosso rather than a classical and other researchers; in recent years, a number solo concerto (while preserving the traditional of new works on rock opera have appeared. In three-movement concerto composition) or sym- the analysis of musical language, operatic and phony. The rock band here performs as a collective symphonic dramaturgy, the author followed the soloist, first opposing the orchestra, and then works of Boris Asafiev, Mark Aranovsky, and entering into a certain consensus with it. Also, other scholars. The comparative-historical method every Deep Purpleís musician has his own solo was also used. episodes. Both the composition and the performance outline the differences, a rivalry between two worlds. Even the stage dresses do so: the CONCERTO, SYMPHONY AND SUITE orchestra is wearing strict tail-coats, rockers are IN THE CONTEXT OF ROCK MUSIC in free coloured clothes. The musical language in the orchestral part is closer to Romanticism, The earliest starting point of the process we and the band plays mostly in blues/hard rock are talking about can be set in 1969, the year direction1. At the same time, the band and the when the rock opera Tommy by The Who saw orchestra might exchange the musical themes, the light of the day, and also the Concerto for like, for example, the epic woodwind theme from Group and Orchestra by Deep Purple was perfor- the orchestra introduction which soon returns as med in Royal Albert Hall. It is interesting that a hard rock riff playing by the band. The climax both rock bands, The Who and Deep Purple, of the whole work is the drum cadenza in the belonged not to the intellectual, classically influ- finale, whose coda combines the orchestral themes enced progressive rock, but rather to hard rock, of the first and the third movements.

1 Andrey Vinichenko also notes the influence of Baroque and Classicism, as well as symphonic music of the middle of the twentieth century in the Concerto (Виниченко 2017: 47).

41 MUSIC SCIENCE TODAY: THE PERMANENT AND THE CHANGEABLE ñ 3 (11)

Despite being overlong and sometimes not ostinato, thematic exposition, timbre and dynamic so original melodically and harmonically (espe- escalation, associated with jazz, blues and pre- cially in the orchestral part), Concerto for Group classical principles of composition. In addition, and Orchestra became the first and quite convin- to create such global concepts as a symphony, cing example of combining the structural and certain knowledge and experience are necessary. style principles of rock and symphonic music. The There were professional composers with such point of contact here is the very principle of con- experience and knowledge. The example of such certo genre ñ competitiveness2, demonstration of natural synthesis of symphonic forms and rock virtuosity, a certain show-off and interaction with stylistics is the 4th Symphony by the famous Latvian the audience. Those principles are essential for composer Imants KalniÚ. In this work, the prin- both rock music and concerto genre (which held ciples of development typical of rock music sort a very important place in the 20th century music). of grow into symphonic dramaturgy. In the late After that starting point, many rock bands 1960s, KalniÚ worked simultaneously in rock of the 1970s began to use orchestral sounds. For (being one of the first rock musicians in Latvia) rockers, it has become a kind of a game in the and symphonic genres. Rock Symphony (as it is classics. Orchestras even participated in some live known among listeners) combines these two performances and tours (Moody Blues, Yes, Camel, vectors. It was premiered in Riga (1973) and Emerson, Lake & Palmer, Electric Light Orchestra, received much attention. etc.). On the one hand, rock musicians used sym- Despite the fact that a lot has already been phonic timbres in plain songs, ballads, where the written about this work3, it is necessary to say a orchestra acted as one of the colours in the whole few more words about it in light of nowadays. palette. On the other hand, they continued to The Symphony is a four-movement cycle, but its explore classical genres and forms: for example, structure is unconventional. In the first movement, the album Eldorado by ELO with the subtitle A the author, stepping away from the iron logic of Symphony by the Electric Light Orchestra; Sym- the sonata-allegro, integrates the rhythmic and phony No. 2 by Egg, or a more recent example, melodic ostinato and dynamic escalation into the track Inquisition Symphony by the Brazilian classical dramaturgy (a rhythmic pattern of the metal band Sepultura. Many musicians followed snare drum, repeated through the whole move- the path shown by Deep Purple. For example, ment, naturally reminds of Maurice Ravelís Bolero). the virtuoso neoclassical guitarist Yngwie Malm- The percussion section of the symphony orchestra steen in his Concerto Suite for Electric Guitar is expanded by the rock drum set; however, this and Orchestra in E flat minor Op. 1 (1998) directly is not a rock band with an orchestra, but a united inherits John Lordís Concerto. The maestro itself sonic entity. Here first appears a theme resembling continued his classical experiments in such solo a medieval sequence Dies Irae (Judgment Day), works as Sarabande (1976), Durham Concerto it can be viewed as a destiny theme. At the same (2008), etc. time, there are many themes of the traditional However, the use of the terms symphony, type in the symphony: a beautiful, with delicate concerto in the titles of rock compositions rarely chromatic turns, late romantic (in some ways means the exact following of traditional sonata- even ëMahlerianí waltz theme of the slow move- symphonic patterns. Mostly, it is more like rock ment, and the cinematic and heroic main theme suites with orchestral or synthesizer arrangements, of the scherzo. or single large-scale compositions. It turned out It is noteworthy that the symphony has two that the classical construction of sonata-allegro finales. Initially, the version with the female vocal or sonata-symphonic cycle (with its tonal opposi- (using the works of American ëbeatnikí poet Kelly tion of two main themes, the intensive motif and Cherry) was planned. However, in the Soviet era, modulation development) resists the compositio- due to the censorship, the composer was not able nal principles of rock music. After all, the leading to perform it as planned. For the first recording role in rock belongs to rhythmic and melodic (1973) he prepared a purely instrumental version.

2 This is pointed out by Anatoly Zucker (Цукер 1993: 69). 3 The symphony was paid much attention to in Mark Aranovskyís book Symphonic Searches (Арановский 1979: 151ñ152) and in Anatoly Zuckerís Both Rock and Symphony (Цукер 1993: 252ñ261). For the concept of the symphony, see also: Mayen 2015.

42 E. SAVITSKAYA. FROM ROCK SYMPHONY TO METAL OPERA: CLASSICAL GENRES AND FORMS IN ROCK MUSIC

It sounded like a carnival or kaleidoscope, where ROCK OPERAS AND CONCEPT ALBUMS lyrical fragments, meditations and brave marches followed each other. In the finaleís coda, we again For the opera, the synthesis with rock music heard the formidable fanfares and mechanical at the turn of the 1960sñ1970s also played an percussion ostinato. Rock ñ as a fate ñ closes the actualizing role. What kind of genre is it ñ a rock circle in this roundabout of life. opera? Some equal it with the musical, but it is The original idea was finally realized in the not true. The key difference between the musical new recording made in the late 1990s. Singing in and the rock opera lies in the field of stylistics. English (mezzo-soprano) immediately turns the The musical, as a successor of operetta, ballad finale into the kind of a vocal cycle, with brightly opera and Minstrel Theatre (and a classical genre feminine, lyrical features. Despite the fact that itself up to the 1960s), is based on a complex of Cherryís poems are full of sadness, lost love, shat- jazz and variety style. The rock opera, with similar tered hopes, and disappointment, this version of origins, uses a more rigid, electrified sound, an the finale seems to be more optimistic. This energetic way of performance that comes from impression is empowered by a slightly different rock music. Another difference is the lesser role ending: instead of the slowly fading ominous of dance, choreographic numbers and other enter- knock of a snare, there is a powerful orchestral tainment elements in the rock opera. The presence crescendo and a life-affirming major chord. or the absence of spoken-word dialogues can also Another interesting example is Symphony for be a distinctive feature. In this sense, the musical, Seven Performers of the Estonian band In Spe (1983) written by Erkki-Sven T¸¸r (now a well- where such dialogues are an indispensable part known classical composer). It is a chamber prog- of the action, inherits much from British ballad ressive rock with references to the Middle Ages opera, Austrian-German Singspiel, French opera and Renaissance music. It has transparent poly- comique, whereas in the rock opera recitatives phonic texture, made by a mix of flute, electric are mostly used (as in the grand opera), with some guitar, and keyboard (harpsichord, pianoforte, exceptions. There were also transitional forms ñ strings) timbres. Again, the piece is based on for example, the rock musical Hair by Galt ostinato and polyphonic development and does McDermott (1967), directly paved way to rock not use classical schemes of sonata-allegro. Consi- opera. dering the genres, it is more like a loud request The Russian researcher Anatoly Zucker for the rethinking of classical traditions. How- speaks of the rock opera as a fundamentally poly- ever, the three-movement structure, in general, genre phenomenon and identifies its important is a reapproach of some kind of sonata-symphonic qualities as follows: being allegorical, polystylistic, cycle with its fast ñ slow ñ fast order of movements. polytimbral, having dramatic contrasts and making The synthesis of various styles and genres is collages (Цукер 1993: 170). Indeed, these features presented also in the Mass by Leonard Bernstein, can be found in almost all rock operas, from Concerto for Symphony Orchestra, Three Electric basing on mythological and traditional subjects Guitars and Solo Instruments by Sergei Slonimsky, (the myth of Orpheus, Biblical stories, historical, Concerto for a Rock Band and a Typewriter in literary plots) to using special collage techniques D (avant-garde jazz-rock) by Alo Mattiisen (In in stage action. In general, the rock opera can be Spe), etc. However, those experiments were num- defined as a synthetic musical and scenic genre, bered and limited by the 1970s and the first half which uses the structural principles of classical of the 1980s. As to contemporary works, we can opera in combination with rock stylistic. mention the Concerto Grosso by Moscow prog- However, let us go back to 1969 and consider ressive band Kostarev Group, where the genre how these characteristics were implemented in of early music becomes the object of stylization one of the first rock operas, which, for some reason, and parody, and the recent rock cantata The One got much less attention than it deserved. We mean Thus Gone by Anton Batagov, in which minima- Tommy by the British band The Who, which was lism is the assemblage point of all the numerous at first released as a double studio album4. By elements. the end of the1960s, The Who were already well

4 To be fair, it is necessary to point out that the attempts to combine opera and rock have been made before: the term rock opera appeared in the press in 1966. However, it had no success.

43 MUSIC SCIENCE TODAY: THE PERMANENT AND THE CHANGEABLE ñ 3 (11) known for their loud hits and instrument smashing based on the lamento intonations; it becomes a after each concert. However, the musicians under- symbol of Tommyís inner state. The operaís final stood that such kind of popularity would not last track is a grandiose apotheosis in a major key, for long. They were looking for ways to keep the summarizing the themes of the previous tracks. audience. The idea to create an opera was proposed Stylistically, the work is based on rock idioms by Kit Lambert, the manager of The Who. The (rhythm & blues, psychedelia, and hard rock), reason is that Kit, despite belonging to the camp and rock energy itself is the driving force of the of rebellious rockers, was the son of the respected development. But there are some moments of British composer Constant Lambert, the author stylization too ñ early music, Dixieland, kind of of ballets and orchestral works. Thus, Kit con- domestic dances. tinued his father work in his own way. The music After the release, the band played several and the lyrics were written by The Who themselves. concerts with the music of Tommy in the opera Tommyís story is based upon the memories of theatres (Coliseum, Metropolitan), thinking that guitarist and main music writer Pete Townsend those would be the last performances of the opera. about his own childhood, which was quite difficult However, the success was so great that it led to and tough. the orchestral live version of Tommy and to the The plot of the opera is quite phantasma- film adaptation, starring a cast of famous singers gorical and seems very complicated at first. The (Elton John, Tina Turner etc.), and in the 1990s ñ protagonist ñ the deaf, blind and numb boy to the production as a Broadway musical. Tommy magically gets rid of his illness, becomes A different case is the next work in this genre ñ a new guru, who carries enlightenment to masses. Jesus Christ Superstar (1970), a rock opera by However, soon his religion collapses, and Tommy Andrew Lloyd-Webber. As this work has already returns to the world of his fantasies. At first glance, been a subject of various researches (Цукер 1990, Tommy is a typical psychedelic ëWandererí and Ткаченко 1993, Конен 1994, Андрущенко 2007, rebel, lost in the maze of his dreams. At the second Kenrick 2010, etc.), we will not dwell on it in sight, there are such important themes as mira- detail. It is important to mention that the opera culous healing, creating and debunking a religious was written by a professional composer. Andrew cult, renouncing the spiritual leader, the motif of Lloyd-Webber is the son of an organist, graduate the magic mirror and the looking-glass. And the of the Royal College of Music (1970), who was very figure of deaf-blinded hero is deeply sym- just starting his career at that moment, having bolic by itself. It is a clear reminder of the famous written a couple of musicals. Together with the Confucian ìthree wise monkeysî formula See no librettist Tim Rice, he presented his view of the evil, hear no evil, speak no evil, which represent traditional Biblical story, updating it in the spirit the idea of staying away from lie and evil actions. of hippie philosophy. However, in The Whoís interpretation, this image The composer got creative instincts to mix becomes a critical portrait of modern society, the stylistic features of various kinds of rock and which turns a blind eye to real problems for the other styles of popular music with the influence sake of imaginary well-being and pleasure. of baroque and classical music. Besides the opera, As already mentioned, the rock opera Tommy Webberís work was obviously influenced by the was originally composed and recorded by the genre of Passions. There are many thematic elements band itself. The roles of all the characters (Tommy, in Jesus Christ Superstar that semantically are Mother, Father, Doctor, Acid Queen and others) close to Bachís music ñ the motif of the cross that were performed by The Who vocalist Roger goes through the whole opera, and the glorious Daltrey, who achieved an amazing impersonation theme of the Superstar. The through-line action, ability because of his vocal diversity and special despite the prominence of the traditional forms singing techniques (falsetto, screams) and multi- of opera (recitatives, arias, ensembles, choirs), is channel overlays. The only orchestral instrument masterfully directed to culmination (a scene in used was the French horn (played by The Who the garden of Gethsemane) and catharsis (Super- bassist John Entwistle). However, rich sound was star). It is noteworthy that Webber introduces a created by the intense playing, complementary group character, the Crowd, which is not a com- percussion rhythms and the vocal polyphony. mentator, but an active participant of the action. The opera starts with an instrumental over- A rich sound palette includes orchestral instru- ture, with the themes that later appear as leitmotifs. ments along with a rock band, often contrasting The central one is the theme See me, feel me, each other. In 1971, the opera was staged as a

44 E. SAVITSKAYA. FROM ROCK SYMPHONY TO METAL OPERA: CLASSICAL GENRES AND FORMS IN ROCK MUSIC

Broadway musical and appeared on stages in of studio (rather than theatrical and stage) form many countries. In 1973 a film was shot. of existence (vinyl, CD etc.); second, with some Thus, the first two rock operas ñ Tommy and exceptions, the departure from the basic rules of Jesus Christ Superstar ñ started two main typolo- opera dramaturgy. That means the absence of gical branches of the genre. First, the rock opera traditional opera elements (overture, ìariasî and created by the rock band (the principle of unity ensembles) and, more important, the avoidance of the author and the performer is kept), and of statements from the first person (persons) in second, the rock opera created by professional general ñ even if the story has the protagonist composers (the author is separated from the per- and other characters6. Thus, the plot embodies former). On the other hand, these works represent as a kind of psychedelic trip. two dramaturgic principles ñ opera with the An interesting example is the double album number structure and opera with the through- The Wall by Pink Floyd (1979), where the main line of action5. Each of these branches developed anti-totalitarian idea is shown through the prism their own way. The field of professional rock of the personal story of alienation and self-isola- opera in the late 1970s shifted towards the musical tion of the musician named Pink. This character (or rather returned to it: Evita, Cats, The Phan- has practically no lines from the first person, his tom of the Opera by Webber, etc). Rock opera inner transformation (as well as the plots of other by rockers mostly appeared in the form of studio heroes) are shown as if from aside. At the same recordings, although some of them received stage time, in the dramatic development, there are some or cinematographic implementations. These are elements of an opera performance (features of Quadrophenia, the next rock opera by The Who, an overture, leitmotifs, grand finale with an the albums Thick as a Brick and A Passion Play ensemble of characters sung by one soloist, thematic by Jethro Tull, The Lamb Lies Down on Broad- arch from the introduction to the conclusion). way by Genesis, The Wall by Pink Floyd, and But still, The Wall is not a rock opera, but a others. concept album with the features of a rock opera. In general, sometimes it is difficult to distin- However, the theatrical and cinematic potential guish rock operas and concept albums ñ the main of The Wall was very strong: it was performed type of a large form in rock music. Concept albums on stage (not in theatres though, rather at the appeared in the late 1960s primarily as studio huge stadiums and even at the Berlin Wall) as a works and experienced the influence of opera, grandiose theatrical show and the film version vocal cycle, suites, soundtracks, and radio shows. was produced. An album can be called concept when it is conceived as an inseparable work with a common storyline, rather than a collection of almost unrelated songs. The unity of narrative is achieved by the plot METAL-, SPACE, FOLK-OPERA: A NEW LIFE OF THE GENRE? development, the poetical flow, as well as by the unity of the music material, including thematic connections (reprises, leitmotifs, etc.). Concept In the 1980s, large forms in rock declined. albums can be composed both as multi-movement Artists and the public paid more attention to indi- cycles (separate movements that form a whole vidual tracks, hits, and video clips. The revival entity) and as extended, internally-expanded rhap- of interest in concept albums, rock operas and sodic forms. Unifying the material often happens mixes with classical music gradually re-appeared also by means of sound engineering ñ collaging at the turn of the 1990s. Some transitional forms and cross-fading the tracks, changing the sounds can be found among the works of Danish heavy (we can draw parallels with the cinema here). metal musician King Diamond (Abigail 1987, Them Important criteria for distinguishing concept 1988, Conspiracy 1989, The Eye 1990). These albums from rock operas are, first, the priority albums have detailed plots in the horror spirit,

5 These two types are distinguished by Valery Syrov (Сыров 2017: 149), although in practice they are very often mixed. 6 The primacy of the studio form and the scoring of all the characters by one singer, as we remember, were typical of Tommy, but there were also solo statements, ensembles and other structural signs of the opera (overture, orchestra interludes), which makes it possible to qualify this work as a rock opera.

45 MUSIC SCIENCE TODAY: THE PERMANENT AND THE CHANGEABLE ñ 3 (11) with several characters all performed by Diamond on the idioms of the so-called power metal with himself. In 1991, Peter Hammill, the former leader its heroic sound. and vocalist of the British progressive group Van Note, however, that in the structure of Ayreon Der Graaf Generator, recorded the album The and Avantasia, the through-line development Fall of the House of Usher and defined it as an almost loses its importance. The track (number) opera ñ without the prefix rock. Indeed, this work structure holds albums in their rigid framework. is closer to classical opera performance, despite Overture is replaced by a small instrumental pre- the fact that it has never been put on stage. The lude, the reprise is most often limited to repeats charactersí roles are entrusted to different singers of one of the themes, and the characters themselves (Hammill plays the roles of Roderik Asher and are very static. The action is hampered by numerous the House), the action is divided into six acts, solo and ensemble numbers (arias, ballads, songs, the number structure (recitative, aria-ballads, and romances, etc.) in the absence of moving elements ensembles) is united by dynamic development. (recitative, symphonized development). However, In the mid-1990s, the Dutch musician Arjen in the best cases, it is compensated by the quality Lucassen ìinventsî the space opera genre ñ the of the musical material coming to the fore. The author gives this label to his large-scale works manner of singing of many performers is getting on sci-fi and philosophical topics recorded in the close to the opera ñ high clean tenors, well-trained styles of progressive rock and progressive metal. sopranos. For Ayreon, stage performance is not Arjen founds the Ayreon project, inviting popular the priority ñ for all the years of existence, only a rock singers and instrumentalists for each specific few concerts in costumes were given. Avantasiaís album. One of the best albums is the space opera metal operas are quite often performed in concerts, Into the Electric Castle (1998). Here, eight guest where the lack of stage directions is compensated vocalists perform the roles of the representatives by emotional acting and playing. of different historical epochs, collected by some In the 1990ñ2000s, the opera approach infil- higher power for an experiment ñ the survival in trates into other metal subgenres. Good voices the Electric Castle. The result must be the realiza- are valued (singers often are trained by opera tion of the value of their feelings and emotions. teachers), and the very atmosphere of theatricality, the proximity to high art is created also by The unifying power is the mysterious Voice, whose lush costumes, scenery. Some examples are Night- mid-song narratives are heard at the beginning wish, Rhapsody, Evanescence, Within Temptation, of each composition. In the album The Human Edenbridge and others. This trend coincided with Equation (2004), the hero, falling into a coma, the boom of the so-called classic-crossover genre travels through the depths of his memory, meeting on the pop scene: famous opera singers perform there not only his loved ones and friends but also popular song repertoire or classical hits in pop personified feelings and moral qualities (Pride, and electronic arrangements (see Журкова 2016). Rage, Passion, Love, etc.). In this sense, Lucassenís The tradition of rock bands playing their hits with albums pertain not only to operas and ancient symphonic orchestras is also living in the 2000s ñ Greek tragedy, where heroes obey the will of the from American thrash metal band Metallica to gods but also to medieval Morality Play, where English progressive rockers Jethro Tull and Rus- allegorical characters act along with the protagonist. sian bands Aria, Bi-2, and others. A close-by-intent project is Avantasia of In conclusion, I would like to briefly describe German singer Tobias Sammet, the leader of the way Russian rock opera has evolved. An power metal band Edguy. He uses the term metal important push was the appearance of Jesus opera for Avantasia releases, and the name of Christ Superstar, which, despite all prohibitions, the project is a merge of the words Avalon and was well known in the USSR in the early 1970s. fantasy, a kind of a magical country where the The first domestic rock operas created by profes- stories unfold. Two first albums, parts of the sional composers carried self-made genre defini- initial metal opera Avantasia, released in 2001 tions. Thus, Alexander Zhurbinís Orpheus and and 2002, are considered the best. Again, there Eurydice (stage production ñ 1975, studio recor- is the influence of myths and various religious ding ñ 1980) was named the song opera (which traditions reinvented in fantasy style. For recording emphasized the connection with the Berthold (and for the live show), Sammet invites a whole Brecht and Kurt Weillís theatre), The Star and host of singers from popular heavy metal bands, Death of Joaquin Murieta by Alexei Rybnikov and the stylistics of his music is completely based (1976/1978) ñ a musical performance based on

46 E. SAVITSKAYA. FROM ROCK SYMPHONY TO METAL OPERA: CLASSICAL GENRES AND FORMS IN ROCK MUSIC the dramatic cantata by Pablo Neruda, his Juno vocal forms) structure and through-line drama- and Avos (1981/1982) was defined as the opera- turgy, visuality, and theatricality, the special com- mystery, as soon as the studio recording of folk- municative abilities of the opera. The moment rock opera Guslyar by the vocal-instrumental of the introduction to the high culture is also very ensemble (VIA) Pesnyary was labeled a poem- important, especially at the turn of the 1990ñ legend. The reason was not just the difficulties 2000s, when rock music experiences a certain (if not strict prohibition) of using the word rock crisis, both intonational and semantic. And, of in the 1970s and first half of the 1980s in the course, to be the author of an opera (albeit with Soviet Union, but also the diversity of genres and the prefix rock) ñ it is simply rising oneís ego styles in those works: from rock and beat to popular and adding to the authority for a rock musician. song, urban music, folklore, sacred music, Neo- Two branches continue to develop today ñ classicism and even academic avant-garde. Such composers and, so to speak, underground rock a breadth of views, sometimes close to eclecticism, opera, created by rock musicians themselves and is also typical for rock operas that appeared later recorded/staged on their own (often turning into (Stadium and Master and Margarita by Alexander some kind of all-stars project). Meanwhile, there Gradsky, Crime and Punishment by Edward is an increasing number of operas that exist only Artemyev). in a studio version, which makes them closer to From the late 1970s, the underground branch the genre of the concept album. The rock opera of the Russian rock opera also started to develop. is enriched with new kinds (space opera, metal First was the stage production of Prometheus the opera, punk opera, folk-rock opera), thus signi- Chained by the band Visokosnoye Leto (1976). ficantly widening the range of the style. Besides, Unfortunately, most of those works remained some fundamentally eclectic works have appeared. unrecorded. In the 2000s, influenced by foreign In addition to rock, they involve a wide spectrum colleagues, Russian rock bands also became fasci- of operatic and symphonic classics, urban folklore, nated with the idea of metal opera based on histo- pop music ñ such as Crime and Punishment by rical and fairy-tale subjects. The first and very Eduard Artemyev. In this case, the definition of vivid example is the metal opera The Elven Manu- rock opera seems to be inappropriate ñ but the script by the Moscow power metal band Epidemia new designation has not been invented yet. (which has three sequels up to date, each of them Thus, among the classical genres, opera is having been presented in stage versions). It is the most consonant to rock. Following the fashion, worth noting also the multi-volume works of the rock opera has proved to be surprisingly stable projects Dynasty of the Initiated, Forces United, and flexible at the same time. Symphony and con- th recent works of the Albion, Kolizei, Kreolis bands. certo, while being able to carry in the 20 century Among the achievements of the Latvian branch any poetic and emotional content, are more of the genre, we can name the rock operas Ei, j˚s difficult to interpret by rockers because of their tur! (Hey, you there! 1970/71) by Imants KalniÚ strict structural and compositional rules. The and L‚ËplÁsis by Zigmars LiepiÚ, based on the greatest freedom in the layout and the content of Latvian national epos (the production ñ 1988, the material is available with a concept album the audio version ñ 1990). that sums up different influences of composition and genre: from opera, suite and symphonic poem to modern genres ñ variety, radio plays, soundtracks. Their interaction requires further study. CONCLUSION

Opera, as one of the most influential music REFERENCES genres, continues to attract rock musicians and gives them new impulses for creative development. Rock refers to opera as the most plastic genre Kenrick, John (2010). Musical Theatre: A History. New York: Bloomsbury Publishing. that allows conveying big topics and problems, Schuller, Gunther (1986). Musings. The Musical and at the same time as to a very emotional, exciting Worlds of Gunther Schuller. New York, Oxford: and sincere art, appealing directly to the listener; Oxford University Press. these features of opera were noticed by Boris Mayen, Rodrigues Sebastian (2015). Imants Kalnins: Asafiev (Асафьев 1976). Among the reasons is Rock, Minimalism and the Soviet School. also the possibility of combining the number (small http://musicalhistories.blogspot.com/2015/07/

47 MUSIC SCIENCE TODAY: THE PERMANENT AND THE CHANGEABLE ñ 3 (11)

contemporary-voices-v-russian-and.html ñ visited науки, культурология и искусствоведение. Вопро- on August 20, 2018. сы теории и практики 5 (79): 46–48. Андрущенко, Елена (2007). Мюзиклы Э. Ллойда- Диденко, Татьяна (1987). Рок-музыка: на пути к Уэббера конца 1960–1980-х годов. Сюжеты, жанр, «большой форме». Советская музыка 6: 23–28. стилистика. Aвтореферат диссертации по искус- Журкова, Дарья (2016). Искушение прекрасным. ствоведению. Ростов-на-Дону, 2007. Классическая музыка в современной массовой куль- Арановский, Марк (1979). Симфонические искания. туре. Москва: Новое литературное обозрение. Ленинград: Советский композитор. Конен, Валентина (1994). Третий пласт. Новые мас- Асафьев, Борис (1976). Об опере. Избранные статьи. совые жанры в музыке XX века. Москва: Музыка. Ленинград: Музыка, 1976. Сыров, Валерий (2017). Стилевые метаморфозы Боброва, Марина (2011). Отечественный мюзикл и рока. Санкт-Петербург: Планета музыки. рок-опера в контексте жанровых взаимодействий Ткаченко, Виктория (1993). Проблемы рок-оперы (на в музыке второй половины ХХ – начала XXI века. примере музыкально-сценических сочинений А. Рыб- Aвтореферат диссертации по искусствоведению. никова). Aвтореферат диссертации по искусство- Ростов-на-Дону. ведению. Москва. Виниченко, Андрей (2017). Стилистические и жан- Цукер, Анатолий (1990). У истоков рок-оперы. ровые традиции академической музыкальной Музыка и ты: Альманах для школьников 9: 56–64. культуры в творчестве Джона Лорда. Историчес- Цукер, Анатолий (1993). И рок, и симфония. Москва: кие, философские, политические и юридические Композитор.

48 Saxophone in Contemporary Work of Wroc˘aw Composers

Dr. hab. art. RYSZARD ZOLEDZIEWSKI Karol LipiÒski Academy of Music (Wroc˘aw)

Saxophone plays a significant role in contemporary music. This is evidenced by the number of compositions written for this musical instrument in recent years. From many composers of the creative environment of Wroc˘aw, the author of the paper has chosen four artists, who in recent years have composed valuable pieces for saxophone, and with its participation. They are such outstanding artists as Krystian Kie˘b, Robert Kurdybacha, Miros˘aw G‡sieniec, and Adam PorÊbski. The list of their works and brief analyses of numerous musical examples and concert recordings are supplemented with the musiciansí biographical profiles and general achievements. These artistsí works have significantly enriched the modern saxophone literature. Keywords: saxophone, Krystian Kie˘b, Robert Kurdybacha, Miros˘aw G‡sieniec, Adam PorÊbski, Wroc˘aw artists, works for saxophone.

INTRODUCTION ramme of Managing Educational and Cultural Institutions. He has composed several dozen musical The work of contemporary composers of the pieces for various instrumental, vocal and vocal- Wroc˘aw artistic community who write music for and-instrumental ensembles. His works have been saxophone is very significant on the scene of Polish performed, for instance, in Poland, Germany, art. Among the most important ones are such Austria, the Czech Republic, UK, France, Sweden, outstanding artists as Krystian Kie˘b, Robert Ukraine, Lithuania, USA, at music festivals, perfor- Kurdybacha, Miros˘aw G‡sieniec, and Adam mance courses and competitions, and as obligatory PorÊbski. Currently, these four artists play a signi- works as well. ficant role in the contemporary saxophone music for this region of Poland. Their works have been performed at various events, including Music Festivals in Poland, Belgium, the Netherlands, Spain, and Ukraine. Thanks to the involvement of these composers, Polish music literature has been significantly enriched with many valuable saxophone compositions.

DR. HAB., PROF. KRYSTIAN KIEŸB: COMPOSER, MUSIC THEORIST, ACADEMIC, ORGANIZER OF ARTISTIC LIFE

Krystian Kie˘b graduated from the Karol LipiÒski Academy of Music in Wroc˘aw: he had studied in Composition class of Prof. Zygmunt Herembeszta and the class of Music Theory; in both cases receiving the degree with distinction. He also completed the Postgraduate Study Prog- Example 1. Krystian Kie˘b

49 MUSIC SCIENCE TODAY: THE PERMANENT AND THE CHANGEABLE ñ 3 (11)

Since 1992, he has been professionally con- of Culture and National Heritage. He has been a nected with the Karol LipiÒski Academy of Music music competition judge. He has received nume- in Wroc˘aw, where he has conducted the compo- rous prizes, distinctions and state decorations. sition class as well as seminars for PhD, MA and BA students in composition and theory of music Versus for saxophone and organ and has taught theoretical subjects. On many occasions, he has been a supervisor or a reviewer The composition was written in 2017, inspired as part of the procedure leading to the conferment by highly-regarded, Wroc˘aw-based saxophone of the academic degree of PhD, doctor habilitatus, player Ryszard ›o˘Êdziewski. Its first performance or professor, or the award of the degree honoris took place on 27 April 2017 at Kharkiv in Ukraine, causa. In the period 1999ñ2005, he was the Vice- during the 5th International Contemporary Music Rector, and in 2008ñ2016 ñ the Rector of the Festival Kharkiv Contemporary 2017. The piece Karol LipiÒski Music Academy in Wroc˘aw. Since was performed by Duo Sonorus: Ryszard ›o˘Ê- 2017, he has been in charge of the Chair of Com- dziewski ñ saxophone, and Piotr Rojek ñ organ. position of the Karol LipiÒski Academy of Music The composition was dedicated to its first perfor- in Wroc˘aw. Furthermore, in the years 2005ñ mers. The title Versus refers to the concept of 2006, he managed the Section for the History of confrontation that is present throughout the piece, Silesian Musical Culture, and in the years 2002ñ becoming its form-shaping factor, and affecting 2008 ñ the Postgraduate Study Programme in its various facets ñ from structural elements to Managing Educational and Cultural Institutions. sound. As regards time and movement control, In the years 2005ñ2008, he was actively involved the confrontation concerns, for instance, the coin implementing the Bologna Process in higher existence of time-stretched sound planes with education, with a special emphasis on higher artistic busy runs. This type of confrontation is presented education; he also was a member of the Bologna in Example 2, which shows the sound plane in Expertsí Team. Currently, he is a member of the the organ part confronted with busy runs in the Artistic Education Council attached to the Minister saxophone part.

Example 2. Krystian Kie˘b. Versus for saxophone and organ

50 R. ZOLEDZIEWSKI. SAXOPHONE IN CONTEMPORARY WORK OF WROCŸAW COMPOSERS MUSIC PERFORMANCE

Confrontations of various acoustic pheno- sounds of a specific pitch, in the saxophone part ñ mena are shown in Example 3: in the organ part ñ percussion effects.

Example 3. Krystian Kie˘b. Versus for saxophone and organ

DR. HAB. ROBERT KURDYBACHA (1971): He started his career as a conductor and CONDUCTOR, COMPOSER AND ART DIRECTOR worked with the High Music School Chamber OF SOUND FACTORY ORCHESTRA Orchestra in Wroc˘aw. Later he was working with ensembles specializing in modern music: Tech-no Orchestra, R-20 Orchestra and, finally, Sound Factory Orchestra.

Concerto for Alto Saxophone

Concerto for Saxophone is a piece comprised of paradoxes such as title instrument has under- gone in the history of music ñ heavily marked by rock and jazz music, though equally found also in classical literature. It was not created by coincidence. There was a necessity for somebody who would give impetus and inspiration, show sound of the saxophone in a new form and make an effort to perform those Example 4. Robert Kurdybacha curious notes. Ryszard ›o˘Êdziewski, mentioned above, trig- Robert Kurdybacha is a graduate of the Com- gered that confusion and the piece, which brought position and Conducting Faculty of the Karol together all the ideas proposed by the performer LipiÒski Academy of Music in Wroc˘aw. Currently, and processed by the composerís mind, was created. he works at the Academy running the composition Concerto for Alto Saxophone and Chamber class, lectures on instrumentation, arrangement, Orchestra is a specific composition and seems to as well as directs ensembles specialized in contem- be written awry. It neither sets a typical theme porary music. nor finishes with a striking coda. There is no clear He is the laureate of more than ten music division into parts and the cadenza spills over into contests, and his Concert for the guitar and string orchestral excerpts. The scheme of this piece is like received the recommendation of International a replica of a creative process, a transfer of all Rostrum of Composers in Paris. He has composed the moments when the sounds, motives, phrases, several dozen pieces: from a solo piece for the viola longer processes are created in the composerís mind. to symphonic compositions that include electric It starts with a single, meaningless note. Since guitars. there is no idea what to do, it can be repeated ñ

51 MUSIC SCIENCE TODAY: THE PERMANENT AND THE CHANGEABLE ñ 3 (11) once, twice, thrice... later a little pitch inflected, sets ill-assorted notes. But now it is the end. then more and more and... stop, for a while, then Enough! (see Example 7). get back to it (see Example 5). The Concerto and its premiere were co- The distortion of the particular process is financed by the Ministry of Culture and National anything but an attempt to the trashing of will Heritage of the Republic of Poland within the to the subsistence of this one note. Multiphonics, programme Collections ñ the priority Composition screeches and other sound effects strike this steady Commissions implemented by the Institute of process but it seems ineffectual. Finally, two Music and Dance. Polish premiere took place in musical worlds mix in the thick of struggle Wroc˘aw (Poland) on November 20, 2015; the leading to the culmination (see Example 6). world premiere ñ on November 23, 2015. The It hits with a beat of rock to fade after a while. soloist was Ryszard ›o˘Êdziewski. The composition The continuation is an attempt to save what has was written for Sound Factory Orchestra, which to be so attractive for listeners, to top out the majors in different actions and is able to imple- Concerto with a striking finale. Not a bit of it. ment the most sophisticated and imaginative Admittedly, the main theme appears none too ideas. In that composer took the liberty of doing legible because somebody repeatedly disturbs and as much as his creativity prompted him.

Example 5. Robert Kurdybacha. Concerto for Alto Saxophone and Chamber Orchestra

52 R. ZOLEDZIEWSKI. SAXOPHONE IN CONTEMPORARY WORK OF WROCŸAW COMPOSERS MUSIC PERFORMANCE

Example 6. Robert Kurdybacha. Concerto for Alto Saxophone and Chamber Orchestra

Example 7. Robert Kurdybacha. Concerto for Alto Saxophone and Chamber Orchestra

Sequel to Example 7 see on the next page.

53 MUSIC SCIENCE TODAY: THE PERMANENT AND THE CHANGEABLE ñ 3 (11)

Sequel to Example 7. Robert Kurdybacha. Concerto for Alto Saxophone and Chamber Orchestra

DR. HAB. MIROSŸAW G¿SIENIEC: tion) in composition in 1988. He was awarded COMPOSER AND PIANIST the scholarship by the Frederic Chopin Society ñ in 1979 and once again in 1980. In the years 1985ñ1994 he taught at Wroc˘aw Music Academy, then returned in 1999, and now he is a senior lecturer at the Department of Chamber Music. He held the post of President of the Wroc˘aw section of the Polish Composersí Association from 1991 to 1994. He is the originator, creator and since 1991 artistic director of Understanding, the Silesian International Music Festival (later renamed EuroSilesia, as of 2003, which remains under the patronage of the illustrious conductor Kurt Masur). In the period 2001ñ2006 Miros˘aw G‡sieniec held the position of Vice President of the Wroc˘aw Frederic Chopin Society, of which he is now the President (since 2006). G‡sieniec performs in concerts both in Example 8. Miros˘aw G‡sieniec Poland and abroad, as a soloist and a musician of the chamber orchestra. He was a member of Miros˘aw G‡sieniec was born on 22 May the Wroc˘aw Piano Trio in the years 1985ñ1986. 1954 in Brzeg, Poland. In the years 1972ñ1980 In 2000, he recorded a CD with piano music; he he studied with Witold Lutos˘awski, moreover, is the author of virtuoso arrangements for solo he was the recipient of Lutos˘awskiís private scho- piano of works by, among others, Johann Strauss, larship. He studied piano playing with Jerzy Franz Liszt, and Emil Liebling. In 2001, together Godziszewski at the State Higher School of Music with Konstanty Andrzej Kulka, they recorded a (now ñ the Karol LipiÒski Music Academy) in CD of Ludwig van Beethoven Beethoven and Wroc˘aw from 1975 to 1979 and graduated with Johannes Brahms violin sonatas. The year 2008 distinction. He continued his studies there under brought forth a double album containing all the the guidance of Zygmunt Herembeszta, and remaining piano works composed by Antoni received the second diploma (again, with distinc- Stolpe.

54 R. ZOLEDZIEWSKI. SAXOPHONE IN CONTEMPORARY WORK OF WROCŸAW COMPOSERS MUSIC PERFORMANCE

G‡sieniec is a prize winner at Polish and inter- Adam PorÊbski graduated from the Music national compositional competitions ñ in Cracow Academy in Wroc˘aw, having studied in the com- (1977), the Jeunesses Musicales in Belgrade (1978), position class of Krystian Kie˘b (Primus Inter Pares in Stalowa Wola (1979) and the Bad Orb compe- honours) and the violin class of Ma˘gorzata Kogut- tition in Germany in 1981. In 1990, he was Slanda. He also attended compositional master presented the Deserved operator of culture award classes in Apeldoorn, Radziejowice, and Cracow. for accomplishment in culture, as well as received In 2016, he obtained the PhD in musical arts. He the Silver Cross of Merit and the Golden Cross has received numerous scholarships from the of Merit in 2000 and 2012, respectively. Polish Ministry of Culture and has won awards His compositional output consists of piano at Polish and international composition competi- st and chamber music, including Piano Quintet, tions, e.g., 1 prize in the Fourth Witold Szalonek orchestral music, including Ostinato, Toccata, Composition Competition of The Silesian Rostrum rd two concerts for trumpet, Kreisau-Oratorio in of Composers in Katowice (2009), 3 prize in memoriam Helmuth James von Moltke and the Grzegorz Fitelberg Polish National Competi- nd cantata music St Hedwig of Silesia, St John of tion for Composers in Katowice (2011), 2 prize God, as well as film music. Miros˘aw G‡sieniecís in the Krzysztof Penderecki International Com- compositions for saxophone: posersí Competition ARBORETUM in Radom ó pieces for saxophone ensemble: Barkarola (2012). His works have been performed throughout Europe, the USA, and Australia. Moreover, (2012), Bolero (2012), Tango (2012), Taniec he is an avid performer, notably acting as live (2012); electronics improviser. ó pieces for solo saxophone and brass band: PorÊbskiís output includes pieces with saxo- Bolero (2013), Tango (2013), Spanish Dance phone ñ solo or as a part of chamber ensemble (2013); or orchestra. The most important pieces with ó chamber pieces: Bolero ñ trio for soprano saxophone: Zwrotki for saxophone orchestra, saxophone, violin and piano (2013), Tango ñ tuba and drum set (2018), SubMelodie for alto trio for soprano saxophone, violin and piano saxophone and piano (2017), Dyskulacje for five (2013), Tarantela ñ trio for soprano saxo- instruments (2017), Flesz 70 for symphony phone, violin and piano (2013), Thema con orchestra (2016), or ReVerse 3 for clarinet (or variationi ñ trio for alto saxophone, violin tenor saxophone), double bass and piano (2014). and piano (2013). SubMelodie is a piece for alto saxophone and piano composed at the end of 2017, dedicated to Ryszard ›o˘Êdziewski. The duration of the piece MAG ADAM POR∆BSKI: COMPOSER, VIOLINIST, is about 8 minutes and 30 seconds. Structurally PIANIST, IMPROVISER, ARRANGER, PRODUCER, the composition can be divided into four sections LECTURER, AND TEACHER (I ñ b. 1-88; II ñ b. 89-106; III ñ 107-121; IV ñ b. 122-160). Each of them is different in terms of character and texture and exploits the potential of instruments in different ways. The piece opens with a punctualistic texture ñ single piano strokes based on the Lydian dominant scale and the tempo of a crochet = 60 introduce the mood of the composition. As the texture thickens, the saxophone part emerges gradually, evolving from single sounds to melodic motifs consisting of several tones (see Example 10). The low register of the instrument is mostly used and the dynamics increase gradually from ppp to f. The next section brings in a change of character ñ the piano part consists of restless Example 9. Adam PorÊbski three-note motifs played staccato and forte. The saxophone part initially presents descending melodies that slightly relieve the tension (see Example 11).

55 MUSIC SCIENCE TODAY: THE PERMANENT AND THE CHANGEABLE ñ 3 (11)

Example 10. Adam PorÊbski. SubMelodie

Example 11. Adam PorÊbski. SubMelodie

In the following bars, the parts of both instru- proper dynamic proportions are maintained. In ments become united ñ both the piano and the terms of form, the composition can be divided saxophone play motifs of repeated sounds staccato. into two sections. The first one is based on the Both parts are dominated by interval leaps, in the idea of a gradual dynamic and instrumental growth saxophone part, these are the seventh and the and constant repetition of a two-bar melodic-and- ninth intervals that prevail. The third section is rhythmic motif (see Example 12). the most cantilena-like. The saxophone plays short repeated phrases against the background of arpeggiated chords in the piano part. Gradually the composition moves towards the high register of the saxophone and approaches the climax, which is followed by the last section in a slightly slower tempo (meno mosso, b. 122). It is based Example 12. Adam PorÊbski. Zwrotki on the repetition of a two-bar phrase with a change of dynamics. The piano part is dominated by poly- The second section contrasts with the previous phonic texture and the saxophone doubles indivi- one in terms of tempo (it is slower), texture and dual voices ñ from the highest to the lowest one. expression. A new motif is introduced and played The ending of the piece refers back to the begin- by the instruments combined in various configu- ning ñ the Lydian dominant scale is used with rations (see Example 13). similar rhythms and arrangement ideas. Zwrotki [Strophes] is a seven-minute piece composed in 2018 for quite an unusual group of instruments, i.e. saxophone orchestra (2 soprano saxophones, 4 alto saxophones, 3 tenor saxophones, and 2 baritone saxophones), tuba, and percussions set. The tuba part may also be played Example 13. Adam PorÊbski. Zwrotki or doubled by bass saxophone provided that

56 R. ZOLEDZIEWSKI. SAXOPHONE IN CONTEMPORARY WORK OF WROCŸAW COMPOSERS MUSIC PERFORMANCE

The section evolves and turns smoothly into literature. Kie˘bís compositional output includes the final phase with a new motif, rhythmically several dozen works belonging to various genres related to the initial one. A gradual accelerando and forms of instrumental, vocal, and vocal-instru- culminates in a daring coda where the motif is mental music. His compositions have had premieres played jointly by all the instruments (see Example and numerous performances at home and abroad, 14). including Germany, Austria, the Czech Republic, Great Britain, France, Sweden, Ukraine, and the USA. Kurdybacha ñ composer, conductor and academic teacher related to Academy of Music in Wroc˘aw; he is the winner of more than ten national and international music competitions, creator of a number of symphonic and chamber music pieces and studies. G‡sieniec ñ the winner Example 14. The section evolves and turns of national and international composition compe- into the final phase, which culminates titions. PorÊbskiís creative work includes various in a daring coda where the motif is played jointly genres and forms of instrumental, vocal, vocal- by all the instruments instrumental, and electroacoustic music. Janusz Brych ñ saxophonist, flutist and composer. ›o˘Ê- These composers, chosen from a large group dziewski ñ saxophonist, teacher, educator, arranger, of Wroc˘aw artists, significantly contribute to the and composer. He studied contemporary music, enrichment of contemporary saxophone literature its artistry and compositional craft under the direc- not only in Polish but also in the international tion of Henri Pousseur (Belgium) and Urs Peter arena. Schneider (Switzerland). These composers, chosen from a large group of Wroc˘aw artists, significantly contribute to the enrichment of contemporary saxophone literature not only in Polish but CONCLUSION also in the international arena.

These artistsí works have significantly enriched the modern saxophone literature. REFERENCES Saxophone plays a significant role in contemporary music. This is evidenced by the number of musical pieces written for this instrument in Kielb, Krystian (2017). VERSUS for saxophone and organ, unpublished work. recent years. From many composers of the creative Kurdybacha, Robert (2015a). Concerto for Alto Saxo- environment of Wroc˘aw, the author has chosen phone and Chamber Orchestra, work is available four artists, who in recent years have composed in the public domain: http://ninateka.pl/audio/ valuable works for saxophone, and with its parti- koncert-na-saksofon-i-orkiestre-kameralna-robert- cipation. These are such outstanding artists as kurdybacha ñ visited on February 28, 2019. Krystian Kie˘b, Robert Kurdybacha, Miros˘aw Kurdybacha, Robert (2015b). Concerto for Alto Saxo- G‡sieniec, and Adam PorÊbski. The list of their phone and Chamber Orchestra, orchestral parts are works and brief analyses of numerous musical available in the public domain: https://zamowienia kompozytorskie.pl/en/ ñ visited on February 28, examples and concert recordings are supplemented 2019. with the musiciansí biographical profiles and Porebski, Adam (2018). Zwrotki, unpublished work. general achievements. These artistsí works have Porebski, Adam (2017). SubMelodie, unpublished significantly enriched the modern saxophone work.

57 MUSIC PERFORMANCE

Stylistic Identity in Music Performance: Laboratory Sterility Vs. a Living Creative Process

Dr. hab. art. LEONIDAS MELNIKAS Professor, Lithuanian Academy of Music and Theatre

Musical work, both in composition and in performance, is a never-ending synthesis of practices, ideas, and influences. Such a synthesis presupposes talent in the artist, with the union of opposites resulting in harmony; it is not merely an excuse for yet another disappointment, a thoughtless agglomeration of all upon all. For such a synthesis, one needs knowledge and mastery, since only through knowledge it is possible to transform something in oneís art, to grow innovation from it, to bring it into a new creative context. Synthesis is the epitome of the living creative process. The problems of artistic synthesis are considered from the point of view of stylistic identity in music performance. Keywords: stylistic traditions, canons, musical innovation, fashion.

INTRODUCTION First of all, it embodies the relativism and changing nature of artistic notions. In our activi- (...) I always found it impossible to view style ties, we are used to operating with truths which, in music as a subject of historical tradition. Beauty, to us, seem solidly grounded and unshakeable. not tradition, serves as the criterion of any style. In large measure, such truths include our notions And it is absolutely not necessary to view some- of musical style. As a rule, they are subject to thing as beautiful in the 20th century which could little change within relatively long spans of time be viewed as beauty in the 18th century. In me, (one generation, or the artistic legacy of one musi- thereís no respect for this shabby word, ìtraditionî, cian). However, when we stretch the temporal in the sense in which it is widely used. If respect frames of such canonsí life, we immediately see for tradition is brought to its logical end, then all that their stability is quite illusory. Time changes of us should still be living in the Stone Age and everything. Moisey Khalfin, a wonderful piano acting exactly as our ancestors. Tradition in music, teacher who taught Grigory Sokolov among many as in all other areas, is the antithesis of progress; an excellent musician, often repeated this aphorism it is the letter that kills any living spirit. What is during class: in music, it is not that the right is honest and true in one century must change in good, but rather that the good is right (quoted another in light of different circumstances, since after Melnikas n.d.). Here, good is a value judg- truth progresses. The aesthetic truth of one era, ment that always corresponds to a certain era the performance truth of one generation may be and is always historical. deemed a false dogma of the next generation. Second, Auerís opinion highlights the confron- This is because each era sets its own criteria and tation between following canons, on the one forms its own judgments (Ауэр 2014: 81). hand, and the dynamic nature of art, on the other. These are the words of Leopold Auer, a notable The very essence of art presupposes changes: the violinist and pedagogue whose students Jascha creation of the new rather than the repetition of Heifetz, Nathan Milstein, and Efrem Zimbalist the old; originality rather than imitation. The very in many respects determined the direction of deve- viability of art is preconditioned on dynamism lopment of violin performance in the 20th century. and the ability to change, rather than the canoni- What does this opinion embody? zation of traditions.

58 L. MELNIKAS. STYLISTIC IDENTITY IN MUSIC PERFORMANCE: LABORATORY STERILITY VS. A LIVING CREATIVE PROCESS

The third set of questions flows from the first tastes, determined what was considered art, and two. It is connected with the issue of whether it in many ways suppressed other artistic directions. is at all possible to maintain stylistic canons in However, it is a law of nature that the generation sterile form. As with artistic activity as a whole, of children will never agree to the views of parents, such canons are susceptible to the surrounding and so young Prokofiev demonstratively protested musical sphere, the audible phonosphere. Here his teachersí lifeblood and order of thinking. The we confront the problem of safekeeping (stability) Romantic canons, in his view, were yesterdayís vs. dynamism. news; they no longer quenched his thirst for the The problem of the confrontation of stability new; he was squarely aiming for the future. In a and dynamism may be resolved on the basis of 1911 concert, which was a part of the Evenings the idea of synthesis, which always accompanies of Contemporary Music, he was the first in Russia actual artistic work. Synthesis precisely embodies to perform Arnold Schˆnbergís Three Piano Pieces the coexistence and merging of traditions and (Прокофьев 1961: 146). In 1912 he wrote the innovations, when the ideas of the past are First Concerto for Piano and Orchestra, and in realized and find a new sound and new meaning. 1913 ñ the first version of the Second Concerto. It is the privilege of the performer to search for, That was his creative response, the alternative, find, and bring to the audience all of these changing in his view, to what surrounded him. The confron- forms of creative synthesis. tation of views served as the genesis of Prokofievís A specific event in the musical life of Vilnius conflict with his piano professor, the great Anna on 2 March 2018 served as the genesis of the Yesipova. She did not accept the modernism of idea of analysing these issues in this key. The event her student, and evaluating contemporary music, was the joint concert of the pianists and spouses their viewpoints were diametrically opposed. Lukas Geniuas and Anna GeniuienÎ, accompa- Nevertheless, the musical landscape is never nied by the Lithuanian State Symphony Orchestra uniform or sterile. While the general mood of conducted by Gintaras RinkeviËius. Two Mozart St. Petersburg hewed towards Romantic, various concertos were performed in the first half: Anna innovations were germinating, while the remini- played the Concerto for Piano and Orchestra No. scences of the Classical era were also felt during Prokofievís early years (the spirit of Classicism 25 in C major and then she and Lukas together is generally very strong in the culture of St. Peters- performed the Concerto for Two Pianos and burg). The heritage of the Classical era did not Orchestra in F major. In the second half, Lukas carry the whiff of the rejected Romanticism, since performed the Prokofiev Piano Concerto No. 3 Classicism had existed long before Romanticism in C major. and was free of later ideas which, in time, had Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and Sergei Pro- evolved into stifling caricatures. Viennese Classi- kofiev in the programme of a single concert: what cism, as an alternative to the by now quite low- was this combination meant to symbolize? brow and well-trod Romanticism, proved quite timely for the young musical revolutionaries. Precisely because of this, Classicism naturally THE FACTOR OF STYLISTIC SYNTHESIS merged into Prokofievís work, leaving an unfor- IN THE FORMATION OF A COMPOSERíS gettable imprint in his musical thinking. MUSICAL THINKING Anna Yesipovaís lessons were crucial in introducing Prokofiev to and cultivating his appreci- A photograph has come down to us from ation of the heritage of the Classical era. Yesipova 1908 with the 17-year old Prokofiev in front of had studied with Theodor Leschetizky, who in a bust of Mozart during a ball at St. Petersburg turn had studied with Carl Czerny, who, of course, Conservatory (Нестьева 1981: 32). This photo- had in turn studied with Ludwig van Beethoven. graph looks like an artistic manifesto, clearly In his childhood, Leschetizky even performed showing the desire of the young musician to take with an orchestra under the direction of Franz his own path, to break with the traditions which Xaver Wolfgang Mozart, the son of the great dominated at that moment in history. composer. Hence, the influence of the Viennese At the time, the tradition of Romanticism Classicists was clearly felt in the piano school of determined the views of the professoriate of Leschetizky and Yesipov‡. On the basis of talks St. Petersburg Conservatory and dominated with her pupils, Nikolay Bertelson characterized musical life more generally. Romanticism dictated Yesipovaís playing as follows: Small note passages

59 MUSIC SCIENCE TODAY: THE PERMANENT AND THE CHANGEABLE ñ 3 (11) found in her performance lightness, a lace intricacy, (Ö) the first line ñ Classical, with the earliest and extraordinary clarity. No matter how fast childhood at its source, when I heard Beethovenís she played them, each was clearly comprehended sonatas from my mother. Sometimes it takes on aurally (Бертельсон 1960: 110). Here is another, a neoclassical look (Ö), at other times ñ imitates a similar piece of evidence: An inborn well-bred the classics of the 18th century (Ö). The second delicacy, without any flirtation, was a key to her line is innovative (Ö). At first it consisted of the individuality ñ it was not overthought; her grace searches for its own harmonic language, and after- was not external but of internal, spiritual order wards turned into a search for a language to (Бертельсон 1960: 111). express strong emotions (Ö). Although it seems Yesipova was imbuing her pupils with similar to touch mainly upon the harmonic language, performance aesthetics. In Prokofievís case, it fell related to it are innovations in the intonation of on fertile ground: even as a child, he had listened melodies, in instrumentation and dramaturgy. to Beethovenís sonatas as played by his mother. The third line is of toccatas or, if you will, of Nonetheless, he encountered difficulties in taking motorics (Ö). This line, likely, is the least valu- over the principles of performance of the Viennese able. The fourth line is lyrical: at first, it shows classicists from Yesipova. He would complain: it up as lyrical-contemplative, sometimes not com- was difficult for me to unlearn playing a bit dirtily pletely tied into the melodics, at least the long (Прокофьев 1961: 146). However, Yesipova was melody (Ö). This line remained unnoticed, or it persistent, authoritarian and, in the end, success- was noticed retrospectively. My lyrical side was ful: in 1914, when he graduated from the Conser- not recognized at all for the longest time and so, vatory as a pianist, Prokofiev received the presti- without encouragement, it developed very slowly. gious Anton Rubinstein Prize (Прокофьев 1961: However, later I paid it more and more attention. 148). More importantly, he took the knowledge I would have liked to limit myself to these four and skills taught by Yesipova and transformed lines, and to consider the fifth, ìgrotesqueî line them, in a manner acceptable to himself, within which people want to adhere to me, as more his compositions. probably the curves of the previous lines. In any Yesipovaís push towards Classical music was event, I protest against the very word ìgrotesqueî, not the only influence initiating Prokofiev into which has been overused until it engenders revul- the traditions of the past. Most of his teachers, sion. The meaning of the French word ìgrotesqueî in one measure or another, were the carriers of is, in large measure, perverted here. As applied the artistic canons of Romanticism. It would have to my music, I would much prefer to replace it been strange if Romanticism did not also settle with the term ìscherzo-nessî or, if you prefer, into his memory, even if through an unacknow- with three Russian words which give it grada- ledged, subconscious form, and perhaps against tions: joke, laughter, snark (Prokofiev1961: 148ñ the composerís express will. Prokofievís marvellous 149). lyricism and cantilena are reflections of this great In this reflection by Prokofiev, we clearly see tradition. the idea of the synthesis of musical expression. All It is not difficult to discover varying forms of of this comprises the parameters of Prokofievís synthesis in Prokofievís work. However, he would not be the composing genius known to us if his style; all of this is found anew and reproduced unique personality had not prevailed above it all. each time by performers in their interpretations. He did not follow the letter of the traditions. Rather, he transformed them while creating completely new art, both different and easily recognized. STYLISTIC SYNTHESIS IN THE PROCESS OF Many found what he was doing to be very FORMING THE PERFORMERíS radical. This is what was written about him: A MUSICAL THOUGHT young author, not even having yet completed his education, and belonging to the most radical To return to the concert by Lukas Geniuas direction of the modernists, goes in his bravery and Anna GeniuienÎ, with the piano concertos and originalism much further than contemporary of Mozart and Prokofiev, we can in broad strokes Frenchmen (Prokofiev1961: 139). see how the synthesis phenomenon was fulfilled In his Autobiography, Prokofiev himself in their interpretations. sketched the main directions (lines, as he called First, about the music by Mozart: the culture them) of his work: of sound simply delighted during the performance.

60 L. MELNIKAS. STYLISTIC IDENTITY IN MUSIC PERFORMANCE: LABORATORY STERILITY VS. A LIVING CREATIVE PROCESS

Yesipovaís playing was characterized as delicate The Third Piano Concerto by Prokofiev, per- lacework and extraordinary clarity. The same formed by Lukas Geniuas, was both different could be said of the performance style of Geniuas and in some things a continuation of the artistic and GeniuienÎ. Their Mozart was transparent expression which triumphed in the concertís first, and light. The continuum of the piano was unusu- Mozart, section. The virtuoso transparency and ally broad, while the multitude of colours and the cleanliness of passages of small notes were timbres was wondrous. Of course, this is first present. However, Lukas Geniuasís Prokofiev and foremost a sign of the mastery of the perfor- is better compared not to delicate lace but rather mers, but in many ways, it is also a sign of the the metaphor of beads, more realistic and correct historical changes that have taken place. New when applied to Prokofievís music. Here was resources of colourful sound resulted from the irony, and occasionally a smirk... And, of course, renewal of the set of musical instruments when there were the qualities in the sound of this music the piano replaced the clavichord. The performance that differentiate it from the era of Mozart and on another instrument by itself predetermined are associated with the 20th century: the sharp the breaking and rethinking of the canon, the harmonies, intentionally emphasized by the return to which became more and more illusory. performer; the energy of asymmetrical rhythms; Gouldís thought about performing Bach on the and the dynamic tempos, which occasionally piano is fully applicable to Mozart, too: (Ö) there teetered on the edge of physical impossibility. is really nothing, apart from archival consistency, Playing Prokofiev, the pianist created an expres- to prevent the contemporary piano from faithfully sion which overtook and enslaved the listener, representing the architectural implications of the not permitting any distraction or relaxation. In Baroque style, and Bachís in particular (Gould the performance, there was yet no brutalism which 1990: 21ñ22). would later explode in the wartime music of With the passage of time, the changing aesthetic Prokofiev, in his Sixth and Seventh Piano Sonatas. of sound inevitably leads to the transformation However, there were qualities typical of youth ñ of canons. Here is just one example of this: the joy and pride, Prokofiev having found himself conductor Saulius Sondeckis, who became famous and sensing in himself a great creative power. At the same time, as if underneath and without intent, for his interpretations of Mozart, frequently said there would appear a slip in a romantic note, that, when performing Mozartís instrumental since one can always hear it in Prokofievís works. music, one should hear the drama of opera (Mel- nikas 2010ñ2015). And in this plane, the expressive resources of the piano open new horizons to the performer. CONCLUSIONS The multi-coloured sound palette created by the pianists made that possible: the sparkle of From century to century, out of the weave bells of laughter in the upper register, followed of many and varied lines of creative self-expres- immediately by a reply in the lazy grumbling in sion, a unique mosaic comes together, signifying the basses; the ceremonial procession, followed the birth of a new truth in art and the gaining by quickly by the heartfelt, emotionally rich explica- it of a new quality. The creative layering of diffe- tion (the last sounded especially convincing in rent eras infuses the music. Musical creation, in the play of Anna GeniuienÎ). Such a contrast of the sense both of composition and performance, personalities, characters, and images is very impor- as well as in the global borders of the multi-layered tant in Mozartís music, to its nature as an endless musical phonosphere which arises in a specific dialogue of musician and listener, of musician historical moment, is an endless synthesis of prac- and musician, of soloist and orchestra. In the 18th tices, ideas, influences, and intentions. century, this music was played in small rooms, Regarding music performance, such inter-era bringing everyone closer, forging connections connections work in various directions, both from from one to another. Today, in our era of giganto- the past into the present and from the present mania, this music is played in giant concert halls. into the past. The performer, knowing what The mastery of the performer is expressed in how followed in the history of music, interprets diffe- he invokes this feeling of intimate communion, rently that which preceded it. His accumulated recreating it in seemingly utterly inappropriate auditory and interpretational experience force conditions. him to hear, perceive and comprehend each work

61 MUSIC SCIENCE TODAY: THE PERMANENT AND THE CHANGEABLE ñ 3 (11) while taking into account the whole set of know- Today, we enjoy the fact that we know a lot ledge which the performer carries. It is up to him more about the performance of early music, but which part of this knowledge he will select in must we reject everything else in the name of it? each specific instance, and how he shall apply it. Auerís view is no less important. His position He cannot abstract himself from this since in an was formulated very clearly: I am convinced that intermediated form all of his knowledge sounds in literature, the style comes from the author, and plays in his imagination. while in music, of course, it comes from the Synthesis is then the source of the life force performer (Ауэр 2014: 78). of art. It is a principle of activity rather than a Auerís opinion represents the very essence ready recipe since each finds his own ingredients of historicism in music performance since the of artistic expression, his own measure of their sounding out of music always corresponds to two combination and proportions. For synthesis, one eras, the era of the composer and the era of the needs both knowledge and mastery, since only performer. In this historical duality we find the through having certain knowledge and skills does hidden phenomenon of the eternal renewal of it become possible to create something in oneís music, and in it ñ the miracle of performance. art, to grow something new, to bring it into a Auerís words and thoughts are unusual and new artistic context. In the end, all of this is really paradoxical, but art is also full of surprises and an expression of talent, which unifies opposites paradoxes. Dogma has no place here. into harmony. And it is harmony, rather than a thoughtless piling up of all upon all, which embodies art. REFERENCES The clarity of style is an ephemeral concept, especially in music performance. Theoretically, such clarity is possible in the abstract scientific Gould, Glenn (1990). Reader. New York: Vintage sphere, but never in real life practice, since art Books. always changes and cannot tolerate anything Melnikas, Leonidas (2010ñ2015). Talks with Saulius Sondeckis. The authorís personal archive. permanent or set in stone. Melnikas, Leonidas. Recollections of the Teacher Auer wrote about precisely that in his memoirs (manuscript). The authorís personal archive. over 100 years ago. A lot has changed since then. Ауэр, Леопольд (2014).Моя школа игры на скрипке. At no time before did we have such massive Санкт- Петербург:Композитор. amounts of information, had such opportunities Бертельсон, Николай (1960).Анна Есипова. Очерк to recreate past traditions to such a degree, and, жизни и деятельности. Ленинград: Государствен- most important, to transmit this new past know- ное музыкальное издательство. ledge in such dimensions. The interest in the Нестьева, Марина (сост., 1981).Сергей Прокофьев. authentic performance of early music arises partly Альбом.Москва:Музыка. out of this, trying to cleanse it of later layers. Прокофьев, Сергей (1961).Материалы. Документы. Воспоминания. Москва: Государственное музы- This is a great achievement of our time. It was кальное издательство. not possible in the 19th century, but it also was not needed then, when the priority was always individuality.

62 Wind Art as a Socio-Cultural Phenomenon of the World-Historical Progress of Civilizations

PhD in History of Arts ALEXANDER KOROTEEV Professor at Belarusian State University of Culture and Arts

The paper is devoted to the study of one of the specific directions of music, namely, wind art. The history of musical instruments goes back to the depths of centuries in the world history of civilization. The study of musical instruments, including wind instruments, has always been very important and has made a significant contribution to the history of civilization and its component ñ the artistic culture of mankind. First of all, the study of musical instruments allowed getting acquainted with the peculiarities of the history of the musical development of mankind, taking into account the combination of elements of material and spiritual culture. The paper reveals the peculiarities of wind art as a socio-cultural phenomenon of the world-historical progress of civilizations. For specialists, the list of information sources indicated by the author at the end of the paper (see References) will be of interest. The paper is significantly supplemented by the authorís own materials, which he has outlined in his publications (30 such publications are also listed at the end of the article). Keywords: civilization, history, material culture, spiritual culture, music, classification of musical instruments, wind art, wind musical instruments.

INTRODUCTION The term civilization was introduced for the first time by the Scottish historian, philosopher The history of musical instruments and their and moralist Adam Ferguson in his An Essay on early types ñ wind and percussion instruments, the History of Civil Society, published in 1767. goes back to the depths of millennia of the world The term was explained by the scientist as a certain stage in social development, which is notable for history of civilizations. But, obviously, musical the availability of public strata, as well as for the instruments in themselves could not exist. Anyway, existence of urban communities, written language, those instruments were indispensable attributes and other progressive phenomena. Adam Ferguson of the early community of human beings, and proposed specific stages for the division of world performing musicians playing these instruments history: savagery ñ barbarism ñ civilization (Казан- were involved in various social relations with цев 2014: 235). His opinion was supported by their signal and noise functions and reproduction academic communities during the period from of simplest melodic successions (religious rituals, the end of the 18th century to the beginning of tribal rites, military outbursts against battling the 19th century (Семёнов 2003: 114ñ115). By tribes, etc.). Therefore, wind and percussion instru- taking into account the popular plural and cyclic ments, as well as the whole wind art, are considered approach to history, the term local civilizations to be a specific social and cultural phenomenon became progressively used under the umbrella term of the world-historical progress of civilizations. civilization at the end of the 19th century ñ the It should be noted that the etymology of the beginning of the 20th century (Семёнов 2003: 152). term civilization only appeared in the 18th century, At the beginning of the 21st century, scholars and the term was perceived in a complex relation- came up with an idea of analysing the following ship with such a notion as a culture. cycles of the formation and development of the

63 MUSIC SCIENCE TODAY: THE PERMANENT AND THE CHANGEABLE ñ 3 (11) civilization: generation ñ development ñ rise ñ to history Nikolay Danilevsky, were met with decay (Понамарёв, Смирнова 2000: 56ñ57). But mixed reception by the scientific community. as the development of human history has shown, Although the works by the aforesaid scholars are not all local civilizations undergo all the aforesaid considered to be fundamental in the field of civili- stages of their full life cycle. Some cycles are inter- zation history studies, their theoretical insights rupted due to the occurrence of natural catastrophes were seriously criticized by colleagues. The Rus- (for example, the Minoan period), or in the process sian-American sociologist Pitirim Sorokin was of the collision with other cultures (Pre-Columbian one of the most dogged critics of the civilization periods of Central and South America, Scythian theory, who wrote that the most serious mistake Epoch) (Кузык, Яковец 2006: 92). of these theories consists in mixture of cultural Study of History by Arnold Joseph Toynbee systems with social systems (groups), that the is one of the well-known historical works on the term ìcivilizationî belongs to essentially different existence and functioning of civilizations. The social groups and their common cultures ñ now results of the fundamental study by this British ethnic, now religious, now public, now territorial, historian, sociologist and philosopher are set now various multifaceted groups and even a forth in 12 volumes, which were written and pub- conglomerate of various societies with their inhe- lished from 1934 to 1961. Toynbee considered rent aggregate cultures (Ерасов 1998: 50). And the development and the disappearance of 26 for that reason, neither Arnold Joseph Toynbee civilizations within the history of the mankind nor his predecessors could name the main criteria development, and he concluded that those civili- for the determination of civilizationsí features or zations successfully developed owing to their elite their precise quantity. leaders (Encyclopaedia Britannica 2014). Toynbee Special discourses also refer to the possible considered the world history as a system of con- existence of any extra-terrestrial civilizations. But tingently discerned civilizations, which undergo over the long millennial period of existence of similar phases: from birth to disappearance. These mankind, nobody could confirm any meeting with phases constitute the integral historical whole, the representatives of the developed extra-terres- and as a convincing example, we can cite the trial civilization, although many theories concern analogue of the conglomerate of roots, trunk, and this issue. For example, according to the Great branches with leaves, which constitute the whole Filter hypothesis, a turning moment occurs in tree. Toynbee concludes in his estimates that civili- the development of every civilization, which either zation is an enclosed society, which is characterized destroys it or forces to return to the initial primi- by two main criteria: tive stage of the previous origin. Therefore, no 1) religion and form of its organization; civilization can reach the moment in its develop- 2) a territorial feature, remoteness from the ment, when it will be able to build bridges with place where this society originates. distant cosmic neighbours. But let us return to the problem of the exis- By proceeding from this point of view, Toyn- tence of terrestrial civilizations and functioning bee particularly describes 21 periods (Тойнби of wind and percussion instruments as constituent 1996): Egyptian, Andean, Old Chinese, Minoan, culture components. For example, French philo- Sumerian, Mayan, Syrian, Induan, Hittite, Hel- sophers-enlighteners, by considering the notion lenic, Occidental, Far East (both in Korea and in of civilization, pointed out the necessity of interre- Japan), Orthodox Christian (main) (both in lation in the society of brain and justice. Besides, Byzantium and the Balkans), Orthodox Christian in the 19th century, the notion of civilization already in Russia, Far Eastern (main), Iranian, Arabic, assumed the intrinsic unity and high level of deve- Hindu, Mexican, Yucatan, and Babylonian. lopment of both material and spiritual culture, The comprehensive work of Fernand Braudel, where wind and percussion instruments were Civilization and Capitalism, 15thñ18th Century inherent components. That is why the study of (Braudel 1979) presents the analysis of the civili- musical instruments, including wind and percus- zation history during the 15thñ18th centuries. Toyn- sion ones, has been very important at all times. beeís conception, as well as the conceptions of The well-known Slovak scholar of ethnic instru- the German philosopher of history Oswald Arnold ments Oscar Elschek has aptly noted: Information Gottfried Spengler, the Russian sociologist, culture on musical instruments is the required precondition researcher, publicist, natural scientist, geopolitician, of appreciation of music, as musical instruments one of the founders of the civilization approach are not only the means of phonation, tools of

64 A. KOROTEEV. WIND ART AS A SOCIO-CULTURAL PHENOMENON OF THE WORLD-HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF CIVILIZATIONS reproduction, ñ they participate in the process of lithic site, its age amounts to almost 20 thousand musical development, musical thinking of every years. Archaeologists managed to discover the musical epoch (Эльшек 1974: 21ñ22). The accu- early settlements of Cro-Magnon men of the late mulation of information about the presence of a Palaeolithic epoch ñ the generic collective of the wind or percussion instrument essentially contri- matriarchate period. Hunting wild animals were buted to the history of every civilization develop- the primary occupation of those early representa- ment and its constituent component ñ the artistic tives of Modern Humanity. At the main site, culture of mankind. The history of the evolution archaeologists discovered fragments of dwellings, of wind art translators presupposes its fixation which were built from solid materials ñ mammoth and periodization. Thus, one of the leading orga- bones ñ by ancient humans. Unique findings of nologists ñ Curt Sachs, proposes the following the ancient art were discovered among material periodization of these instruments on the basis artefacts ñ ornamented figurines made of mammoth of summarized studies by archaeologists: tusks, figures of animals, meander bracelets and ó the first period ñ the Palaeolithic epoch (ca. even the whole set of musical instruments made 80 000 ñ 13 000 years BC), when flutes, of bones of animals (Бибиков 1981; Шамов 2010). horns, shell horns came into existence; According to the author of the monograph Sergei ó the second period ñ the Neolithic epoch (ca. Bibikov, The ancient musical complex made of 5 000 ñ 2 000 years BC), when various flutes mammoth bones: the essay of material and appeared (flutes with play holes; transverse spiritual culture of a Palaeolithic man, a set of flute constructions; special nasal flutes; the musical instruments found in the Mezin house with birth of a Pan flute with its progressive design), supports is a rare opportunity to confirm the com- transverse horns and metal horns existed. munity essence of the organization of patrimonial During that period wind musical instruments and tribal structures of Cro-Magnon men and were also complemented with varieties of the same rare belonging by archaeological authen- fipple flutes with both ordinary and double ticity of Mezin Palaeolithic decorated mammoth Левин tabs (i.e. reeds) ( 1973: 3; Sachs 1930). bones to ancient percussion musical instruments But the most important thing was that when (Бибиков 1981: 79). During the excavations, early musical instruments were made during archaeologists discovered grouped mammoth those historical epochs, their makers were bones: a plate-bone, a hip, a pelvis, two jaw bones aware of a special sound production principle and a skull fragment with the residual ornament for those instruments: the shorter air column and traces in the form of dents and shock pitting, is in the musical instrument channel, the higher a bracelet with decorated plates, which was made sound could be breathed in, and the longer of isolated plates, shaped out of a tusk and analo- air column is in the musical instrument channel, gous to musical instruments of the castanet type. the lower pitch could be breathed in. All that constituted a functional single complex, It turned out, that traditionally those musical which was intended for the reproduction of rhyth- instruments came to be called folk wind and per- mic sounds. It should also be pointed out that cussion instruments, to what some scientific the ornamented mammoth bones were not only articles by specialists of the wind art were dedi- used in their natural form. For example, the study cated, including the author of this article (see of a mammoth hip bone, which could be used in References at the end of this article). the horizontal position, by analogous play of the Researchers of material and spiritual culture modern straw-fiddle, made it possible to establish are pleased to learn those new artefacts, which the fact, that a special procession method was occasionally appear owing to archaeological used for the amplification of resonating properties surveys. Ancient musical instruments or only their of hips. For that purpose, a cavity was specially fragments can sometimes be encountered among hollowed out during the procession of the mam- these artefacts. Thus, scholars ñ archaeologists, moth hip. It was a made-up amplifier of acoustic historians, and art experts were much interested properties of the mammoth hip bone, its sound in the finding of Ukrainian archaeologists during and tone. The evidence analysis of ancient percus- the excavations in 1908 in the territory of Mezin sion instruments by scholars allowed concluding village of Korop region of Chernigov province in that those instruments made of mammoth bones Ukraine on the front bank of the Desna River. had been used by Cro-Magnon men for a rather This is the worldwide renowned Mezin Palaeo- long period of time.

65 MUSIC SCIENCE TODAY: THE PERMANENT AND THE CHANGEABLE ñ 3 (11)

The proposal of sound distribution to a group of materials at hand (cane stalk, bark, young tree of musicians of percussion instruments from the branch or stock, animal bone, etc.), and therefore, symphonic orchestra of the Kiev Philharmonic possible artefacts in the bowels of the earthís crust was especially interesting, as they tried to expose in the form of musical instruments made of these to sound that ancient musical complex of mammoth materials could simply be lost. bones. Obviously, that was not the reconstruction In spite of continuous investigations concer- of real folk tunes, which most probably had the ning the issue of the development of civilizations, ritual character. But professional musicians neither of conceptions or typologies of civiliza- successfully coped with the task of demonstration tions presented in the scholarly literature can be of possible meter-rhythmic combinations with the acknowledged as the only true and doubtless. account of dynamic, acoustic and tuning capabi- Therefore, having analysed various scholarsí lities of the unique ancient musical finding. opinions about the term civilization, we explored Percussion instruments have always played the wind art as the social and cultural phenomenon an important role in human lives ñ primarily, this of the world-historical progress of civilizations, concerns those functions that belonged to these but we confined ourselves to its consideration musical instruments (signal, noise, ritual, commu- by only starting from the existence of ancient nicative, etc.). And it is not by chance that the Oriental civilizations. professor of ethnography Georges Niangoran- Bouah from the Abidian University, by studying the functions of drums of African tribes, fixing SPECIFICITY AND ORIGINALITY OF WIND their rhythmic peculiarities, deciphering them and AND PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS AND explaining the essence of using drums, was the SELF-IMPORTANCE OF SPIRITUAL ART founder of a new research area ñ ëdrummologieí (Niangoran-Bouah 1981; Ларионова 1988). Music as art presupposes a creative process The assertion of the existence of wind and of creating a musical composition and its sub- percussion musical instruments, starting from the sequent reproduction by musicians by means of Palaeolithic epoch, emphasizes their wide diversity various musical instruments, among which the even before the Nativity of Christ. But mysteries functioning of wind musical instruments is distin- of the history of the mankind development on guished by unique specifically attractive features the whole and of civilizations, in particular, lie (tune, gradation of dynamic and acoustic contrast, in various artefacts, which cannot even be explained sounding duration, range of the whole group of by contemporary researchers (Петров 2018). Thus, instruments, etc.) (Музыкальные инструменты the finding named as corrugated spheres cannot мира 2001: 14ñ78). Percussion musical instruments be explained. During the work of miners in South also have their specifics and wide diversity (Музы- Africa, mysterious metal balls of unknown origin кальные инструменты мира 2001: 88ñ161). were found. Their diameter is approximately In spite of the existence of numerous systems equal to 1 inch (2.54 cm). Three parallel lines for the study of musical instruments, numerous passing along the axis of these surprising findings instruments of various epochs and continents, are engraved on some of these balls. The mystery only in the second half of the 19th century the lies in the fact that stones, where they were disco- special science ñ organology, which studies musical vered by miners, date back to the Pre-Cambrian instruments, including wind and percussion instru- period, i.e. 2.8 billion years! Who made them, ments, have been engaged in their systematization. how did they appear and for what ñ scholars still This term combines two notions: cannot explain. No answers exist to such artefacts 1) organon, translated from the Old Greek as as semi-oval metal pipes, which were drawn from an instrument; chalk beds of the Cretaceous period, which was, 2) logos, translated from the Old Greek as a as it is known, started 145.0 million years ago thought, notion, definition, theory. and ended 66.0 million years ago, although sixty- five million years ago no representatives of human Organology is aimed at the meticulous beings, seemingly, existed. This list does not contain descrip-tion of structural peculiarities of musical artefacts referring to wind musical instruments, instruments, their features, comparisons, which but, probably, it is about timing ñ these facts may are connected with general improvements of appear. It must be understood that early wind musical and technical capacities of these instru- and percussion musical instruments were made ments.

66 A. KOROTEEV. WIND ART AS A SOCIO-CULTURAL PHENOMENON OF THE WORLD-HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF CIVILIZATIONS

In 1914, the universal structural classification . of musical instruments was taken as the basis for the systematization and study of wind and percussion instruments, by taking into account the principle of sound generation. The system was proposed by German organologists Curt Sachs and Eric von Hornbostel. That classification became classical; its postulates are still taken as basic ones (Музыкальные инструменты мира 2001: 8). By considering the problems of the develop- Example 1. ment of wind art, not only specifically attractive features of these instruments and the dependence of their tone on the material of manufacture should But by means of the directed air stream cut- be understood, but also the triad essence of the off, the pitch also changes in nature ñ puffs to artistic process of music performance by using tree branches or vibration of protruding edges of these unique musical instruments: its bark give birth to combinations of sounds, 1) sound generation method; which can even form certain melodic themes. 2) sound generation peculiarities; The well-known Hungarian ornithologist, 3) deep amplitude process (either in motive or musical expert Peter Seke has studied sounds of in an expanded phrase). nature, the chant of birds and proved that music Let us set aside discussions on such wind had existed long before the germ of life on the musical instruments as an organ (a big keyed- earth (Сёке 1983). He reviews music in three wind musical instrument), a chromatic accordion world dimensions: (reed keyed-pneumatic musical instrument), an 1) the physical world; accordion (reed keyed-pneumatic musical instru- 2) the biological world with an example of the ment), and turn to aerophones proper, which chant of birds; serve as solo instruments, or they are included in 3) the so-called human music world. bands, orchestras of wind and percussion instru- The Aeolian harp is proof of the existence of ments, as well as to symphonic, chamber, folk, sound musical combinations in the physical world light music, and jazz orchestras. or wind music, as this phenomenon is called. In The phonation method on labial wind instru- the 21st century, Luke Jerram constructed the inter- ments takes place either by means of an air stream cut-off in a wind cap of folk wind instruments or active pavilion Aeolius, where he demonstrated in the head part of instruments, as in flutes. Phona- the unique instrument ñ Aeolian harp. Formerly, tion is also carried out by means of vibration of Aeolian harps were only represented in the form the central part of lip muscles ñ the aperture, when of chordophones, and then the wind Aeolian harp playing brass wind instruments, or by means of appeared. In the authorís opinion, this instrument vibration of an ordinary or double pipe, when is a symbol of the unity of a human being and playing reed instruments (see Example 1). nature (see Examples 2, 3).

Example 2.

67 MUSIC SCIENCE TODAY: THE PERMANENT AND THE CHANGEABLE ñ 3 (11)

Example 3. Example 4.

Many people may argue that the Aeolian harp is not a musical instrument in a strict sense ñ as performing musicianís participation is unavailable here. Luke Jerram spent three years for the development of that model. As a result of searches for exposition and project implementation, the wind Aeolian harp was exhibited, which included 310 metal pipes. The pipes of the same diameter are designed by the author so that they sound even when the wind is supposedly unavailable. As opposed to the soft string melody of previous chor- dophone harps, the modern analogue of unusual musical instrument emits low-frequency fantas- tically cosmic sounds. A visitor coming inside can hear not only unusual combinations of sounds, but he/she also meets the optical illusion, which appears due to the polished inside surface of the pipes (see Examples 4, 5, 6). Example 5.

Example 6.

But let us turn to the consideration of the tion into the scientific discourse; it was associated wind art proper in the context of the development with the notion of culture. But, owing to the retro- of civilizations. spective method of historical cognition, we can As it has been pointed out, in the 18th century classify those phenomena, which took place in Adam Ferguson introduced the notion of civiliza- the history of mankind in the field of music and,

68 A. KOROTEEV. WIND ART AS A SOCIO-CULTURAL PHENOMENON OF THE WORLD-HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF CIVILIZATIONS in particular, wind art. Successive penetration were made from accessible natural materials). into historical events makes it possible to disclose Thus, in a program of the popular satellite and the mechanisms of performance functioning and cable TV channel Discovery Channel, musicians- development mechanisms on wind instruments enthusiasts demonstrated playing wind instru- with the aim of revealing the events that took ments made of various vegetables. After that place in the wind art. playful presentation, unordinary musical instru- As it is known, musical instruments (devices, ments were eaten. Apart from this Old Chinese constructions) belong to the instruments, which, system of Boethius, other world-famous classifi- with a humanís participation, can reproduce noise, cation systems of musical instruments should be signal effects and sounds fixed by pitch, dynamics, mentioned: the system of Old Chinese philosopher tone, rhythm and duration of phonation. Sun Tzu, who was able to compare sounds of The history of musical instruments and, first different musical instruments in ensembles of the of all, percussion and wind musical instruments 1st century BC; the Ancient Roman system by Cas- goes back to millennia of world civilization history. siodorus; the Ancient Spanish system by Isidore The study of musical instruments has been impor- of Seville; the Old Arabic system by Avicenna tant at all times, and it essentially contributed to (Ibn Sina), etc. The German priest Sebastian the artistic history of mankind. Virdung was the first classical organologist in First of all, the study of musical instruments Europe, who classified string, wind, and percus- made it possible to get acquainted with the pecu- sion musical instruments in the second half of liarities of the history of musical development of the 15th century by adding graphic symbols of mankind by taking into account the combination those instruments. The work of Sebastian Virdung of convincing elements of material and spiritual was continued by his fellow countryman and con- culture. Material culture included information on temporary Martin Agricola, who illustrated in the creation of one or another material object, his fundamental three-volume investigation not including musical instruments as artefacts. Re- only peculiar evolutions of instruments, but also searches in the field of spiritual culture and study substantiated the rendering of the performance of specific functioning of various musical instru- technology and training principles, what was due ments, including wind instruments, presupposed to a wide scale of music making by urban residents the consideration of achievements in developing at the turn of the 15thñ16th centuries. works of music and their real embodiment in the The development of wind music in the context performance practice. The appearance and the of civilizations is inextricably connected with functioning of numerous musical instruments, unique phenomena and eventful historical facts including wind instruments, had either event- of its existence and broadness of musical instru- ful, episodic and ascertaining character, ments, the evolution of social and cultural con- or those musical instruments went as far to the sciousness, the intensity and the diversity of level of an artistic event and social and performing forms. cultural importance in the history of The analysis of tendencies of development this or that civilization. of wind and percussion performance, by starting The typology of musical instruments in the from the Paleolithic, Neolithic epochs civilization history should be studied from this and up to the present time of Australia, point of view. The most well-known early descrip- Asia, America, Africa, and Europe allows getting tion of musical instruments belongs to the Old acquainted with divisive musical instruments and Greek scientist Aristides Quintilianus, who lived tracing the evolution of all main forms of perfor- in the 3rd century BC. For example, the classifica- mance and their correlation in musiciansí concert tion of Old Indian musical instruments was fixed and performing activities. In one of our researches, in the medieval tractate of the leading Indian we considered those processes, which found their theoretician Sharngadeva Sangitana tnakara reflection in the musical culture of the East Euro- (ìOcean of Musicî). The Old Chinese classifica- pean region. The method of the system compara- tion system of musical instruments was developed tive analysis of peculiar genesis, development of by Boethius on the basis of their subdivision into wind art in the countries of Eastern Europe allowed eight classes according to the material of con- us to detect a number of analogous tendencies struction: 1) stone, 2) metal ñ brass, 3) wood, on the basis of organological studies and researches 4) cane, 5) leather, 6) dried pumpkin, 7) soil ñ of the evolution of performance forms in Belarus, clay, 8) silk (as a rule, ancient musical instruments Russia, and Ukraine. The objective on-going pro-

69 MUSIC SCIENCE TODAY: THE PERMANENT AND THE CHANGEABLE ñ 3 (11) cess of wind art development in these countries considered that music is the basis of the power convincingly demonstrates their shared structural structure ñ the better music is, the better is the and content-related achievements in this process state (Левин 1973: 22). (Коротеев 1998). In the 15th century, certain harmonization The prestige of wind art as such can already takes place in wind musical instruments, and it be observed in the life of ancient oriental civiliza- was the evolutional step for the development of tions ñ Ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, Palestine, the wind art. Various uniform instruments are Phoenicia, China, India, Ancient Greece, and created, where sounds were located by a quint Ancient Rome, where the principle of syncretism from each other, by the analogue of sounding of dominated in the music. Thus, for example, in various textures of a human voice: soprano, alt, Ancient Egypt musicians had the privileged posi- tenor, bass. tion; celebrated singers, performers, leaders of The greatest flourishing of wind art was bands were considered related to pharaohs, and achieved in Venice in the second half of the 16th they occupied rather high steps of the hierarchy century, where such a developed form as the stair (Левин 1973: 6). Developed wind ensembles ensemble performance constituted essential sides of the ancient epoch were fixed on carved stones of musical life and received active development (the third millennium BC), in particular, an octet up to the contemporary state of the development of flute players (Левин 1973: 7). Already during of artistic culture. We can also remember the the New Kingdom epoch (from the 16th to the initial attempts of organizing representative wind 11th century BC) not only drums, but also wind bands, for example, the participation of 120 instruments, and particularly direct natural taper priests, who played during the consecration of bronze pipes, were used in military orchestras in the Temple of Solomon in Ancient Palestine in a regular army (Левин 1973: 9). In Ancient China, the 9th century BC (Левин 1973: 10). early wind instruments were found in excavations The instrument reform of the 19th century of the Shang (Yin) dynasty ñ the 15th/17th centuries was an essential stage in the qualitative develop- BC. Out of metal wind instruments, bronze pipes ment of wind art (Левин 1983: 99ñ130), owing were used, mainly for military purposes: with big to which wind instruments were structurally shanks ñ da-chung-ku, and with small shanks ñ improved thus expanding the possibilities for the xiao-chung-ku (Левин 1973: 14ñ19). The use of development of musiciansí capabilities. In parti- wind instruments in Ancient Rome has originated cular, at the modern stage of artistic culture and since ancient times (Левин 1973: 30ñ32). There wind art development, new wind and percussion is information that during holidays with military instruments appear and are improved (sub- dances, special pipes were used, which were called control models of flute, saxophone, French horn, tubes and considered sacred (Левин 1973: 30). pipes, tuba phone). In order to present true infor- Unique compositions of ensembles appeared which mation on the evolution and the modification of included not only homogenous but also different wind musical instruments, the achievements of instruments, where the mandatory aulos was the the repertoire of wind music, existing information dominating one (Левин 1973: 31). In the 1st cen- resources should be taken into account (Коротеев tury BC, the performance of solar recitals of 2008c). The prestige value of modern wind art virtuosos of aulos began to be practiced, and in under the conditions of progress of the mankind the A.D. beginning once per four years musical and civilization, on the whole, depends on searches competitions of the best virtuosos were held not of effective social and cultural forms of perfor- only on the aulos of Rome but also of other coun- mances of solo instrumentalists, bands and tries. That was rather prestigious, as the winners orchestras of wind and percussion instruments. were acknowledged at the international level Unique and specific performances with the use (Левин 1973: 32). As known, Ancient Greece of defiler elements and various reconstructions had the leading place among ancient Oriental civi- during orchestra sounding are unique social and lizations; in this region, the wind and percussion cultural forms and forms of musical enlightenment instruments occupied an important place (Левин and wind art popularization, which are typical 1973: 22ñ30). As Semyon Levin indicated, music of creative activity of wind and percussion instru- played a really great role in the public life of Hellas: ments only. Of course, this is the dominating magic and medicinal functions were attributed superiority of wind orchestra compositions over to it; it was treated as not only a psychic but also other types of the orchestra. The problem of the a physiological state of a human being. Plato formation of artistic and visual thinking of wind

70 A. KOROTEEV. WIND ART AS A SOCIO-CULTURAL PHENOMENON OF THE WORLD-HISTORICAL PROGRESS OF CIVILIZATIONS art specialists must not be overlooked (which has ó moral and aesthetic function for been considered in the article: Коротеев 2006d), the development and the implementa- as well as the peculiarities of historical and artistic tion of not only participants of studentsí reflection of genres and stylistic searches of wind orchestras, but also the develop- composers. The high level of artistic and visual ment of the appreciation of art by thinking of wind art specialists provides qualita- audiences; tive and successive development of wind art, ó organizational and mobilizing popularization of the best examples of artistic function by performing military-patri- works, fulfilment of social and cultural functions otic and civil works; of wind art performance ñ solar, chamber, instru- ó cultural and recreating func- mental, ensemble, orchestra (Коротеев 2006e; tion for leisure organization during 2007; 2012c), supplies informational resources service of dance and thematic parties for discussing problematic issues in wind art. of youth rest, accompaniment of games during massive folk holidays, etc.; ó artistic and enlightenment CONCLUSIONS function for the observance of high artistic and performance level of the popularization of different repertoires The research on typical unique specifics of for a mass audience; wind art has allowed us to reveal its artistic and ó enculturation function for the creative vectors. We suggest that specifics of wind involvement of the youth (both partici- art with its artistic and creative vectors should be pants of collectives and audience) into determined by means of concrete specific features. the artistic world and propagating Therefore, in our opinion, WIND ART is a national values of music. component, a variety of music art and 6) Various approbation types of results of archive one of its perspective directions. Wind surveys, research, scientific, creative, and art is also a constituent part of the methodical experiments make it possible for culture. Wind art has the following typical researchers of wind art issues to reveal and features: confirm the most complicated problems in 1) Wind art develops in two spheres: a) profes- this variety of music. This, in its turn, allows sional wind art; b) amateur wind art within working out acceptable concepts of the further the framework of popular art. levels of the development of the world wind 2) Wind art is implemented in five main forms art with the account of the improvement of of performance: recital, chamber, instrumental, all its parameters and constituent components. ensemble, a cappella or orchestra performance playing traditional folk wind instruments, as well as modern orchestra wind instruments. 3) Wind art possesses convincing gradation of REFERENCES dynamic, acoustic, toning and coloristic sounding; it has specific capabilities for plain- Braudel, Fernand (1979). Civilization and Capitalism, air performance with the use of defiler com- 15thñ18th Century. In 3 volumes (original editions ponents, momentary reconstructions during in French). New York: Harper and Row, 1981ñ musical performances in motion. 1984. 4) Wind art covers the following artistic para- Encyclopaedia Britannica (2014). Toynbee, Arnold meters: a) creative activity of performers Joseph. Online Academic Edition. Encyclopedia playing wind and percussion instruments; Britannica, Inc. ñ visited on April 6, 2018. b) conducting; c) creative activity and compo- Niangoran-Bouah, Georges (1981). Introduction à la nents of experimental searches of composers drummologie. Abidian: GNB. Pietkewicz, Czes˘aw (1938). Polesie Rzeczyckie. Cz. 2: of wind music. Kultura duchowa Polesia Rzeczyckiego: Materija˘y 5) Wind art fulfills important social and cultural etnograficzhne. Warszawa. functions, including: Sachs, Curt (1930a). Handbuch der Musikinstrumen- ó social and enlightenment func- tenkunde. Leipzig: Breitkopf und H‰rtel. tion for the popularization of classical Sachs, Curt (1930b). Vergleichende Musikwissenschaft and contemporary composers; in ihren Grundz¸gen. Leipzig: Quelle & Meyer.

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Беларуская куль- навук. прац / Міністэрства культуры РБ, Бел. тура ва ўмовах глабалізацыі: матэрыялы навуко- дзярж. ун-т культуры і мастацтваў. Часть 2. Мінск, вай канференцыі, прысвечанай 35-годдзю БДУКМ 153–162. (3 снежня 2010: у 2 т. /рэдкал.: М.А.Мажэйка Коротеев, Александр (2006d). Проблемы формиро- (старшыня) [і інш.]. Том 2. Мінск: Беларус. вания художественно-образного мышления спе- дзярж. ун-т культуры і мастацтваў, 371–377. циалистов духового искусства. Вестник Москов- Коротеев, Александр (2012a). Духовое искусство как ского государственного университета культуры и системно-образующий компонент и качествен- искусств 2 (14): 152–162. ный показатель развития национальной и миро- Коротеев, Александр (2006e). Реализация социо- вой художественной культуры. Веснік Беларускага культурных функций сельских и городских ор- дзяржайнага ўніверсітэта культуры і мастацт- кестров, ансамблей духовых, ударных инстру- ваў 2 (18): 77–84. ментов и их роль в развитии художественной Коротеев, Александр (2012b). Духовое и эстрадное культуры Беларуси. Павышэнне ролі клубных уста- искусство как важнейший элемент социо-твор- ноў у сацыякультурным жыцці рэгіёнаў: матэрыялы ческой адаптации людей с нарушениями зрения. Рэсп. навук.-практ. канф., Мінск, 22–23 лістапада Вести института современных знаний 4 (53). 2006 г. БДИПК. Минск, 91–100. Минск, 42–46.

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Коротеев, Александр (2012c). Тенденции развития Музыкальные инструменты мира (2001) / Пер. с англ. праздничной культуры духового искусства Бела- Т. В. Лихач; Худ. обл. М. В. Драко. Минск: ООО руси в контексте компаративного искусствове- Попурри. дения, национальной и мировой художествен- Петров, Виктор (2018). Самые удивительные древ- ных культур. Праздничная культура России: мате- ние артефакты. http://male.mediasalt.ru/samye_ риалы научной конференции (15–16 марта 2012 г., udivitelnye_drevnie_artefakty – visited on July 25, г. Орёл). Орёл: ОГИКИ, 96–104. 2018. Коротеев, Александр (2014). Духовое искусство Понаморёв, Михаил, и Светлана Смирнова (2000). Беларуси: история и тенденции развития в кон- Новая и новейшая история стран Европы и Аме- тексте европейской культуры. Orkiestry dete w рики. Учеб. пособие для студ. высш. учеб. заведе- kulturze europejskiej: materialy z konferencji nau- ний. Том 1. Москва: Гуманит. изд. центр ВЛАДОС, kowej 20ñ22.06.2014 Lobez. ñ Nr. 3; pod red. 56–57. Bogdana Matlawskiego. Szczecin: Wydawnictwo Семёнов, Юрий (2003). Философия истории. Москва: naukowe uniwersytetu Szczecinskiego, 65ñ75. Современные тетради. Коротеев, Александр (2014). Аналитический обзор Сёке, Пётр (1983). Существовала ли музыка до воз- книжных изданий ХХ – начала ХХІ ст. и их роль никновения жизни на Земле? Иностранная лите- в популяризации истории и достижений миро- ратура 9: 204–207. вого и национального духового искусства Бела- Тойнби, Арнольд (1996). Постижение истории. руси. Матэрыялы XХ Міжнародных Кірыла-Мяфо- Сборник / Пер. с англ. Е. Д. Жаркова; сост. дзіеўскіх чытанняў, прысвечаных Дням славянскага А. П. Огурцов; вступ. ст. В. И. Уколовой. Москва: пісьменства і культуры (Мінск, 20–23 мая 2014 г.) / Прогресс. Культура. Мін-ва культуры Рэсп. Беларусь, Беларус. дзярж. Шамов, Сергей (2010). Выразительные и формооб- ун-т культуры і мастацтваў; рэдкал.: В. Р. Языко- разующие функции ударных инструментов в музыке віч (адк. рэд.) [і інш.]. Мінск: БДУКМ, 128–135. Кузык, Борис, и Юрий Яковец (2006). Цивилизации: русского драматического театра рубежа ХХ– теория, история, диалог, будущее. Том 1: Теория и ХХ веков (на примере спектаклей МХТ 1900– история цивилизаций. Москва: Институт эконо- 1910-х годов). Aвтореферат диссертации по ис- мических стратегий. кусствоведению; Моск. гос. консерватория им. Ларианова, Нина (1988). Язык барабана. Правда, П. И. Чайковского. Москва. 1988, 15 июня, 4. Эльшек, Oскар (1974). Музыкальный инструмент Левин, Семён (1973). Духовые инструменты в исто- и инструментальная музыка (O задачах и методах рии музыкальной культуры. Часть 1. Ленинград: инструментоведения). Теоретические проблемы Музыка. народной инструментальной музыки. Москва: Левин, Семён (1983). Духовые инструменты в исто- Издательство Союза композиторов РСФСР, рии музыкальной культуры. Часть 2. Ленинград: 21–29. Музыка.

73 Musical Interaction in Ensemble Performance: Coherence and Expression as the Main Aspects of Ensemble Performing

Mag. art. UGNÀ ANTANAVI»I¤TÀ-KUBICKIENÀ Doctoral student at the Lithuanian Academy of Music and Theatre

At the end of the 20th century, a clear shift of music research from the analysis of musical compositions and their interpretation to the study of performing processes can be observed, which illustrates the relevance of the research of the issue concerning the ensemble music practice. The issues of ensemble coherence and expression are related to numerous factors, e.g., coherence factors are associated with performance synchronization, whereas performing expression is linked with performance style and features. Despite the fact that ensemble coherence and expression are usually researched separately, it is the relationship between the two (various overlaps, impact, and patterns that determine the quality of ensemble performance) that is of great significance for the performing process. Ensemble practice emphasizes not only musical but also interpersonal interaction among ensemble members as such interaction determines the expression of performance, stylistic and emotional harmony, vertical coherence and synchronic performance. As the result, it can be claimed that coherence and expression are the most significant aspects in ensemble performance, which depend on musical and interpersonal interaction, often linked together by gestures of performers, expressive bodies and eye contact. This research seeks to find an answer to one of the most fundamental ensemble performance questions, i.e. to clarify the factors that would ensure both performance coherence and expression as well as the factors determining the aforementioned paradigmatic performance aspects by paying special attention to the problems of mixed ensembles. Keywords: ensemble performance, coherence, synchronisation, expression, musical and interpersonal interaction.

INTRODUCTION / THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK mance, and musical improvisation (Keller 2012, 2013, 2014añc; Keller, Appel 2010), the relation- Ensemble performance practice is generally ship between neuronal processes and rhythmic based on two categories ñ ensemble coherence and body movements (Beek 2000), the relationship expression but they are usually studied separately. between movement coordination and cognition Ensemble coherence is a vertical aspect of synchro- processes (Clarke, Davidson 1998), the coordina- nisation covering psychophysical, psychosocial, tion of tempo and time and performerís individual and sociocultural factors. The complexity of syn- knowledge and perception (Gabrielsson 1999; chronisation is predetermined by the differences Summers 2000), non-synchronisation patterns in in human performer skills: motor functions, flair, the changing tempo of a composition (Rasch 2000), the distribution of attention, memory, social the time change synchronisation, the tempo psychological factors, performersí knowledge, the adjustment mechanism that controls motor func- knowledge of partners, and human friendship in tions (Repp 2000), the problem of cooperation an ensemble. Numerous studies on ensemble per- (Katz 2009), communicative gestures and the formance have been carried out, including ensemble ways of dealing with instruments (King 2013), coordination, synchronisation, musical imagina- as well as the aspect of leadership of ensemble tion, the control of motor functions in perfor- members and social processes in an ensemble

74 U. ANTANAVI»I¤TÀ-KUBICKIENÀ. MUSICAL INTERACTION IN ENSEMBLE PERFORMANCE: COHERENCE AND EXPRESSION..

(Gaggioli et al. 2016; Keller, Appel 2010; McCaleb created (Davies 2003), and for that, an object is 2011). needed (Levinson 2011) that through the expe- In order to reveal the identity of ensemble rience of ensemble members causes an emotional performance, i.e. the individual, expressive artistic response. The two expressive layers of performance identity, ensemble coherence will not suffice. A are both autonomous and simultaneously interde- composition exists through its performance pendent: different in the perception process, they (Hellaby 2009), and the abundance of different become complementary and simultaneously reveal performances of a composition can be explained the expression of a composition1. by the differences in performersí personalities, The present research focuses on ensemble their perceptions, different surrounding contexts, coherence ñ synchronization through selected and fashion trends. The expression in the perfor- psychophysiological and psychosocial factors. mance is certain balancing between the performersí The author will also present three different models/ vision, feeling, and the score of the represented taxonomies of expression. Moreover, the research composition, the understanding of a composerís data (questionnaire results) will be presented and style, and the identification of different strategies discussed. (Heaton 2012), the trends of performance fashions and the context of the time period, performersí intuition (Rink 1995), and creativity which actually ENSEMBLE COHERENCE AS SYNCHRONISATION results in differences in performances (Cook 2001, 2014). The expressiveness of performance is creati- Ensemble performance reflects the concept vity: through expressive sound, expressive gestures of commonality, i.e. joint work of several people, of a performer, the expressive narrative of the per- the aim of which is the successful performance formance of a musical composition and emotions of a musical composition, where individual skills, one can express which have not been stated in competences, and perception serve as the means the score of a composition or, more precisely, rather than the goal. Everything would be fine express it in a way that cannot be written down apart from one problem ñ ensemble playing is in the composerís score. Therefore, expression the performance of several people and to achieve turns into a fundamental category of performance, coherence is not as easy as it may seem. Therefore, and the differences of interpretations, the style coherence and the factors helping to ensure it are of performance, and its evaluation and perception an important research object and one of the most depend on expression. The two identified layers significant features of ensemble performance. of expression (structural and that of performance) On the one hand, the issue of ensemble cohe- can be combined into two expressions of composi- rence is predetermined by varying origins of musical tion performance: musical and emotional (Schubert, instruments. On the other hand, the individual Fabian 2014). Musical expression is related to taste of ensemble members, their manners, educa- musical parameters recorded in the structure (score) tion, professional competence, physical abilities, of the composition and, based on the individual personal character traits, and the entire context perception, conveyed by the ensemble: deviations dictate much wider understanding of the concept from the given tempo (different types of rubato), of coherence and pose even more questions in the dynamic scale, the variety of articulation, the research on ensemble. Even though performance accents, etc. The emotional category of expression can be harmonised or otherwise synchronised is to be associated with a performerís emotional through the aspect of performance quality (tech- response, caused by a musical composition. In nique, virtuosity, intonation, sound knowledge), that way, the fictional reality of composition is it is highly important to understand that not only

1 Besides the studies by other authors, the author of the present study refers to her personal empirical practice as a performer and the 10-year experience of work in a mixed instrumental trio and a vocal-instrumental quartet. The long-term experience has highlighted the problems of ensemble coherence and expression, and the need to study and find ways to ensure and facilitate the practice of a mixed ensemble has arisen. Despite the fact that ensemble coherence and expression are usually studied separately, the author of the study on ensemble performance finds their relationship, different overlaps, the impact, and the regularities that determine the quality of ensemble performance to be of particular importance.

75 MUSIC SCIENCE TODAY: THE PERMANENT AND THE CHANGEABLE ñ 3 (11) sound and intonation but also emotions and body the continuous flow of music, which is the essence movements can be harmonised. The complexity of the performance of any musical composition2. of synchronisation or coordination ñ ensemble The M‰rchenerz‰hlungen, Op. 132 (1853), 4 pieces coherence ñ is predetermined by motor functions, for clarinet, viola and piano by Robert Schumann flair, attention, social and psychological factors, (1810ñ1856) as well as 8 pieces, Op. 83 (1910), and differences in performersí knowledge, as well for clarinet, viola and piano by Max Bruch (1838ñ as by the similarity of these aspects, knowledge 1920) could serve as the illustrative examples of of each other, human friendship among ensemble such cases. The analysis of the recordings3 revealed members and the general knowledge about instru- typical obstacles of ensemble performance, i.e. ments. However, synchronisation is often consi- wrong tempo due to inadequate understanding dered an aspect of vertical ensemble coherence of breathing needs ñ too slow tempo causes hasty combining psychophysical, psychosocial and phrases at the end, the created mood is lost, clari- sociocultural factors. nettist needs more air and thus they inhale at the wrong place ñ in the middle of a legato melodic solo line of the clarinet. This disrupts not only the flow of music (the effort not to inhale, i.e. PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGICAL FACTORS body twitching and etc., is visible in a video recording); but also clearly indicates the lack of vertical Psychophysiology is an interdisciplinary sphere rhythmic ensemble synchronisation. of science that analyses the impact of psycholo- The other discussed aspect is unison. There gical factors (behavioural, cognitive, emotional, is phrasing unison, sound duplication or pitch and social) on physiology. It is highly significant unison and rhythmic unison. Phrasing unison is in the practice of all ensembles and is of excep- interpreted as the duplication of musical material tional importance for mixed ensembles. Due to and/or poetic text. Here, two tasks are important ñ its limited scope, this research does not seek to adequate duplication of another ensemble member cover all the aspects; only two of them have been and the use of unison to obtain a certain colour. selected, i.e. the factor of breathing and unison, One of the examples of such ensemble performance both of which, according to the author, are could be the performance of Serpentines (2017) extremely important not for the evaluation of for clarinet, viola and piano by Marius Salynas ensemble performance but rather for ensemble (b. 1975). A continuous duplicated motor-synco- practice. pated rhythm, the use of duplicated keys in the Breathing. In the ensemble, the members structure of the entire composition, very lively of which have to inhale, the understanding of tempo, different performing articulations of inho- body physiology and breathing as well as the mogeneous instruments, and sound-dynamic pos- application of such understanding for the general sibilities highlighted the problems of both pitch flow of music is a fundamental aspect of synchro- and the balance of rhythm and sound as a relevant nisation. Breathing coordination determines also aspect of ensemble quality4. the ability to adapt to the feelings of self-confi- The problem of pitch unison is connected with dence and security when performing. It also ensures intonation control and synchronisation; it interferes

2 Martin Katz singles out three breathing categories important for the musical flow that can be applied in all kinds of ensembles; however, they are most significant in the ensembles with a wind instrument or a voice: 1. ìNothing Need Be Doneî; 2. ìNothing Can Be Doneî; ìThere Are No Optionsî; 3. ìPermit Breath and Preserve Flowî (Katz 2009: 8ñ20). These breathing types are the key to achieving ensemble synchronisation; they must be understood and discussed in general rehearsals. 3 The following recordings were analysed: by Allison Blackburn, Ulisses Silva, George Lucktenberg (2012), Martin Frˆst, Amihai Grosz, Itamar Golan (2016), Paul Meyer, Gérard Causse, François-René Duchable (1990), David Shifrin, David Finckel, Wu Han (2012), Vytautas Giedraitis, Jurgis Juozapaitis, UgnÎ AntanaviËi˚tÎ (2010), Gervase de Peyer, Walter Trampler and Richard Goode (1982), Franklin Cohen, Yura Lee, Orion Weiss (2014). 4 The solutions were discussed in rehearsals together with the composer ñ those of sound balance (structural and dynamic emphases of different instruments at certain sections of the composition), of the change in registers (moving the selected keys by octaves), and of optimum composition tempo. The author and her Trio Claviola partners rehearsed with the composer three times in 2017 before the premiere.

76 U. ANTANAVI»I¤TÀ-KUBICKIENÀ. MUSICAL INTERACTION IN ENSEMBLE PERFORMANCE: COHERENCE AND EXPRESSION.. with focusing on the musical content and the reve- verbal dominance ñ to that of a leader (Gaggioli lation of expression. The synchronisation of et al. 2016: 1ñ6). The abundance of language and rhythmic unison is determined by the abilities of gestures during rehearsals depend on the familia- ensemble members, especially their motor functions rity of ensemble members. The link between the (movements of the entire body or its parts) and gestures used in rehearsals and everyday life should psychomotor functions (psychical phenomena and be noted. The following several types of gestures processes arising from the performance, control, can be singled out: spontaneous gesturing, gestures and management of human movements). The accompanying words, and gestures as symbols empiric research by Peter E. Keller has revealed or signs. Indicative gestures in an ensemble also the differences in the structure of the central nervous reveal the following: interpretational coordination system and the speed of transmission of nervous (synchronisation); communicative gestures or the signals; therefore, small motor functions determi- lack of such gestures; the behaviour of a performer ning the mobility and dexterity of fingers, as well with their instrument; the gestures occurring not as movement coordination of performers also only from musical text or musical idea but also differ (Keller 2012: 209ñ211; Keller 2013: 272ñ from effective performance (King 2013). 274). In spite of the fact that this synchronisation The discussed psychophysiological cognitive (rhythmic unison) feature is inborn, it can be motor abilities are closely related to the prediction developed and improved. mechanism (especially musical imagination, which is important for planning and integrating actions of a performer); such abilities also enable the pre- PSYCHOSOCIAL FACTORS diction of the actions of other ensemble members as well as proper response and adapting when performing a composition. Such predicted views Synchronisation includes various forms ñ not and images facilitate ensemble synchronisation, only the vertical coherence of sounds, rhythm, intensify the feeling of other members; thus, they and intonation but also the ensembleís unity of have an impact on the coherence of actions musical expression and emotions, which depends (movements) and interpretation. (Ö) anticipatory on professional competence, personal abilities and imagery may facilitate interpersonal coordination interpersonal coordination of performers. Long- by enhancing online predictions about othersí term experience is one of the crucial factors of action timing (Keller 2012: 206). Such inner sonic successful ensemble synchronisation and musical imaging frees ensemble members from thinking empathy. The aim of permanent ensemble members about specific performing nuances (articulation, is long-term, i.e. to seek unity and ensemble cohe- rhythm, pulse, technique) and then it is easier to rence rather than to prove oneís suitability and perform in the desired manner. Memory is activated necessity. The performers who have played together in this process, i.e. if a performer did not remember for a longer period of time know each other better, the desired sound, sound balance, general sound their performance stands out for its higher compe- and phrasing, synchronisation would be much tence; such ensemble members are more satisfied more difficult to achieve in an ensemble. with their performance and at the same time they Ensemble coherence depends on the number tend to be more demanding and self-critical. of its members ñ the smaller the ensemble, the The following three indicators are important more tangible the sense of commonality that faci- for interpersonal coordination and interaction: litates the transfer of individual perception and looking at each other, body movements and musical identity to the ensemble level; therefore, language. The status and influence of group the same solo melody or theme is performed in a members can be understood from their eyes or slightly different way than in an ensemble (more verbal instructions and the intended addressee. or less rubato). Psychophysical and psychosocial Psychosocial relations among ensemble members abilities of performers are essential in both the indicate their leader (or the lack of such a leader) synchronisation of a performance and the revela- and reveal how management is conducted. The tion of the idea of a composition and its expres- more frequent instructions or looks cast by an sion. ensemble member, the bigger the influence on the others. Looks and glances are attributed to the type of belonging to an ensemble, whereas

77 MUSIC SCIENCE TODAY: THE PERMANENT AND THE CHANGEABLE ñ 3 (11)

RESEARCH ON ENSEMBLE EXPRESSION cutt labelled those two classifications as immanent and performed and prepared the model for the Johannes Brahms once said, (Ö) where it was accent analysis (see Example 1). written that the music always had to be the same? (Rink 1995: 4). This quotation selected by John Accents Immanent Performed Rink illustrates that it is very difficult to establish Time grouping agogic (onset time) any limits between the composition text and its metrical articulatory (duration) performance as the entire context (both historical Pitch melodic intonation and cultural), the context of perception of a perfor- harmonic mer, and even the mood during the concert or Loudness dynamic stress the circumstances not related to the performance Timbre instrument coloration (concert venue, acoustics, clothes) have a great orchestration impact on the performance. As a result, even when played by the same musicians, music sounds diffe- Example 1. Parncuttís (2003) taxonomy of musical accents rent every time. Thus, if there are so many different ways of performing, how should performance expression be researched? Expression taxonomies The accents in the model are divided into two usually refer to the research on the performances categories: the first one is based on the fixed or of pianists; however, the question arises whether changing category (immanent or performed); the they can be applied in the research on ensemble second one is based on sound parameters (time, expression. pitch, loudness, and timbre). Such relationship is complex and depends on many factors such as musical and personal style, local and cultural context, intended emotion or meaning, and acoustical RESEARCH MODEL BASED ON ONE SELECTED PERFORMING FEATURE and technical constraints (Bisesi et al. 2013: 1). Nevertheless, certain drawbacks of the method can be discussed. For instance, even though a The selection of one specific performing feature certain performance aspect is always related to and the study based on it enables a more thorough the context of the performance of the entire com- analysis of the importance of such a feature and position (in this case, the accents are connected its interaction with the context of the performance with both the context of time and the dynamic of the entire composition, as well as with the context of expressive performance of the compo- context of the expressive performance, i.e. the sition), and Eric Clark claims that (Ö) a whole isolation of performance trends or established performance ideology may be connoted by one traditions and individual performing style, discus- or two local performance features (Clarke 1995: sion of not only the type of the performance of 28), it remains unclear how important the relation- such a feature but also its intensity and quality, ship between the research object-specific perfor- an indication of interaction with other musical mance feature and the whole is; what impact it features and performing techniques. The accent- has on the interpretation and the expression of based model of the piano performance by Erica the whole; and, finally, what the prospects and Bisesi and Richard Parncutt (2010, 2013)5 can development possibilities of the research are. It be provided, with the help of which the relation should also be discussed whether such a method between accents and expression was analysed. can be applied in the research of bigger groups With reference to the accent classification by Fred of performers, especially for the music performed Lerdahl and Richard Jackendoff, i.e. structural by an ensemble. It would be insufficient to merely accents ñ those are assumed to be intrinsic of the collect the data and encode them with the help notated score ñ and expressive accents ñ the ones of computer software due to the differences in added to the score by a performer, Richard Parn- instrument origin.

5 The authors analyse the selected preludes for piano by Frederic Chopin (1810ñ1849) employing a new method, which integrates the aspects from the theories of Fred Lerdahl and Ray Jackendoff (1983), Johan Sundberg (1988) and Richard Parncutt (2003).

78 U. ANTANAVI»I¤TÀ-KUBICKIENÀ. MUSICAL INTERACTION IN ENSEMBLE PERFORMANCE: COHERENCE AND EXPRESSION..

PERFORMANCE FEATURES AND EVALUATION that of a performer), and the aspects combining the two. From a holistic perspective, the inner Such studies are based on performance practice connection among performance style, musical (usually recordings) and provide the knowledge expression and emotion includes the problems not only about the very performance and interpre- of performance and evaluation as well as provides tations but also about their perception, i.e. the a sufficiently wide range of knowledge to analyse evaluation by listeners. The taxonomy of listenersí performance style and quality. Yet the disadvan- judgements by Emery Schubert and Dorottya tages are evident: the authors indicate their aim Fabian (2014) consists of eleven performance to study not only Baroque expressiveness and Ro- features scales: phrasing, articulation, punctuation, mantic expressiveness but also the performance metricality, tempo, loudness, clarity of texture, of other styles of music as one of the perspectives vibrato, portamento, ornamentation and period of the method; in other words, they wish to apply instrument used; six quality scales: performance this taxonomy in the practice of contemporary quality, technical execution, tone quality, orna- music. The performance of new music often indi- mentation quality, recording quality and clarity cates the works and creation of an unfamiliar style. Moreover, this practice integrates the problem of recording; Aesthetic scales: expressiveness, related to the number of composition performances. stylishness, Romantic expressive, Baroque expres- If there is more than one version, there is a great sive, historically informed, mainstream, authentic interpretational gap and it will be highly compli- and others. Due to the limited scope of the research, cated for listeners to compare; the results will be the layers of expressiveness singled out by the less objective. One more problem is related to authors will not be discussed; however, even from the number of research participants. In this case, the aforelisted parameters, it is possible to observe 39 people took part in the research; thus, the data the obvious ambition of the authors to embrace can only indicate certain tendencies of choices or the problems of expressiveness in performance evaluations. Finally, what about ensemble music and evaluation in a holistic way. However, there research? Would it be possible to apply the perfor- is a lack of concreteness as to why certain para- mance or quality features indicated by the authors meters are attributed to performance features, as paradigmatic in an ensemble? The situation quality or aesthetic features. For example, phrasing would be even more complicated in case of a mixed is a performance feature, but it could also be attri- ensemble, i.e. an ensemble consisting of several buted to quality features in an interpretation, different groups of instruments as this would cause whereas a classic-style phrase performed with variations in articulation and other performance style (with proper articulation, feeling of symmetry) features depending not only on the competence could be attributed to aesthetic features as it asso- of performers and interpretation but also on the ciates both with historical information and style. instruments. The same applies to articulation. This performance feature is often linked with the style of a composition. As a result, not only a quality factor but also the impact of style, which is attributed to the HIERARCHICAL TAXONOMY MODEL aesthetic features in taxonomy, can be observed. If the authors assign the quality of sound to quality In essence, the hierarchical taxonomy model features, then the vibrato of string instruments is indicates the interaction of performance parame- one of the most crucial parameters determining ters and includes the performance context both the quality of sound. It remains unclear why the in its narrow sense (differences in obtaining the only performance feature ñ ornamentation ñ is sound, articulation, tempo and time manipulations) also attributed to quality features as it is possible and wide sense (the link between performance to speak about portamento and articulation from and the score, cultural and historical context of the point of view of this particular aspect as well. a composition). The method reveals the interaction The advantage of this method is striving to link of performance features and their importance. the factors of performance style, musical expres- The hierarchical framework, the interpretative sion, and emotions. The attitude towards compo- tower (2009) by Julian Hellaby applied in the sition performance and evaluation is based on research on piano performances can be used as the context (musical and emotional expression), an example. The taxonomy model is based on the layers of a specific piece (compositional and nine informants, these aspects are grouped into

79 MUSIC SCIENCE TODAY: THE PERMANENT AND THE CHANGEABLE ñ 3 (11) four levels, where the first level is the most objective RESEARCH DATA. and most closely related to the composition (the QUESTIONNAIRE, RESULTS AND DISCUSSION score) and the historical context of its creation, whereas the fourth level is the most subjective Synchronisation and expression are often con- and is most dependent on the interpretation and sidered as aspects of vertical ensemble coherence the individuality of a performer. According to combining psychophysical, psychosocial and Dorottya Fabian, What may be a convincing sociocultural factors. Ensemble coherence and the gesture in one performance may sound alien in factors helping to ensure it are an important research another; what one generation finds appealing and object and one of the most significant features of ìtrueî may be rejected by another as uninformed ensemble performance. The present study is a part or false (Fabian 2015: 49). In other words, not of a large project, in which the author seeks to only a performerís personal context is different investigate the relationship between ensemble but also the historical and cultural context that performersí musical and interpersonal interaction influences the perception, manners, taste, and per- and the expressivity of their performance. The formance trends is different. In the authorís opinion, questionnaire is based on three methods ñ hierar- this model (Ö) seems quite powerful in summa- chical taxonomy model, discussed performance rizing basic differences among performances, the features and evaluation taxonomy and the authorís discussed context, style, taste, character, themes self-observation in her practice with co-performers. The main aim is to investigate what aspects are as well as how a performer applies them (historical the most important for performers themselves information, knowledge). Nevertheless, Fabian when they perform with partners in an ensemble. notes that At the same time, its breadth and ability Method: The study sample comprised twelve to show differences in detail (Ö) seems limited professional chamber ensembles composed of (Fabian 2015: 45). The advantage of the method instrumentalists and singers (41 adults: 24 women is that due to its wide range of informants (aspects), and 17 men) residing in Lithuania. The participants the method can be adapted and applied in the had had at least three years of experience of regular research on an ensemble. The disadvantage is that playing in ensembles. The research participants due to the obvious dominance of the aspect of were asked to select up to five of the given factors the score and composition creation (in its both that, in their opinion, are the most important and narrow and wide senses), a more detailed study crucial in solving the problems related to coherence of performance features and performance expres- and expression in an ensemble. The 25 factors siveness becomes more complicated; the holistic were grouped into three sections: psychophysical, application of performance features would be psychosocial and sociocultural. The selected limited because of the quantitative management psychophysical factors: physical abilities, profes- of the aforementioned aspects. It would become sional competence, technique, virtuosity, intona- even more limited in case of the research on tion, quality of sound, breathing, motor skills, ensemble performance of a contemporary piece, coordination skills. where there may be not enough information for The selected psychosocial factors: musical the research of the first and the second levels. It prediction, musical imagination, interpersonal is out of discussion that to some extent interpre- coordination, empathy, personal manners, intui- tation reflects the score of a composition due to tion, flair, emotions, friendship, attention, long- the reason that a specific piece of music is perfor- term experience. med; however, in the context of contemporary The selected sociocultural factors: individual culture and research a piece and performance are taste, education, fashion trends, knowledge about separate components; a piece of music is the text instruments or voice, knowledge about music style of several layers and in order to research the soun- (see Example 2). ding level ñ interpretation ñ the method of Hellaby The chart featuring the factors that help ensure is insufficient. coherence and expression in ensemble performance shows that the most significant in ensemble performing practice is empathy (28 participants), long- term experience (27 participants) and friendship among partners. Technique (16 participants), intonation (12 participants) and breathing (11 participants) are considered important as well. However,

80 U. ANTANAVI»I¤TÀ-KUBICKIENÀ. MUSICAL INTERACTION IN ENSEMBLE PERFORMANCE: COHERENCE AND EXPRESSION.. sociocultural factors have less importance according sonal interaction) for ensemble performance (see to the results of the survey. The data demonstrate Example 3). The results of the survey reveal that that a social aspect of cooperation among ensemble both factors are of equal significance ñ professional performers is more significant than the professional competence was chosen as a more important factor aspect or the aspect of technical performance. by 49% of the respondents, whereas social factors For example, none of the participants chose the were indicated by 51% of the respondents. Never- virtuosity factor, although, professional compe- theless, the respondents also mentioned that women tence was noticed 10 times. tend to select the social aspect as a more important Data 2 reveals the significance of professional factor in ensemble performance (67%), whereas competence (technical) and social factors (interper- men tend to choose professional competence (71%).

Example 2. The factors that help ensure the coherence and expression

Example 3. The significance of professional competence and social factors

81 MUSIC SCIENCE TODAY: THE PERMANENT AND THE CHANGEABLE ñ 3 (11)

CONCLUSIONS AND RESEARCH PERSPECTIVES of performers; listeners often perceive gestures as signs of ensembleís expression and performance There is a positive relationship between the persuasion. Naturally, there is the other side of feeling of empathy and performing quality as well the coin, when performers overuse gestures that as synchronization in the ensemble. There is a serve not as the means to achieve musical inter- negative relationship between the focus on indivi- action with partners and to reveal one ensemble dual technical tasks and ensemble coherence and idea or expression of a piece of music but rather expression. The results show that long term-expe- as the means to achieve spectacular performance, rience is one of the crucial factors of successful thus, following the fashion trends. ensemble synchronisation and musical empathy. Another important direction of ensemble The aim of permanent ensemble members is long- research is the invasion of laboratories and tech- term, i.e. to seek unity and ensemble coherence nologies into the studies on performance as well rather than to prove oneís suitability and necessity. as the analyses of performance processes. The The performers who have played together for a empirical research conducted by P. E. Keller at longer period of time know each other better, the laboratory of Leipzig has revealed the diffe- their performance stands out for its higher compe- rences in small motor functions of performers that tence; such ensemble members are more satisfied determine movement coordination; the results of with their performance and at the same time they the research distinguishing the aspects of control tend to be more demanding and self-critical. Under- of motor functions, as well as the significance of standing of body physiology and breathing, as musical imagination for ensemble coherence and well as the application of such understanding for the process of synchronisation are of great impor- the general flow of music, is a fundamental aspect tance. The empirical research led by Andrea of synchronisation. Breathing coordination deter- Gaggioli, who sought to structure the features of mines the ability to adapt also the feelings of self- musical communication, emphasize the importance confidence and security when performing. More- of leadership, the level of a member value/status, over, it ensures the continuous flow of music, and the connection between long-term experience which is the essence of the performance of any and synchronisation. In 2016, the empirical research musical composition. was also commenced at Motion Capture Labora- An ever-increasing number and directions of tory (Vienna). During the three-year project led research indicate that coherence and expression by Dr. L. Bishop, the links between coordination are the main ensemble elements including a lot and creative cooperation will be established. of factors. Musical and interpersonal interaction Apart from the already mentioned projects and involves social factors determining ensemble mana- technology-based research, new laboratories are gement and coordination and reveals synchronisa- being opened, and new synchronisation and expres- tion both vertically (coincidence) and horizontally siveness indicators are being sought after. On the (general expressiveness). Semiotics as a tool in one hand, not fully natural working environment ensemble research is of great help. The discussed has an impact on the results. For example, special research models of expressiveness lock the problem clothing is unusual and not comfortable for playing: of ensemble, whereas the semiotic tool would warm garments, headwear, sensors, certain hand enable not only the distinguishing of a certain restrictions when fingers cannot move freely due hierarchy through iconic, index and symbolic signs to special gadgets put on them; the gadgets get but also, based on the already conducted research, stuck on the strings or the valves of string and the singling out of ensemble performance features wind instruments; finally, in most cases, electrical like icons, quantitative aspects and indexes of the (even though of really high quality) instruments performance, and the general expressiveness of are employed. Besides, numerous studies are based an ensemble, interpretational idea and meaning on piano ensembles; therefore, it is difficult to as a symbol that is perceived through cultural predict whether the same conclusions would be expression, dominant cultural tradition and even drawn in the ensembles of several groups of instru- fashion trends. Fashion is also an important ments. On the other hand, ten years ago the Tesla research object for ensemble performance. What car or such mobile applications as Shazam or is considered as fashionable is well-known, trendy, Sounhound that can now identify the media playing spectacular, and generates certain expressiveness, around you were also an incomprehensible idea. not necessarily that of quality and style or that This only illustrates that technologies permeate of ensemble coordination but that of the bodies all spheres of life; one only has to find the neces-

82 U. ANTANAVI»I¤TÀ-KUBICKIENÀ. MUSICAL INTERACTION IN ENSEMBLE PERFORMANCE: COHERENCE AND EXPRESSION.. sary algorithms and correlations. That is why the Cook, Nicholas (2014). Beyond reproduction: Semiotic author of the present study believes that the future perspectives on musical performance. Journal of of such research is promising. Despite the fact Musicology (Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts) that the ensemble research carried out to date 16:, 15ñ30. has revealed only certain patterns and tendencies, Davies, Stephen (2003). Themes in the Philosophy of Music. New York: Oxford University Press. it is merely a question of time when real benefits Doffman, Mark (2005). Groove! Its Production, Per- ensuring the practice of ensemble performance, ception and Meaning in Jazz. MA in Psychology improvement of the process, musical and interper- for Musicians. University of Sheffield. sonal interaction among ensemble members will Fabian, Dorottya (2015). A Musicology of Perfor- be obtained. Ensemble coherence and expression mance: Theory and Method Based on Bachís Solos definitely are paradigmatic aspects that ensure for Violin. Cambridge, UK: Open Book Publishers. not only musical but also interpersonal interaction. Gabrielsson, Alf (1999). The performance of music. It is highly important not only theoretically but The Psychology of Music. Edited by Diana Deutsch. for the very process of performance. Therefore, San Diego: Academic Press, 501ñ579. all scientific efforts to discover the ways how to Gaggioli, Andrea, Alice Chirico, Elvis Mazzoni, Luca facilitate and ensure this are praiseworthy. It is a Milani & Giuseppe Riva (2016). Networked flow in musical bands. Psychology of Music 45 (2): 1ñ15. relatively new field of research but it is very Heaton, Roger (2012). Contemporary performance meaningful and useful for practice. As a result, practice and tradition. Music Performance Research coherence and expression are those research 5: 96ñ104. objects, the future, and prospects of which seem Hellaby, Julian (2009). Reading Musical Interpre- to be bright and endless. tation: Case Studies in Solo Piano Performance. Farnham: Ashgate. Katz, Martin (2009). The Complete Collaborator: The Pianist as Partner. New York: Oxford University REFERENCES Press. Keller, Peter, E. (2001). Adaptive Functions of Meter Beek, Peter J., Lieke E. Peper & Andreas Daffertshofer in Multipart Musical Rhythm. Unpublished doc- (2000). Timekeepers versus nonlinear oscillators: toral dissertation. University of New South Wales, How the approaches differ; Considerations regar- Australia. ding a comprehensive model of (poly)rhythmic Keller, Peter, E. (2012). Mental imagery in music per- movement. Rhythm Perception and Production. formance: Underlying mechanisms and potential Edited by Peter Desain & Luke Windsor. Lisse: benefits. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences Swets and Zeitlinger, 9ñ33. 1252: 206ñ213. Bisesi, Erica, Florian Eckl & Richard Parncutt (2013). Keller, Peter, E. (2013). Musical ensemble performance: What emotions and free associations characterize A theoretical framework and empirical findings on different musical styles? Proceedings of the 3rd Inter- interpersonal coordination. Proceedings of the national Conference on Music & Emotion, Jyv‰s- International Symposium on Performance Science. kyl‰, Finland, 11thñ15th June 2013. Edited by Geoff Edited by Aaron Williamon & Werner Goebl. Brus- Luck & Olivier Brabant. Jyv‰skyl‰: University of sels, Belgium: European Association of Conserva- Jyv‰skyl‰, Department of Music, 1ñ11. toires (AEC), 271ñ285. Clarke, Eric (1995). Expression in performance: Gene- Keller, Peter, E. (2014a). Ensemble performance. Music rativity, perception and semiosis. The Practice of in the Social and Behavioral Sciences: An Encyclo- Performance. Edited by John Rink. Cambridge: pedia. Edited by William Forde Thompson. Thou- Cambridge University Press, 21ñ54. sand Oaks: Sage Publications Inc., 396ñ399. Clarke, Eric & Jane Davidson (1998). The body in Keller, Peter, E. (2014b). Ensemble performance: Inter- performance. Composition ñ Performance ñ Recep- personal alignment of musical expression. Expressive- tion. Edited by Windham Thomas. Aldershot: Ashgate ness in Music Performance: Empirical Approaches Press, 74ñ92. Across Styles and Cultures. Edited by Dorottya Clarke, Eric (2000). Generative principles in music Fabian, Renee Timmers & Emery Schubert. Oxford: performance. Generative Processes in Music. Edited Oxford University Press, 260ñ282. by John A. Sloboda. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1ñ26. Keller, Peter, E. (2014c). Synchronization. Music in Cook, Nicholas (2001). Between Process and Product: the Social and Behavioral Sciences: An Encyclo- Music and/as Performance. Music Theory Online pedia. Edited by William Forde Thompson. Thousand 7 (2). http://www.mtosmt.org/issues/mto.01.7.2/ Oaks: Sage Publications Inc., 1088ñ1091. mto.01.7.2.cook.html ñ visited on October 23, Keller, Peter, E. & Mirjam Appel (2010). Individual 2017. differences, auditory imagery, and the coordination

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of body movements and sounds in music ensembles. tion, and Composition. Edited by John A. Sloboda. Music Perception 28 (1): 27ñ46. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 70ñ90. King, Elaine (2006). Supporting gestures: Breathing Repp, Brun, H. A. (1992). Constraint on the expressive in piano performance. Music and Gesture. Edited timing of a melodic gesture: Evidence from perfor- by Anthony Gritten & Elaine King. Surrey: Ashgate, mance and aesthetic judgment. Music Perception 142ñ164. 10 (2): 221ñ241. King, Elaine (2013). Musical shaping gestures: Consi- Repp, Bruno, H. (2000). Subliminal temporal discrimi- derations about terminology and methodology. nation revealed in sensorimotor coordination. Empirical Musicology Review 8 (1): 68ñ71. Rhythm Perception and Production. Edited by Peter Levinson, Jerrold (2011). Music, Art, and Metaphysics: Desain & Luke Windsor. Lisse: Swets and Zeitlinger, Essays in Philosophical Aesthetics. New York: 129ñ142. Oxford University Press. Rink, John (ed., 1995). The Practice of Performance. McCaleb, Murphy, James (2011). Embodied know- Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ledge in ensemble performance: The case of informed Sawyer, Keith R. (2007). Group Genius: The Creative observation. Performa 11: 1ñ9. Power of Collaboration. New York, NY: Basic Parncutt, Richard (2003). Accents and expression in Books. piano performance. Perspektiven und Methoden Schubert, Emery, & Dorottya Fabian (2014). A taxo- einer Systemischen Musikwissenshaft (Festschrift nomy of listenersí judgments of expressiveness in Fricke). Edited by Klaus Wolfgang Niemˆller. Frank- music performance. Expressiveness in Music Perfor- furt/Main, Germany: Peter Lang, 163ñ185. mance: Empirical Approaches Across Styles and Pecenka, Nadine, & Peter E. Keller (2011). The role Cultures. Edited by Dorottya Fabian, Renee Tim- of temporal prediction abilities in interpersonal mers & Emery Schubert. Oxford: Oxford University sensorimotor synchronization. Experimental Brain Press, 283ñ303. Research 211: 505ñ515. Summers, Jeffrey (2000). Mental timekeepers, internal Rasch, Rudolf A. (2000). Timing and synchronization clocks, oscillators and complex dynamics: Intro- duction. Rhythm Perception and Production. Edited in ensemble performance. Generative Processes in by Peter Desain & Luke Windsor. Lisse: Swets and Music: The Psychology of Performance, Improvisa- Zeitlinger, 3ñ8.

84 Role of Second Violinist in String Quartet. Essential Differences and Commonalities in Comparison to First Violinist

Mag. art. GIEDRÀ ﬁARÀNAITÀ Doctoral student at the Lithuanian Academy of Music and Theatre

In artistic research of these days, there is a growing amount of works about the relationship between ensemble members. In particular, talking about a string quartet, much attention has been paid to describing the role of the leader ñ usually the quartet principal, the role of the first violinist. However, there is little information about the role of the second violinist in the string quartet or in other larger chamber ensembles. It is hard to single out the main function of the second violinist; the player must have many different technical abilities, developed features, which allow the second violinist for rapid exchange, to be observant and extremely flexible. Being well informed about the composition, the second violinist becomes an irreplaceable member of the ensemble, whose musical contribution to the overall quartetís voice is undisputed. Keywords: string quartet, second violinist, technique, role, music ensemble.

INTRODUCTION THE ROLE OF THE SECOND VIOLINIST IN THE STRING QUARTET

This paper analyses the role of the second violinistís position in the string quartet, distin- At the beginning of a bachelor study, one guishing the main technical and emotional diffe- Austrian violin teacher gave an example of how rences or commonalities, compared to the first to understand the balance and the importance of violinist. Performing secondary melodies, dialogue different voices in a string quartet. She compared function, changing interruptions, and accompani- the cello part with a glass bottle, the label on it is ment functions ñ all these activities describe the the first violin, and the wine that contains the function of the second violinist. Most often this bottle and represents the label is the second violin character is less noticeable, and his performance and the viola. What is the value of wine without is rarely evaluated. In the music community, there a label? What is the benefit of a labelled bottle, is even a premise that a quartetís second violinist but empty? Based on this example, one can assure is the one who is not good enough to become the the importance of each member of the string first violinist. This paper shows that the position quartet in the ensemble. Team Roles at of the second violin in the quartet may not only Meredith Belbin in her book Work (2010) talks about forming roles inside the be attractive and achievable, but the second violin team, where assuming positions and responsibi- part is also very significant in terms of the quartetís lities depend on the degree of self-expression and structure. From the compositional point of view, the command as a connection of the hole percep- it gives compositions strenuousness and harmo- tions; the author distinguishes two types of nious density. emerging roles in the team (Belbin 2010: 6). Functional roles are determined by certain requirements that a person has to fulfil in order to perform the relevant tasks. In the case of a string quartet, these roles exist not only in rehearsals

85 MUSIC SCIENCE TODAY: THE PERMANENT AND THE CHANGEABLE ñ 3 (11) but also outside of them, when the musician is the first violin and the viola or cello registers, responsible not only for the general musical process adding harmonious depth and new colours but also for individual preparation, awareness to musical texture. of his part and score, the preparation of technically difficult places to a level when in the general John Keith Murnigham and Donald E. Conlon rehearsal this does not prevent working on general, in the book The Dynamics of Intense Work Groups: musical tasks covering the entire ensemble. The A Study of British String Quartets (1991) have definition of functional roles includes all organi- revealed that the role of the second violin (both zational aspects: place and time of rehearsals, personal and musical) is very diverse and chan- concerts, meetings with festival organizers and ging, requiring the highest degree of adaptation composers. and adjustment. It is even a certain attitude and Team roles are determined by the personís way of thinking. The musician must adapt and inclination to behave accordingly, co-operate and sublimate his ego while playing a different accom- interact with other team members. In the string panying material and be able to react quickly and quartet, this is the development of common change regardless of whether there are duplicate musical ideas, interpretative aspects of the piece, melodies or rhythmic accompanying material. the general ensembleís sound, technique, reper- The second violin parts in the classical quartets toire, and exceptional performance characteristics, usually are complementary to the first violin part as well as social interactions among the ensemble (it is duplicated in octaves), but its task is twofold: members (Belbin 2010: 7). besides having to blend and adapt to the first The author of the paper has distinguished violin, the second violin does not stay in the second essential differences and commonalities of the dissolving plan. Obviously, it also requires certain first violin position: personal qualities that make it possible to under- ó there are many quartets named after the first stand its second position. violin1; ó Quartet Virtuoso; ó usually performs the main melodies of the MAIN FUNCTIONS OF THE SECOND VIOLINIST piece; IN THE STRING QUARTET ó accidental accompanying role. The musical role of the first violinist in the Since one of the main functions of the second string quartet is the least discussed. Since it is a violinist is the accompanying material, the second musical quartet wizard, the first violin part in violin is considered to be an organic part of the classical quartets is usually the most complicated quartetís structure, determining the pulse, creating and the most audible for an audience. This perfor- a flow in which the melody can spread and move mer must have achieved not only a high level of freely. Besides, with the help of the middle voices, technical excellence but also be extremely sensitive the mood of surprise and anxiety is often created. to hearing and musical insights. Essential diffe- There are moments when a second violin per- rences and commonalities of the second violin forms a melody, which is also difficult due to the position are the following: very uncomfortable low register, as opposed to ó may be called quartet chameleon, which the high register of the first violin. requires a lot and often changes roles during This requires additional effort in articulating, the performance of the work; as well as in terms of the balance for the entire ó performing the auxiliary melody, supporting quartet, and being best heard. Moreover, the second the main melody (usually for violin I); violinist must be able to easily change his roles: ó dialogue function, changing interruptions; firstly, performing the musical piece in the main ó taking the main melody; voice function with showing freedom and energy, ó complementary function ñ convergence with and, secondly, to become an auxiliary or admired, harmony and accompaniment of a melody; imperceptible voice. The second violinist must ó harmonic connections ñ the connection between always be the one who is able to adapt quickly

1 Arditti Quartet ñ first violin Irvine Arditti, Talich Quartet ñ first violin Jan Talich, Takács Quartet ñ first violin Gábor Takács-Nagy, Belcea Quartet ñ first violin Corina Belcea-Fisher.

86 G. ﬁARÀNAITÀ. ROLE OF SECOND VIOLINIST IN STRING QUARTET. ESSENTIAL DIFFERENCES AND COMMONALITIES.. and accurately to the first violin by playing different performs the melody, the second violin, along material ñ to find common ground with other with the cello, performs the ìbridgeî of the quartet members. harmonic connections with the same rhythmic I think the second violin is the most impor- values (the first violin melodic line sounds in the tant glue in the string quartet. Itís a harder job higher register, and all other voices are placed in than being a leader. You have to be a virtuoso or a wider range). In bars 141ñ142, when the main youíre lost in the shuffle. You have to blend with melody of the first violin part has just been heard, the leader and you have to play along with the it is suddenly featured in the second violin part. lower instruments. Because of the nature of the The melody is tapped as if they were clipped and writing, youíre always either a non-entity or divided between the first and the second violins. terribly important ñ thereís no middle ground This place of Ravelís String Quartet requires high (Paul Shure, Hollywood Quartet, quoted after rhythmical (by playing the melody in time) and Potter 1996). intonational precision (big harmonical jumps For example, in the first movement of Maurice between the melodic and accompanying parts). Ravelís String Quartet in F major, we see how All these technical problems are complicated by the second violin behaves like a chameleon the indications written by the composer (general changing its colours, changing its basic functions dynamic is pp, the character is espressivo, rapid (Example 1). In bars 137ñ140, the first violin crescendo and diminuendo).

Example 1. Maurice Ravel. String Quartet in F major. First movement (mm. 134ñ145)

Traditionally, the main theme melodies are themes, by giving them a character through articu- composed and given away to the first violin, which lation and dynamics. is responsible not only for the perfect technical In the first movement of Ravelís Quartet, you performance but also for the interpretation, to can see that in measures 24ñ27 the melody is present and introduce the listener to the main played by the first violin, while the second violin,

87 MUSIC SCIENCE TODAY: THE PERMANENT AND THE CHANGEABLE ñ 3 (11) along with the viola, plays the role of the accom- articulation, are performed together with the viola. paniment, the parts that are dominated by the To achieve good synchronization in the ensemble, sixteenth notes (Example 2). Different bowing the first violin should perform its part as rhythmical techniques and high-speed passages in rhythmical as possible and should be aware of what the unison require additional technical tasks for these musical intentions of the other musicians are. players. Therefore, the second violin, while Besides, he or she should play musically convin- listening to the main melody, must be sure that cing, so that there is no question about the dynamics the sixteenth notes, despite the different way of or articulations.

Example 2. Maurice Ravel. String Quartet in F major. First movement (mm. 24ñ29)

CONCLUSION In our musical education system, there is no tradition to prepare musicians to become second It should be noted that there is a number of violinists. The same problem applies to symphony cases where the second violin faces the difficulty orchestras, where the second violin section usually of adapting and accepting its position. It is often is found weaker than the first violin section. As a believed that the second violin in the quartet is a reverse example, we can mention the violin group weaker musician with a less powerful technique. of the Los Angeles Chamber Orchestra and the Such division, especially in music academies, has Kristiansand Symphony Orchestra where only the serious consequences for further quartet activities. principals are permanent, and the rest of the violi- Often, the second violinists struggle to realize them- nists rotate between the first and the second voices. selves in their position; they watch the first violinist Being a violinist, I learned to play in the string with jealousy for his/her position and playing. With quartet in the position of the second violin. Because time, he or she starts to spread dissatisfaction or of that situation, I had enough time to go deep anger towards the first violin, with a thought that into the specifics of that role. Looking at this posi- he or she could be more suitable for this position. tion, of course, I also developed my own vision

88 G. ﬁARÀNAITÀ. ROLE OF SECOND VIOLINIST IN STRING QUARTET. ESSENTIAL DIFFERENCES AND COMMONALITIES.. of what the first violin should be. In recent years, 2013: 223ñ228. http://researchonline.rcm.ac.uk/ I have been in the position of the leader in both 346/1/056Paper_Biasutti.pdf ñ visited on February chamber ensembles and orchestras, and I have to 18, 2018. admit that only of being able to master the tech- Murnighan, J. Keith & Donald E. Colon (1991). The nical and interpretative difficulties of the second dynamics of intense work groups: A study of British string quartets. Administrative Science Quarterly violin, today I feel a much better principal than I 36 (2): 165ñ186. would have been without this experience. Norton, Herter M.D. (1962). The Art of String Quartet; Practise, Technique and Interpretation. New York: Simon and Schuster. Potter, Tully (1996). 8 tips for second violinist. The REFERENCES Strad. https://www.thestrad.com/8-tips-for- second-violinists/180.article ñ visited on June 20, Belbin, Meredith (2010). Team Roles at Work. Second 2018. Edition. Burlington: Butterworth-Heinemann. Timmers, Renne, Satoshi Endo & Alan M. Wing Biasutti, Michele, Eleonona Concina, David Wasley & (2013). Temporal coordination in string quartet Aaron Williamon (2013). Behavioral coordination performance. International Symposium on Perfor- among chamber musicians: A study of visual syn- mance Science 2013: 569ñ574. http://mediatum.ub. chrony and communication in two string quartets. tum.de/doc/1207051/426077.pdf ñ visited on June International Symposium on Performance Science 20, 2018.

89 MUSIC EDUCATION

Assessment of Music Teachersí Competences: Approach of Heads of Schools

Dr. soc. RASA KIRLIAUSKIENÀ Associate Professor at Vytautas Magnus University, Academy of Education (Lithuania)

Dr. soc. JOLANTA ABRAMAUSKIENÀ Associate Professor at Vytautas Magnus University, Academy of Education (Lithuania)

This paper analyses the theoretical aspects of music teachersí competence and the results of the empirical research obtained by means of a quantitative study. 160 principals from Lithuania and 7 from the USA have participated in the research. During the research The Competence of Subjectís Content Planning and Improving was revealed: the ability of music teachers to prepare a curriculum based on documents regulating education; to formulate the aims and the objectives of teaching (learning) music; to select proper teaching (learning) methods appropriate for achieving the aims of teaching (learning); to prepare more interesting and attractive teaching (learning) materials; to plan the process of education in advance, integrating other subjects into the content of education. Furthermore, the Competence of Managing the Process of Teaching (Learning) was defined: the targeted application of modern technologies in teaching (learning); the ability to provide accessible and comprehensible educational content and necessary information, various educational strategies that develop learnersí critical thinking; problem-solving; creativity; and participation in developing and implementing the curriculum for learners with special needs. Keywords: approach of heads of schools, music education, competences of music teachers.

INTRODUCTION mined by learning and its content, continuous improvement of technology, educational processes, The changing and growing needs of modern etc. GapytÎ and BankauskienÎ (2016) also state society encourage changes and raise new demands that the problem of music teachersí competency for music teachers. The profession of music teacher in general education schools is ripe and it is is encompassing and multifaceted; it is very impor- extremely important to start looking for ways to tant in todayís education since it helps to develop improve the situation. In Lithuania, the strategic childrenís artistic taste, their perception of the aim of education in the state education strategy world of music, establish spiritual, artistic, musical 2013ñ2022 (2014) is to increase the professiona- and cultural values. Therefore, it is often inquired, lism of teachers. The objective is to strive for which competences a contemporary music teacher professional, constantly improving and efficient should acquire to meet the challenges of the chan- educational communities. ging environment and the demands of the public. The aim of the research: to disclose the ap- By identifying them, it would become possible proach of the heads of schools towards music to improve the process of musical education, study teachersí professional competences. programmes, and perfect the liaison between the The research questions: what is the approach transmission of theoretical knowledge and the of the heads of general schools towards music development of practical skills. According to recent teachersí professional competences? researches (Koca 2017; Lasauskiene, Yang 2017), Research methods and the respondents: the the concept of professionalism is constantly chan- analysis of scientific and methodological literature; ging: changes of professional competence are deter- school principalsí survey (focus group), using the

90 R. KIRLIAUSKIENÀ, J. ABRAMAUSKIENÀ. ASSESSMENT OF MUSIC TEACHERSˇ COMPETENCES: APPROACH OF HEADS OF SCHOOLS method of a questionnaire; the quantitative data analysis. 160 principals from Lithuania and 7 from the USA have participated in the research. The data collected were processed by using SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Sciences) software package. The study was conducted without viola- ting the research ethics (Kardelis 2016): the participants were provided with all the information about the aims of the research and the principles Example 2. Formulation of teaching (learning) aims of benevolence, respect for personal dignity, justice and objectives of the music subject (pct) and the right to receive accurate information were observed. Research results (Example 2) show that most The research organization: the research was (79 pct) of the music teachers are able to formu- conducted in 2016. Questionnaires were filled in late the aims and objectives of teaching (learning) during the electronic survey and workshops for the subject, in the opinion of schoolsí headmasters. the heads of general schools. Besides, almost one-fifth of them (19.2 pct) cast doubt on music teachersí competence of planning and improving the contents of the subject, when RESEARCH DATA AND DISCUSSION formulating the teaching (learning) aims and objectives of the music subject. The least (1.8 pct) part of the respondents are unsure, whether their The aim of the study is to determine whether music teachers can formulate the teaching (learning) music teachersí professional competences are aims and objectives of the music subject. For the assessed. The first stage of the research provides competence mentioned above, the ability to plan the data that confirm the competence of planning the process of education in advance, adding the and improving the contents of the subject. integration of other subjects into the curriculum is very important, too (Example 3).

Example 1. Preparation of a curriculum based on documents regulating education (pct) Example 3. Planning the process of education in advance and integrating other subjects The data presented in Example 1 testifies that into the curriculum (pct) music teachers can prepare a curriculum while following the documents regulating education. The data analysis (Example 3) shows that, More than three quarters of the school principals according to the opinion of the heads of schools, (75.4 pct) state that music teachers, who work when the education process is planned while integ- in their schools, while compiling the curriculum rating other subjects into the curriculum, music rely on documents; however, almost one quarter teachers express themselves differently. Slightly (23.4 pct) of the respondents only partially agree more than a half (53.2 pct) of the respondents that, when preparing a curriculum, music teachers have stated that music teachers plan the process rely on the documents regulating education. Thus, of education and integrate other subjects into the while analysing the competence of planning and curriculum in advance, but more than two fifths improving the contents of the subject it is impor- (41.9 pct) of the respondents think that music tant to disclose the teachersí ability to formulate teachers do not use all the opportunities during the teaching (learning) aims and objectives of the this process. The least (3.0 pct) part of the prin- music subject (Example 2). cipals do not think that music teachers plan the

91 MUSIC SCIENCE TODAY: THE PERMANENT AND THE CHANGEABLE ñ 3 (11) process of education in advance or integrate other subjects into the curriculum. Furthermore, the competence of planning and improving the contents of the subject, implies also the ability to choose the teaching (learning) methods appropriate for reaching the teaching (learning) aims, as well as the ability to prepare teaching (learning) materials that would be interesting and attractive to learners (Example 4). Example 5. Purposeful use of modern education technologies (pct)

One of the most important constituent parts of the above-mentioned competence is a purposeful use of modern educational technologies. It can be seen in Example 5 that more than three fifths (61.7 pct) of the respondents have agreed that music teachers apply modern technologies in education expediently, but more than one-third of them Example 4. The ability to choose the teaching (learning) (34.7 pct) have only partially agreed that purpose- methods appropriate for reaching the teaching ful use of modern education technologies is predo- (learning) aims and prepare teaching (learning) minant in lessons. Moreover, the research data materials interesting and attractive to learners (pct) testify to the fact that some of the heads of the schools (2.4 pct) do not have the opinion on the More than three fifths (61.7 pct) of the respon- subject, while others (1.2 pct) think that music dents think that music teachers prepare interesting teachers in their schools do not apply any modern teaching (learning) materials that are attractive technologies in the process of education. to learners; however, more than one-third (34.1 While analysing the competence of managing pct) of the respondents are sure that teachers do the teaching (learning) process, the ability to provide not always put effort in accomplishing this task, learners with the content of education and neces- while others (1.8 pct) strictly state that such an sary information in an accessible and compre- aspect (the ability to prepare interesting teaching hensible way should be distinguished as well (see (learning) materials that are attractive to learners) Example 6). is not characteristic of teachers. Summing up the competence of planning and improving the contents of the subject, it can be stated that most of the principals consider music teachers of their schools as ones who are able to prepare the curriculum relying on the documents regulating education, formulate the teaching (learning) aims and objectives of the music subject and choose teaching (learning) methods appro- Example 6. The ability to provide learners with priate for reaching the teaching (learning) aims. the content of education and necessary information However, about one-third of them consider that in an accessible and comprehensible way (pct) sometimes music teachers could prepare more interesting teaching (learning) materials that are Almost three quarters (73.7 pct) of the respon- attractive for learners, while about two-fifths of dents have answered that in their schools, music the respondents think that while planning the teachers are able to make the content of education educational process teachers could plan the integ- and necessary information understandable and ration of other subjects into the curriculum in accessible for learners, though one fifth (22.2 pct) advance, as well. of them are uncertain as to such teachersí ability. The aim of the next stage of the research was Still, some respondents (4.2 pct) state that they to disclose the competence of managing the teaching do not know the real situation. (learning) process (see Example 5).

92 R. KIRLIAUSKIENÀ, J. ABRAMAUSKIENÀ. ASSESSMENT OF MUSIC TEACHERSˇ COMPETENCES: APPROACH OF HEADS OF SCHOOLS

One more aim of the research was to disclose teachers create and implement the curricula, which the ability of music teachers to apply various imply the integration for children with special strategies that would develop learnersí critical needs, while almost half of the respondents (49.7 thinking, problem-solving skills, and creativity pct) only partially agree with the statement and (see Example 7). one-tenth of the principals do not have any opinion on the issue (3.0 pct), or do not agree with the statement (7.2 pct). Summing up the competence of managing the teaching (learning) process, it can be stated that the purposeful use of modern education technologies, the ability to convey the content of education and necessary information in an accessible and comprehensible way for students, according to the heads of the schools, are significant factors Example 7. The ability to apply strategies in encouraging learnersí motivation in the process that would develop learnersí critical thinking, of education. However, one-third of music teachers problem-solving skills, and creativity (pct) should improve these qualities. The research has also helped to reveal that for almost half of music The research results (Example 7) reveal that teachers it is necessary to put more effort into such ability, which is particularly relevant in the applying various strategies aimed at developing modern world, is not sufficiently developed. The critical thinking, creativity, and problem-solving principalsí opinions are almost equally distributed. skills of learners; as well as that teachers should Some participants (46.1 pct) think that music participate in creating and implementing the integ- teachers develop learnersí critical thinking, creati- rated curricula for learners with special needs more vity, and problem-solving skills by applying various actively. strategies, while others (45.5 pct) state that they only partially agree with the statement that music teachers are sufficiently capable of developing CONCLUSIONS critical thinking, creativity, and problem-solving skills of their learners in the process of education. The collected data make it possible to state Moreover, almost one-tenth of the respondents that, according to the opinion of the heads of (3.0 pct) did not have any opinion or did not agree general education schools, it is important to (5.4 pct) with the statement. develop the following two competences of music Disclosing the ability to participate in creating teachers: the competence of planning and improving and implementing the results of integrated curricula the contents of the subject, and the competence for learners with special needs (Example 8) is also of managing the teaching (learning) process. The of high significance. competence of planning and improving the contents of the subject, according to the school principals, helps music teachers prepare the curricula, while relying on the documents regulating education, formulate the teaching (learning) aims and objectives of the music subject, and choose the methods appropriate for reaching the teaching (learning) aims. However, about one-third of the respondents think that sometimes music teachers could prepare materials that would be more interesting and Example 8. Ability to participate in creating and attractive to learners, while about two-fifths of implementing the integrated curricula for learners the respondents agree that while planning the with special needs (pct) process of education, teachers could devote more time to integrate other subjects into the content The results show that only little more than two of education in advance. The competence of fifths (40.1 pct) of the participants think that music managing the teaching (learning) process helps

93 MUSIC SCIENCE TODAY: THE PERMANENT AND THE CHANGEABLE ñ 3 (11) music teachers to expediently apply modern educa- REFERENCES tion technologies and convey the content of education and necessary information to learners in AbramauskienÎ, Jolanta & Rasa KirliauskienÎ (2016). accessible and comprehensible ways. However, Choral singing in Lithuania and the profession of according to the heads of the schools, one-third music teacher: Traditions and innovations. M˚zikas of music teachers should improve these aspects zin‚tne odien: past‚vÓgais un mainÓgais 8. Edited of their competence. The research results have by Ilma GrauzdiÚa & «valds Daugulis. Daugavpils: also helped to disclose that about a half of the DU AkadÁmiskais apg‚ds Saule, 322ñ331. GapytÎ, GiedrÎ & NijolÎ BankauskienÎ (2016). Music music teachers insufficiently use various education teacherís expression of competencies. Social Educa- strategies developing learnersí critical thinking, tion 42 (1): 45ñ59. problem-solving skills, and creativity and they Kardelis, KÊstutis (2016). Mokslini¯ tyrim¯ metodo- should more actively participate in developing logija ir metodai. Vilnius: MELC. and implementing the curriculum for learners Koca, S¸ehriban (2017). Competencies of music teacher with special needs. It is likely that the assessment candidates taking pedagogical formation training, of music teachersí competences carried out in the International Online Journal of Educational Sciences present study will elicit the development of more 9 (2): 370ñ380. Lasauskiene, Jolanta & Yuqing Yang (2017). Deve- effective music education programmes. loping and renewing music teacher competences: prospects and challenges. New Trends and Issues. Proceedings on Humanities and Social Sciences 4 (8): 225ñ233. The State Education Strategy 2013ñ2022 (2014). Vilnius: Ministry of Education and Science of the Republic of Lithuania.

94 Future Teachersí Musical Competence and Its Expression at University

Dr. soc. ASTA RAUDUVAITÀ Professor at Vytautas Magnus University, Academy of Education (Lithuania) SUN BO Master student at Vytautas Magnus University, Academy of Education (Lithuania)

Qualified future music teachers must have certain musical competences and teaching skills. The research is centred on future music teachers of Lithuanian University of Educational Sciences and their thoughts concerning the importance of music competence. The aim of the research is to reveal the peculiarities of future teachersí musical competence in the study process. According to the collected data, students relate musical competence expression of future music teachers to the improvement of self-development, as well as the development of musical skills. Keywords: education of future music teachers, music teacher, musical competences.

INTRODUCTION temporary teacher is more complex technically and of a wider range than ever before. Therefore, The strategic documents on education of the teachersí value system, indicators of their profes- European Union and Lithuania (The Draft of the sional skills have to meet the highest standards, Lithuanian Teacher Training Conception and its s/he has to improve the qualification constantly, Substantiation 2016; The Order of the Minister follow the tendencies of education development in their own country and abroad. of Education and Science On the Approval of the The main document regulating the changes Description of Teacher Education Model 2017; in teacher education in Lithuania, The Description The Description of Teacherís Professional Com- of Teacherís Professional Competence (2007), petence 2007; The Description of Teacher Profes- emphasises the need to renew and improve teachersí sional Competences 2015; and others) point out competences. This necessitates reviewing the con- the necessity to facilitate the creation of active, ception of education content and the foundations supportive and constantly learning society. The of its structure. Universities and colleges are more responsibility for organising the professional pro- frequently encouraged to relate the content of cess of self-development to enable every citizen higher education studies with their future profes- to acquire an open, creative and responsible perso- sional activity and to create study programmes nality is addressed to the educational institutions, based on competences. These discussions have where, without any doubt, teachers are regarded also been promoted by the European Union initia- as very important figures. tive, striving for the unification of qualification The issues related to the question of how to degrees obtained in other countries (Framework become a good teacher or how to improve teacher for Qualifications of the European Higher Educa- training have been considered intensively through- tion Area, 2005; European Commission, 2015; out the history of pedagogy. Theoreticians and Education and training in Europe 2020). The issues practitioners of the pedagogy of all times have related to changes in teacher training have been emphasised the fact that in order to carry out the widely analysed by foreign and Lithuanian educa- mission of a teacher, one has to pass a long and tional schientists (Cochran-Smith 2005; Carr 2000; responsible preparation process. Work of a con- Beineke 2013; Carneiro, Looney, Vincent-Lancrin

95 MUSIC SCIENCE TODAY: THE PERMANENT AND THE CHANGEABLE ñ 3 (11)

2015; Isbell 2015; Kovalev, Khussainova, Balaga- perspective of students in order to understand zova, Zhankul 2016; Koca 2017, and others). the significance of studentsí experience. This ability Referring to music teacher training at univer- is not innate, but it can be developed through sity, there is no common document (standard of studying, reflection, observation, evaluation, and training music teachers of Level 6th Qualification), exploration. which could provide with the knowledge, skills, and abilities that have to be acquired to ensure successful activity of music teachers in general DATA COLLECTION AND DATA ANALYSIS education schools (LasauskienÎ 2010). When defining the research problem, it should be emphasised that while integrating into the structures of The sample consisted of 45 foreign (Chinese) the European Higher Education Area, music students of Bachelor and Master degree, who chose teachers should acquire such competences that studies at Lithuanian University of Educational reflect common European principles for teacher Sciences (Music Education). The obtained quanti- competences. tative data were analysed calculating absolute and The aim of the research is to reveal the pecu- percentage frequencies. liarities of future teachersí musical competence in The professional development of music teachers the studying process. The methods of the research: is the combination of studentsí professional self- analysis of scientific literature and documents of development of consciousness, self-cognition, education; written questionnaire survey; quanti- occupation identity, self-efficiency, development tative data analysis. of motivation, professionalism, professional ideals, and occupation experience. The process of teachersí professional development is to recognize self- value and continue to fulfil the practical require- THE IMPORTANCE OF TEACHERíS TEACHING COMPETENCES ments of the education process for the youth. The first task of a new teacher is to gain teaching practice, to familiarize with the related teaching For a long time, communities involved in theories and disciplines of literature, teaching and teacher education have been criticized and ques- learning, to have clear understanding of their cur- tioned, normal universities have been training rent stage of development and level in the teaching teachers that are believed to not be able to adapt process, teaching practice of teaching theory and to the needs of the new era, and are unmotivated its continuous reflection, forming the conscious- to become successful teachers. However, there is ness of self-development, understanding the still ample evidence received from formal educa- identity and occupation and strongly stimulating tion teachers that those who have had little or motivation. no training at all, are more confident and more Under the guidance of a successful music successful in teaching. teacher, a good level of playing and singing skills, Not only in the outside world but also inside excellent classroom teaching ability are not enough, education, there are many voices of discontent the teacher must also have advanced teaching ideas which have prompted the reform of teacher and a unique teaching style. At the same time, for education, suggesting that there is a need to: a full-time music teacher, growth is a continuous 1) strengthen the knowledge base of university process. Therefore, by paying attention to teaching students; 2) enhance links between theory and they can create their own unique ideas and make practice; 3) strengthen development capacity for full use of their knowledge. In the new curriculum, effective teaching. Recently, a large number of it is necessary to actively help new teachers to facts showed that the reforms would encourage enrich their literacy, to cultivate autonomous teacher education projects and curricula, teacher learning awareness and to effectively improve education institutions to work more closely their professional level. together, achieving better efficiency in training Example 1 reveals that in the opinion of more teachers and motivating students to willingly than half of foreign students (64%), the teachersí enter the teaching profession. ability to evaluate and improve their personal The most important role of teacher education qualities and to analyse own musical activity is is to help teachers develop the ability to look at the main component of music teachersí musical the issue from multiple angles and to stand in the competence (they pointed out this ability to be

96 A. RAUDUVAITÀ, SUN BO. FUTURE TEACHERSí MUSICAL COMPETENCE AND ITS EXPRESSION AT UNIVERSITY very important). The ability to evaluate and have indicated that applying music performance improve your personal qualities is important skills (singing, conducting, playing a variety of according to 36% of the respondents, and the instruments) of students in musical training, having ability to analyse own musical activity is also seen knowledge about modern music technology, and as important by 33% of the students. However, using creative musical activities (arranging works, there are still 3% of students who believe that transposition, harmonization, improvisation) in this ability is not very important. music lessons, choir, orchestra) are very impor- The analysis of the research results (Example tant in developing musical abilities of music teachers 2) reveals that the majority of the foreign students (60%, 62% and 58% respectively).

Level of importance Personality self-development Not very Very important Important important To be able to analyse own activities, to develop skills and personality features The ability to evaluate and improve own personal qualities. 64.0 36.0 ñ The ability to analyse own musical activity. 64.0 33.0 3.0

Example 1. Studentsí attitude to the importance of music teacherís personality self-development (%)

Level of importance Development of musical abilities Not very Very important Important important To be able to interpret and compose music To know the musical language, history, aesthetics, philosophy, psychology, ethnocultural foundations and their 60.0 40.0 ñ application in music practice. To apply music performance skills (singing, conducting, and playing a variety of instruments) skills of students in musical 62.0 36.0 2.0 training, have knowledge of modern music technology. To use creative musical activities (arranging works, transposition, harmonization, improvisation) in music lessons, 58.0 38.0 4.0 choir, orchestra.

Example 2. Studentsí attitude to the importance of developing music teachersí musical abilities (%)

Level of importance Management of non-formal music education Not very Very important Important important To be able to organize a music activity of school community To bring together different abilities and needs of learners for common musical activities, to organize individual and 44.0 56.0 ñ collective musical performance (to lead the choir, orchestra, vocal and instrumental ensembles, prepare soloists). To participate in school project work, develop and implement 49.0 51.0 ñ educational music projects, organize educational activities.

Example 3. Studentsí attitude to the importance of music teachersí management of non-formal music education (%)

Example 3 shows that according to the res- performances is important (56%), while 44% pondents, bringing together different abilities and indicate that this ability is very important. The needs of learners for common musical activities ability to participate in school project work, to and organizing individual and collective musical develop and implement educational music projects,

97 MUSIC SCIENCE TODAY: THE PERMANENT AND THE CHANGEABLE ñ 3 (11) to organize educational activities has been marked and do other related work. The professional deve- as important by 51% of the students, and as very lopment of music teachers directly affects the important by 49% of the respondents. None of quality and credibility of the higher education of the participants has suggested that these abilities the contemporary learning society. It is necessary are not very important. to have profound professional knowledge and Therefore, data analysis has disclosed the effective knowledge growth, renewal ability and following: professional qualities (Xiongchuan 1996). ó Students regard these to be significant mani- Young college teachers must be capable of festations of musical competence of music active thinking, have a solid professional founda- teachers: personality self-development, which tion, ability to efficiently absorb new knowledge, manifests in the ability to evaluate and improve and a strong sense of motivation, emphasizing own personal qualities (64%) and the ability the value of the individual ñ these factors are the to analyse own musical activity (64%). prerequisites for young college teachersí profes- ó Significant (i.e. marked as very important) sional growth. Nevertheless, young teachersí pro- indicators of music teachersí musical compe- fessional development is a long process. The impact tence, in studentsí opinion, are as follows: of the environment and their own unrelenting the development of musical skills, which mani- efforts play a key role in the teacherís professional fests in the ability to apply music performance development. skills (singing, conducting, playing a variety With the improvement of the new curriculum, of instruments) of students in musical training, old-fashioned classroom teaching has been unable having knowledge about modern music tech- to keep up with the current needs. It is now consi- nology, knowing the musical language, history, dered necessary to allow new teachers to make aesthetics, philosophy, psychology, ethnocul- great efforts to study the teaching material, con- tural foundations and their application in stantly improve their teaching philosophy and technologies, music practice, using creative teaching level. They should be able to often go musical activities (arranging works, transpo- to real schools in order to enrich their teaching sition, harmonization, improvisation), skills content and teaching methods. Students should in music lessons, choir, orchestra. It shows be encouraged to actively reflect on their experience that students relate the expression of music in classroom, to analyse lessons or activities that teachersí musical competence more to the were successful or unsuccessful, and strive to improvement of personality self-development create their own teaching style. According to the and the development of musical skills than characteristics of their learning, students should to the management of non-formal music develop through comparison, analysis, teaching, education. and research; solve existing problems based on teaching research through continuous reflection, Students consider the ability to organize school and analysed teaching experience. community activities (to participate in project acti- Music teachersí professional development vities, to develop and implement music education should be based on social and educational prac- projects, to organize educational activities; to bring tice to consciously promote teaching and scientific together different abilities and needs of learners research cooperation, to ensure future music in common musical activities, to organize indivi- teachersí professional development throughout dual and collective musical performances, such their career, to enable music teachersí individual as leading a choir, an orchestra, vocal and instru- development and the development of educational mental ensembles, to prepare soloists) as less signi- institutions to achieve synchronization. ficant manifestations of music teachersí musical competence. It is likely that the development of these abilities can have an impact on a deeper expression of subject-specific (musical) competence CONCLUSIONS of future music teachers. The professional development of music In scholarly literature, musical competence teachers through a variety of ways promotes of future music teachers is defined as an expres- teachersí professional knowledge, professional sion of teachersí potential, which incorporates ability, and personality development; enables the acquired knowledge, abilities, attitudes, value teachers to teach, research, manage social services orientation and personal traits that determine

98 A. RAUDUVAITÀ, SUN BO. FUTURE TEACHERSí MUSICAL COMPETENCE AND ITS EXPRESSION AT UNIVERSITY successful activity in the field of music educational projects, organizing educational activi- tion. ties). The empirical study has revealed the following ó The research results show that students find peculiarities of future teachersí musical competence: the ability to interpret and compose music most ó Students regard the following to be signifi- challenging: to know the musical language, cant manifestations of music teachersí musical history, aesthetics, philosophy, psychology, competence: personality self-development, ethnocultural foundations and their applica- which manifests itself in the ability to evaluate tion in music practice; to use creative musical and improve own personality features and activities (arranging works, transposition, the ability to analyse own musical activity. harmonization, improvisation) skills in music ó According to the respondents, significant indi- lessons, choir, orchestra; to apply music per- cators of music teachersí musical competence formance skills (singing, conducting, playing are as follows: the development of musical a variety of instruments) of students in musical skills, which is manifested in the ability to training, know modern music technology. The apply music performance skills (singing, empirical study has shown that the level of conducting, playing a variety of instruments) musical competence of future music teachers of students in musical training, having know- (foreign students) is not very high. ledge about modern music technology, knowing the musical language, history, aesthetics, philo- The analysis of the factors has revealed that sophy, psychology, ethnocultural foundations future teachers attach the greatest importance to and their application in music practice, ability musical abilities, artistic experiences and value- to use creative musical activities (arranging based orientations acquired in the process of works, transposition, harmonization, impro- formal studies as the most significant factors visation) in music lessons, choir, orchestra. influencing musical competence. Other significant This shows that students relate music teachersí factors include experience gained during projects expression of musical competence more to and concert (artistic) activities. personality self-development improvement and the development of musical skills than to the management of non-formal music REFERENCES education. ó Students consider the ability to organize school Beineke, Viviane (2013). Creative learning and com- community activities (to participate in school munities of practice: Perspectives for music education project activities, to develop and implement in the school. Interventional Journal of Community musical projects, to organize educational Music 3: 281ñ290. activities; to bring together different abilities Carneiro, Roberto, Janet Looney & Stephan Vincent- and needs of learners in common musical Lancrin (2015). Learning from the past, looking to activities, to organize individual and collective the future: Issues and agendas in education. Euro- musical performance, such as to lead a choir, pean Journal of Education 4: 524ñ535. an orchestra, vocal and instrumental ensembles, Carr, David (2000). Professionalism and Ethics in prepare soloists) as less significant manifesta- Teaching. London: Routledge. tions of music teachersí musical competence. Cochran-Smith, Marilyn (2005). Studying teacher education. What we know and need to know. It is likely that the development of these abili- Journal of Teacher Education 56 (4): 20ñ25. ties can have an impact on a deeper expression Education and Training in Europe 2020. http://eacea. of subject-specific (musical) competence of ec.europa.eu/education/eurydice/documents/ future music teachers (foreign students). thematic_reports/163EN.pdf ñ visited on February ó It has been revealed that musical competence 18, 2018. of future music educators manifests itself most European Commission (2015). Strengthening Teaching clearly in personality self-development (ability in Europe: New Evidence from Teachers Compiled to analyse own musical activity), development by Eurydice and CRELL. http://ec.europa.eu/ of musical abilities (to use creative musical education/library/policy/teaching-profession- activities in music lessons, choir, orchestra) practices_en.pdf ñ visited on February 18, 2018. Framework for Qualifications of the European Higher and management of non-formal music educa- Education Area (2005). Ministry of Science, Tech- tion (participating in school project activities, nology and Innovations. Bologna Working Group. developing and implementing musical educa- http://ecahe.eu/w/index.php/Framework_for_

99 MUSIC SCIENCE TODAY: THE PERMANENT AND THE CHANGEABLE ñ 3 (11)

Qualifications_of_the_European_Higher_Education_ of the Lithuanian Teacher Training Conception and Area ñ visited on February 18, 2018. Its Substantiation]. https://www.smm.lt/uploads/ Isbell, Daniel S. (2015). The socialization of music documents/Pedagogams/PEDAGOG%C5%B2% teachersí: A review of the literature. National Asso- 20RENGIMO%20KONCEPCIJA-LEU-VDU.pdf ñ ciation for Music Education 34 (1): 5ñ12. visited on February 12, 2018. Koca, S¸ehriban (2017). Competencies of music teacher Lietuvos Respublikos –vietimo ir mokslo ministro candidates taking pedagogical formation training. ·sakymas DÎl pedagog¯ rengimo modelio aprao International Online Journal of Educational Sciences patvirtinimo 2017 m. rugsÎjo 14 d. Nr. V-683 9 (2): 370ñ380. Vilnius [The Order of the Minister of Education Kovalev, Dmitry, Gulzada Khussainova, Svetlana Bala- and Science On the Approval of the Description of gazova & Tamarasar Zhankul (2016). Formation Teacher Education Model, No. V-683 of 14 of various competences in the process of training September 2017, Vilnius]. https://www.etar.lt/ the future music teachers at the present stage. Inter- portal/lt/legalActPrint?documentId=685f3fe national Journal of Environmental and Science 0992211e78871f4322bb82f27 ñ visited on Education11: 4175ñ4183. February 18, 2018. LasauskienÎ, Jolanta (2010). Muzikos mokytojo veikla Mokytojo profesijos kompetencijos apraas (2007). ir kompetencijos [The Activities and Competences Patvirtinta Lietuvos respublikos vietimo ir mokslo of Music Teacher]. Vilnius: Vilniaus pedagoginis ministro 2007 m. sausio 11 d. ·s‡kymu Nr. ISAK- universitetas. 54 [The Description of the Professional Compe- Lietuvos edukologijos universiteto studij¯ program¯ tences of Teachers (2007). Approved by the Order sandara (2013). Patvirtinta LEU Senato 2013 m. of the Minister of Education and Science of the gegu˛Îs 22 d. nutarimu Nr. 220 [The Structure of Republic of Lithuania No. ISAK-54, 11 January the Study Programmes at Lithuanian University of 2007]. Educational Sciences. The Resolution of the Senate Pedagogo profesijos kompetencij¯ apraas of LEU No. 220 of 22 May 2013]. https://leu.lt/lt/ (2015). struktura/senatas/senato_nutarimai.html ñ visited Pedagog¯ kvalifikacijos tobulinimo ir perkvalifi- on February 18, 2018. kavimo sistemos plÎtra (projektas). Vilnius: Efek- Lietuvos edukologijos universitetas; Vytauto Did˛iojo tyvaus valdymo sprendim¯ centras. universitetas (2016). Lietuvos pedagog¯ rengimo Xiongchuan, Wu (1996). School Management Psycho- koncepcijos projektas ir jo pagrindimas [The Draft logy. Shanghai: East China Normal University Press.

100 The Importance of Music Teacherís Competences in Lithuania and China

Dr. soc. ASTA RAUDUVAITÀ Professor at Vytautas Magnus University, Academy of Education (Lithuania) YADIAN DU Doctoral student at Vytautas Magnus University, Academy of Education (Lithuania)

The goal of the research is to reveal the significance of music teacherís competences in Lithuania and China. The method applied in the research: the analysis of scientific literature and educational documents. The research reveals that the concepts of music teacherís competences embrace knowledge, abilities, expression of attitudes based on subject-specific, pedagogical, managerial, and personal abilities. Moreover, competences of a music teacher can be successfully implemented only when linked with the teacher as a person and self- education of his/her personality. Such personal contact is the basis of all the competences of a music teacher. Keywords: education of future music teachers, music teacher, teacher competences.

INTRODUCTION tences and value-based attitudes. The necessity of music education to all school learners is obvious The attempts to address the challenges imposed because it contributes to nurturing of such signifi- by the 21st century, i.e. implementation of lifelong cant qualities as creativity, innovativeness, empathy, learning, assurance of education quality, prepara- cultural awareness and other qualities, which are tion of an individual for life and successful profes- acknowledged in contemporary society. In this context, multiple evaluation dimensions are applied sional activity under changing social and cultural for the determination of teacher competences: per- conditions, that have been gaining more and more sonality, teacherís role, regularities of personality ground in the contemporary theory and practice development, etc. (Johnson, Matthews 2017; of pedagogy. At present, education should be under- Sirotova 2016; RimkutÎ-JankuvienÎ, Girdzijaus- stood as the main force that modernizes society kienÎ 2015; Thoruton 2015; Uzunboylua, Hursena, and as a prerequisite for success in every individualís Gurtekina 2011; LasauskienÎ 2010, and others). life. In the context of changes occurring in socio- Education is a key factor that affects the future cultural life and the system of values, the develop- development of a country. The function of educa- ment of information society, transformations in tion is the inheritance and the development of the form of music and its content, music education culture and values, and the purpose of education is becoming an integral part of general education. is to improve the quality of people, to provide Multi-faceted changes in music culture also impose human resources for the construction of the country requirements on a music educator to be able to and to strengthen the national competitiveness respond to emerging changes, to flexibly employ (Susan 2006; Liu 2008). The world is facing the new opening opportunities provided by music, challenges posed by the new era, namely, imple- to help school learners to respond to changes in mentation of life-long education, assurance of the contemporary music culture, to develop school quality of education, improvement of the quality learnersí musical experience, to promote school of individuals in an all-round way, preparation learnersí emotional maturity through their emotio- of individuals for life and successful activities nal link with music, to presuppose general compe- under changing social and cultural conditions.

101 MUSIC SCIENCE TODAY: THE PERMANENT AND THE CHANGEABLE ñ 3 (11)

In contemporary pedagogy theory and practice, How to set up a team of high-quality teachers? this has been more and more widely used. Music What is a good teacher like? What abilities should education is an integral part of education, which a good teacher have? These questions will be has to meet learnersí individual needs and is a analysed as the core issues. It is an urgent task prerequisite for success in personal life. for the development of education in China to train A common definition of teacher skills and a large number of first-class teachers and to improve knowledge, as a framework for guiding teacher the overall quality of teachers. education and professional development in the In Lithuania, education is an activity that course of a teacherís career, has been highlighted enables individuals to have a mature and indepen- as a key international priority (Caena 2011). dent life and helps them to improve their abilities. Teachers are the first resource of educational deve- Teachers are seen as people who educate students lopment and the important cornerstone of national through formal and informal training. Lithuania development. In the process of achieving the goal has established standards for teachersí professional of music education successfully, the music teacher competence (The Description of the Professional is a key factor (Opinions on Comprehensively Competences of Teachers, 2007) and the necessary Deepening the Construction and Reform of standards for the establishment of a system are Teaching in the New Period, 2018; Opinions of for teachersí vocational training and professional the CPC Central Committee and the State Council development. Teachersí professional ability is on Comprehensively Deepening the Reform of divided into four parts: cross-cultural competence; the Construction of Teaching in the New Era, professional competence; general competence; and 2018). In the process of teaching, music educators special competence. It is explained in detail res- use scientific educational ideas and effective pectively. The Description of the Professional teaching methods to cultivate and enhance the Competences of Teachers (The Description of the core musical abilities of learners. Professional Competences of Teachers, Draft 2015) In an environment where research and deve- provides for three aspects of teacherís competence lopment of professional competence of teachers (general competence, teaching ability, and compe- have been highlighted as an international priority, tence in subject areas) and introduces its four levels. further research must be carried out on the impor- The requirements and standards for each level tance of the competence of music teachers in are described in detail. They embrace the self- Lithuania and China. Thus, the goal of the research assessment of teachersí professional activities; is to reveal the significance of the music teacherís setting of requirements; planning career opportu- competences in Lithuania and China. The method nities for teachers; evaluation of teachersí perfor- applied in the research: the analysis of scientific mance; development and implementation of teacher literature and educational documents. training programmes. Successful educational The importance of teacher competence is activity requires a particularly broad range of reflected in national policies and documents. In competences: next to their subject-specific and China, ëbuilding a contingent of high-quality didactic competences, teachers need managerial, teachersí is an important objective outlined in social (civic and democratic awareness, social such documents as The Outline of the National participation, social sensitivity) and artistic (cul- Medium- and Long-term Education Reform and tural participation, organisation of cultural events) Development Plan 2010ñ2020 (2010), Professio- abilities (The Draft of the Lithuanian Teacher nal Standards of Teacher (Kindergarten, Primary Training Conception and its Substantiation School, and Secondary School) (2012) and Opinions 2016). on Comprehensively Deepening the Construction Teachers play a vital role in supporting the and Reform of Teaching in the New Period (2018). learning about the experience of adolescents and High-quality teachers must have a good value adult learners. They are key players in the develop- system, be professional, responsible and have ment of the educational system and an important necessary organizational skills. The speech of factor implementing the reforms. Teachers play President Xi Jinping to teachers and students in an essential role in promoting learnersí potential Beijing Normal University in 2014 and Beijing and shaping future generations. Teachers should University in 2018 has repeatedly emphasized that be able to cope with the changing challenges of teachers are the foundation of education, the the knowledge society, to participate actively and source of educational development, and the work prepare learners to become autonomous lifelong of teachers is firstly related to shaping people. learners.

102 A. RAUDUVAITÀ, YADIAN DU. THE IMPORTANCE OF MUSIC TEACHERˇS COMPETENCES IN LITHUANIA AND CHINA

With regard to the concept of competence, skills, values and attitudes, which facilitates many researchers have tried to define the concept adequate performance of activities (Example 1). of competence and each researcher has different Example 1 presents various definitions of capabi- opinions on the definition of competence. Com- lities suggested by different authors. petence is a dynamic combination of knowledge,

The concept of competence Author As the literature has repeatedly proposed, the competence should be seen as a whole Caena 2011 concept, a dynamic combination of knowledge, understanding and supporting skills. The ability to meet complex demands, by drawing on and mobilising psychosocial Rychen, resources in context ñ i.e. a complex action system encompassing knowledge (also tacit); Salganik 2003 cognitive and practical skills; attitudes such as motivation, value orientations, emotions. The combination of knowledge, skills, attitudes, values and personal characteristics, Koster, empowering. Dengerink 2008 Competence can be defined as the capabilities of superior performers. Gibb 2008 Competence is defined as the proven ability to use knowledge and skills. It is also Quendler 2013 described in terms of responsibility and autonomy. Competences are commonly assumed to surpass the levels of knowledge and skills, Westera 2001 while its surplus is thought to account for the effective application of the available knowledge and skill in a specific context. Competences represent a summary of key professional and personal skills/talents of an Blaskova, Blasko, individual. They form the basis of any proficient working behaviour, and the level of KucharËikova their maturity is crucial for the successful performance of the profession concerned. 2014 A competence is best described as ëa complex combination of knowledge, skills, under- Deakin 2008 standing, values, attitudes and desire which lead to effective, embodied human action in the world, in a particular domainí.

Example 1. Conceptual content of competences

TEACHERSí COMPETENCE vation and support; learnerís cognition and recog- IN LITHUANIA AND CHINA nition of his/her progress. The teacherís general competences comprise skills and abilities of com- Teacher competences, which imply a wider munication and information management; com- view of teacher professionalism, can be considered munication and collaboration; research activity; as multi-faceted roles of the teacher on multiple reflection and learning to learn; organisation impro- levels ñ of the individual, of the school, of the local vement and change management. The teacherís community, of professional networks (Caena 2011). specific competences embrace knowledge, skills, The analysis of teacher competency standards in abilities, value-based attitudes and other personal China and Lithuania has revealed a certain simila- qualities that precondition his/her successful rity in its shape. activity in the specific concentre/area of the curri- Following The Description of the Professional culum. Thus, the teacherís professional competences Competences of Teachers (The Description of the are not separate components. They are more of Professional Competences of Teachers, 2007), an aggregate of interrelated elements. Having con- competences are divided into common-cultural, nected them all, we get a relatively complex and professional, general and special ones. The com- constantly evolving phenomenon. In this way, the mon-cultural competence of teachers embraces teacherís profession is inseparable from the skills and abilities of culture, social sciences, new technologies, and common human qualities. The interconnection of common-cultural, professional, professional competences of teacher include the general and specific competences. following abilities and skills: use of information The Description of the Professional Compe- technologies, creation of educational environments, tences of Teachers (The Description of the Profes- curriculum planning and improvement; manage- sional Competences of Teachers 2015) expound ment of teaching/learning process; assessment of on the teacherís ability from three dimensions learnersí achievements and progress; learnersí moti- (general ability, teaching ability, teacherís subject

103 MUSIC SCIENCE TODAY: THE PERMANENT AND THE CHANGEABLE ñ 3 (11) field ability) and presents its four levels. Teacher petence at different stages of education (kinder- specific competences include: garten, primary, and secondary) is described in ó General abilities: personal development and detail in Professional Standards of Teacher (Kin- learning skills; cultural skills; new technology dergarten, Primary School, and Secondary School) and information management skills; profes- (2012). The core idea of teachersí ability standard sional communication skills. is that teachers should take teachersí morality as ó Teaching ability: the ability to understand the first element; take children or students as the and support the differences between students basis in the process of education; cultivate studentsí or learners; the ability to create various envi- abilities, improve their personal qualities in the ronments, contents, and situations in educa- process of education, and finally prepare them tion; and the ability to study professional for lifelong learning. The standards of professional activities. competence of teachers in China are as follows: ó Subject domain competence: the application Professional idea and teacherís morality of subject domain knowledge and current ó Understanding of the teachersí profession level of subject education development. includes the following educational laws and regulations, paying attention to professional Teacher qualification improvement prog- development, having good professional ethics, ramme is specific in setting the level of teachersí cooperation with students, colleagues, schools, ability to develop and improve. Its functions and parents. include self-assessment of teachersí professional ó The behaviour and attitude of teachers towards activities, setting requirements for teachersí abili- young children mainly refer to understanding ties, planning professional opportunities for the peculiarities of childrenís growth and their teachers, evaluating teachersí performance, and personality differences. formulating and implementing teacher training ó The behaviour and attitude towards educa- plans. tion and teaching refer to the respect for the Following The Description of Teacher Educa- law of education and the cultivating studentsí tion Model (The Order of the Minister of Educa- core musical abilities and their motivation tion and Science On the Approval of the Descrip- for active learning. tion of Teacher Education Model 2017) introduced ó Personal cultivation and behaviour. by the Ministry of Education and Science, there ó Personal development and self-learning are plans to reform the system of teacher education and qualification. Considering the needs of ability. society and conclusions of scientific research, Professional knowledge attempts are made to make the profession of ó Educational knowledge embraces mastering teacher more attractive to future higher education the basic principles and methods of scientific students. The idea of the model is to train constantly education. improving and efficiently working teachers, who ó Subject knowledge includes mastering the are motivated, flexible, not afraid of challenges knowledge system, basic ideas and methods; and innovations and ready to accept opportu- basic knowledge of subject content, basic prin- nities for professional development. These are ciples and skills; interdisciplinary knowledge; important factors that predetermine not only and related social knowledge. attractiveness and prestige of the teacherís profes- ó General knowledge refers to having the cor- sion but also the results of the quality of the responding knowledge of natural science, educational process. humanities, and social sciences. In order to train high-quality professional ó Knowledge of disciplines, mastery of discipline teachers in China, it is necessary to create a profes- curriculum standards, and effective teaching sional standard system. The teachersí professional methods to enable students to acquire know- standard is the basic requirement for the profes- ledge. sional quality of teachers in kindergartens, primary schools, and middle schools; it is the code of Professional competence conduct for teachers in carrying out teaching acti- ó The educational design is based on the con- vities; it is the basic quasi-test to guide teachersí struction of the learning environment, the professional development; it is the training of implementation, and management of the teachers. The basis of teachersí professional com- teaching process, the guidance of studentsí

104 A. RAUDUVAITÀ, YADIAN DU. THE IMPORTANCE OF MUSIC TEACHERˇS COMPETENCES IN LITHUANIA AND CHINA

learning motivation, and the use of new infor- ó subject knowledge and skills; mation technology in teaching. ó general ability as a music teacher; ó Class management and educational activities ó awareness of educational work in China; are about constructing a harmonious relation- ó music teaching ability; ship between teachers and students / students ó the basic ability of teaching and research in and students, and organizing educational music education; activities according to the rules of studentsí ó communication, information management physiological and psychological development capability; as well as organizing and observing class ó ability to cooperate and communicate. activities. ó Evaluation of education and teaching includes In the course of music education, music teachers self-evaluating the ability of teaching and can continuously develop their personality and guiding students to self-evaluation. improve their professional ability. According to ó Communication and cooperation relate to the research presented in Outline of Chinaís Basic establishing an equal teacher-student relation- Education Reform (2001), Chinese Music Curri- ship. Effective communication with students, culum Standards for Compulsory Education (2011), colleagues, and parents. Music Curriculum Standard of Chinese General ó Reflection and development, which embrace Senior High School (2017), the importance of constant reflection, improvement of educa- music teachersí ability is more significant under tion and teaching, and continuous improve- the condition of meeting the needs of music educa- ment of personal professional quality. tion today and developing studentsí core musical abilities. It has been established that there are some The competence of music teachers in school similarities and differences in the standard capacity music education is reflected in the following aspects: of teachersí competence in Lithuania and China. ó Vocational cognitive ability: understanding The similarity is that the standards of teachersí the goals and the teaching objectives of music competence in the two countries are based on education in schools. three dimensions: knowledge, skill and attitude, ó Teaching ability in music education: using which are elaborated basing on different perspec- scientific educational knowledge and effective tives. The difference lies in the fact that profes- teaching means in music teaching, cultivating sional ethics of teachers is given priority in China. studentsí core musical abilities (perception Therefore, the teachersí attitude is of utmost of music, musical cultural literacy, etc.). importance in China. This is the most important ó Ability to understand the diversity of music difference in teacher competence standards when in the world through different musical cultures; comparing the two countries. the ability to use diverse perceptual experiences The professional abilities of music teachers (listening, singing, playing, comprehensive are helpful in achieving the goal of music educa- artistic performance, etc.). tion. On the basis of teachersí professional ability, ó Guiding studentsí learning motivation; orga- music teachersí ability is embodied in education nizing and managing music education activities, and activity of music teachers. Cultivation of encouraging studentsí participation in activities. abilities necessary for future music teachers has ó Development of musical ability: highlighting to be ensured in music teacher education. the practical aspect of music education and The undergraduate study programmes of obtaining direct and rich emotional experience music teacher education in Chinese colleges and of music through various musical practices universities set the goal to train high-quality music make up the process of studentsí physical educators by providing basic knowledge and skills participation. in pedagogy and subject matter. To cultivate music ó Personal ability development: self-assessment teachers with an innovative spirit, practical ability, ability in music education teaching, and con- and certain educational and teaching research tinuous improvement of personal professional abilities is necessary. ability. The ability of future music teachers is mainly reflected in the following aspects: At Lithuanian University of Educational ó the theoretical basis of philosophy; Sciences, the following goals are set out in the ó professional attitude, professional ethics; Bachelor Study Programme of Music Education

105 MUSIC SCIENCE TODAY: THE PERMANENT AND THE CHANGEABLE ñ 3 (11) for future music teachers (The Structure of Study education of the students. The successful acquisi- Programmes at Lithuanian University of Educa- tion of music teachersí abilities is the guarantee tional Sciences 2013): to train a music educator to achieve the purpose of music education. who has completed higher education studies and possesses theoretical understanding of music education based on the newest results of scientific CONCLUSIONS research; who is able to creatively organise high quality music education, to communicate and collaborate when implementing it, to consider The national policy documents adopted in the diversity of learners (in terms of their abilities, both countries point out that music education is social or economic background, etc.) and indivi- an important part of basic education. The deve- dual needs of every learner; who has obtained lopment of teachersí competences is the most foundations for continuous personal and profes- important safeguard measure to realize the educa- sional improvement and demonstrates a solid tion of the new era. The teacher competence stan- determination and motivation to work in music dard is an important basis for teacher training, education. admission, and evaluation. Teacher competences The learning outcomes of the Bachelor Study are usually used in the context of teacher education Programme of Music Education refer to the scien- and job performance. Teacher competences include tific systematic basics of music and the use of knowledge, skills, and values that a teacher must technologies in the practical musical pedagogical possess. Music teachers mainly cultivate learnersí activities; participation in musical activities; seeing musical experience and promote their emotional and assessing learnersí different musical skills; maturity. The necessity of music education to all planning and organizing a learner-oriented music school learners is obvious because it contributes education process; searching and analysing educa- to nurturance of such significant qualities as creati- tional documents and scientific resources; assuming vity, innovativeness, empathy, cultural awareness the role of a leader and taking responsibility for and others, which are acknowledged in the con- professional activity and for the musical culture temporary society. The competences of music of educational institutions; developing oneís teachers in different stages of education are based professional identity, improving personal effecti- on the standard of teachersí professional compe- veness through evidence-based professional activity. tences, which embodies the characteristics of their The importance of music teachersí competence subjects and gives play to their innovation and in the future music teacher study programme creativity. includes the necessity to prepare excellent music The research has revealed that the concepts teachers, who will have the ability to teach and of music teachersí competences embrace know- practice music education. Therefore, it is neces- ledge, skills, expression of attitudes based on sary to carry on detailed research about the subject-specific, pedagogical managerial and teacherís ability. personal abilities. Moreover, competences of music Both countries have a similar goal set in the teacher can be successfully implemented only when music teacher training programmes: to train excel- linked with the teacher as a person and self-educa- lent music teachers so that they have the ability tion of his/her personality. Such personal contact to work in music education. As for the expected is the basis of all music teacher competences. learning outcomes, future music teachersí subject In China and Lithuania, the ability of music teaching ability, practical abilities, and personal teachers to promote the achievement of music ability requirements are basically the same. The education goals is important. Teachersí personal main difference between the two countries is that accomplishment is directly related to studentsí the requirements for music teachersí ability in learning attitude and learning results. The simila- China comply with the rules of teachersí compe- rity of the ability of music teachers in these two tence standards. The first factor of the ability of countries lies in the fact that the ability of music music teachers is that they have higher professional teachers is expounded from different perspectives, ethics ñ they must love music education and but the final foothold is still centred on knowledge, influence studentsí interest in music learning with skills and attitudes of music teachers. The diffe- their enthusiasm. Music teacherís values and rence lies in music teachersí professional ethics. personal cultivation are linked to the successful In China, the first standard of teacher competence

106 A. RAUDUVAITÀ, YADIAN DU. THE IMPORTANCE OF MUSIC TEACHERˇS COMPETENCES IN LITHUANIA AND CHINA is the quality of teachersí professional ethics. In Lietuvos Respublikos –vietimo ir mokslo ministro terms of music teachersí ability, the professional ·sakymas DÎl pedagog¯ rengimo modelio aprao ethics of the music teacher is placed in the most patvirtinimo 2017 m. rugsÎjo 14 d. Nr. V-683 important position. Vilnius [The Order of the Minister of Education and Science On the Approval of the Description of Teacher Education Model, No. V-683 of 14 Sep- tember 2017, Vilnius]. https://www.etar.lt/portal/ REFERENCES lt/legalActPrint?documentId=685f3fe0992211 e78871f4322bb82f27 ñ visited on February 18, 2018. Blaskova, Martina, Rudolf Blasko & Alzbeta Kuchar- Liu, Pei (2004). The Research of Practice and Theory Ëikova (2014). Competence and competence model of Music Education. Shanghai: Shanghai Music of university teachers. 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Getting Involved: Global Citizenship Development Opinions of the CPC Central Committee and the State and Sources of Moral Values. Edited by Fritz Oser Council on Comprehensively Deepening the Reform and Wiel Veugelers. Rotterdam: Sense Publishers, of the Construction of Teaching in the New Era 31ñ35. (2018). The Central Peopleís Government of The Gibb, Stephen (2008). Human Resource Development, Peopleís Republic of China. Process, Practices and Perspectives. New York: Opinions on Comprehensively Deepening the Con- Palgrave MacMillan. struction and Reform of Teaching in the New Period Johnson, Daniel C. & Wendy K. Matthews (2017). (2018). The Central Peopleís Government of the Experienced general music teachersí instructional Peopleís Republic of China. decision making. Interpersonal Journal of Music Outline of Chinaís Basic Education Reform (2001). Education, 35 (2): 189ñ201. Ministry of Education of the Peopleís Republic of Koster, Bob & Jurrien Dengerink (2008). Professional China. standards for teacher educators: How to deal with Outline of The National Medium- and Long-Term complexity, ownership and function. Experiences Education Reform and Development Plan 2010ñ from the Netherlands. European Journal of Teacher 2020 (2010). The Central Peopleís Government of Education 31 (2): 135ñ149. the Peopleís Republic of China. LasauskienÎ, Jolanta (2010). Muzikos mokytojo veikla Pedagogo profesijos kompetencij¯ apraas (2015). ir kompetencijos [The Activities and Competences Pedagog¯ kvalifikacijos tobulinimo ir perkvalifi- of Music Teacher]. Vilnius: Vilniaus pedagoginis kavimo sistemos plÎtra (projektas) [The Description universitetas. of the Professional Competences of Teachers (2015). Lietuvos edukologijos universitetas; Vytauto Did˛iojo The Development of Teacher Professional Develop- universitetas (2016). Lietuvos pedagog¯ rengimo ment and Requalification System (the Draft)]. Vilnius: koncepcijos projektas ir jo pagrindimas [The Draft Efektyvaus valdymo sprendim¯ centras. of the Lithuanian Teacher Training Conception and Professional Standards of Teacher (Kindergarten, Its Substantiation]. https://www.smm.lt/uploads/ Primary School, and Secondary School) (2012). The documents/Pedagogams/PEDAGOG%C5% Central Peopleís Government of the Peopleís Re- B2%20RENGIMO%20KONCEPCIJA-LEU- public of China. VDU.pdf ñ visited on February 12, 2018. Quendler, Erika, Jannie van der Luit, Massimo Mon- Lietuvos edukologijos universiteto studij¯ program¯ teleone, Pedro Aguado, Manou Pleiffenschneider, sandara (2013). Patvirtinta LEU Senato 2013 m. Klaus Wagner, Francesca Valente & Christina Cunha- gegu˛Îs 22 d. nutarimu Nr. 220. [The Structure of Queda (2013). Sustainable development employersí the Study Programmes at Lithuanian University of perspective. Procedia ñ Social and Behavioral Sciences Educational Sciences. The Resolution of the Senate 106: 1063ñ1085. of LEU No. 220 of 22 May 2013]. https://leu.lt/lt/ RimkutÎ-JankuvienÎ, Sandra & R˚ta GirdzijauskienÎ struktura/senatas/senato_nutarimai.html ñ visited (2015). Auktesni¯j¯ klasi¯ mokini¯ muzikinio on February 18, 2018. k˚rybikumo ugdymas muzikinÎmis kompiuterinÎ-

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mis technologijomis: muzikos mokytoj¯ patirtis university education of future teachers. Procedia ñ [Development of Musical Creativity of Senior Pupils Social and Behavioral Sciences 228: 529ñ534. Using Musical Computer Technologies (MCT): Thoruton, Linda (2015). Important others: Music Experience Of Music Teachers]. Acta Paedagogica teachersí perceived roles in music teacher recruit- 34: 89ñ104. ment. Journal of Music Teacher Education 24 (3): Rychen, Dominique Simone & Laura Hersh Salganik 97ñ107. (2003). Key Competencies for a Successful Life and Uzunboylua, Huseyin, Cigdem Hursena & Pembe a Well-Functioning Society. Gˆttingen: Hogrefe & Gurtekina (2011). An evaluation of the professional Huber. special-field competency perception of the music Scolafani, Susan (2006). The Role of Research in the teachers serving in the Turkish Republic of Northern Development of Music Education Policy. Peopleís Cyprus. Procedia ñ Social and Behavioral Sciences Music Publishing House. 28: 968ñ971. Sirotova, Mariana (2016). Pedagogical praxis as a Westera, Wim (2001). Competences in education: A process of developing professional competencies in confusion of tongues. Journal of Curriculum Studies 33 (1): 75ñ78.

108 Reflections on Music Teacher Education: Current Models and New Developments

Dr. sc. soc. JOLANTA LASAUSKIENE Professor at Vytautas Magnus University, Academy of Education (Lithuania) YUQING YANG Doctoral student at Vytautas Magnus University, Academy of Education (Lithuania)

The main aim of every teacher education programme is to educate competent teachers and to develop necessary professional qualities to ensure lifelong teaching careers for teachers. In various countries, different traditions of educating teachers of music have been established following the traditions and needs of each country. The purpose of this study is to present and generalise an overview of the most common models of pre-service or initial teacher education so as to highlight the main features that might initiate discussion of critical issues in the context of music teacher education nationally and internationally. The study shows a great variety of ways to organise and present teacher education and discusses issues of music teacher education improvement. Keywords: music teacher education, models of initial teacher training, teacher education curriculum.

INTRODUCTION and coursework and the interplay between them, as well as on the learning experiences of student- Changing the socio-cultural and economic teachers, argued that the structure of education context and its indetermination in future will have is not only shaped by history, culture and econo- an influence on teacher education, which is required mics, but increasingly dictated by politics (Craig to meet the increasing need to solve issues of 2016; Murray 2016). This means that the chal- education of the society (Darling-Hammond lenges that teacher education is facing in many 2017). In various countries, different traditions countries should be examined in terms of various of training teachers have been established following political and cultural contexts of their individual the traditions and needs of every country (Ras- situation. mussen, Bayer 2014). According to Brian Creese Problem statement: the system of music teacher et al. (2016), most of the countries strive to com- education has been analysed by a number of bine both the development of personal qualities researchers (Barrett et al. 2016; Groulx 2016; in students with overarching economic goals for Menezes 2015). A few studies to date have centred the country. on cross-cultural comparisons in the field of music . ∪∪∪ Leveraging high-quality teacher education teacher education (G¸sewell et al. 2016; Otaci og lu has been the main focus of educational reform in 2016; Thorgersen et al. 2016), but they concerned many countries (Eurydice 2015). The main aim of other countries (Switzerland and France, Turkey every teacher education programme is to educate and Austria, or Finland, Norway and Sweden) competent teachers and to develop necessary and topics. A great number of authors emphasise professional qualities to ensure lifelong teaching the significance of socio-cultural context in imple- careers for teachers. Initial teacher education has menting teacher education. Therefore, many experts been discussed from a wide range of perspectives, in the sphere of education seek to establish the focusing on its structure and curriculum, teaching need to change the paradigm of educatorsí training content in teacher education, on field experiences (Sakadolskiene 2017; Burdena et al. 2016). The

109 MUSIC SCIENCE TODAY: THE PERMANENT AND THE CHANGEABLE ñ 3 (11) research on models for teacher education in the toral degrees. Colleges offer college level degree best foreign higher education institutions creates granting studies and award Professional Bachelor conditions for the adoption of the most successful degrees. The recent trend in Europe and Lithuania international teacher education practices. has been to concentrate teacher education in higher The main research questions are as follows: education, namely at university-level higher educa- how do we educate the next generation of music tion institutions. teachers? What are the most important priorities There are two common models of teacher in the education of music teachers? What are training in Lithuania: the concurrent (individual further trends of this development and possible subject training, pedagogical training, and practical problem-solution techniques? activity), and the consecutive (when teachers are The aim of this study is to generalise and educated first in one or two specific disciplines present an overview of the most common models and then receive pedagogical training). Both teacher of initial teacher training, so as to highlight the training models are provided for in On Approval main features that might initiate the discussion of the Regulation of Teacher Training Replace- of critical issues in the context of music teacher ment (DÎl pedagog¯ rengimoÖ 2012) and they education nationally and internationally. have certain advantages and disadvantages (Sede- reviËi˚tÎ-PaciauskienÎ, VainorytÎ 2015). About 2/3 of European countries organise pedagogical METHOD post-graduate internships for first-time teachers after they have graduated from their studies and acquired teacherís qualification (Eurydice 2015). The research design is based on the compa- After such internships teachers are granted higher rative analysis (Wilson 2011). Following the data professional qualification. The suggested structure obtained from the analysis of legal and political of studies in teacher education in Lithuania is educational documents, scientific sources, the cur- visualised in Example 1. riculum of study programmes, the article explores most common models of initial teacher education, the curriculum in music teacher education and discusses the content of pedagogical study programmes of Music Education as well as similarities and differences in their curricula. This study focuses on the data collected from web pages of institutions with music teacher education in Lithuania (with the focus on Lithuanian University of Educa- tional Sciences) and China (with the focus on Example 1. The structure of studies in teacher Capital Normal University). The study focuses education suggested in Lithuania (according to on specific aspects of those programmes: the aims Pedagog¯ rengimo koncepcijos projektas, 2016) and the learning outcomes of the study programmes, credit hours of curricular domains. In-service teacher training in China. China has the largest and oldest public education system in the world (OECD 2016). MODELS OF INITIAL TEACHER EDUCATION Traditionally, teaching has been a very respectable profession with its Confucian tradition. The first In-service teacher training in Lithu- teacher education institution in China was founded ania. In 1935, the Government of the Republic in 1896. Despite great achievements, China still of Lithuania established the first teacher training faces several problems that need remedies and institution of higher education in KlaipÎda. Refor- reforms (Kayange, Msiska 2016; Lee, Song 2016). ming the teaching profession is one of the main Three types of institutions educate students to challenges in Lithuania (OECD 2017). There are be teachers in China (Example 2). two types of higher education institutions in The first type is known as the secondary Lithuania: universities and colleges (LeisytÎ et al. teacher school, which is actually a specialized 2015). Universities offer university level degree secondary school that prepares students to be granting studies and award Bachelor, Master, Doc- teachers in primary and pre-school education.

110 J. LASAUSKIENÀ, YUQING YANG. REFLECTIONS ON MUSIC TEACHER EDUCATION: CURRENT MODELS AND NEW DEVELOPMENTS

The second type is the normal college, which pre- programsí, ëcourse of studyí, ësyllabií, ëteaching pares teachers for junior-secondary schools. The subjectsí, ëcoursesí. third type is the normal university, which is a Lithuanian University of Educational Sciences: four-year undergraduate university that confers The aim of the study programme of Music Educa- bachelor degrees and prepares teachers for senior- tion ñ to provide students with higher university secondary schools (Lee, Song 2016). Nowadays, education and to create conditions for the acquisi- in China, music teacher education is provided by tion of the degree of Bachelor in Arts Pedagogy universities, especially normal universities and and Music and teacherís professional qualifica- colleges. tion (website: http://www.leu.lt). Graduates of this study programme are qualified to work as competent school music teachers, to head school musical (vocal and instrumental ensembles, to teach to play a musical instrument) groups, to enter the Master study programme of Music Education. The emphasis of the Music Education programme is both pedagogical and musical; curricula now include educational sciences, psychology, general and subject didactics, and practical training Example 2. Institutions for teacher preparation along with music subject curriculum. Example 3 in China (according to Ding, Sun 2007) shows the regulation for credits needed to obtain a teaching certificate. There are three common models of teacher training in China at the undergraduate level (Yu Curricular domains ECTS credits 2013): 2+2 model (Academic years 1 and 2 ñ subject Module of study subject (or a group 90 knowledge studying; academic years 3 and 4 ñ of modules) teaching skills training); 2.5+1.5 model (first 2.5 Study subjects established by the From 45 years emphasizing subject theory learning (including faculty and selected by a student to 66 Study subjects established by the some teaching practice), last 1.5 years focusing 9 on teaching training, practical training is the key university and selected by a student Module of general university study point); 3+1 model (Academic years 1ñ3 ñ subject 15 knowledge and education theory studying, Acade- subjects mic year 4 ñ teaching practice). At the graduate Module of pedagogical studies 60 level: 4+2 model (Academic years 1ñ4 ñ subject 12 credits for Final Bachelor Thesis knowledge studying (Bachelor of the subject), Total (Bachelorís Degree) 240 Academic years 5ñ6 ñ teaching skills training (Master of education). Example 3. Credit hours of curricular domains of On the basis of the comparison of initial music Lithuanian University of Educational Sciences teacher training in Lithuania and China it appears that music teacher education programmes are Teaching practice is considered to be the most organised in very similar ways and they can be important part of pedagogical studies (DÎl peda- implemented both in concurrent and consecutive gog¯ rengimoÖ 2012). The pedagogical studies forms. in Lithuanian initial teacher training consist of 30 ECTS for theoretical studies and 30 ECTS for teaching practice. The studies provide for the Final Work of Pedagogical Studies that integrates theory MUSIC TEACHER EDUCATION CURRICULUM and practice and completes the pedagogical studies in the study programme. Conceptualizations of the curriculum have Capital Normal University (China). The pri- evolved over time, driven mainly by contextual mary objective of the music teacher training curri- factors (individual, cultural, social, political, culum is to prepare professional music educators economic, and technological) and by intellectual for elementary, middle school, and high school perspectives (Barrett et al. 2016). However, there levels. The structure of music courses in the curri- is still no universal definition of curriculum. Some culum is characterized by implementing both theory regions of the world use expressions like ëstudy and practicum type of courses.

111 MUSIC SCIENCE TODAY: THE PERMANENT AND THE CHANGEABLE ñ 3 (11)

Curricular domains Credits rengimoÖ 2016). At present 17 European coun- General education 43 (compulsory), tries (Czech Republic, Germany, Estonia, Spain, 8 (elective) France, Croatia, Italy, Luxemburg, Hungary, Subject-specific knowledge 83 (compulsory), Poland, Portugal, Slovenia, Slovakia, Finland, 22 (elective) Sweden, Iceland, and Serbia) require the academic Pedagogy and teaching practice 37 (compulsory), degree of Master for teachers. The tendency to 15 (elective) increase the block of pedagogy-related study sub- Total (Bachelorís Degree) 208 jects is observed in the EU countries. In Denmark and Turkey, the volume of professional pedago- Example 4. Credit hours of curricular domains of gical studies has been increased up to 90 credits. Capital Normal University (China) Ireland, France, and Iceland have moved from 60 to 120 ECTS credits (Eurydice 2015). Interna- As seen in Example 4, the whole curriculum tional experience of Finland, the UK, and the USA in China can be divided into three parts: general shows that teacher education is more and more education, subject-specific knowledge, pedagogy, directed towards the education of teachers of and teaching practice. However, subject content several study subjects emphasising their interdis- knowledge (83 compulsory subjects, 22 elective ciplinary education. courses) is emphasized more than pedagogical The findings of this study, however, reveal knowledge according to the curriculum frame- that initial music teacher education is facing its work. Theory courses include an introduction to own problems and challenges. Lithuania and China music education and psychology, history of music have a unique music teacher education system in education, pedagogy, curriculum writing (lesson many aspects due to their unique socio-cultural planning and assessment), observation, and intern- backgrounds. Taken together, these findings high- ship. Musicality in the context of music teachersí light the similarities and the differences of music training programme covers the disciplines of aesthe- teacher education. Most importantly, the findings tics, humanities, performance practice, creativity of this study have highlighted that the notions of (composition and interpretation in performing and initial music teacher training in Lithuania and listening), culture, and education (Wang 2014). China are insignificantly different. Besides the numerous similarities, there are striking contrasts between the Lithuanian and the Chinese music teacherís education curricula. There CONCLUDING DISCUSSION are differences in the curricular structure of courses, volumes of study subjects (courses) taught, credit Countries across the world are dealing with hours and course durations in both universities teacher education cautiously. Therefore, challenges (Lithuanian University of Educational Sciences that initial teacher education is facing should be and Capital Normal University, China). The com- examined in terms of various political and cultural parative study of initial music teachersí training contexts of their individual situation. In Europe, shows that both countries have a strong orienta- pedagogues are trained in accordance with both tion towards music teachersí professional develop- the consecutive and the concurrent models, though ment and subject training. Strong tradition has there is a noticeable trend to extend pedagogical emphasized the importance of musical basis and studies and raise the standards of teacher training musical preparation. This study also shows that (Murray 2016). More EU countries (Germany, Lithuania has a strong orientation towards the Slovakia, Iceland, and Turkey) apply the concur- didactics of music and general didactics. Mean- rent rather than the consecutive model. Thus, the while, China pays more attention to music teachersí majority of future European secondary school subject-specific knowledge and general education. teachers study in accordance with the programme Therefore, it is necessary to seek for a dialogue of the consecutive model (in France and Portugal between subject teachers and teachers of subject only the consecutive model is applied). didactics building up the teacherís identity. Although certain European tendencies to Comparing the study programmes Music shorten the duration of higher education studies Education with other countries, it is necessary to have been observed, this seems not to apply to note that university programmes of music teacher teacher education programmes in European and education are characterised by a wide variety of other progressive countries (Lietuvos pedagog¯ forms and content (Groulx 2016; G¸sewell et al.

112 J. LASAUSKIENÀ, YUQING YANG. REFLECTIONS ON MUSIC TEACHER EDUCATION: CURRENT MODELS AND NEW DEVELOPMENTS

. ∪∪∪ 2016; Otaci og lu 2016). The most common feature documents/thematic_reports/184EN.pdf ñ visited that differentiates them from the Lithuanian and on November 20, 2017. the Chinese study programmes is that they are Groulx, Timothy J. (2016). Perceptions of course value more specialised, targeted at a specific cycle of and issues of specialization in undergraduate music music education, instrumental or vocal teaching teacher education curricula. Journal of Music Teacher Education (Kriumane, Marnauza 2012). All programmes 25 (2): 13ñ24. G¸sewell, Angelika, Francois Joliat & Pascal Terrien offer more or less musical education, of course, (2016). Professionalized music teacher education: but the contents differ in many aspects. It is obvious Swiss and French studentsí expectations. Interna- that a systematic and versatile study on the issues tional Journal of Music Education 35 (4): 526ñ540. of initial music teacher education is necessary. Kayange, Jimmy Jaston & Masauko Msiska (2016). Teacher education in China: Training teachers for the 21st century. The Online Journal of New Horizons in Education 6 (4): 204ñ210. REFERENCES Kriumane, Laimrota & M‚ra Marnauza (2012). Explo- ration of the content of the professional bachelorís Barrett, Janet R., Adam John Kruse & J. Nichols study programme ìMusic Teacherî of Riga Teacher (2016). Curriculum renovation for music teacher Training and Educational Management Academy education program. Conference Proceedings from in the context of emotional competence. Problems the New Directions for Performance and Music in Music Pedagogy 10/11: 37ñ58. Teacher Education: A Symposium on University Lee, John Chi-Kin & Huan Song (2016). Teacher Music Education in China. The Arts College of education in the Greater China Region: Status, Xiamen City, Fujian Province, China. issues and prospects. Quality and Change in Teacher Burdena, Kevin, Peter Aubusson, Sue Brindley & Sandy Education. Professional Learning and Development Schuck (2016). Changing knowledge, changing in Schools and Higher Education. Edited by John technology: Implications for teacher education Chi-Kin Lee and Christopher Day. Switzerland: futures. Journal of Education for Teaching: Inter- Springer International Publishing, 39ñ58. national Research and Pedagogy 42 (1): 4ñ16. LeisytÎ, Liudvika, Rimantas Zelvys & Lina Zenkiene Craig, Cheryl J. (2016). The structure of teacher educa- (2015). Re-contextualization of the Bologna Process tion. International Handbook of Teacher Education. in Lithuania. European Journal of Higher Education Edited by John Loughran & Mary Lynn Hamilton. 5 (1): 49ñ67. Dordrecht: Springer Press. Lietuvos edukologijos universitetas; Vytauto Did˛iojo Creese, Brian, Alvaro Gonzalez & Tina Isaacs (2016). universitetas (2016). Lietuvos pedagog¯ rengimo Comparing international curriculum systems: The koncepcijos projektas ir jo pagrindimas [The Draft international instructional systems study. The Curri- of the Lithuanian Teacher Training Conception and culum Journal 27 (1): 5ñ23. Its Substantiation]. https://www.smm.lt/uploads/ Darling-Hammond, Linda (2017). Teacher education documents/Pedagogams/PEDAGOG%C5%B2% around the world: What can we learn from inter- 20RENGIMO%20KONCEPCIJA-LEU-VDU.pdf ñ national practice? European Journal of Teacher visited on February 12, 2018. Education 40 (3): 291ñ309. Lietuvos Respublikos –vietimo ir mokslo ministro DÎl pedagog¯ rengimo reglamento patvirtinimo pakei- ·sakymas DÎl pedagog¯ rengimo modelio aprao timo [On Approval of the Replacement of Regula- patvirtinimo 2017 m. rugsÎjo 14 d. Nr. V-683 Vilnius. tion of Teacher Training] (2012). Lietuvos Respub- likos vietimo ir mokslo ministro 2012 m. gruod˛io [The Order of the Minister of Education and Science 12 d. ·sakymas No. V-1742. ValstybÎs ˛inios. ìOn the Approval of the Description of Teacher Nr. 149ñ7654. [Republic of Lithuania, Order of the Education Modelî, No. V-683 of 14 September Minister of Education in 2012, 12 December. 2017, Vilnius]. https://www.etar.lt/portal/lt/legal No. V-1742]. ActPrint?documentId=685f3fe0992211e78871f Ding, Gang & Meilu Sun (2007). The qualifications 4322bb82f27 ñ visited on February 12, 2018. of the teaching force in China. A Comparative Study Menezes, Mara (2015). Training music teachers for of Teacher Preparation and Qualifications in Six the real world: Connecting theory and practice. Nations. Edited by Richard Ingersoll. The Consor- Problems in Music Pedagogy 14 (1): 7ñ17. tium for Policy Research in Education (CPRE). Murray, Jean (2016). Trends in teacher education http://www.cpre.org/images/stories/cpre_pdfs/ across Europe: An initial analysis. New Aspects in sixnations_final.pdf ñ visited on August 10, 2017. European Teacher Education. Edited by Iván Falus Eurydice (2015). The Teaching Profession in Europe: & Judit Orgoványi-Gajdos. Eger: Líceum KiadÛ. Practices, Perceptions, and Policies. Eurydice report. OECD (2016). Education in China. A Snapshot. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European https://www.oecd.org/china/Education-in-China-a- Union. http://eacea.ec.europa.eu/education/eurydice/ snapshot.pdf ñ visited on February 10, 2018.

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. ∪∪∪ Otaci og lu, Sena G¸rs¸en (2016). Comparison of the visionsí of music teacher preparation in Finland, education program of institutions raising music Norway and Sweden. Music Education 34 (1): 49ñ teachers in Turkey and those of art universities that 63. raise music teachers in an EU member country. Wang, Yao Hua (2014). The curriculum model for International Journal of Social Sciences and Educa- the undergraduate music teacher education program tion Research 2 (3): 1107ñ1117. in China: Reflections on the curriculum rationale Rasmussen, Jen & Martin Bayer (2014). Comparative and guidelines. Paper presented at the annual meeting study of teaching content in teacher education prog- of the ISME World Conference and Commission rammes in Canada, Denmark, Finland and Singapore. Seminars, China Conservatory of Music (CC) and Journal of Curriculum Studies 46 (6): 798ñ818. Chinese National Convention Centre (CNCC), SakadolskienÎ, Emilija (2017). Ne vien ˛inios ir gebÎ- Beijing, China. http://citation.allacademic.com/ jimai: transformacijos per mokytojo socializacij‡ ir meta/p403471_index.html ñ visited on November tapatybÎs ugdym‡ [Not Just Knowledge and Skills: 27, 2017. Transformations in Teacher Socialization and Iden- Wilson, Deborah (2011). Comparative analysis in public tity]. Acta Paedagogica Vilnensia 38: 42ñ57. management: Reflections on the experience of a SedereviËi˚tÎ-PaciauskienÎ, ﬁivilÎ & Brigita VainorytÎ major research programme. Public Management (2015). The concurrent and consecutive models of Review 13 (2): 293ñ308. initial teacher training: Problematics and tendencies. Yu, Tingje (2013). Teacher Education in China: Cur- Rural Environment. Education. Personality. Procee- rent Situation & Related Issues. Zhejiang Normal dings of the 8th International Scientific Conference. University. http://www.uta.fi/cerec/education Jelgava: Latvia University of Agroculture, 269ñ277. andresearch/ChinaEduLecture/Teacher%20 Thorgersen, Cecilia Ferm, Geir Johansen & Marja- Education%20in%20China.pdf ñ visited on August Leena Juntunen (2016). Music teacher educators 12, 2017.

114 Bridging the Past, Present and Future in Chinese Music Education

Master of Education Sciences (ME) YOUDI SUN Post-graduate student at Vytautas Magnus University, Academy of Education (Lithuania)

China has the largest education system in the world. This paper provides an overview of how Chinaís music education system is organized, and how reforms, both past and current, have reshaped music education in China over time. Employing the methods of the analysis of scientific resources and documents, the paper focuses on the challenges that China is facing in its efforts to modernize the curriculum for basic music education. It can be stated that since the founding of the Peopleís Republic of China, music education in China has achieved unprecedented progress and development, at the same time music education is also moving towards the direction of modernization. Keywords: Chinese music education, curriculum, school music education.

INTRODUCTION in teaching quality, teaching content, and teachers themselves. Effective teaching cannot be guaran- China has the largest education system in the teed naturally and the mentality of expecting quick world (National Bureau of Statistics of China 2016). success leads to disregard for the quality of teaching In traditional Chinese society, teachers have always (Kayange, Msiska 2016). received high respect and played a significant role Despite Chinaís emergence as one of the in educating the next generation. Chinese civili- worldís most influential economies, relatively zation has existed for 5,000 years, and Chinese little is known in other countries about Chinaís culture and values have been remarkably consistent music education system or about how its students over the centuries. Some argue that this is because learn (OECD 2016). This paper seeks to provide an overview of music education in China today, of the fact that Chinaís education system has long including the mechanisms the country uses to been dominated by Confucian teachings. The manage its educational system, as well as current curriculum reform in China is by its nature a step policies and reforms. towards educational modernization that em- The main aim of this study is to provide an powers students with more autonomy for their overview of how Chinaís music education system own learning (Lee, Song 2016; Lo 2014; Wang is organized, and how reforms, both past and 2012). It also entails more autonomy for teachers current, have reshaped music education in China and schools in curriculum development. There- over time. fore, the teacher as a professional should not only The methods (theoretical) used: analysis of be a knowledge-transmitter. He or she should be scientific sources, document analysis, their syn- able to play the role of a ëlearning-stimulatorí and thesis, and generalisation. ëeducation-researcherí. Students are motivated by teachers to take learning initiatives through self- directed, collaborative and inquiry-based learning. The biggest problem that Chinese education is A BRIEF INTRODUCTION TO THE CHINESE facing is that the poor quality of current training EDUCATION SYSTEM of teachers, resulting in that many teachers-to-be lack scientific understanding about the laws of Chinese people have a history and tradition education, as well as the fact that there is a serious of respecting teachers and attaching importance shortage of research and development investment to education since the very ancient times. Chinaís

115 MUSIC SCIENCE TODAY: THE PERMANENT AND THE CHANGEABLE ñ 3 (11) basic education went through ups and downs, mented across the country. This means that for alongside with the political, social and economic the first time in the political discourse ëserving changes (Wang 2012). In the 1950s, Russian peda- every individual studentís all-round developmentí gogical beliefs played an important role in Chinaís was acknowledged as the priority of basic educa- educational landscape as a whole, which was tion in China. The emphasis is placed on the moral, characterized by its academic subject-centeredness intellectual and physical development of students (inspired by Herbart from Germany) and the com- in order to cultivate moral virtues, discipline, munist moral orientation in education. From then culture, and ideals. The emphasis on value deve- until the early 1980s, Chinaís basic education can lopment and the prioritization of ideological deve- be identified as serving the ëpolitical struggleí. In lopment while retaining the importance of skills the late 1970s and the beginning of 1980s China development are the key components of the new opened up to the world. The political and social curriculum (OECD 2016). The government empha- needs shifted to economic development. The gap sises that the Chinese language, art and painting between sharply growing demand and limited courses in compulsory education should attach resources in public education justified the value more importance to Chinese character (script) of ëcompetitioní. Within two decades Chinaís writing. education landscape underwent huge changes. On The recent basic education reform is also the the other hand, the disparity in development eighth curriculum reform in China since 1949. It between regions, between urban and rural, and is an extension of the popularization of the nine- between schools increased, which led to the atte- year consecutive compulsory education that was nuation of the ëpublicí character in education and undertaken by the central government in the late an increase of the lack of ëequityí. 1980s. In June 2001, the Program on the Reform National curricular frameworks and policy of the Basic Education Curriculum (Experimental) trends. The aim of Chinaís Basic Education Curri- was launched with a concrete curriculum agenda culum Reform is to promote all-around develop- for the nine-year compulsory education (grade ment of students (Wang 2012). In ten years the 1ñ9). new basic education curriculum should be imple-

Example 1. The new curriculum scheme for compulsory education (grades 1ñ9)

The following changes were expected to be ó Curriculum function: from ëknowledge trans- achieved through the curriculum transformation missioní to ëstudentís active learning within (Shen 2016): a balanced triangulation of knowledge & skills,

116 YOUDI SUN. BRIDGING THE PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE IN CHINESE MUSIC EDUCATION

process & methodology, and emotions & Music curriculum. Consequently, the music valuesí; curriculum emphasizes five-line notation and ó Curriculum structure: from ëcompulsory and solfège (the Western method of music notation subject-centredí to ëelective and cross-discip- that starts ìdo, re, mi, etc.î). Chinese music text- linaryí; books, titled Yin-yue, are reviewed and approved ó Curriculum content: from ëcomplicated, by the Ministry of Education, whose teaching obscure, antiquated and difficult text-book- materials for primary and secondary schools are basedí to ëintegrated, social-scientific-related, used widely in Shanghai and other major cities in interest-experience-based and lifelong learning- China. The curriculum content is divided into one orientedí; stage for first through fifth grades, and another ñ ó Learning methods: from ëindividual, passive, for sixth through ninth grades. Both stages focus competitiveí to ëautonomous, inquiry-based, on developing musical sensitivity and love for music; collaborativeí; cultivating aesthetic judgment; teaching the Five ó Evaluation methods: from ësole exam-based Loves (love the motherland, love the people, love evaluationí to ëdevelopment-oriented assess- labour, love science, and love socialism); and mentí; cultivating studentsí interest in Chinese national ó Curriculum administration system: from ëa music as well as foreign music. Elementary school highly centralized, two-tiered frameworkí to students are children around 7ñ12 years old, while junior high school students are teenagers aged ëa distributed, three-tiered structureí. 12ñ15. Although teenagers and children have some Two years later the experimental curriculum commonness, they still have obvious different for senior secondary education (Grades 10ñ12) physiological and psychological aspects. Therefore, was ready (Wang 2012). A student should accom- in music teaching, there are different requirements plish minimum 144 credits in three years with for different objects at different stages (Huang 116 compulsory credits and minimum 28 elective 2016; Liao 2012). credits (Art, Sports & Health ñ 18 hours/module). Much of mainstream Chinese music education focuses on developing nationalistic feelings in students. In addition, school music education is seen as a way to purify the heart, nourish the MUSIC EDUCATION IN CHINA TODAY soul, inspire wisdom, as well as allow the power and function of emotion and intelligence to be Ancient Chinese people believed that music developed among students (Law, Ho 2011). was the most compelling way to influence people Generally, the aim of Chinese mainstream music and their emotions. Music education in China education is not to develop expert musicians, but today integrates music, arts, dance, and drama to imbue culture (Lu, Lv 2016). The main modes and links these arts with emotions, culture, science, of music education and training can be divided and life as a whole (Law, Ho 2009). Over the into two categories: interest training and music years, education-related policies have supported entrance examination. Teaching objects in music the transmission of core values that favour or training institutions generally include mostly 6ñ minimize challenges to Chinese authorities (Law, 15-year-old children (Shen 2016). Ho 2011). In 1986, the first organization of the Arts Education Department was established by the National Education Commission to develop PEDAGOGICAL APPROACHES and implement policies for music education in IN CHINESE MUSIC EDUCATION Chinese schools. During the 1990s, the education reforms in China recognized music education, China is a multi-ethnic country. In the long which served to develop school music education historical evolution, 56 ethnic groups in China and raise the status of music teachers. It has also have created Chinese musical culture with profound resulted in better teacher education for music and extensive connotations and extremely high teachers. Elementary and high school education aesthetic values. As a major form and carrier of encourages music education and other arts educa- human culture, the music contains rich cultural tion and higher education institutions to urge and historical connotations, sparkles with unique their students to take arts courses (Lo 2014). artistic charms to witness the evolution of the

117 MUSIC SCIENCE TODAY: THE PERMANENT AND THE CHANGEABLE ñ 3 (11) mankind and society, and satisfy peopleís ever- method was discussed (Wang 2017; Meng growing spiritual and cultural demands (Law, Ho 2016). 2009). ó The Suzuki method (playing an instrument, From the 1980s to the 1990s, some of the aural skills). The application of the core phi- advanced music teaching methods have been widely losophy of the Suzuki teaching method is used in Chinese preschool education (Li 2017). extremely important in music education, espe- In 2016, the application of three major interna- cially the specific practical teaching of piano tional music teaching methods sponsored by the and vocal music (Xi 2017). Peopleís Music Publishing House Chinese Music Education magazine was used in Chinese primary Since the foundation of the Peopleís Republic school music classroom teaching ñ teaching integra- of China, music education in China has achieved tion system-wide training was successfully com- unprecedented progress and development, at the menced. The purpose of this training is to enable same time music education is also moving towards Chinese teachers to truly understand the essence modernization. Contemporary school music of the three major music teaching methods. It education can be divided into three stages: provides new ideas and paths for music education ó 17 years after the foundation of the Peopleís and teaching in Chinese schools. It can also be Republic of China (from 1949 to 1966), the applied to general music teaching. The major music government promulgated a series of laws and education methods and teaching approaches regulations in the reform of the old educatio- presented in Chinese general school music educa- nal system and construction of a new system, tion are the following: which established the status of music educa- ó The Orff system (playing Orff instruments, tion in the entire education. Chinaís music body percussion, rhythmic and melodic im- education is on the right track from that time. provisation, singing, musical movement). In ó The second stage was the decade of the the early 1980s, Professor Liao Naixiong, Cultural Revolution. In that period of turbu- the director of the Institute of Shanghai Con- lence, music education was in the state of servatory of Music, returned from a visit to chaos. The school music education did not Germany, bringing with him the Orff music develop anything. education that was popular throughout the ó The third historical period was from the Third world to China (Wang 2018). In July 2017, Plenary Session of the Eleventh National Party the first Orff Education Conference in China Congress in 1978. was successfully held (Xiao, Tang 2017). So far, guided by its principles, the status of ó The Kodaly method (voice singing, develop- music education in school has gradually increased ment of aural imagination, music literacy, (Yu 2012). The Syllabus for Music in Primary movement). In the early 1980s, the Kodaly and Secondary Schools and Music Curriculum teaching method was introduced into China Standards have been continuously improved. In and it developed rapidly. A number of acade- 2011, the Compulsory Education Music Course mic monographs and theses about the method Standard put forward the educational philosophy have been published one after another (The on Music Curriculum Standards which is for all Hungarian Music Education Thought and students, focuses on the development of individu- Hungarian Music Education 2001). The Ko- ality, so that every student can develop the daly teaching method presented in Chinese musical potential and benefit from it (Fu 2014). textbooks that were written by Taiwanese Wang Kangni, contains more than 200 Chinese folk songs and is organized in accordance FUTURE PROSPECTS with a certain teaching sequence (Zhao, Qiao 2012). ó The Jaques-Dalcroze method (musical move- With the constant attention to quality educa- ment (eurhythmics), solfeggio, improvisation ñ tion and the upgrading of consumption in China, voice, instrument). The Central Conservatory there is an opportunity for music education. At of Music once held an International Sympo- present, there are no uniform standards and repre- sium on the School Music Education Reform sentative specifications for music education in where the difference between the Dalcroze China and the Internet provides a new form of teaching method and the traditional teaching learning and communication platform for music

118 YOUDI SUN. BRIDGING THE PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE IN CHINESE MUSIC EDUCATION education; thus it is expected to develop in the full understanding of culture in music learning, direction of individualization, specialization, and then it is impossible to grasp the value of the community. Music education online has a great cultural system of music. Today, music is highly developmental space, and the prospects are broad valued by the Chinese society in general. The (Shen 2016). Music education is a required course functions of music education are reflected by its in the future education system. In the past, people promotion of human development, and music learned the skills of music or other arts mostly education establishes and develops aesthetic, intel- because of career development (Yang 2016). For lectual, moral, physical values, as well as promotes todayís children, art education is more like a kind social development. of companionship and edification, which affects The dilemmas that challenge school music their inner and outer growth. If mathematics, education result in two divergent aims: to combine foreign language or other disciplines are the neces- the classroom music instruction of Confucianism sary basics for a social person, then music is a and nationalism; and to integrate broad orientation seed that inspires human nature to be good (Lu, including popular, world music and Western clas- Lv 2016). sical music with traditional Chinese music by In Western countries, children are exposed using multicultural teaching strategies in music to music since about the age of 1, and their music lessons. abilities are cultivated step by step (Pei 2010). In China, the improvement of peopleís living standards and the attention to the quality of education, as REFERENCES well as the change in how parents see the concept of childrenís education has attracted many educa- Darling-Hammond, Linda (2017). Teacher education tional practitioners to devote themselves to music around the world: What can we learn from inter- education, exploring the innovative teaching national practice. European Journal of Teacher methods and the use of the Internet for educa- Education 40 (3): 291ñ309. tional purposes. To a large extent, art education Fu, Lili (2014). Comparison of music education in is inseparable from interest (Shen 2016). schools between China and the U.S. Proceedings of Based on our study, it should be seen that the 2014 International Conference on Global Eco- teaching and textbook writers are doing their job nomy, Finance and Humanities Research. Edited from a practical point of view, while trying to by Fangli Zheng. Atlantis Press, 144ñ147. keep up with the pace of social and historical Huang, Qiongli (2016). Investigation and analysis of the current situation of music education in primary development, advancing with the times and paying and secondary schools. Art and Literature for the more attention to trying to absorb some excellence Masses 10: 250ñ251. of classical works. The teaching materials should Kayange, Jimmy Jaston & Masauko Msiska (2016). be full of modern thinking, closely connected with Teacher education in China: Training teachers for social life, have rich content, and broaden studentsí the 21st century. The Online Journal of New Hori- musical vision. In this way, not only can the teaching zons in Education 6 (4): 204ñ210. content change, but it can also stimulate the enthu- Law, Wing-Wah & Wai-Ching Ho (2009). Globali- siasm of students to learn music so that it can be zation, values education, and school music educa- better applied in school music education. tion in China. Journal of Curriculum Studies 41 (4): 501ñ520. Law, Wing-Wah & Wai-Ching Ho (2011). Music education in China: In search for social harmony CONCLUSIONS and Chinese nationalism. British Journal of Music Education 28 (3): 371ñ388. Lee, John Chi-Kin & Huan Song (2016). Teacher The results of this study reflect the current education in the Greater China Region: Status, situation of Chinese music education and music issues and prospects. Quality and Change in Teacher teaching and learning. All in all, since the founda- Education. Professional Learning and Development tion of the Peopleís Republic of China, music in Schools and Higher Education. Edited by John education in China has achieved unprecedented Chi-Kin Lee and Christopher Day. Switzerland: progress and development, at the same time music Springer International Publishing, 39ñ58. education is also moving towards modernization. Li, Yan (2017). The development direction of music education in preschool education from the transfor- Music is a kind of culture, as well as a part mation of Orffís music teaching method in China. of the national culture as a whole. If there is no Journal of Xingtai University 32 (1): 167ñ169.

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Liao, Jiahua (2012). An important document to deepen China General Music Education. Masterís Thesis teaching reform ñ learning notes of ìMusic Curricu- (social sciences, arts pedagogy). Vilnius: Lithuanian lum Standardî. Chinese Music Education 3: 6ñ10. University of Educational Sciences. Lo, Li (2014). Music Education Reform in Taiwan: Wang, Bingyan (2012). School-Based Curriculum Beginning Music Teachersí Perceptions of Their Development in China. A Chinese-Dutch coopera- Teacher Preparation at National Taiwan Normal tive pilot project. Netherlands Institute for Curri- University. Dissertation. Boston University College culum Development. Enschede (the Netherlands): of Fine Arts. SLO, Netherlands Institute for Curriculum Develop- Lu, Yujuan & Yan Lv (2016). Research on the current ment. situation and countermeasures of music in higher Wang, Jinhua (2018). On the happy teaching method vocational education. Northern Music 16: 193. in music class ñ an attempt of Orff teaching method. Meng, Xin (2016). Analysis of the development of Education 1 (2): 42. Dalcrozeís teaching method in China. Journal of Wang, Shu (2017). A preliminary study on the teaching Jiamusi Education Institute 6: 287. method of ìBody Rhythmî. Art Education 1: 96. National Bureau of Statistics of China (2016). China Xi, Xingyu (2017). Application of Suzuki music Statistical Yearbook, China Statistics Press, Beijing. teaching method in music education. Northern http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjsj/ndsj/2016/ Music 8: 191. indexeh.htm ñ visited on February 12, 2018. Xiao, Sufen & Tang Dazhang (2017). Summary of OECD (2016). Education in China. A Snapshot. the First China Orff Education Conference in 2017. https://www.oecd.org/china/Education-in-China-a- Journal of Shanxi Xueqian Normal University snapshot.pdf ñ visited on February 10, 2018. 33 (10): 146ñ148. Pei, Jianwei (2010). The current situation and compa- Yu, Yuzi (2012). The Music Education of Modern rison of music education in Germany and China. Schools in China (1840ñ1949). New Edition. Journal of Hebei Normal University 12 (9): 85ñ89. Shen, Ye (2016). In-Depth Export on the Quality Shanghai: Shanghai Education Press. Education Industry. City: Publishing House GF Zhao Gefei & Qiao Yarong (2012). The development Securities. of Kodalyís music teaching method and its guiding Sun, Youdi (2016). The Possibilities, Singularities of significance to music education in China. Northern Chinese Folk and Popular Music Application in Music 9: 70.

120 Versatile Teacherís Competences in the Context of Musical Education of Pregnant Women

PhD LOLITA JOLANTA NAVICKIENÀ Associate Professor, Lithuanian Academy of Music and Theatre LINA PO–KYTÀ Music Teacher

This paper presents the analysis of prenatal musical education (PME) issues in Lithuania, they are addressed from the teacherís perspective; a short qualitative research analysis, in which seven PME teachers from the country took part, is provided as well. Though benefits and effect of PME are of no doubt (Odent 1995, Logan 2003, Verny 2003, Tomatis 2004, Лазарев 2007 etc.) and modern medical equipment has created conditions to study the foetus in the womb long ago (Nilsson 1966), the theme of PME in Lithuania is analysed relatively little and remains unpopular1. Therefore, the paper discusses the specifics of a PME teacherís work, the reasons for choosing the field, necessary competences and the challenges experienced. Keywords: Prenatal music education, work specifics of prenatal musical education teacher, music teacherís competences.

INTRODUCTION of the foetus; thus, it is expedient to analyse it from the aspect of competences necessary for this Relevance. As recent studies (Odent 1995, task. Logan 2003, Verny 2003, Tomatis 2004, Лазарев Definitions of teacherís professional competences 2007, etc.) show, the benefits and the effect of . From the historical perspective, the term has been widely used since at least the 16th century; prenatal musical education (PME) are of no doubt however, until today a general definition suitable nowadays. With the development of science, the for all areas of education has not been formulated. amount of research disclosing even bigger effects Professional competences of music teachers have of the sound on the unborn baby has also grown: been studied by many Lithuanian scholars (Ma- it has been found out that while singing the voice tonis 2002; –eËkuvienÎ 2003; RinkeviËius, Rinke- has a significantly bigger sound frequency diapason viËienÎ 2006; GirdzijauskienÎ 2008; LasauskienÎ than while speaking. It spreads all over the body 2010, etc.), who have also offered various defini- and is passed on to the foetus (Chavda 2014); tions and classifications of the term (see Example 1). 30-week-old embryos have short-term memory It can be seen from the example that researches (Dirix, Nijhuis, Jongsma, Hornstra 2009); the associate music teacherís competences mainly with experiences attained in the womb manifest after subject knowledge and pedagogical excellence. birth in various emotional reactions and attitudes, In the project of educational structures Tuning influencing the overall quality of life of a new- (2006) supported by the European Committee, born human being (Federico 2016). competence is understood as a dynamic combina- It is obvious that nowadays PME can become tion of human abilities allowing to perform the a valued possibility of psychophysical stimulation activity in a competent way. According to the

1 For more detail see: NavickienÎ, BabilauskaitÎ 2018.

121 MUSIC SCIENCE TODAY: THE PERMANENT AND THE CHANGEABLE ñ 3 (11)

Law on Education of the Republic of Lithuania all teachers follow their work strategy? Can the (2003), the expression of competence is characte- specific professional requirements be the reason rized by a personís capability to implement a certain for the lack of PME specialists or the unpopularity activity, relying on the whole of acquired know- of the profession? ledge, skills, abilities and values. However, do

Example 1. Approach of Lithuanian scholars to the structure of the term ëcompetenceí

Problem. Insufficient amount of institutions appropriate for collecting the PME teachersí providing undoubtedly beneficial PME teacherís personal opinions and the number of participants, education in the context of modern Lithuania has has been chosen. encouraged the analysis of the peculiarities of a Base and scope characteristics. By means of teacherís work in this field and answering the a semi-structured interview, seven PME teachers emerging questions: what determines the choice (six women and one man), who carry out or have of music teachers to work in the field of musical carried out some activities in the field, aged between education for pregnant women? Is meeting the 32ñ55 years and from major Lithuanian cities requirements usually set for music teacherís subject (Utena, –iauliai, KlaipÎda, Kaunas, and Vilnius) and pedagogical competences sufficient when were interviewed. In January ñ March of 2018 working in the field? What are the specific pecu- in Lithuanian music schools, health centres or liarities of such work and how do they determine studios, people involved in the musical education / the unpopularity of musical education for pregnant musicianship of pregnant women were searched. women in Lithuania? Teachers were interviewed by phone at the time The object ñ the aspect of teacherís work in convenient for them or they answered questions the musical education of pregnant women. via e-mail. The aim ñ to explore the aspect of teacherís work in the context of musical education of pregnant women in Lithuania. RESULTS AND ANALYSIS Objectives: to analyse the competences required for music and PME teachers on the basis of First questions of the interview have helped scientific, pedagogical literature and educational to disclose the demographic, personal characte- documents; to identify the aspects and emerging ristics and working time indicators of the partici- problematic issues that have the greatest influence pants (see Example 2). on the success of PME teacherís work; on the The overview of responses has shown that basis of empirical research to find out the motives women (only one man among the respondents) of PME teachers for choosing the activity and the who carried out PME activity the most, had high specifics of their work, disclosing the reasons for professional competences in music education, unpopularity of this educational area in Lithuania. music performance, and music therapy fields, but Methods: theoretical ñ analysis and generali- accumulated competences did not influence the zation of scientific, psychological and pedagogical length of the working period ñ R7 stopped working literature, educational documents; empirical ñ after 10 years. It became expedient to find out semi-structured interview and qualitative analysis the reasons for stopping to work with pregnant of the collected data. Qualitative research strategy, women (see Example 3).

122 L. J. NAVICKIENÀ, L. PO–KYTÀ. VERSATILE TEACHERíS COMPETENCES IN THE CONTEXT OF MUSICAL EDUCATION OF PREGNANT WOMEN

Duration and Respondent Gender Age Education City status of activity R1 Female 32 ó Bachelor of Music Pedagogy; 6 months / Utena ó Master of Education Management; Not working R2 Female 37 ó Bachelor of Music Pedagogy; 1 year / –iauliai ó Master of Music Pedagogy; Not working R3 Male 55 ó Choir conducting (studied but not completed); 3 years / KlaipÎda ó Music Pedagogy (studied, but not completed); Working R4 Female 54 ó Bachelor of Choir Conducting; 15 years / Vilnius ó Master of Choir Conducting; Working ó Doctoral Studies in Education; R5 Female 37 ó Bachelor of Choir Conducting (pedagogy, 2 years / Vilnius piano, and vocal specializations); Working ó Master of Social Work; ó Master of Music Therapy; R6 Female 42 ó Bachelor of Pre-Primary Education; 6 months / Utena ó Musical Education for Children in Kinder- Not working musik University; R7 Female 43 ó Bachelor of Choir Conducting; 10 years / Vilnius ñ ó Master of Music Pedagogy. Not working Kaunas

Example 2. Respondentsí demographic data (N=7)

Question: What difficulties emerge when working in the field of musical education of pregnant women in Lithuania? Length of work Category Quotes in PME field 6 months Wrong approach Mothersí attitude that it is not a very useful thing, that when a woman to PME is expecting a baby, more attention should be devoted to her, not to the child (perhaps it is more likely to show up in smaller cities). (R1) 1 year Lack of infor- The difficulty was that when I was working, it was unpopular. Women mation on the often did not think about the benefits of those exercises. Most just benefits of PME encounter the lack of information about that kind of education and its benefits. (R2) 6 months Attendance Attendance. After starting to attend classes, later future mums become problem lazy. (R6) 10 years Lack of metho- Assessing this situation in todayís context, I see the lack of methodology, dology, problem diminished relevance of the topic, insufficient amount of education of of mothersí young mothers about the importance of prenatal education. (R4) education

Example 3. Difficulties emerging during PME (N=7)

The respondentsí answers have highlighted had learned about PME in Lithuania from lectures the lack of appropriate education concerning the and seminars delivered by dr. Albertas PiliËiauskas. usefulness of PME to the foetus and future mother In 1998 I was in the first professor Albertas Pili- and the lack of the methodical knowledge of the Ëiauskasí seminar of prenatal and postnatal musical teachers themselves. education, in which Michail Lazarev (Russia) ñ While analysing the answers to the question the author of the prenatal musical method ìSona- How did you find out about prenatal musical edu- talî ñ was the lecturer (R7); During my Bachelor cation and its possibilities?, the way of spreading studies professor Albertas PiliËiauskas often visited PME in Lithuania was revealed (abroad this kind the university, thus I learned about PME from of education became popular as early as in the him. Besides, I was researching about it individu- 1990s). Part of the participants stated that they ally during my own pregnancy (R2). R3 has men-

123 MUSIC SCIENCE TODAY: THE PERMANENT AND THE CHANGEABLE ñ 3 (11) tioned that he had learned about PME from public success, while R4 stressed the marketing know- information, while R1 had heard about such kind ledge, entrepreneurship and the importance of of education during music education studies, R5 ñ managerial skills, the necessity to break the myths ... from music therapy seminars, literature reviews and unfounded opinions established in the society. based on practical experience and international For example: only mothers who have good musical research, and becoming acquainted with the inter- skills can perform music; it is enough to educate national experience of education of pregnant the foetus by only listening to music; talented women (parents). In her answer, she has also children are born even to mothers who did not underlined the idea that musicianship during the perform music during pregnancy, so why bother..., prenatal period is more a field of therapy rather R5 in her answer has stressed ...multifaceted than education. It is oriented towards harmonisa- experience, personalized creative background, tion of the state of the pregnant woman, which ability to help, bringing about positive changes is needed for fetus and motherís good physical in family life. and emotional state, smooth childbirth process, In an attempt to find out the difficulties thus, the development of fetal abilities is only one emerging in the work of PME teachers, R2, R4, of this activityís aims, not the main one. and R7 have mentioned the lack of repertoire and The answers to the question What has deter- methodology. However, according to R2, it has mined your decision to work in this field? have encouraged teacherís creativity and initiative, since revealed the influence of personal experiences on the educational process became based on personal the choice of this activity, for instance: I had an experiences and challenging explorations while interest in music therapy, when expecting my formulating the activities or applying them to firstborn, I applied prenatal education methods various periods of pregnancy. R4 has stated that myself. I had been reading a lot about the benefits in this activity the lack of entrepreneurship skills of such education independently and in the men- is accompanied by the lack of funds for adverti- tioned seminar I made the decision to educate sing; problems arise when trying to find suitable not only my own but also other children in this premises for work. R2, who at the moment is way, too (R7); Personal experience, since during not carrying out PME activity, also stated that pregnancy I was in the third year of studies (...), Ömany just face the lack of information about thus, I had to sing, play and conduct a lot. My son such education and its benefits. Only a few preg- was born with the abilities noticeably higher than nant women attended the lessons, while in order usual (...) (R4). R2 and R5 were encouraged to to conduct the work properly the teacher needs begin working in the field by the wish to observe to do a lot of individual preparation, which also the reactions of already born babies (who had been demands a considerable amount of time and educated in the womb) to the mothersí repertoire money. R5 and R7 have also stressed the constant that was learned during pregnancy. R3 was encou- lack of information about the benefits of PME, raged to carry out such lessons by the job offer while R7 has also underlined the lack of necessary from the field. methodology. Therefore, in general, it can be When addressing the importance of enthusiasm stated that the main obstacles to the implemen- in PME work (Is personal enthusiasm enough tation of PME are low public awareness closely for successful musical education in the field? Why related to the practical implementation of the do you think so?), different evaluation of enthu- activity, attendance, the lack of financial resources siasm in PME activity was disclosed. R2 has stressed and inadequacy of costs required for high compe- that it is an essential factor: While studying music tences in comparison with teacherís profit. education, the curriculum did not have enough When asked what other knowledge, besides attention for this area. It was important to be by musical expression and pedagogy, is necessary oneís own will interested in other, complementary for a person carrying out PME activity, the parti- subjects, necessary for work with pregnant women. cipants of the research have mainly underlined Willingness to do this kind of work is not enough the medical knowledge (hormone-induced altered to be a good music specialist. Thus, enthusiasm is female behaviour) and psychological or general very important, since it encourages further actions. human competences, such as communicativeness, For R6 it was not the only thing that defined empathy, generosity, etc. (see Example 4).

124 L. J. NAVICKIENÀ, L. PO–KYTÀ. VERSATILE TEACHERíS COMPETENCES IN THE CONTEXT OF MUSICAL EDUCATION OF PREGNANT WOMEN

Question: What other knowledge, besides musical expression and pedagogy, is necessary for a teacher implementing PME activity? Why do you think so? Category Quotes Medical Most probably medicalÖ about the development of the child in the womb. I had to learn a knowledge lot by myself of how the child is developing in a motherís womb each week. (R1) It is important to be acquainted with the psychological properties of pregnant women, understand the peculiarities of the prenatal period (child and motherís physiology), as well as have the general medical knowledge to be able to help with some advice concerning physiology. (R2) One needs a lot of medical knowledge, high level of communicativeness, empathy, benevolence, optimism, and ability to ìigniteî positivity, since pregnant women often come irritated, cry without reasons, fear to give birth or are afraid of motherhood as such. (R4) Psychological From my personal experience of ten years in the sphere, I can state that psychological know- knowledge ledge is as necessary as the basics of music therapy. (R7) It is important to be acquainted with the psychological properties of pregnant women, understand the peculiarities of prenatal period (...). (R2) Knowledge of Music therapy, art therapy, neonatology, medical knowledge, psychology, music psychology, other fields acoustics. In addition, it would be good to be familiar with relaxation and breathing techniques. (R5)

Example 4. Additional knowledge required for PME implementing teacher (N=7)

Knowing that just a few studies have been significant influence on the process. R4 and R5 published on the practical implementation of PME rely on knowledge and innovation from foreign in Lithuania, it was interesting to find out how publications, try and apply them in practice. R7 such a situation influences the practical aspect in her work relies on the findings of Carl Orff, of carrying out the activity. The results reveal Shinichi Suzuki, Michael Lazarev and other prin- very similar opinions of respondents: for R2 it was ciples of music teaching systems, as well as Albertas the most difficult to plan the structure and activities PiliËiauskasí and Lolita Jolanta NavickienÎís works. of a class, it was not clear which principles should Thus, it is obvious that owing to teachersí crea- one follow at work. Improvisational nature of tivity, the lack of Lithuanian PME methodology the activity is noticeable in the answers provided does not have any significant influence on their by R4 and R6, but it is not mentioned as a diffi- work; although, according to R5, ...having a culty emerging during work. R3 has answered renowned school for PME in Lithuania would that thanks to personal creativity, he does not be good for the nation itself. suffer from the lack of methodology. R4, R5, The search for detailed and concrete music and R7 in their answers have also mentioned that sources and methodologies has revealed two types the lack of Lithuanian methods does not have any of responses (see Example 5).

Question: Do you use your own created songs or tasks in PME implementation or modify the methodologies provided in foreign literature? Category Quotes Uses Lithuanian I use both, my own composed and provided in foreign literature methodologies. (R1) folk songs and In the beginning, I relied on L. NavickienÎís songs. Besides, I used Lithuanian folk songs, personally games, looked for various lullabies, their arrangements, and selected classical music recordings. created works In addition, I used various sounds of the sea and sea animals (whales, dolphins). I also introduced folk dances (not national ones), in order to cultivate traditions during the educational process. (R2) I use my own composed songs and folk songs, as well as instrumental music, which is performed live during the class. (R3) In my work, I use my own songs, as well as folk songs. I do not use songs of foreign authors since then fostering national identity would become problematic. (R4)

Sequel to Example 5 see on the next page.

125 MUSIC SCIENCE TODAY: THE PERMANENT AND THE CHANGEABLE ñ 3 (11)

Sequel to Example 5. While working I analysed various methodologies, the effects of principles of music education methodologies and supplemented the information acquired with my personal insights, creativity. (R7) Uses modified I use both, my own composed and provided in foreign literature methodologies. (R1) methodologies I do not use my own composed songs ñ I just do not compose them, while modification and tasks depends on how the expecting mother feels. (R6)

Example 5. Methodological material for PME activities (N=7)

Therefore, it was found out that without of the latter was influenced by Kindermusik Uni- Lithuanian PME methodology teachers rely on versity). personal creative skills (R1, R3, R4, R5, R7), they Having analysed the respondentsí attitude use Lithuanian folk songs, which cherish national towards methodology, it was also important to identity (R2, R3, R4), choose foreign methodo- address the image of PME teacherís work (see logies and modify them (R1 and R6, the choice Example 6).

Question: In general, how would you describe an image of PME teacherís work? Category Quotes Priority of A teacherís personal qualities ñ understanding, softness, ñ are extremely important, since personal traits pregnant women are sensitive. It is a job that requires specific medical and psychological knowledge. (R2) One should have a beautiful voice with a soft timbre; know how to play at least a couple of instruments and improvise easily; have good knowledge of the peculiarities of pregnancy; be creative, empathetic and very communicative. (R4) One must have the previously mentioned knowledge and be able to apply it in practice. In addition, have some music therapistís features: be empathetic, accepting, caring, etc. (R5) Competences Even for primary musical education, psychological knowledge and experience are important. in other fields (R6) General musical knowledge is not enough for a PME specialist. Competences in the spheres of psychology and music therapy are mandatory. (R7)

Example 6. Image of PME teacherís work (N=7)

The responses presented in Example 6, where CONCLUSIONS the emphasis is placed on the versatility and complexity of PME teachersí competences positively This study has revealed that seven teachers correlated with the responses to the question ìAre of high professional competences carried out the musical/pedagogical skills for music teacher/ PME activity, but only three of them are working performerís profession acquired during higher at the moment in two Lithuanian cities ñ KlaipÎda education studies sufficient enough for working and Vilnius. Mostly, this job was chosen because in the field of PME? Why do you think so?î. of personal experience (often during the respon- Almost all the respondents have answered that dentsí own pregnancy). such skills are not sufficient enough, while R6 According to Lithuanian scholars, music and R7 have explained their opinion by stating teachersí competences are mostly associated with that such activity requires not only general musical subject knowledge and pedagogical excellence; but also specific ñ psychological, medical and however, for the PME teacherís activity a wider other skills. Therefore, a PME teacher is a very spectre of competences is required, encompassing empathetic, benevolent, sensitive, communicative special, professional, educational, subject and and creative personality that raises trust with high interdisciplinary (medical, psychological) compe- professional abilities. tences, which in higher education institutions are developed insufficiently.

126 L. J. NAVICKIENÀ, L. PO–KYTÀ. VERSATILE TEACHERíS COMPETENCES IN THE CONTEXT OF MUSICAL EDUCATION OF PREGNANT WOMEN

In the context of PME, creativity plays a par- Hepper, Peter G. (1991) An examination of fetal ticularly important role as it helps to solve problems learning before and after birth. The Irish Journal of concerning the educational content and the lack Psychology 12 (2): 95ñ107. of repertoire. JautakytÎ, Rasa (2009). Ankstyvasis muzikinis vaik¯ The main factors influencing the unpopula- ugdymas. KlaipÎda: KlaipÎdos universiteto leidykla. rity of PME activity among music teachers are LasauskienÎ, Jolanta (2010). Muzikos mokytojo veikla ir kompetencijos. Vilnius: Vilniaus pedagoginio the lack of public awareness of the importance universiteto leidykla. of PME, the insufficient demand for such educa- Lietuvos Respublikos –vietimo ·statymas (2003). tion, the special preparation of a music teacher https://www.e-tar.lt/portal/lt/legalAct/TAR. being based on personal enthusiasm and self-educa- 9A3AD08EA5D0/TAIS_458774 ñ visited on tion, necessary interdisciplinary competences, and August 1, 2018. the inadequacy of costs in comparison to teacherís Logan, Brent (2003). Learning before Birth. Blooming- profit. ton: AuthorHouse. NavickienÎ, Lolita Jolanta & Orita BabilauskaitÎ (2018). Prenatal music education in Lithuania: Pregnant womenís perspective. Music Science Today: The REFERENCES Permanent and the Changeable 2 (10). Daugavpils: Daugavpils University Academic Press Saule, 138ñ Arya, Ravindra, Maya Chansoria, Ramesh Konanki & 148. Dileep K. Tiwari (2012). Maternal music exposure Nilsson, Lennart (1966). A Child Is Born: The Drama during pregnancy influences neonatal behaviour: An of Life before Birth. New York: Dell. open-label randomized controlled trial. Interna- Odent, Michel (1995). Gimdymo atgimimas. Kaunas: tional Journal of Pediatrics 2012 (4623): Article ID Farmacija. 901812. https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/901812 ñ Pedagogo profesijos kompetencij¯ apraas (2015). visited on August 1, 2018. https://www.upc.smm.lt/projektai/pkt/rezultatai/ Chavda, Unnati (2014). Interesting Research: Sound & PEDAGOGO-PROFESIJOS-KOMPETENCIJU- Womb. https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/2014080 APRASAS.docx ñ visited on August 1, 2018. 9034436-75260595-interesting-research-sound- PenkauskienÎ, Daiva (2010). Ugdymo kaita ir moky- womb ñ visited on August 1, 2018. toj¯ kompetencij¯ ugdymas. http://www.sdcentras. Dirix, Chantal E. A., Jan G. Nijhuis, Hen W. Jongsma & lt/pr_mkt/Penkauskiene.pdf ñ visited on August 1, Gerard Hornstra (2009). Aspects of fetal learning 2018. and memory. Child Development 8 (4): 1251ñ1258. RinkeviËius, Zenonas & Rimtauta RinkeviËienÎ (2006). Europos vietimo strukt˚r¯ suderinimas ñ projektas ﬁmogaus ugdymas muzika. KlaipÎda: S. Joku˛io Tuning (2006). http://www.unideusto.org/tuningeu/ leidykla-spaustuvÎ, 282ñ284. images/stories/documents/Lithuanian_version.pdf ñ –eËkuvienÎ, Henrika (2003). Pedagoginis paaukimas ñ visited on August 1, 2018. muzikos mokytojo asmenybÎs charakteristikos Federico, Gabriel F. (2016). A Musical Journey through pagrindas: konferencijos med˛iaga. Muzikos peda- Pregnancy: Prenatal Music Therapy. Tegueste: Edi- gogo kompetencija ir dalykinio rengimo problemos. torial OB STARE. MarijampolÎ: MarijampolÎs kolegijos leidybos Gerhardt, Kenneth J. & Robert M. Abrams (2000). centras, 78ñ79. Fetal exposures to sound and vibroacoustic stimu- Thompson, June (2000). NÎtumas: nuo pastojimo iki lation. Journal of Perinatology 20: S20ñS29. gimdymo. Vilnius: M˚s¯ knyga. Gingras J. L., E. A. Mitchell & K. E. Grattan (2005). Verny, Thomas & Pamela Weintraub (1991). Nurturing Archives of Disease Fetal homologue of infant crying. the Unborn Child: A Nine-Month Program for in Childhood ñ Fetal and Neonatal Edition 90, Soothing, Stimulating, and Communicating with F415ñ F418. Your Baby. New York: Delacorte Press. GirdzijauskienÎ, R˚ta (2008). Muzikos mokytojo pro- Лазарев, Михаил (2007). Мамалыш. Рождение до fesinÎs kompetencijos ypatumai. Muzikinis ugdymas рождения. Москва: ОЛМА Медия груп. mokykloje: tradicijos ir inovacijos. Tiltai 37: 7ñ10.

127 Diagnosis of Child Listening to Music in the Light of SUMs1 Application

Habilitated Doctor of Humanities and Social Sciences MACIEJ KOŸODZIEJSKI Associate Professor, Karkonosze College in Jelenia GÛra (Poland) ŸUKASZ PULCHNY Kazimierz Wielki University in Bydgoszcz, Poland

Doctor of Social Sciences PAWEŸ A. TRZOS Adjunct at the Faculty Music Pedagogy, Kazimierz Wielki University in Bydgoszcz (Poland)

The presented paper is of theoretical-diagnostic-empirical character. The purpose of the research was to learn and analyse the possibility of evaluation of the pupilsí achievements in relation to diversified listening to music. What was analysed was the possibility of an objective control over the introduction of some music-related theoretical terms basing on a selected method of activeness, i.e. listening to music. The research subject was the pupilsí competences related to music listening. Two-phase diagnostic-educational research was performed in order to create the authorsí (own) tool to diagnose the listening to music competence (in Polish Sprawdzian UmiejÊtno˙ci Muzycznych ñ SUMs). The first phase was based on the method of a diagnostic survey with the application of a questionnaire, observation, and testing. The second phase refers to the evaluation research and focuses on the further testing pupilsí competences basing on the didactic tool ñ SUMs. Conducting the quantification and evaluation brings some benefits for a pupil and a teacher themselves. The children who are aware of the level of their competence (conscious of their strong and weak points) can apply their competences more successfully. In light of the above, the educational diagnosis can significantly increase the level of education quality and effects and (can) naturally direct the teachers-researchersí reasoning towards the issues related to the process of evaluation. Keywords: musical skills, early school music education, listening to music, diagnosis.

INTRODUCTION and Green 2009). This academic elaboration considers the practical completion of an objective Despite the fact that diagnosis is usually asso- approach to the diagnosis of music-related compe- ciated with medical terminology, especially in the tences with the application of the authorís research process of identifying and defining what a patient tool which includes: a questionnaire for teachers, suffers from, this term is widely applied in didactics competence test related to listening to music (in and music-educational evaluation. The precise com- short: SUMs) for the pupils and the evaluation prehension of what pupils (already) know and are sheet of the tool. What needs to be underlined is able to apply starting from the beginning of a that the educational diagnosis significantly contri- school year is the key-factor in the methodological butes to the increase of educational quality and configuration which rather adapts the character influences and naturally directs the teachers-resear- of a challenge than a hardship (compare: Hale chersí reasoning towards the issues related to the

1 SUMs is the abbreviation used for the research tool which in Polish stands for Sprawdzian UmiejÊtno˙ci Muzycznych w zakresie s˘uchania muzyki.

128 M. KOŸODZIEJSKI, Ÿ. PULCHNY, P. A. TRZOS. DIAGNOSIS OF CHILD LISTENING TO MUSIC IN THE LIGHT OF SUMS APPLICATION process of evaluation (Michlowicz 2012: 339). on their own, using their mental processes (Zwo- Therefore, this empirical-research elaboration meets liÒska 2014, Bonna 2016). In a reflection oriented the cognitive, utilitarian, educational function, in this manner, one must remember that every which refers to the presentation of the research pupil has different, although inborn, inclinations results in general music education. to music learning. In accordance with the native concepts of development, it provides the possibility of a description of a dynamic potential of competences to acquire some defined (that is, specific) ON EVALUATION IN TEACHING MUSIC achievements in music learning by pupils until c. 10 years of age. The measurement of achievements, understood In this paper, musical achievements are consi- as the teacherís diagnostic activity, refers to the dered in the context of the evaluation tasks of process of learning, the completed content as well the process of musical education. The related key as the regulators of this course of proceedings issues include measurement, diagnosis, and evalu- (Niemierko 1990: 10). The indicated areas some- ation of achievements. Another important factor how constitute a type of directives to the proper seems to be the very interpretation of achieve- functioning of school achievements. The teacher ments, which, as presented in the research results, willing to monitor the stimulation of the compe- refers to the description of the changes in music tence development within the defined achievement learning experience (including success and effecti- must, however, accurately choose the educational veness) (Denek 2009: 17; ZwoliÒska 2010; Trzos content as well as define the scope of their expec- 2007b). In the analysis of the process of evaluation tations with the reference to their pupils. Additio- what is necessary is the whole presentation of its nally, teachers must select appropriate methods key aspects with reference to the contents, the that will allow to check and to objectively evaluate programme of interaction forms of musical active- the pupilsí progress. The achievements understood ness and thus also to the possibility of evaluating as the whole of the undertaken actions refer not the completed results of music learning (Trzos only to the hardship of childís obvious engagement 2007a: 239ñ250). but also to the input and the time of teachersí The role of diagnosis and its aim as ëdescrip- interactions forming the school reality. tion, explanation and prediction of the course of It must be mentioned that musical education phenomena and directing themí occurs to be impor- applies semantically quite diversified terms of tant (Ska˘bania 2013: 19). What also matters is educational achievements. The terms of achieve- an attempt to define some teachersí personal (col- ment, ability, aptitude or competence are often loquial) suppositions related to solving a certain applied interchangeably (Ko˘odziejski 2009: 33) didactic difficulty in music (Ko˘odziejski 2009, and the result of such a state can cause lexical Trzos 2012). The literature emphasizes the signifi- chaos in the evaluation being conducted in this cance of the teachersí conscious discernment and area. John Sloboda claims that achievements are application of (nominal-tool) apparatus of didactic certain accomplishments based on the completion measurement in accordance with the already of the previously assumed targets (Sloboda 2002: defined rules (OkoÒ 2003: 340ñ341, Weiner 2012). 263ñ264). Following it, the pupilsí musical achieve- These rules allow monitoring the effectiveness ments can be regarded as the change in the observ- and advisability of some actions, and the accepted able level of a plan of actions under realisation symbol system (the so-called measure scale) ë(Ö) in the educational area defined previously by the should reflect pupilsí selected capacitiesí (Niemierko teacher. It must be noted that such a development 2002: 153ñ154, see also: Gagne, Briggs 1992: is only possible thanks to the accumulation of 236ñ237). the continuous personal experiences by a pupil (Ko˘odziejski 2009: 33). Similarly, E.E. Gordonís reasoning can be presented which defines achievements mainly as the ultimate ëmusical accomplish- THE RESEARCH METHOD mentsí, focusing their being on the development of audiation (Gordon 1999: 498, see also: Zwo- The aim of the research was to learn and liÒska 2010). Following Gordonís inspiration, it analyse the possibilities of evaluation of pupilsí is assumed that musical achievements can be named achievements related to music listening. Therefore, the competences which pupils have accomplished what was analysed was the possibility of objective

129 MUSIC SCIENCE TODAY: THE PERMANENT AND THE CHANGEABLE ñ 3 (11) monitoring of the implementation of some theo- responses allowed drawing some general conclu- retical musical terms basing on a selected form sions related to the teachersí theoretical background of activity, i.e. music listening. The research in the area of musical achievements diagnosis with subject was the pupilsí competences related to reference to listening. music learning. The personal definitions of the nomination Two-phase educational research was con- ëeducational achievementí were the following: ducted in order to construct the authorís own ó ëall knowledge and competences acquired by diagnostic tool of listening to music competence a pupil in the process of educationí; SUMs (Pulchny 2016). The first phase was based ó ëacquisition of knowledge, experiences and on the method of diagnostic questionnaire with competencesí; the application of the following techniques: a ó ëequipping a pupil with the knowledge and survey, observation, and testing. The second phase competences related to didactics and upbrin- refers to the evaluational research and focuses gingí; on the further testing the pupilsí competences on ó ëthe childís developmental progress related the basis of the didactic tool ñ SUMs. to the curriculum requirementsí; In both phases, the sampling was applied ó ëthe pupilsí results acquired at schoolí; deliberately. In the first phase, there were selected: ó ëthe level of knowledge and competencesí; 100 teachers of early school education (including ó ëthe learning resultsí; 20 teachers-musicians actively working with ó ëthe motor, verbal and intellectual knowledge, pupils) and 375 pupils, aged 9ñ10, of Grade 3 competences and attitudesí; (in total: 30 classes) who participated in the check ó ëthe pupilsí competencesí; of musical competences with reference to music ó ëthe added value achieved by a child during listening. The research was conducted locally at didactic classes at schoolí; seven primary schools in the city of Bydgoszcz ó ëan aim, effectí; (Poland) and was combined with the management ó ëa final effect of education, educational process of SUMs. In the second phase, the evaluation resultí; tools of SUMs were applied. This test is currently ó ëthe results of the didactic-upbringing processí; checked in purposefully selected Grades 3 at 12 ó ëthe completion of the assumed contentsí; (public or private) primary schools in the following ó ëthe effect of work in relation to the assumed voivodeships (provinces): Kujawy-Pomeranian, aimsí; Mazovian, Pomeranian and Greater Poland (all ó ësomething that can be measured ë; of which are situated in Poland). The research in ó ëa pedagogical successí; this phase has the national character and it is ó ësomething a child knows, understands and still in progress. applies in various real-life situationsí; Three author tools were constructed: 1) the ó ëmonitoring educational achievements with survey questionnaire (for teachers), 2) the compe- the application of various methods of measu- tence test related to music listening SUMs (for rement, observationí; pupils), and 3) the evaluation tool sheet. This paper ó ëa change between the initial and the final presents some selected, and at the same time the stagesí2. most important, results of the first phase of the research. The above-presented teachersí responses can be referred to three areas: the acquisition of knowledge resulting from the realisation of some particular curriculum contents, the acquisition of various THE RESEARCH RESULTS abilities necessary in adult life and the formation of oneís own attitudes. The special emphasis is Teachers apply their own knowledge to the placed on the observable process between the problems in musical education (Trzos 2012) and beginning of education and the final effect which the manner in which the early school education can be measured. The respondents, perhaps in teachers describe the fundamental terms related an unaware manner, combine the nomination to music was inspected. The collected respondentsí ëeducational achievementí with the process of

2 Respondentsí responses (Pulchny 2016).

130 M. KOŸODZIEJSKI, Ÿ. PULCHNY, P. A. TRZOS. DIAGNOSIS OF CHILD LISTENING TO MUSIC IN THE LIGHT OF SUMS APPLICATION evaluation. The respondentsí responses frequently Motivating and making pupils aware of their strong are related to diagnosis, measurement and the points allows forming a person confident of their aspect of curriculum. It is both clear and proper virtues and not afraid of taking some difficult manner of perceiving this issue. However, one decisions in their life. can hope that if teachers understand educational The teachersí opinions related to their know- achievements properly, they will be developed ledge of sources of knowledge on achievement properly by their pupils. diagnosis related to music listening were sampled. Among the elements related to the process The respondents put their opinions on a numerical of the evaluation of musical achievements, the rating scale. The scale from 1 to 5 (1 ñ the most teachers indicated the following (Example 1): important sources, and 5 ñ the least important ones) was used to order the respondentsí responses (Example 2). Category N diagnosing childrenís possibilities 51 checking the level of knowledge and Number of indications 48 Mode competence 5 4 3 2 1 evaluation of selected educational achievements 30 School documentation 15 18 8 7 8 4 selection of appropriate evaluation criteria Personal professional 33 22 10 12 10 5 5 to a particular achievement experience searching effective manners of teaching and Consultations with 36 7 9 15 12 8 3 learning other teachers developing teacherís proficiency 26 Curriculum require- 10 13 11 10 10 4 monitoring the development of childrenís ments 43 competences Academic literature 11 12 6 21 8 2 others 3 Source: the authorsí own research. Numerical rating Source: the authorsí own research scale: 5 (always), 4 (often), 3 (sometimes), 2 (rarely), 1 (never), 0 (no response) Example 1. The elements related to the process of pupilsí achievements evaluation Example 2. The sources of knowledge indispensable to the diagnosis of achievements related to music listening More than 80% of the respondents identify the process of the evaluation of achievements with diagnosing the childrenís potential. What can be As it results from the authorsí own research, frequently observed at schools is the tests checking the early school education teachers mainly apply the pupilsí new knowledge of a defined part of their own professional experience while defining subject. Such actions allow planning further work the achievements related to music listening. The with the group of pupils, as well as discovering respondents declare that they often make use of some separate pupilsí predispositions. The teachers legal documentation and regulations. The curri- most often diagnose the pupilsí level of knowledge culum documentation, however, is the set general and competences. For them two issues are impor- directives which should be completed, whereas tant ñ good results at the end-of-class three test opinions and findings highlight the individual and equipping children with some indispensable needs of particular entities. General schools, how- competences they are able to apply in their life. ever, have difficulty with an individual approach The respondents under the research perceive the because the conditions at school (overpopulated process of evaluation in the context of working classes, classroom adaptations, additional specialist with a pupil. Relatively few of them (c. 40%) care) are unfavourable. The teachers are reluctant think that the issue of evaluation is applicable to to share their opinions on diagnosing educational them as well ñ it also refers to the change of achievements. Perhaps, it happens due to the fact teachersí own teaching methods or development that the school ambience seems unfriendly. The of their work proficiency. A childís development teachers completely trust neither their principals is not possible without prior insight into oneís nor colleagues; therefore, they avoid discussing own self. Only three respondents paid special issues that might expose their ignorance. The research attention to the importance of feedback in the indicates that the respondents rarely consult aca- process of childrenís education (see Pulchny 2016). demic literature. Most likely, they apply their own

131 MUSIC SCIENCE TODAY: THE PERMANENT AND THE CHANGEABLE ñ 3 (11) experience and personal knowledge related to The tool includes the Worksheet, the Proper managing the diagnosis of musical achievements. Responses Sheet (Answer Key), the Instructions This type of approach can lead to a situation in for Teacher, the Tool Evaluation Sheet and the which the process of evaluating achievements (not CD. only musical) is not performed appropriately. The creative change in subject under application PUPILSí MUSICAL COMPETENCES IN THE LIGHT OF SUMS APPLICATION The actions related to the application of SUMs were preceded by survey research (a questionnaire) The originality of the product applied among some early school education teachers in selected educational institutions (state-owned and The assessment is a tool designed for the early private primary schools ñ the list is provided below). school education teachers who are interested in The collected data allowed getting acquainted with diagnosing their pupilsí competences related to the the practises referring to music listening in Grades forms of music listening. Apart from some specia- 1ñ3 and at the same time raising the afterthought lized (and commercial) tests related to musical of the school environment responsible for the evaluation, this area lacks some solutions that are, completion of the core curriculum at the first and on the one hand, an attractive form of work during second phases of education. Achieved in this way, classes of music education, and, on the other hand, the practical purpose of this survey research con- a complete assistance in measuring and evaluating firmed the necessity (teachersí interests) of such pupilsí achievements in this field. The application a didactic tool application which can be a definite of SUMs assesses pupilsí musical activeness high- response to the diagnosis demand also in the lighting mainly their action in the following areas: musical area of early school education. Basing on 1) formulation and comprehension of definitions the teachersí critical approach, the survey research and 2) knowledge consolidation. in the first phase can be regarded as the proper 1. Formulation and comprehension of defini- of pilotage evaluational research of the tool under tions implies some difficulties related to such application (Pulchny 2017: 147ñ149). elements of music as: The subjects which applied SUMs (as the ó dynamics, evaluation prototype) were provided with: ó melodics, 1) methodological support in terms of ó harmony, using the tool in the didactics process (1. the ó rhythm and tempo, procedure of diagnosing and evaluating com- ó articulation, petences of music listening, 2. stimulating ó colour. some innovative methodological solutions 2. Knowledge consolidation considers the diffi- related to the implementation of music defini- culties related to the application of knowledge tions in Grade 3 of primary school, 3. using (names, range, know-how) about: the tool in the conditions of working with a ó structure of music periods (in pattern pupil with some special and particular educa- AB, ABA), tional needs, 4. detailed documentation of ó types of human voice, the pupilsí musical achievements, 5. selection ó familiarity with dances (the waltz, the of the current literature of detailed methodo- polka, the krakowiak) and march music, logy for the teachers.) ó sounding colour of basic instruments 2) academic support in terms of using the (melodic, harmonic, percussion), evaluation research results (1. diagnosis of ó musical notation (in types of music pupilsí competences under SUMs application, listening and reading). 2. free access to the academic publications ó The originality of the product is deter- of the Facultyís employees which refer/will mined by the authorsí elaboration of refer to the results of further testing of the the music-related material (including tool under evaluation, including the prepared sounds) of the examples and the indica- audio materials, 3. ordering some consulting tions for the teacher of the theoretical services, including workshops for teachers background on which the concept of and parents concerning early school musical active music listening was prepared. education, 4. possibility of participating in

132 M. KOŸODZIEJSKI, Ÿ. PULCHNY, P. A. TRZOS. DIAGNOSIS OF CHILD LISTENING TO MUSIC IN THE LIGHT OF SUMS APPLICATION

some events promoting the results of the The maximum result to be scored in the theo- research conducted at the Faculty of Music retical part of the test was 30 points (see Example Pedagogy at UKW in Bydgoszcz. 3). No one was able to achieve it. The highest score was achieved by two persons and it was the score of 27 points. The pupil with the lowest The repetitiveness and duration of score got only two points. Reading the table above, the product under application it can be noticed that it is similar to a regular dis- The test is prepared to be systematically ap- tribution. Most respondents were placed in the plied in the didactic work of early school education point range 15ñ21. It can be stated that this group, teachers. Owing to the increase in the demands in accordance with the assumed evaluation scale, related to musical education what can be expected is of an average level. The table presents that 50 at the second phase of education is the increase respondents scored 17 points in the test. It can in the importance of the diagnosis of pupilsí initial be considered a good result as it is over 50% out competences after the completion of the first phase of the total of 30 points. The relation Me>D can of education. Thus, SUMs can also be applied be observed. A half of the pupils scored not more for this purpose. than 18 points or 18 points precisely, while the In order to check the distribution of results other half ñ not less than or 18 points. of all pupils who took the theoretical part of the Each pupil achieving the final result was in test, the below-presented example was prepared one of the four divisions: (Example 3). ó from 0 to 12 points ñ low level; ó from 13 to 21 points ñ average level; ó from 22 to 26 points ñ high level; ó from 27 to 30 points ñ very high level3.

people people The Usefulness of SUMs Number of Number of Number of Number of scored points scored points 0 0 16 42 The data presentation takes place on the basis 1 0 17 50 of SUMs Evaluation Sheet. In the first point of 2 1 18 45 the Sheet the teachers were requested to assess 3 0 19 43 the particular task of the test (using the numerical 4 0 20 36 rating scale from 1, it being the lowest assessment, 5 1 21 27 to 5 ñ the highest) with reference to the selected 6 0 22 18 criteria: the relevance to the core curriculum, the 7 1 23 10 level of task comprehension, the level of difficulty, 8 1 24 6 the differentiation of examples, the adequacy of 9 1 25 4 assessment and the quality of musical examples. 10 3 26 3 On collection of all the (40) sheets, the analysis 11 5 27 2 of the results was performed. Basing on the 12 15 28 0 respondentsí indications, the arithmetic mean was 13 13 29 0 calculated which comprised the assessment within 14 14 30 0 each category. Finally, the ranges were established 15 34 (similarly to school average grades) displaying the quality level of some particular tasks of the Example 3. Linear distribution of test. They are the following: the mean test results ó from 0 to 1.75 points ñ the lowest level; ó from 1.76 to 2.75 points ñ the low level;

3 While defining the point ranges and establishing the levels of childrenís musical competences, Beata Bonnaís proposal was partially used; she created her own test of musical competences. The classification was extended with one additional level ñ the highest level. The purpose of this was to select the most talented pupils. This will provide teachers with some information as they will be able to broaden the most talented pupilsí knowledge (Bonna 2016: 220).

133 MUSIC SCIENCE TODAY: THE PERMANENT AND THE CHANGEABLE ñ 3 (11)

ó from 2.76 to 3.75 points ñ the average level; early school education teachers, the comprehension ó from 3.76 to 4.50 points ñ the high level; of musical notation is more important in the pro- ó above 4.50 points ñ the highest level. cess of evaluation than for professional musicians. These disproportions can result from the level of The subject of the evaluation process is the knowledge of the surveyed group related to the selection of appropriate material allowing pupils musical possibilities of the primary schoolsí pupils4. to accomplish a higher level of achievements (in Another category of the test assessment was case of oneís own research ñ the ones related to to learn its content realisation compatibility with music). The table below juxtaposes the mean res- the core curriculum defined by the Ministry of ponses by two groups of respondents for the parti- National Education. The results are presented cular test tasks conditioning their relevance in the process of evaluation (Example 4). below (Example 5).

Music parameters Music parameters teachersí education evaluation evaluation Musiciansí teachersí education Early school evaluation evaluation Musiciansí Early school 1. Dynamics 4.28 4.7 1. Dynamics 4.05 4.32 2. Melodics 4.61 4.75 2. Melodics 4.55 4.47 3. Articulation 4.45 4.57 3. Articulation 4.28 4.85 4. Tempo 4.4 4.33 4. Tempo 4.28 4.7 5. Harmony 4 4.4 5. Harmony 3.78 4.65 6. Instrument sound 4.45 4.8 6. Instrument sound 4.83 4.85 7. Voice type 4.45 4.68 7. Voice type 4.5 4.8 8. Formal construction 4.4 4.33 8. Formal construction 4.17 4.47 9. Name of dance style 4.5 4.15 9. Name of dance style 4.39 4.25 10. Notation comprehension 3.45 4.2 10. Notation comprehension 3.83 4.11

Example 4. The assessment of the test tasks with Example 5. The assessment of the content of reference to their relevance in the process of evaluation the test tasks with reference to its compatibility with the core curriculum

Both groups of the respondents claimed that the selected musical contents related to the test Looking at the above table (see Example 5), tasks were quite relevant in the process of evalua- it can be stated that the respondents are of the tion in the field of listening (see Example 4). Accor- opinion that all the contents of some particular ding to the early school education teachers, the tasks of the test are compatible with the directives most important competences influencing childrenís of the core curriculum. Both groups of respondents musical development include: recognising an instru- regard the task Nr 6 (recognising an instrument ment by its sound, indicating the type of human by its sound) completely compatible with the core voice and telling the difference between staccato curriculum. The professional musicians thought and legato sounds. Professional musicians, how- low of tasks 5 and 10. According to them, the core ever, regard the ability to define the direction of curriculum seems to provide very little relation melody as the most crucial in the process of evalua- to the contents of the above-mentioned tasks. It tion. The respondentsí assessment can support probably happens so, as too general perception the approach claiming that the selected tasks face of musical notation in the core curriculum leads very important areas of a pupilís musical active- to the lack of willingness to extend this area of ness. The greatest discrepancies in the respondentsí education. The teachers-musicians also highlighted assessment can be observed at task No. 10. For that the task related to harmony was enriched

4 The musicians who were previously lectured on the issues of the manners of evaluation of musical achievements often claimed that the knowledge of notation of musical sounds is not necessary to a child not attending a music school. As they put it, an early school pupil should experience music by amusement.

134 M. KOŸODZIEJSKI, Ÿ. PULCHNY, P. A. TRZOS. DIAGNOSIS OF CHILD LISTENING TO MUSIC IN THE LIGHT OF SUMS APPLICATION with the presentation of indirect melodies (apart Analysing the above-presented table, another from typical consonances and dissonances.) important aspect related to the assessment of The teachers were also asked to assess the Task 5 of the test can be observed, i.e. the mean test in the aspect of considering the commands result suggested by the early school education comprehension of there presented tasks. After the teachers is much higher than the result suggested mean had been calculated, the following table by the musicians. Its cause might be in the percep- was prepared (Example 6). tion of the formula ësounds goodí. For the professional musicians it, probably, has too colloquial character, therefore, the majority cannot accept it (as the nomination introduces some interpre- Music parameters tation chaos and indicates the subjective reception of some particular musical examples). However, teachersí education evaluation evaluation Musiciansí Early school it is an intentional formulation due to the prefe- 1. Dynamics 4.4 4.75 rential character of the music-related content being 2. Melodics 5 4.55 listened to. It is a subjective and because of this 3. Articulation 4.2 4.35 reason ñ a controversial feeling. 4. Tempo 4.35 4.4 The teachers also attempted to assess parti- 5. Harmony 3.3 4.45 cular tasks of the test with reference to their level 6. Instrument sound 4.75 4.95 of difficulty. The results are presented below 7. Voice type 4.6 4.55 (Example 7). 8. Formal construction 3.65 4.5 9. Name of dance style 4.85 4.75 10. Notation comprehension 3.8 3.65 Music parameters Example 6. The assessment of test tasks in the aspect teachersí education evaluation evaluation of considering the commands comprehension Musiciansí Early school 1. Dynamics 2.5 2.75 The teachers in both groups find most of 2. Melodics 2.9 3.2 the test commands comprehensible for pupils 3. Articulation 4 3.55 (Example 6). As the groups under survey put it, 4. Tempo 3.25 3.15 the content of task two, six, seven and nine should 5. Harmony 4.32 3.7 not raise any doubts in the categories of their res- 6. Instrument sound 1.8 2.3 ponse and interpretation. While formulating all 7. Voice type 2.9 3.15 the commands a lot of care was given to adjusting 8. Formal construction 3.9 3.65 the language to the level of possibilities of com- 9. Name of dance style 4.15 4.05 prehension by the early school education pupils. 10. Notation comprehension 4.61 3.9 The professional, subject-matter terminology which was related to musical definitions was para- Example 7. The assessment of the test tasks with reference to the level of their difficulty phrased in such a manner that it invoked pupilsí imaginations (the commands included adjectives and adverbs used by children and they were also On the basis of the authorsí own research compatible with the graphical form of the test). presented in the table above (Example 7) it can Both groups of the respondents had a low opinion be stated that the constructed tasks of the test of the comprehension of the final task of the test. are versatile in terms of the level of difficulty. It is suspected that its content is too complex and Most of them will naturally constitute an average therefore it can cause problems in proper reading problem for younger pupils (these are the tasks and comprehension of some particular phases of assessed in the range from 2.76 to 3.75). In accor- the action. This thesis is confirmed by the conclu- dance with the assumptions, the primary tasks sions drawn after the childrenís observation. of each theoretical part of the test (comprehension Some of the group under research have not of definitions, knowledge consolidation) are even made any attempt to perform the notifica- characterised by the lowest level of difficulty. tion of musical notes. The pupils who tried to Both the early school teachers and the musicians complete that task found it difficult (Task 10). stated that the competences related to defining

135 MUSIC SCIENCE TODAY: THE PERMANENT AND THE CHANGEABLE ñ 3 (11) the loudness of a melody and recognising the The respondents whose task was to evaluate instrument by its sounding should not be any the usefulness of the test SUMs were additionally problem for the pupils. According to early school provided with the instruction which included the education teachers, the most difficult task of the proposal of pupilsí actions and their results. test is the one which is related to naming the wit- Example 9 (below) illustrates the mean distribu- nessed dance. During the conducted observation tion of the respondentsí responses. it was noticed that for the pupils the most difficult task was the one related to naming the particular dances. On hearing a melody, children were able to sing/ hum that but they did not remember the Music parameters names of dances. It probably happens so because teachersí education evaluation evaluation Musiciansí the acquisition of dances is based on remembering Early school steps ñ during the activity pupils pay little notice 1. Dynamics 4.5 4.7 to the terminology related to the name of the dance 2. Melodics 4.39 4.65 which they are learning. 3. Articulation 4.39 4.5 One of the purposes of the constructed tool 4. Tempo 4.58 4.55 diagnosing the level of childrenís achievements 5. Harmony 4.72 4.25 related to music listening was to create the diver- 6. Instrument sound 4.89 4.85 sified contents of musical examples. The teachers 7. Voice type 4.78 4.65 also assessed this aspect of the test (Example 8). 8. Formal construction 4.55 4.75 9. Name of dance style 4.61 4.75 10. Notation comprehension 3.58 4.55

Music parameters Example 9. The assessment of the content of the test tasks with reference to the appropriateness teachersí education evaluation evaluation Musiciansí

Early school of the awarded points 1. Dynamics 4.35 4.55 2. Melodics 4.25 4.5 Analysing the mean results of the observation 3. Articulation 4 4.45 in two groups of the respondents under research, 4. Tempo 4.3 4.55 it can be stated that the suggested manner of test 5. Harmony 4.3 4.63 evaluation occurred appropriately and fair to a 6. Instrument sound 4.5 4.74 child (Example 9). In addition, the descriptive 7. Voice type 4.7 4.8 evaluation sheet allows for a more precise diag- 8. Formal construction 4.2 4.68 nosis of each pupilís musical competences and 9. Name of dance style 4.35 4.75 the definition of the approximate potential of the 10. Notation comprehension 4.5 4.5 whole class (group). The early school education teachers gave Task 5 a slightly lower valuation Example 8. The assessment of the content of (even though the result is still within the range the test tasks with reference to the diversification of musical examples ëhighí). This group claims that presenting a melody of an indirect character (neither consonance, nor dissonance) will be related to some subjective Both groups of the respondents admitted emotions of the pupils tested in this research. that the prepared test of the musical competences Therefore, it becomes difficult to assess this task was diversified in relation to musical examples objectively. (Example 8). They noticed and praised the fact The final criterion of the written evaluation that the presented melodies were tonally and of the test elements is the quality of the musical rhythmically diversified. Some particular tasks samples recorded on CD. The mean result of the include the sounding of various musical instru- respondentsí responses is presented in the Example ments. These elements make the created diagnosing 10 below. tool more attractive to pupils and more helpful for teachers (it allows for a teacher to draw detailed conclusions and search for the relations between other aspects of a younger childís musical activeness).

136 M. KOŸODZIEJSKI, Ÿ. PULCHNY, P. A. TRZOS. DIAGNOSIS OF CHILD LISTENING TO MUSIC IN THE LIGHT OF SUMS APPLICATION

CONCLUSIONS AND SUMMARY

Music parameters Basing on the analysis of the research data, teachersí education evaluation evaluation Musiciansí it can be stated that the early school education Early school 1. Dynamics 2.85 4.55 teachers most frequently apply their common 2. Melodics 2.7 4.72 knowledge while defining the fundamental terms 3. Articulation 2.7 4.16 related to music listening. They possess relatively 4. Tempo 2.85 4.63 profound musical knowledge but they are unable 5. Harmony 2.55 4.47 to convert it into some practical competences. The 6. Instrument sound 2.5 4.89 respondents, however, frequently reach for the 7. Voice type 3.55 4.75 curriculum documentation which constitutes a 8. Formal construction 2.85 4.67 particular guidepost to their further actions. The 9. Name of dance style 2.8 4.63 early school education teachers refer to the process 10. Notation comprehension 3.05 4.63 of evaluation mainly in the context of the diagnosis of their pupilsí achievements. They do not focus Example 10. The assessment of the content of on the modification of their working methods in the test tasks with reference to the quality of order to increase the effectiveness of education. musical samples They are not innovative and they do not want to search for the so-far-unknown evaluation styles Having analysed the results of the research, related to music listening. one can observe the huge discrepancy of the mean Implementing measurement and evaluation grades awarded by the early school education brings profits to both pupils and teacher themselves. teachers and the musicians. The first group declared Children who are aware of their possibilities (they that the quality of the musical samples was on a know their strong and weak points) can better take very good level, whereas the second group claimed advantage of their competences. Thanks to the that the musical samples were of poor quality. diagnosis in evaluation, a teacher is able to indivi- Probably, the teachers-musicians gave poor grades dualise their actions with reference to the methods for the artistic values due to the lack of live instru- applied and working tools used. It also allows ments in the musical samples. The recorded stimulating educational innovative approaches and melodies were converted with the application of creating favourable learning conditions as well a synthesizer and despite its good quality, the as triggering the childrenís cognitive curiosity in specialists easily found the lack of the original order to explore mysterious and at the same time sounding. The musicians who on everyday basis wonderful world of music more profoundly. practise the live instruments can get irritated with the sounds processed artificially5. According to the early school education teachers, the produced REFERENCES samples were absolutely sufficient ñ the respondents even asked quite frequently whether they Zdolno˙ci i kompetencje muzyczne could save the CD as they wished to (be able to) Bonna, Beata (2016). uczniÛw w m˘odszym wieku szkolnym. Bydgoszcz: make use of it in the future. While conducting Wydawnictwo UKW. the observation it was also noticed that the pupils Denek, Kazimierz (2009). Ewaluacja szkolna w aspekcie also enjoyed the musical samples. The children ustalania efektywno˙ci procesu dydaktyczno-wycho- got interested as some of the melodies happened wawczego zorientowanego na jako˙„. Ewaluacja i to be cheerful and even hilarious to them. innowacje w edukacji: Samoocena i ocena w kszta˘-

5 Despite some criticism form the musicians on the quality of the musical samples, it is still claimed that the processed sounds do not have the negative influence on childís musical development (their perception of music.) There are, however, a lot of tests which measure the level of competences or achievements (i.e. tests created by Edwin E. Gordon) which also do not base on the live music samples. It must be added that many of them are completely standardised. It also must be remembered that creating the musical framing using live instruments to a test is an extremely expensive issue (that is for this moment impossible to be realised). Moreover, in the majority of the tasks, their difficulty was not related to the timbre.

137 MUSIC SCIENCE TODAY: THE PERMANENT AND THE CHANGEABLE ñ 3 (11)

ceniu i wychowaniu. Redakcja: Jan Grzesiak. Kalisz: Niemierko, Boles˘aw (1990). Pomiar sprawdzaj‡cy w UAM, 17ñ37. dydaktyce: Teoria i zastosowania. Warszawa: PWN. Gagne, Robert M. & Leslie J. Briggs (1992). Zasady Niemierko, Boles˘aw (2002). Ocenianie szkolne bez projektowania dydaktycznego. Warszawa: WSiP. tajemnic. Warszawa: Wydawnictwa Szkolne i Peda- Gordon, Edwin (1984). Manual for the Instrument gogiczne. Timbre Preference Test. Chicago: GIA Publications, OkoÒ, Wincenty (2003). Wprowadzenie do dydaktyki Inc. ogÛlnej. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo ›ak. Gordon, Edwin (1999). Sekwencje uczenia siÊ muzyki. Pulchny, Ÿukasz (2016). Sposoby ewaluacji osi‡gniÊ„ Bydgoszcz: Wydawnictwo Uczelniane WSP. edukacyjnych we wczesnym nauczaniu w zakresie Hale, Connie L. & Susan K. Green (2009). Six key s˘uchania muzyki. Niepublikowana praca magis- principles for music assessment. Music Educators terska. Bydgoszcz. Journal 95 (4): 27ñ31. Sloboda, John (2002). Umys˘ muzyczny: Poznawcza KocÛr, Marcin (2012). Nauczyciel wobec reformy psychologia muzyki. Warszawa: Akademia Muzyczna oceniania. Edukacja i dialog 234: 26ñ29. im. Fryderyka Chopina. Kojs, Wojciech (2009). Prakseopedagogiczne aspekty Trzos, Pawe˘ (2007a). Audiacyjny kontekst ewaluacji kontroli i oceny procesÛw kszta˘cenia i wychowania. w obszarach wczesnoszkolnej edukacji muzycznej Ewaluacja i innowacje w edukacji: Samoocena i dziecka jako przedmiot zainteresowania przysz˘ych ocena w kszta˘ceniu i wychowaniu. Redakcja: Jan nauczycieli. Ewaluacja i innowacje w edukacji nauc- Grzesiak. Kalisz: UAM. zycieli. Redakcja: Jan Grzesiak. Kalisz: Uniwersytet Ko˘odziejski, Maciej (2009). Wybrane sposoby im. Adama Mickiewicza w Poznaniu, Wydzia˘ Peda- oceniania osi‡gniÊ„ muzycznych uczniÛw ogÛlno- gogiczno-Artystyczny w Kaliszu, 249ñ252. kszta˘c‡cej szko˘y podstawowej. P˘ock: Wydaw- Trzos, Pawe˘ (2007b). Determinanty wczesnoszkol- nictwo PaÒstwowej Wy˝szej Szko˘y Zawodowej. nego kszta˘cenia muzycznego ñ Gordonowskie Michlowicz, Maria (2012). Znaczenie diagnostyki Ewaluacja i innowacje w edukacji: edukacyjnej dla jako˙ci i efektÛw kszta˘cenia. O aspekty ewaluacji. wybranych aspektach rÛ˝nych sposobÛw diagnozo- Autorefleksja i refleksyjno˙„ nauczyciela. Redakcja: wania potrzeb edukacyjnych na podstawie wynikÛw Jan Grzesiak. Konin: PaÒstwowa Wy˝sza Szko˘a egzaminu gimnazjalnego w czÊ˙ci humanistycznej. Zawodowa, 183ñ195. Regionalne i lokalne diagnozy edukacyjne: XVIII Trzos, Pawe˘ (2012). Codzienno˙„ we wczesnej edukacji Krajowa Konferencja Diagnostyki Edukacyjnej, muzycznej. Bydgoszcz: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Wroc˘aw, 21ñ23 wrze˙nia 2012 r. Opracowanie Kazimierza Wielkiego. wydane we wspÛ˘pracy z Boles˘awem Niemierko i ZwoliÒska, Ewa (2010). Efektywno˙„ dydaktyczna Mari‡ Krystyn‡ Szmigel. KrakÛw: Wydawnictwo zajÊ„ korekcyjno-wyrÛwnawczych. Bydgoszcz: Grupa Tomami, 339ñ349. Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Kazimierza Wielkiego. Niemierko, Boles˘aw (1975). Testy osi‡gniÊ„ szkol- ZwoliÒska, Ewa (2012). Pomiar i warto˙ciowanie w nych: Podstawowe pojÊcia i techniki obliczeniowe. muzyce. Bydgoszcz: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Warszawa: Wydawnictwa Szkolne i Pedagogiczne. Kazimierza Wielkiego.

138 Expression of Artistic Individuality within the Context of Music Teacher Training

Dr. sc. soc. VILIUS TAVORAS Associate Professor at Vytautas Magnus University, Academy of Education (Lithuania)

Artistic individuality seems to be a key element conveyed in music performance. However, the individuality of a music teacher, as one of the forms of expression of his/her personality, has become the centre of modern music teacher education. The paper focuses on the expression of artistic individuality of pre-service teachers of music. With this aim, quantitative research (a questionnaire survey) has been conducted. The future music teachersí expression of artistic individuality was analysed as twofold: the attitude to the expression of artistic individuality of music teachers, as well as self-assessment of the expression of oneís artistic individuality in musical activity. The results reveal that the artistic individuality of student music teachers is not mature enough. The revealed educational preconditions make the basis for the development of artistic individuality of future music teachers and can encourage university educators to perceive the process of music teaching and learning not only as an activity of developing musical skills, but also envisage more extensive possibilities of the development of student teachersí high artistic values. Keywords: artistic individuality, expression, music teacher training, student music teacher.

INTRODUCTION dentsí learning and the development of their personality. Contemporary Lithuanian researchers also Problems of music teacher training are inse- thoroughly study the role of the teacherís perso- parable from the restructuring of the whole educa- nality, his individualityís influence on students tional system of Lithuania (The Draft of the (SakadolskienÎ 2017; AramaviËi˚tÎ 2016; Marti- Lithuanian Teacher Training Conception and its auskienÎ 2015; Vasiliauskas 2015; Bitinas 2013), Substantiation 2016). It is obvious that only the investigate the notional relation between the teacher who has not only pedagogical and profes- personality and individuality. sional competences, but who is also noted for the Artistic individuality seems to be a key element maturity of his/her personality (competences of conveyed in music performance (Gingras et al. the development of a personality) is able to imple- 2013). However, the individuality of a music ment these objectives and tasks. teacher, as one of the forms of expression of his/ When training pedagogues, it is more and her personality, has become the centre of modern more often realised how important it is to harmo- music teacher education (Tavoras 2015; Marti- nise strategies of their education with the teachersí auskienÎ, Tavoras 2012). A music teacherís indi- educational activity and the development of the viduality, as one of the forms of expression of personality. Therefore, the need arises to orient his/her personality, is analysed by scholars-peda- oneself towards those internal factors of a studentís gogues from the artistic aspect, too (Elliott, Silver- becoming a pedagogue, which are hidden in the man 2015). They are more and more often inte- nature and values of every teacher discovering them, rested in the interconnection between the teacherís bringing them out, developing and cherishing them individuality and his/her high artistic value (Gab- (Eurydyce 2015; OECD 2011). Modern foreign nytÎ 2016; RauduvaitÎ 2016; Vitkauskas et al. scholars (Darling-Hammond 2017; Sachs, 2016) 2012; StrakienÎ 2009). It has been noticed that speak about the role of the teacher, the impact the music teacherís artistic individuality expresses of the peculiarities of his/her personality on stu- the relationship between a high artistic value and

139 MUSIC SCIENCE TODAY: THE PERMANENT AND THE CHANGEABLE ñ 3 (11) individuality most accurately. Albertas PiliËiaus- intensity of emotional experiences; a high artistic kas (1998) defines artistic individuality as the value expressed in harmoniousness of the interpre- whole of qualities of playing that are characte- tation of music, deepness of evaluations and aesthe- ristic of a specific performer, which manifests itself ticism of experiences; as well as responsibility in interpreting a musical composition and is deter- expressed in assuming responsibility for interpre- mined by the peculiarities of his/her (performerís) tation, morality of evaluations, and a sense of duty. knowledge, feelings, and will. Therefore, precon- Respondents. The study included 190 respon- ditions for cherishing artistic individuality are dents. They were 1ñ4-year students of Music Edu- sought in the individualís unique psychic structure. cation programme at the Lithuanian University In the scholarís opinion, the individuality of a of Educational Sciences. performer of music is, first and foremost, his emotionality, imagination, and richness of associations. However, the problem of developing RESULTS artistic individuality of music teachers has not been extensively investigated empirically. Articles by foreign music education scholars characterise Studentsí attitude to the expression of artistic only separate aspects of this problem (Bernays, individuality of music teachers. This section pre- Traube 2014; Farbood, Upham 2013; Marin, sents the future music teachers opinions on the Bhattacharya 2013; Wˆllner 2013). Thus far, no aspects of the artistic individuality of pedagogues empirical investigations analysing the specifics of (Example 1). artistic individuality of the music teacher have Students regard the following to be signifi- been found yet. cant manifestations of artistic individuality: res- The problem of the research is formulated ponsibility, which manifests itself in trying with as the following questions: how artistic individu- all oneís might to seek for the quality of performing ality of students ñ future music teachers ñ mani- a musical composition (assuming responsibility fests itself; in what way and what impact the for interpretation) (71.1 per cent) and the duty musical activity can exert on artistic individuality to constantly improve oneís musical activity by of student music teachers, and to what extent sensation (a sense of responsibility) (65.3 per this impact can be optimised. cent). Significant indicators of artistic individu- The object of the research is the expression ality of the music teacher, in studentsí opinion, of artistic individuality of future music teachers. are as follows: reflexivity, which manifests itself The aim of the study is to reveal the peculia- in the ability to feel the need to express oneself rities of the expression of artistic individuality of in playing music (a feeling of oneís dignity) (54.2 future music teachers and the possibilities of its per cent) and the ability to reveal personal under- development at university. standing (authenticity of interpretation) of a musical composition being performed (43.2 per cent); creativity, which manifests itself in the ability to make an ingenious use of the possibilities of METHODS mimic, the look, movement to convey the artistic image of a composition (originality of interpre- The quantitative research (a questionnaire tation) (46.8 per cent) and the ability to experience survey) was used as the core method. Suitability the creative flight (intensity of experiences) (44.7 of the model of artistic individuality and the inves- per cent.); a high artistic value, which manifests tigation methods worked out on its basis are based itself in the ability to admire the musical compo- on the data of the factorial analysis conducted sition being performed (aestheticism of experiences) with the help of the methods of basic components (51.1 per cent) and the ability to designate the (Tavoras 2015). The following components con- beauty of a musical composition (deepness of stitute the devised and theoretically substantiated evaluations) (46.8 per cent). model of the expression of artistic individuality Self-assessment of the expression of oneís of future music teachers: reflexivity, expressed artistic individuality in musical activity. This section in the authenticity of interpreting music, evalua- presents the data of self-assessment of the expres- tion of oneís own abilities and a feeling of oneís sion of artistic individuality of students in their own dignity; creativity expressed in originality of musical activity based on the stability criterion interpreting music, originality of evaluations and (Example 2).

140 V. TAVORAS. EXPRESSION OF ARTISTIC INDIVIDUALITY WITHIN CONTEXT OF MUSIC TEACHER TRAINING

Assessment Level of importance Empirical indicators criteria Very important Important Authenticity of To reveal a personal understanding of the composition 43.2 51.1 interpretation being performed To bring out the original interpretation of the composition 36.3 57.4 when playing music Evaluation of To characterise peculiarities of oneís musical activity 20.5 60.5 oneís abilities To understand the causes of achievements in oneís musical 27.9 53.7 activity Feeling of To feel the need to express oneself when playing music 54.2 38.9 self-dignity To feel personal value when playing music 34.7 50.0 Originality of To convey nuances of tempo, dynamics, the intonation of 41.1 50.0 interpretation the composition being performed in an original way To make ingenious use of the possibilities of mimic, looks, movement to convey the artistic image of a musical compo- 46.8 38.9 sition Peculiarity of To define emotional experiences (feelings) brought by 35.3 48.4 evaluations musical intonations To characterise the artistic image of the composition in an 33.7 52.1 original way Intensity of To experience creative successes and failures 22.6 50.5 experiences To experience the creative flight 44.7 43.2 Harmoniousness To feel the harmony of the whole (contents and form) of the 36.8 51.6 of interpretation composition being performed To express the artistic link of separate musical phrases 27.4 56.8 Deepness of To define the beauty of the composition 46.8 44.7 evaluations To perceive the aesthetic meaning of musical intonations 33.2 53.7 Aestheticism of To go deep into the most subtle nuances of the composition 40.5 43.7 experiences being performed To admire the composition being performed 51.1 38.9 Responsibility To try to convey the idea of the composer 41.1 47.4 of interpretation To seek for the quality of performance of the composition 71.1 28.4 with all oneís might Morality of To perceive the moral meaning of the composition 21.6 56.8 evaluations To impartially (objectively, tolerantly) evaluate his/her own 49.5 42.1 and other peopleís playing music A sense of To responsibly participate in common musical activities 46.8 47.4 responsibility To feel the duty to constantly improve his/her musical activity 65.3 30.0

Example 1. Studentsí attitude to the expression of artistic individuality of music teachers (%)

Assessment Levels of expression Empirical indicators criteria Very high High Authenticity of To reveal a personal understanding of the composition being 13.0 44.9 interpretation performed To bring out the original interpretation of the composition 18.4 38.9 when playing music Assessment of To characterise peculiarities of oneís musical activity 7.0 40.0 oneís own abilities To understand the causes of achievements in oneís musical 12.4 42.7 activity Feeling oneís To feel the need to express oneself when playing music 31.9 41.6 own dignity To feel personal value when playing music 21.1 41.1

Sequel to Example 2 see on the next page.

141 MUSIC SCIENCE TODAY: THE PERMANENT AND THE CHANGEABLE ñ 3 (11)

Sequel to Example 2. Originality of To convey nuances of tempo, dynamics, the intonation of 20.5 47.0 interpretation the composition being performed in an original way To make ingenious use of the possibilities of mimic, looks, 16.8 29.7 movement to convey the artistic image of the composition Peculiarity of To define emotional experiences (feelings) caused by musical 13.0 45.9 evaluations intonations To characterise the artistic image of the composition in an 7.0 33.5 original way Intensity of To experience creative successes and failures 9.7 42.2 experiences To experience the creative flight 17.3 33.0 Harmoniousness To feel harmony of the whole (contents and form) of the 10.3 42.7 of interpretation composition being performed To express the artistic link of separate musical phrases 9.7 38.9 Deepness of To define the beauty of the composition 22.8 51.1 evaluations To perceive the aesthetic meaning of musical intonations 12.4 40.0 Aestheticism To go deep into the most subtle nuances of the composition 13.0 40.5 of experiences being performed To admire the composition being performed 38.9 43.8 Responsibility To try to convey the idea of the composer 11.4 35.1 for interpretation To seek for the quality of performance of the composition 18.4 50.3 with all oneís might Morality of To perceive the moral meaning of the composition 11.4 36.2 evaluations To impartially (objectively, tolerantly) evaluate his/her own 26.5 43.2 and other peopleís playing music A sense of To responsibly participate in common musical activities 30.3 48.6 responsibility To feel the duty to constantly improve his/her musical activity 34.6 38.4

Example 2. Self-assessment of the expression of oneís artistic individuality in musical activity (%)

It has been revealed that artistic individuality fests itself in the quality of the interpretation of of future music teachers in the musical activity music and emotional experiences. It tuned out manifests itself most clearly in a high artistic value that the students found it most difficult to inter- (aestheticism of experiences ñ to admire the musical pret music in a harmonious way (to reveal the composition being performed, 38.9 per cent, and artistic link of separate musical phrases of the deepness of evaluations ñ to define the beauty of musical composition being performed), to define the musical composition, 22.8 per cent); respon- peculiarities of their musical activity and understand sibility (a sense of duty ñ to feel the duty to con- the moral meaningfulness of the composition. stantly improve oneís musical activity, 34.6 per The most complicated activity was to define the cent, and to responsibly participate in a common artistic image of the musical composition in an musical activity, 30.3 per cent), as well as reflexi- original way. Summing up the above said it could vity (a feeling of oneís dignity ñ the need to express be stated that the expression of studentsí artistic oneself in playing music, 31.9 per cent) and feel individuality in the musical activity is not high. the personal value when playing music (21.1 per On the basis of the data of the scientific inves- cent); and creativity (originality of the interpreta- tigation, the following basic strategies for deve- tion ñ to convey nuances of tempo, dynamics, loping the expression of artistic individuality are intonation of musical compositions in a peculiar recommended: a) application of the method of way, 20.5 per cent). It has been established that personal meaning (the use of practical possibili- studentsí artistic individuality in the musical activity ties); b) strengthening of the need for studentsí manifests itself most clearly in the quality of inter- creative self-expression; c) development of the pretation of music and a sense of duty and oneís abilities to interpret music within the socio-cultural own dignity. context; d) stimulation of more meaningful artistic It has also been established that studentsí experiences by means of musical activity. artistic individuality in the musical activity mani-

142 V. TAVORAS. EXPRESSION OF ARTISTIC INDIVIDUALITY WITHIN CONTEXT OF MUSIC TEACHER TRAINING

CONCLUSIONS Bitinas, Bronislovas (2013). Rinktiniai edukologiniai ratai [Selected Educational Works]. Vilnius: Eduko- logija. On the basis of the insights of scholars of Darling-Hammond, Linda (2017). Teacher education philosophy, psychology, and education, artistic around the world: What can we learn from inter- individuality is defined as an integral singularity national practice? European Journal of Teacher of the personality manifesting itself in a musical Education. Practice, Theory and Research in Initial activity by way of interpretation, evaluation, and Teacher Education; International Perspectives 40 reflexivity of experiences, creativity, a high artistic (3): 291ñ309. value, and responsibility. Elliott, David J. & Marissa Silverman (2015). Music Students related the expression of artistic indi- Matters. A Philosophy of Music Education. Second Edition. New York: Oxford University Press. viduality of the music teacher more to experiences Eurydice (2015). The Teaching Profession in Europe: of creativity, a high artistic value, responsibility, Practices, Perceptions, and Policies. Eurydice Report. and interpretation than to evaluations. Students Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European considered the ability to characterise peculiarities Union. https://eacea.ec.europa.eu/national-policies/ of the musical activity (evaluation of oneís own eurydice/content/teaching-profession-europe- abilities), to experience creative successes and practices-perceptions-and-policies_en ñ visited on failures (intensity of experiences) and the ability February 21, 2018. to discern the moral meaningfulness of a musical Farbood, Morwaread M. & Finn Upham (2013). Inter- composition (morality of evaluations) as less preting expressive performance through listener judgments of musical tension. Frontiers in Psycho- significant manifestations of artistic individuality logy 4: 998. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/ of the music teacher. It is likely that developing articles/PMC3874841/ ñ visited on February 21, these abilities can have an impact on a deeper 2018. expression of artistic individuality of future music GabnytÎ, GiedrÎ (2016). Muzikos mokykl¯ pedagog¯ teachers. profesinÎs nuostatos kaip perspektyvinio muzikinio It turned out that students found it most dif- ugdymo projekcija [The Professional Attitudes of ficult to interpret music in a harmonious way (to Music School Teachers as a Projection of a Perspec- reveal the artistic link of separate musical phrases tive Musical Education]. Vilnius: Lauros Petraus- kienÎs IV Leidyba tau. of the musical composition being performed), to Gingras, Bruno, Pierre-Yves Asselin & Stephen define the peculiarities of their own musical activity McAdams (2013). Individuality in harpsichord per- and to discern the moral meaningfulness of a formance: Disentangling performer- and piece- musical composition. The most complicated thing specific influences on interpretive choices. Frontiers was to originally characterise the artistic image in Psychology 4: 895. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih. of a musical composition. The investigation showed gov/pmc/articles/PMC3842509/ ñ visited on that the level of the expression of artistic indivi- February 21, 2018. duality of future music teachers in the musical Lietuvos edukologijos universitetas; Vytauto Did˛iojo activity was not high because the insufficient level universitetas (2016). Lietuvos pedagog¯ rengimo koncepcijos projektas ir jo pagrindimas [The Draft of the expression of interpretation and evaluation of the Lithuanian Teacher Training Conception and components dominated. Its Substantiation]. https://www.smm.lt/uploads/ documents/Pedagogams/PEDAGOG%C5%B2% 20RENGIMO%20KONCEPCIJA-LEU-VDU.pdf ñ visited on February 12, 2018. REFERENCES Marin, Manuela M. & Joydeep Bhattacharya (2013). Getting into the musical zone: Trait emotional intel- AramaviËi˚tÎ, Vanda (2016). VertybÎs ir ugdymas: ligence and amount of practice predict flow in pianists. tarp kaitos ir stabilumo [Values and Education: Frontiers in Psychology 4: 853. https://www.ncbi. Between Change and Stability]. Vilnius: Vilniaus nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24319434 ñ visited on universiteto leidykla. February 12, 2018. Bernays, Michel & Caroline Traube (2014). Investi- MartiauskienÎ, Elvyda (2015). Mokymo(si) teorij¯ gating pianistsí individuality in the performance of raida bei iuolaikinÎs kryptys [Development and five timbral nuances through patterns of articu- Contemporary Trends of Teaching/Learning Theo- lation, Touch, dynamics, and pedaling. Frontiers ries]. Edukologijos inzinerijos link: teorijos ir prak- in Psychology 5: 157. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih. tikos sanglauda. Vilnius: Edukologija, 26ñ72. gov/pmc/articles/PMC3941302/ ñ visited on MartiauskienÎ, Elvyda & Vilius Tavoras (2012). February 21, 2019. Mokytoj¯ vertybinÎs orientacijos kaip j¯ meninÎs

143 MUSIC SCIENCE TODAY: THE PERMANENT AND THE CHANGEABLE ñ 3 (11)

individualybÎs formavimosi veiksnys [The Value of Didactic Reflexion of Music Compositions Orientation of Teachers as a Factor in the Formation through Musicianship]. –iauliai: –iauli¯ universiteto of Their Artistic Individuality]. Acta Pedagogika leidykla. Vilnensia 28: 73ñ82. Tavoras, Vilius (2015). MeninÎ individualybÎ ir jos OECD (2011). Building a High-Quality Teaching Pro- raikos plÎtojimo muzikine veikla galimybÎs univer- fession: Lessons from around the World. Paris: sitete [Artistic Individuality and Its Development OECD Publishing. Possibilities in Musical Activities at University]. PiliËiauskas, Albertas (1998). Muzikos pa˛inimas. Vilnius: Edukologija. Stadijos, rezultatai ir reikmÎ [Music Cognition. Vasiliauskas, Romanas (2015). Emociniai ir vertybiniai Stages, Results and Meaning]. Vilnius: LAMUC. mokymosi pamatai [Emotional and Valuable Lear- RauduvaitÎ, Asta (2016). Populiariosios muzikos ning Basics]. Edukologijos inzinerijos link: teorijos integravimas taikant aktyviuosius metodus muzikos ir praktikos sanglauda. Vilnius: Edukologija, 72ñ pamokoje [Integration of Popular Music Using Active 121. Methods in Music Lessons]. Vilnius: Edukologija. Vitkauskas, Remigijus, Jolanta AbramauskienÎ ir kt. Sachs, Judyth (2016). Teacher professionalism: Why (2012). Bendrasis muzikinis ugdymas Lietuvoje: are we still talking about it? Teachers and Teaching raida ir kryptys (XXñXXI a. prad˛ia) [General 22 (4): 413ñ425. Musical Education in Lithuania: Development and SakadolskienÎ, Emilija (2017). Ne vien ˛inios ir gebÎ- Directions (beginning of 20thñ21st c.)]. Vilnius: jimai: transformacijos per mokytojo socializacij‡ ir Lietuvos edukologijos universiteto leidykla. tapatybÎs ugdym‡ [Not Only Knowledge and Skills: Wˆllner, Clemens (2013). How to quantify individuality Transformation through Teacherís Socialization and in music performance? Studying artistic expression Identity Education]. Acta Paedagogica Vilnensia 38: with averaging procedures. Frontiers in Psychology 42ñ58. 4: 361. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/ StrakienÎ, Diana (2009). Muzikos k˚rini¯ didaktinÎs refleksijos ugdymas muzikavimu [The Development PMC3685802/ ñ visited on February 12, 2018.

144 Educational and Artistic Projects as an Important Element of Educating Future Music Teachers in Poland

PhD EWA PARKITA Institute of Music Education, Jan Kochanowski University in Kielce (Poland)

Master of Arts ANNA PARKITA Assistant at Institute of Music Education, Jan Kochanowski University in Kielce (Poland)

The aim of educating future music teachers in Poland is to provide knowledge, skills, and competences essential for their career development. This paper discusses both theory and real-world observations and focuses on determining the possible educative influence of the university on shaping the persona of a creative music teacher. Teachersí training, teaching experience and passion determine not only the quality of their future work but also the general picture of music education and the level of aesthetical culture in the society. What forms of educative and artistic influences are applied in music teacher training? What projects do students of Artistic Education in the Art of Music faculty take part in? What is the role of the artistic projects organized in the course of studies? To what extent do the selected items prepare for the implementation of projects? How do artistic projects, carried out by students or with their participation, develop their professional competences? Selected issues will be discussed on the example of the Institute of Music Education at the Jan Kochanowski University in Kielce. Keywords: musical education, artistic projects, music teacher, competences in music.

INTRODUCTION general, basic and specialised courses, as well as appropriate training in music, practical skills, Music Education Institute in Kielce gives the teaching, and humanities. A graduate of the MA opportunity to obtain broad knowledge and skills studies in Artistic Education in the Art of Music in the art of music. The educational offer of the has the following competences: ó qualified teacher of music in primary and Institute is versatile (numerous supplementary secondary general education schools; courses). Moreover, the Institute offers BA, MA, ó specialised conductor of the school, profes- as well as postgraduate studies. Graduates of the sional and amateur vocal and vocal-instru- three-year BA studies obtain the qualifications of mental groups; the teacher of music on the primary school level, ó organist with the knowledge of the liturgy as well as theoretical and practical knowledge to and organ science, as well as organ improvi- teach the following classes: sation skills; ó Musical development and eurhythmics in ó music performance in the form of singing on extracurricular teaching organizations, kinder- stage; gartens, schools, and cultural institutions ó leading vocal groups of children and youth ó Leading vocal and vocal-instrumental groups as part of the amateur musical movements. in general education schools, amateur musical movements, cultural institutions, media, and Our graduates are animators of culture and the community. have the skills to manage musical events. After two years of the post-BA full-time studies, the A graduate of the three-year BA studies obtains graduates obtain the degree of Master of Arts the knowledge defined by the curriculum for the (MA) and additional certificates related to the

145 MUSIC SCIENCE TODAY: THE PERMANENT AND THE CHANGEABLE ñ 3 (11) chosen major: leading musical groups, church musical quizzes, board games, multimedia music, or singing on stage. Teacher training must presentations that combine various media of not be limited to utilitarian, pragmatic, vocational communication and act on multiple senses; courses. This type of education must promote ó School song accompaniment with rhythmical versatility and openness. A teacher is not only a elements ñ developing the skill to use imagi- medium of knowledge but more importantly an nation effectively in harmonizing songs for adviser in the art of learning and inspiration for children, as well as intuition to match appro- the valuable self-learning processes. For this priate accompaniment to selected school purpose, they must be able to develop their own songs; writing introductions, conclusions and personality in form of a framework of values and bridges between song verses; composing own skills, which help successfully solve complex tasks songs for children, following the established and situations, which are inherent to the teaching stylistic rules; composing accompaniment to profession (Wo˘oszyn 1998: 253ñ254). rhythmic games and tasks for music education The curricula of the BA and the MA studies classes in kindergartens and schools; inter- at the Artistic Education in the Art of Music faculty preting school songs; include courses that are broadly associated with ó Piano improvisation ñ bringing out the crea- developing proactive attitudes and creativity of tivity in musical impressions to a given theme, the students. Creativity is an individual feature based on the provided harmonic pattern that helps generate new ideas. It is associated not (figured bass); developing sensitivity to the only with intelligence, but also closely bond to style and form of improvised pieces; ability motivational processes and personality traits to use blues, pentatonic, major and minor (NÊcka 2000: 784). Creative attitude, according scales; creating variations on the known to Stanis˘aw Popek, means cognitive features and musical passages; personality traits, determined genetically (and by ó Song interpretation and teaching methods ñ individual experiences), associated with a tendency, free interpretation of musical pieces of various attitude or aptitude to reshape objects or pheno- styles and sustaining good contact with the mena, including oneís own personality. This is, audience; creating the stage persona and therefore, an active relationship of a person to developing awareness of the psychological the world and life, which expresses the need to mechanisms at play during an artistic perfor- learn, experience and consciously (in terms of the mance; aim, not the process) modify the observed reality ó Seminar on music review writing and public and oneís ego (Popek 1988: 27). speaking ñ preparing and giving a speech on a given music-related subject with musical examples, adjusted to the age of the audience and following the principles of public speaking; FORMS OF TEACHING AT THE ARTISTIC developing musical imagination, memory, EDUCATION IN THE ART OF MUSIC FACULTY emotionality and independent thinking in the audience; preparing appropriate selections of The development of proactive attitudes and musical examples adjusted to the discussed creativity in students is achieved by the following subject and perceptive abilities of the audience; activities, included in the material of the following stimulating the need of contact with music courses: and responsibility for the public presentation ó School instruments ñ creating rhythmic scores of projects designed by students; expressing of musical pieces by ear, arranging music for objective opinions and supporting them with given groups of instruments, carrying out own factual argumentation. artistic ideas, collaboration with other musicians and applying creative thinking to prepare Moreover, apart from the above-mentioned and present artistic projects; examples, there are other courses in the BA and ó Types of musical activities in teaching ñ desig- the MA studies, which include (to a different ning music classes with the use of various extent) content related to the development of forms of artistic expression. As a result of creativity in future teachers. These courses can working in a team, the following are created: be divided into the following modules: general musical fairy-tale, forms combining music academic, basic, major-related ñ teaching, didactics, and text to celebrate various school year events, teaching practice, and specialist/supplementary.

146 E. PARKITA, A. PARKITA. EDUCATIONAL AND ARTISTIC PROJECTS AS AN IMPORTANT ELEMENT OF EDUCATING FUTURE MUSIC TEACHERS..

Creativity in students is stimulated above all ART-EDUCATION PROJECTS FOR by the activities during the BA and MA seminars. CHILDREN AND YOUTH These activities include shaping the idea and structure of the thesis, designing research in accor- The numerous creative tasks of the musical dance to the accepted methodology, carrying out education student include participation in art- this research, which is often associated with col- education projects for children and youth. Such lecting and analysing source materials, as well as projects are prepared in collaboration with the formulating objective arguments, theoretical and ⁄wiÊtokrzyska Philharmonics and other institu- practical conclusions. All these activities stimulate tions of culture and education for various occa- creativity. sions (concerts to celebrate Childrenís Day, Saint Another important aspect of shaping the Nicholasí Day, Christmas, Easter, etc.). These profile of a future teacher is providing the didactic activities, largely charitable, addressing various skills. Creative teachers should develop in the age groups, undertaken independently or in coope- domains of creative textbook design, curriculum ration with other entities, include: concerts, student analysis and design (targeted at particular learners), performances, workshops, trainings, competitions, selecting personalised repertoire for the learners, musical performances, music lessons and social and developing the didactic skills indispensable and educational projects organized in schools, to teach a course in music. kindergartens, parish churches, social welfare Since digital technologies develop very fast, centres, palliative care and health facilities. teachers of music need to face this challenge and Students enrich their experience in the ability develop competences in using media and multi- to familiarise children with music and learn to media for teaching and learning music. Multimedia objectively evaluate similar events that have this competences are the awareness and skills in creating aim. Our students had the pleasure to participate and receiving communications, as well as using in numerous projects of this type, to list just some: media devices to complete various cognitive tasks ó Peter and the Wolf ñ Sergei Prokofievís sym- needed in human life (Strykowski, Skrzydlewski phony tale performed by the ⁄wiÊtokrzyska 2004: 33). The new media cannot become a barrier; Philharmonic Orchestra, accompanying the on the contrary, they should inspire new ideas Oscar-winning short animation under the and innovations towards improved musical educa- same title. The film was directed by Suzie tion for new generations (Parkita 2012: 47; Parkita, Templeton (UK). The world premiere of the Trzos 2016: 53ñ64). Learners should be active movie Peter and the Wolf took place in Sep- agents, faced with tasks, but also equipped with tember 2006, in London, Royal Albert Hall. all the modern sources of knowledge available Live music was performed by The Philhar- through various media, in order to receive and monia Orchestra conducted by Mark Stephen- process information effectively. This requires son. After the performance in the Kielce Insti- creative and active teachers, who are no longer tute of Culture, children and students had central agents, but take on the role of a consul- the opportunity to see the hand-made puppets tant, tutor, and stimulator of the learning process. of the characters, used in the movie and pre- In order to improve didactic skills and profes- sented by its creators. It was interesting to sional activities of students (future teachers of know the technical details of making an music), it is important to improve their habits, animation, recognised by the most renowned in particular, to encourage their own creative committees. work, development of their musical interest, self- ó Phantom of the Orchestra ñ a detective story development, and self-improvement. Students of to teach children the basic information about the Music Education Institute of the Jan Kocha- a symphony orchestra (makeup, groups of nowski University (IEM UJK) in Kielce prepare instruments, sound possibilities, the ability multimedia presentations on selected musical of various instruments to mimic non-musical subjects and present them during classes in the sounds), conductor and soloists in an attrac- following courses: methodology of music teaching tive way. The project was presented on stage (on various levels of education), forms of musical with the participation of the ⁄wiÊtokrzyska activities in didactics, seminar on music review Philharmonic Orchestra conducted by Marcin writing and public speaking, music auditions. SompoliÒski, a baritone solo, two actors and a child (non-speaking role).

147 MUSIC SCIENCE TODAY: THE PERMANENT AND THE CHANGEABLE ñ 3 (11)

ó Academy of Music Lovers ñ a project that Lady of the Gate of Dawn, which symbolise combined classical Polish literature for children the 12 disciples. The lyrics were written by (by Jan Brzechwa and Julian Tuwim, recited Henryk Jachimowski and music composed by by Artur S˘aboÒ) with music arrangements Pawe˘ Ÿukowiec. The oratorio was performed of Jan WalczyÒski, including the Ballet Suite by the soloists Olga SzomaÒska, Marcin from the Beauty and the Beast, the theme Jajkiewicz, Marzena TrzebiÒska, and Andrzej song of the Plastu˙ Diaries tale, and own music Gumiela, as well as the Music Education to verses by Polish poets. Institute UJK Choir, Fermata Chamber Choir ó Secrets of the Virtual Reality ñ dance and music (prepared by Ewa Robak) and the ⁄wiÊto- project for children and youth, telling a story krzyska Philharmonic Orchestra conducted relevant to the modern society, where it is by Jacek Rogala. crucial to be able to cooperate, both in the ó Students for Children ñ a series of musical real world and in the virtual reality. This tales and shows presented to children by our project was performed by the Kielce Dance students. The following titles can be exempli- Theatre and ⁄wiÊtokrzyska Philharmonic fied: Come Spring, Ball of the Queen of Winter, Orchestra. The music was composed by Pawe˘ Rebellious Orchestra, A fairy tale about Ÿukowiec (teacher and researcher at the Music musical instruments. Education Institute). ó Opera Show ñ Don Giovanni, The Marriage ó The Nutcracker ñ a ballet project at the Kielce of Figaro ñ Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. Dance Theatre. The plot was set in modern ó The Queen of the Winterís Ball ñ the fairy- times and the music by Piotr Tchaikovsky tale with music directed by Monika Kolasa ñ was combined with jazz and modern dance. Hladikova was staged at the Provincial Spe- This showed a new dimension of the ballet, cialist Childrenís Hospital in Kielce, as well helping the young audience see the beauty as at the European Tale Centre in PacanÛw of music written by this composer of the as a part of the Great Orchestra of Christmas romantic period. The costumes and stage Charity. The students of the Institute of Fine design by Ma˘gorzata S˘oniowska also drew Arts took care of the stage design, costumes, a lot of attention. and scenic makeup. ó Passion ñ dance project prepared in collabo- ó Opera Eugene Onegin by Piotr Czajkowski ñ ration with the Music Education Institute the students of the Institute of Music Education Choir, presenting the last days and death of appeared on the stage of the National Opera, Jesus Christ. Music was composed by Pawe˘ fulfilling their artistic dreams during their Ÿukowiec, song lyrics written by Henryk studies. The choir prepared by Teresa Ro- Jachimowski, and the soloists were Justyna maÒska appeared in the play Eugene Onegin Steczkowska and Andrzej Piaseczny. by Piotr Czajkowski directed by Ryszard ó Great Travel of Princess Melodia ñ musical Cie˙la. Our choir and soloists of the Vocal fairy-tale written and narrated by Beata M˘y- and Acting Department of the Fryderyk narczyk. The young audience was led through Chopin University of Music in Warsaw were various countries around the world. The per- accompanied by the Orchestra of the Teatr formance was accompanied by the music of Wielki ñ Polish National Opera directed by various composers from the countries visited Rafa˘ Janiak. The choreography of Aleksandra by Princess Melodia. Dziurosz and the set design and costumes by ó Sacred Moments with You ñ oratorio and Karolina Fendrejewska completed the beautiful lyrical poem consisting of 12 pieces in the spectacle. character of a hymn, prologue, and epilogue praising Holy Mary, written to celebrate The performance of the opera Eugene Onegin honouring the Sanctuary of Our Lady of the at the National Opera in Warsaw was a great Gate of Dawn in Skar˝ysko-Kamienna with experience for us. These are unforgettable moments the title of basilica minor. The movements that we will remember for the rest of our lives ñ of this oratorio constitute a reference to the says Maria Wrona, a student of artistic education wreath of 12 stars around the head of Our in the field of music1. Our choristers were singing

1 http://madeinswietokrzyskie.pl/ujk-scenie-opery-narodowej/ ñ visited on June 24, 2018.

148 E. PARKITA, A. PARKITA. EDUCATIONAL AND ARTISTIC PROJECTS AS AN IMPORTANT ELEMENT OF EDUCATING FUTURE MUSIC TEACHERS.. in Russian, language consultations were necessary. include concerts, student presentations, work- They went to Warsaw for fitting out their outfits. shops and music performances (presented in The effect was excellent. The Warsaw audience welfare centres, healthcare institutions, schools, awarded Eugene Onegin with long ovations. kindergartens, parish churches, and other institu- The Bartered Bride is a comic opera in three tions). This involvement contributes to the popu- acts by the Czech composer Bed¯ich Smetana, to larisation of musical culture by shaping appro- the libretto by Karel Sabina. The opera is consi- priate artistic and social attitudes, stimulating the dered to have made a major contribution towards development of creativity, broadening and inten- the development of Czech music. Set in a country sifying cultural life, giving an opportunity to meet village and with realistic characters, it tells the an audience of various age groups, as well as story of how, after a late surprise revelation, true developing aesthetic sensitivity. The described love prevails over the combined efforts of ambi- initiatives help to create the image of the Univer- tious parents and a scheming marriage broker. sity as an institution that meets the expectations Smetanaís musical treatment makes considerable of the local community and at the same time use of the traditional Bohemian dance forms such develops pro-social attitudes and creativity of as polka and furiant, although he largely avoids students (Parkita 2016: 184ñ185). the direct quotation of folksong. The Kielce audience received the show with great enthusiasm. REFERENCES Students of the Music Education Institute clearly enjoy their participation in art-education projects. This positive attitude was also confirmed Popek, Stanis˘aw (red., 1988). Aktywno˙„ twÛrcza dzieci during student interviews. These projects are the i m˘odzie˝y (1988). Warszawa: WSiP. Czerepaniak-Walczak, Maria (1997). Aspekty i ÍrÛd˘a opportunity to follow their own musical passions profesjonalnej refleksji nauczyciela. ToruÒ: Edytor. and interests, learn about the technical aspects Day, Christopher (2008). Nauczyciel z pasj‡. Jak zacho- of preparing a performance, draw joy and satis- wa„ entuzjazm i zaanga˝owanie w pracy. T˘umaczy˘ faction from the contact with art, works of art Tomasz Ko˙ciuczuk. GdaÒsk: GWP. and audience, as well as develop own stage per- Konaszkiewicz, Zofia (2012). U podstaw pedagogiki sonas. muzycznej w perspektywie przesz˘o˙ci i przysz˘o˙ci. Teacherís creativity should be understood as To˝samo˙„ pedagogiki muzyki. Tom I serii Peda- passion, dedication to oneís work, resourceful- gogika muzyki ñ cechy ñ aksjologia ñ systematyka series. Redakcja naukowa serii: Andrzej Michalski. ness and openness to the ideas of others, ability GdaÒsk: Wydawnictwo Athenae Gedanenses, 47ñ to act outside of the set patterns, and searching 67. for new, better solutions. Awareness of oneís mis- NÊcka, Edward (2000). TwÛrczo˙„. Psychologia. Pod- sion helps those teachers introduce innovations rÊcznik akademicki. Tom 2: Psychologia ogÛlna. to the teaching process, which in turn contribute Redakcja: Jan Strelau. GdaÒsk: GWP, 783ñ807. to positive changes and improved results in music Parkita, Ewa (2012). Kompetencje medialne nauczy- teaching. It should be stressed, however, that ciela muzyki. Studia Pedagogiczne ñ problemy teaching is a profession that requires courage, spo˘eczne, edukacyjne i artystyczne, 21. Redakcja: Bo˝ena Matyjas. Kielce: Wydawnictwo Uniwer- energy, dedication, and determination. Passion sytetu Jana Kochanowskiego, 35ñ48. is not an addition to good teaching, it is the Parkita, Ewa (2016). Instytut Edukacji Muzycznej foundation. Therefore, it needs to be cherished Uniwersytetu Jana Kochanowskiego w Kielcach and sustained (Day 2008: 29). jako wa˝ny o˙rodek naukowo-artystyczny regionu. Studia z ˝ycia muzycznego regionu ˙wiÊtokrzys- kiego. Tradycja ñ wspÛ˘czesno˙„. Ed. Ewa Parkita, Wiktor Ÿyjak. Kielce: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu CONCLUSIONS Jana Kochanowskiego, 173ñ194. Parkita, Ewa & Pawe˘ Trzos (2016). Digital environ- Music Education Institute in Kielce is actively ment in music school education. International Journal of Music and Performing Arts 4 (2). Edited participating in the art-education projects in the by Peggy Blood. Savannah: Savannah State Univer- local community and the whole ⁄wiÊtokrzyskie sity, 53ñ64. region. These projects, mostly voluntary, stand- Strykowski, Wac˘aw (2004). Kompetencje medialne: alone or in collaboration with other institutions, pojÊcie, obszary, formy kszta˘cenia. Kompetencje

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medialne spo˘eczeÒstwa wiedzy. Redakcja: Wac˘aw Strykowski, Wojciech Skrzydlewski. PoznaÒ: Wydaw, eMPi2, 31ñ40. Wo˘oszyn, Stefan (1998). Jak kszta˘ci„ nauczycieli? Edukacja nauczycielska w perspektywie wymagaÒ zmieniaj‡cego siÊ ˙wiata. Redakcja: Alicja Siemak- Tylikowska, Henryka Kwiatkowska & Stefan Micha˘ Kwiatkowski. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Akade- mickie ›ak, 249ñ256.

150 The Artistic Application of Ceramic Instruments

Dr. hab. art. URSZULA MIZIA Assistant Professor, University of Silesia in Katowice

The Academy of the Sound of Earth is an artistic project of the Faculty of Fine Arts and Music whose aim is to examine and assess the acoustic properties of baked clay and possibilities of its practical application in music. The technology of clay selection and baking was developed at the Ceramics Studio of the University of Silesia in Katowice, where sculptures inspired by traditional musical instruments of both native and foreign cultures were created. The participants of the project, which started in 2007, are members of both the Institute of Fine Arts and the Institute of Music: visual art specialists, composers, and instrumentalists. Among the participants are also students, who eagerly participate in academic research and musical experiments. The long-term observation of the phonic capabilities of produced objects and the work on improving their range and sound value have given rise to a collection of diversified musical instruments which are now used in composing and performance. In 2017, the instruments were also used for educational purposes. The combination of conventional instrumental media and unconventional ceramic instruments brings out an original sonoristic effect appealing to the imagination of both the musicians and, first and foremost, the audience. Keywords: artistic project, ceramic instruments, music, visual art, educational concerts.

INTRODUCTION visual installation. Dr hab. Krzysztof Gawlas composed and presented an interactive musical On 6th April 2017, the Municipal Gallery in piece in which he combined computer-processed Bielsko-Bia˘a (BWA)1 hosted the opening day of sounds of exhibited instruments with improvisations performed by himself and by other members an exhibition entitled To Hear the Earth,2 which of the academic staff of the Institute of Music: showed the artistic output and summed up the Mgr. in˛. Paulina Bielesz, Dr. Karol Pyka, Mgr. ten-year work of visual artists and musicians, both Marcin ›upaÒski and Mgr. Wojciech Golec academic teachers and students, on constructing (Example 1). ceramic musical objects at the Faculty of Fine At the very beginning of the performance, Arts and Music of the University of Silesia in the large multi-age audience could hear an archaic Katowice. Besides already existing instruments, sound of the ceramic horn (the instrument made there appeared novel and highly original musical by Mgr. Daniel Badura), which opened to them objects. Their creators were, first and foremost, a whole world of magical sounds of various ceramic Dr. hab. Ma˘gorzata Ska˘uba-Krentowicz, as well instruments, whose mystical properties had long as Dr. Katarzyna Handzlik-B‡k, Mgr. Daniel been acknowledged by various primitive cultures. Badura and second-year students of Artistic Educa- The particular sequences of the composition were tion at the Institute of Fine Arts. The exhibition performed successively by different sections of of the instruments was accompanied by an audio- ceramic instruments. Loose improvisations grew

1 The Municipal Gallery in Bielsko-Bia˘a came first on the Artluk magazine list of fifteen contemporary art institutions with the most attractive program in 2017. The gallery was acclaimed for its contemporary art exhibitions and events. Artluk is a Polish quarterly magazine published by the PoznaÒ-based ARTES Cultural Association. 2 Opening day coverage: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xjaZJV6I2zA&t=52s

151 MUSIC SCIENCE TODAY: THE PERMANENT AND THE CHANGEABLE ñ 3 (11) more and more complex dynamically and rhyth- Grzegorz Banaszkiewicz (Jan D˘ugosz University mically, and reached their climax, only to be taken in CzÊstochowa): a synesthetic project combining over by other leading instruments. Besides truly image and music. Their stereoscopic visualization intriguing phrases, the instruments also produced of the ceramic instruments was presented by familiar sounds of nature: the flutes and ocarinas means of two optical devices they called bana- imitated bird sounds; the rainsticks, rattles and scopes. The ceramic instruments and musical wind chimes vividly resembled elements of weather objects baked in the Ceramics Studio of the Silesia such as rain, storm or wind. The music was com- University Fine Arts Institute were transformed plemented by mysterious and energetic rhythms into stereograms and displayed in the banascopes. of the udu, darbuka and ceramic kettledrums, These unique instruments, their sounds, and and the whole was synchronized with electronic stereoscopic images, altogether embraced by the sounds coming from loudspeakers hidden among audio-visual space of the ellipsophone, turned the the instruments on exhibition. The unique combi- Municipal Gallery exhibition room into a Synes- nations of sounds not only produced an aesthetic thetic Concert Hall of the Sounds of Earth of the effect but also revealed new possibilities of the Silesia University. After the official part of the use of ceramic instruments in artistic creation.3 opening, the audience could freely admire the The audience could admire not only the rich variety of forms of the ceramic musical instruments musical texture of the composition but also the displayed within the elliptic space of the ellipso- audio-visual installation created by Dr. hab. phone imitating a rocky island (Example 2). Krzysztof Kula (University of Silesia) and Prof.

Example 1. The concert during the opening day of the exhibition. The author of the photo: Jerzy Pustelnik

Example 2. The listeners are getting familiar with the instruments. The author of the photo: Jerzy Pustelnik

3 Event coverage including fragments of the composition: http://www.bielsko.biala.pl/tv/uslyszec_ziemie__ 8272.html ñ visited on August 18, 2018.

152 U. MIZIA. THE ARTISTIC APPLICATION OF CERAMIC INSTRUMENTS

EDUCATIONAL CONCERTS flute, electronics, quena flute), W. Golec (accordion, electronics), K. Pyka (ceramic percussion A natural consequence of the interaction and wind instruments) and K. Gawlas (interactive between the artists and the audience during the musical composition, electronics). Apart from opening day was a series of five educational concerts ceramic instruments, the musicians also used clas- for primary and secondary schools in Bielsko- sical instruments and electronic processing. They Bia˘a, organized and led by the author of this presented the audience their own compositions article. The concerts were entitled The Sound of as well as world music arrangements of original Earth and took place in the main hall of the Muni- compositions of various nationalities and ethnic cipal Gallery on Monday, 10th April 2017, at groups from the Carpathian Mountains. During 8.30, 9.30, 10.45, 12.00 and 13.00. On that day, the concerts, after the opening signal of the ceramic the gallery was visited by ca. 500 school-age horn, the young audiences could hear a selection children and teenagers. of folk tunes, such as Doliny, doliny; Hej, jak The concerts were again performed by artists tam piÊknie taÒcuj‡, improvised folk music of working at the Institute of Music of the University the Silesian Beskids, and a medley of gÛral music of Silesia: M. ›upaÒski (bass clarinet, saxophones, (Example 3).

Example 3. An educational concert with the instruments. The author of the photo: Jerzy Pustelnik

Example 4. An educational concert with the instruments. The students are trying out the instruments themselves. The author of the photo: Jerzy Pustelnik

153 MUSIC SCIENCE TODAY: THE PERMANENT AND THE CHANGEABLE ñ 3 (11)

The ethnic sounds of the ceramic instruments were invited by the artists to co-create and enrich perfectly suited the folk music presented by the the compositions by tapping the beats and hum- musicians. Each performance was preceded by a ming pre-learned simple musical calls and vocals short lecture and presentation of the instruments, at the right moments (Example 4). their sonic properties and ñ sometimes surprising ñ The participants of the concerts were five playing techniques. The combination of ceramic groups of one hundred students each from the and classical instruments turned out to be truly following Bielsko-Bia˘a schools: KopaliÒski Billin- appealing. The spoken commentary abounded with gual School (two groups), Franciszek KÊpka High information on the origins and history of the School of Commerce and Technology, Jonatan instruments, which represented different cultures, Primary School and Middle School No. 11. After nationalities and geographical locations of the the concerts, the students could further explore world. The interactive character of the event the instruments by visiting the exhibition down- allowed the audience to join in: everyone could stairs (Example 5). touch or even play the instruments; the students

Example 5. Children and ceramic instruments. The author of the photo: Jerzy Pustelnik

Wandering the stony paths of the ellipsophone and high schools, where our musicians presented and discovering the variety of instruments and unique artistic programmes: each performance musical objects, they were encouraged to touch, was an experiment with the sound possibilities rub, tap and blow the exhibits ñ to hear the sounds of the instruments in a varied repertoire. The sche- they produced. The exhibition hall, normally dedi- dule of concerts included the following schools cated to the silent contemplation of the aesthetics and musical pieces: of artistic works, turned for the day into a lively ó 6th November 2017: three concerts in Primary place bustling with an array of noises, as well as School No. 36 (grades 1ñ3 and 4ñ6) for ca. with general gaiety induced by the more unusual 325 pupils. The programme included the fol- sound effects produced by the visitors. lowing pieces: An Ocarina Dream ñ K. Pyka; The next stage of musical education was to A Whole New World ñ Alan Menken arrange- take the ceramic instruments outside the gallery. ment by K. Pyka; Inside Out ñ Michael Giac- Together with Dr. K. Pyka (ceramic percussion chino, arrangement by K. Pyka; When She and ocarina, keyboard) and Mgr. M. ›upaÒski Loved Me ñ Randy Newman, arrangement (saxophones, flute, electronics, ceramic quena by K. Pyka. flute), we visited a few schools in Bielsko-Bia˘a, ó 30th November 2017: three concerts in Primary and performed several concerts. The exhibition School No. 37 (grades 1ñ3, 4ñ6, and middle in the gallery hall was replaced by audio-visual school students) for 385 pupils. The musicians presentations showing the whole collection of the played the following compositions: Belle ñ exhibits, which due to technical reasons could not A. Menken, arrangement by K. Pyka; Colors be brought to schools. We visited primary, middle of the Wind ñ A. Menken, arrangement by

154 U. MIZIA. THE ARTISTIC APPLICATION OF CERAMIC INSTRUMENTS

K. Pyka; Ceramic Improvisations ñ K. Pyka, 1. The ocarina (Sachs 1975: 178) is a type of M. ›upaÒski; Hakuna Matata ñ Elton John, vessel flute, a non-free aerophone and a reedless arrangement by K. Pyka. wind instrument. It comes in different shapes. ó 7th December 2017: two concerts in Primary The sound is produced by blowing air through School No. 1 (grades 1ñ3 and 4ñ6) for ca. the mouthpiece projecting from the body of the 200 pupils. The musicians played the following instrument. It is a melodic instrument, equipped pieces: Doumbek World ñ K. Pyka; Quenaís with 4ñ24 holes, which are covered and uncovered Call ñ M. ›upaÒski; A Medley of Cartoon to produce tones of various pitch. Ocarina is a Tunes ñ Tadeusz Kocyba, Adam Markiewicz, traditional folk instrument found in different Waldemar Kazanecki, Zenon Kowalowski, parts of the world. Produced in China and Africa, Karel Svoboda, arrangement by K. Pyka; Circle in the USA it is known as the sweet potato because of Life ñ E. John, arrangement by K. Pyka. its shape resembles this vegetable. The inventor ó 11th December 2017: four concerts in the of the modern oval-shaped ocarina was an Italian, th Bielsko-Bia˘a Cultural Centre for ca. 460 Giuseppe Donati, living in the 19 century. De- students of the following high schools: the pending on their size and pitch, ocarinas are Industrial School in Bielsko-Bia˘a, General divided into: High School No. 5, and Franciszek KÊpka ó soprano ocarinas, with the pitch from C≤ to School of Commerce and Technology. Once F≥; ó alto ocarinas, with the pitch from Fπ to B≤; again, the musicians presented a unique prog- ó tenor ocarinas, with the pitch from Cπ to F≤; ramme, playing the following pieces: Sounds ó bass ocarinas, with the pitch from F to Bπ.4 of Udu ñ M. ›upaÒski; Wayneís Thang ñ Kenny Garrett, arrangement by K. Pyka; Do- The ocarina was used in the works of contem- liny, doliny ñ the arrangement by M. ›upaÒski porary Polish composers: in the 20th century period and K. Pyka; Kalimba Groove ñ K. Pyka. of folklorism by Kazimierz Serocki; in the 21st ó 19th December 2017: two concerts for ca. 200 century compositions of Zygmunt Krauze (Ode pupils in Primary School No. 24. for flute, ocarina, two trumpets in C, guitar and three slit drums, 2004); and by K. Pyka, who On the whole, in the year 2017, around 2,070 works at the Institute of Music of the University pupils and students from twelve general educa- of Silesia. The greatest living Polish composer, tion schools without regular music classes took Krzysztof Penderecki, has included ocarinas in part in our concerts combined with presentations his instrumentations in order to achieve desired of ceramic instruments. The repertoire of the effects (JasiÒski 2014: 90). A work which used educational concerts included not only free arran- ocarinas became one of the breakthrough compo- gements of film music or original compositions sitions which matched the composerís turn towards but also Polish folk music. Neoromanticism, now dominant in his work. Mieczys˘aw Tomaszewski (2013: 115ñ116) thus described the uniqueness of sounds achieved by THE INSTRUMENTS USED IN the artist in his 1974 composition: The Dream THE EDUCATIONAL CONCERTS of Jakob. One more record of the breakthrough and, simultaneously, the departure from pure sonorism. Every sound, beginning with the strange, The following clay instruments were used in otherworldly voice of twelve ocarinas, seems to the interactive musical concerts: the 12-hole tenor tell us something. Ocarinas appeared also in yet ocarina, transverse flute, quena flute, ceramic another work by Penderecki, the two-act opera horn, wind chimes, darbuka, rattles, kalimba and Paradise Lost (1978). They were described by the udu. Each of these fascinating instruments will musical critic Andrzej Ch˘opecki as vehicles of be briefly described below. The descriptions will musical sacrality: It is the ocarinas used in Para- include information about the prototype, history, dise Lost that interpret the ocarinas opening The place of origin and current use of a given instru- Dream of Jakob as a musical theatrical gesture, ment. these sacra rappresentazione emerging from and

4 The German method of pitch notation was used here.

155 MUSIC SCIENCE TODAY: THE PERMANENT AND THE CHANGEABLE ñ 3 (11) sinking into nothingness... (1993: 8). Up to this Igbo women for ritual purposes (Ames 1973: day, the ocarina is used by folk artists, like JÛzef 250ñ278). The pitch of the sound can be changed Broda or Franciszek Macha˘a. In popular music, depending on how the hand hits the hole. Thanks Joszko Broda performs ocarina solos.5 In 2010, to its unique bass sound, the udu gained popula- the American composer Kristopher Maloy wrote rity among drummers specializing in world music. a solo concerto for ocarina. In the ›ywiec and The two-chamber udu of red smooth clay, inspired Silesia Beskid, they come in the shape of birds and by traditional African instruments and made by are popular folk instruments. In our educational Dominika W˘odarska, a third-year Graphic Design concerts, Karol Pyka played a 12-hole tenor ocarina. student, was presented at the concert (Ska˘uba- The students could also see other types of ocari- Krentowicz 2015: 86ñ87). nas: an experimental one-hole ocarina, a multiple- 4. The darbuka (Hall 2006: 32ñ36) is a mem- hole inline ocarina inspired by South American branophone, a kind of goblet drum with a body instruments (made by M. Ska˘uba-Krentowicz), made of ceramic material and a head made of as well as white alto, tenor and baritone ocarinas goat or fish skin. The instrument comes from the made by Krzysztof Wilde, a first-year PhD student Middle East and is also used in North Africa (the (Ska˘uba-Krentowicz 2015: 54ñ58, 70ñ75, 78). Egyptian darbukas; the African djembes are 2. The wind chimes are idiophones in the similar but with the wooden body), South Asia form of loosely hung tubes traditionally made of and Eastern Europe. Neolithic goblet drums were metal or wood; their movement, caused by wind discovered in Poland in Pikutkowo and Opato- or another factor creates crystal, sparkling cascades wice in Kuyavia (KamiÒski 1971: 22, 23ñ26, 53). of silvery or bamboo-wooden rustle: sounds of In his opera Les Troyens (1856ñ58), Hector Berlioz an indistinct pitch. They were known as early as extended the percussion instrumentation to in Ancient Rome under the name tintinnabulum, include the darbuka, used in the Dance of the and their task ñ according to the extant icono- Nubian Slaves in Act IV. The author of the instru- graphy ñ was to ward off evil spirits. Today they ment used in the educational concerts is Bartosz are found in Asia: India, Japan and China (hence DomaÒski, a third-year student of Ethnology at in Poland they are popularly referred to as Chinese the University of Silesia. chimes). Apart from their decorative value, they 5. The kalimba (Sachs 1975: 503) is a kind have a gentle, pleasant sound, which is used in of plucked idiophone, also called zanza, mbira, program, illustrative, film and theatre music. Our canca, insimbi. It is an African instrument, but educational concerts used the red-clay wind chimes similar instruments can be found also in other called Kuranty (chimes) by their author (K. Handz- parts of the world. It consists of a wooden reso- lik-B‡k). The material, baked in over 1,000 degrees nator (a box or just a flat board) with attached Celsius, gave each element of the instrument a reed or metal tines of different length; hence the somewhat metallic sound when struck with a instrument is classified as a lamellophone. The stick or hand. At the exhibition, students could tines are firmly attached at one end, which allows also see other variants of sound objects in the the other end to vibrate (Sturrock 1996: 133). form of leaves or chimes made by K. Handzlik- The sound is produced by plucking the tines with B‡k (Ska˘uba-Krentowicz 2015: 138ñ139). thumbs or fingers. This melodic instrument has a very original timbre. In our project, we used a 3. The udu (Hall 2006: 109ñ115) is a tradi- white ceramic kalimba with a single row of tines tional African percussion instrument of the Igbo (made by Anna Koniecka), shaped like a pear, people, an ethnic group of south-eastern Nigeria. with a round sound hole, with a range of gñais1 The sound is produced by energetically hitting (Ska˘uba-Krentowicz 2015: 110ñ111). the sound hole, which makes the vibrating air produce sound in the resonator. This playing 6. The rainstick is an idiophone from Chile, technique makes it a struck idiophone. The udu South America; it was invented by the Mapuches possesses one or more holes and was played by or Incas. According to a legend, a local shaman

5 The ocarina played by Joszko Broda can be heard in Antonina KrzysztoÒís songs in her album Kiedy przyjdzie dzieÒ. Pomaton EMI (1996) Cat. No. CD: 7243 590324 2 9, Sig. No. F1233/CD2. One of the tracks: Okaryna jesienna, music by Joszko Broda.

156 U. MIZIA. THE ARTISTIC APPLICATION OF CERAMIC INSTRUMENTS created the instrument in order to put an end to 9. The transverse flute (Drobner 1997: 132) a prolonged drought ñ hence its name. The instru- is a woodwind instrument, a reedless aerophone. ment was played in order to beg the gods for the In its original Renaissance form, it was a simple long-awaited rain. Traditionally, it is made of a construction made of a single piece of wood, or hollow cactus dried in the sun. The spines are reed, without a separate head joint or pads. The removed and re-attached inside the stick, which instrument presented in our educational project is then filled with various small objects and sealed was modelled on this most ancient version of the on both ends. Similar instruments made of bamboo flute. can be found in Asia, Australia, and Africa. The rainstick is a kind of rattle: it produces a sound when shaken, moved or upended. The rainstick THE EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF presented during the concerts (made by M. Ska- CERAMIC INSTRUMENTS ˘uba-Krentowicz) was modelled on the original instrument, but made wholly of red clay, with ceramic spines and a filling consisting of pellet- One of the musicians performing at the edu- shaped particles of baked clay (Ska˘uba-Krento- cational concerts was K. Pyka, a composer and wicz 2015: 106ñ107). conductor, from the very beginning involved in the Academy of the Sound of Earth. He is the 7. The musical sculptures: Black Drop and author of original compositions using all of the Silver Drop (made by K. Handlik-B‡k) belong to above mentioned ceramic instruments. The instru- the class of shaken idiophones, or rattles (Drob- ments were the topic of his Bachelor thesis. As ner 1997: 236; Sachs 1975: 17ñ19). They produce a practising instrumentalist, he notes: Despite a sound when rhythmically shaken. Rattles are the development of technology and methods one of the earliest instruments used for the pur- of art reception, which have evolved over the poses of magic, excitement, ritual or trance. Put centuries, the tone of ceramic instruments has into motion, these instruments produce a specific remained unchanged since their first owners. rustling sound (Ska˘uba-Krentowicz 2015: 98ñ99). That is why the original sound of these instru- 8. The quena flute (Hall 2006: 50) is a wind ments, obtained through the use of such an unusual instrument, a reedless aerophone, a traditional medium as baked clay, keeps inspiring present- instrument of pre-Columbian Andean musicians. day instrument makers and experimenters (Pyka It was known by the Inca culture: one of the oldest 2008: 83). extant flutes in the world was originally made of There are numerous positive aspects of using llama bones; nowadays it is most often produced ceramic instruments for educational purposes: of bamboo wood. The instrument is very simple: apart from exposing young people to musical and it is a straight, hollow pipe with a diameter of visual art (the instruments being, at the same time, ca. 2 cm, it does not possess a mouthpiece but ceramic works of art), the presentations introduced only a special notch at the top end. Typically, it them to the world of unusual sounds and made has six finger holes on the fore part of the body them familiar with the rich variety of non-classical and a thumb hole on the hind part. The instrument wind and percussion instruments. An important created in the Ceramics Studio of the University aspect of the project was the possibility for the of Silesia (Ska˘uba-Krentowicz 2015: 66ñ67) has young audiences to try out the instruments: produce a beautiful, sonorous sound, with a wide range sounds and then join the professional musicians of a1ñd3. It is very attractive and allows the perfor- in playing. The musical performances were com- mer to present a truly impressive range of its melodic plemented by theoretical information concerning and technical properties. the history of such instruments,6 their geography,7

6 The earliest finds indicate that clay played a significant role in civilizational development: it was used for writing (cuneiform script, Assyrian clay tablets), making pottery wares used in every sphere of life, as well as for artistic purposes. The oldest known ceramic figurines come from Dolní Ve∨∨∨stonice in Moravia (29,000ñ25,000 BCE) and represent a nude female (Venus) and a few animals: a bear, lion, mammoth, horse, fox, rhino and owl (Hitchcock 2017). 7 To reconstruct ceramic instruments means to reconstruct the musical matter which accompanied the human in the past and which was characteristic of a given place, ritual, religion, and culture.

157 MUSIC SCIENCE TODAY: THE PERMANENT AND THE CHANGEABLE ñ 3 (11) as well as literature connected with the topic: Ch˘opecki, Andrzej (1993). MiÊdzy Diab˘em i Anio˘em, historical records, legends, and proverbs about czyli w poszukiwaniu utraconego raju. Krzysztof clay objects.8 Penderecki: Raj utracony. Program. Warszawa: Teatr Wielki ñ Opera Narodowa, 6ñ12. Czubala, Dionizjusz & Marianna Czubalina (1980). Anegdoty, bajki, opowie˙ci garncarzy. Warszawa: CONCLUSIONS Ludowa SpÛ˘dzielnia Wydawnicza. Drobner, Mieczys˘aw (1997). Instrumentoznawstwo i akustyka. KrakÛw: PWM. Through the ten years of arduous work and 9 Hall, Barry (2006). From Mud to Music. Westerville repeated experiments, using various kinds of clay (OH): American Ceramic Society. and baking methods, the authors of the above- Hitchcock, Don (2017). The Ceramic Venus of Dolni mentioned ceramic works of art ñ musical tools ñ Vestonice. http://donsmaps.com/dolnivenus.html ñ have achieved not only the beautiful visual forms visited on April 4, 2018. of the instruments but also their appealing acoustic JasiÒski, Tomasz (2014). KrÛtki wyk˘ad o muzyce XX properties. The material used by the sculptors came wieku. Kompendium dydaktyczne. Annales Univer- from different parts of Poland. The audio-visual sitatis Mariae Curie-Sklodowska, sectio L ñ Artes project of the Faculty of Fine Arts and Music at XII (2): 61ñ94. the University of Silesia, which began ten years KamiÒski, W˘odzimierz (1971). Instrumenty muzyczne ago, has thus entered another stage oriented at na ziemiach polskich. KrakÛw: PWM. the general public and aimed at popularizing music Krzy˝anowski, Julian (red., 1969). Nowa ksiÊga przys- and visual arts: From time immemorial, sound ˘Ûw i wyra˝eÒ przys˘owiowych polskich. Tom 1. objects made of clay has been familiar to peoples Warszawa: PaÒstwowy Instytut Wydawniczy. Maloy, Kristopher (2010). Visions and Fantasies: A of all continents and civilisations, which confirms Concerto for Ocarina and Orchestra. Chesterfield their significant role in shaping the culture of (MO): St. Louis School of Music. every corner of the globe. Undoubtedly, these Pyka, Karol (2008). Instrumenty ceramiczne. BA thesis objects, created in pre-historic times, have lost at the University of Silesia in Katowice. neither their charm nor uniqueness, although many Pyka, Karol (2018). Private correspondence, June 2. years have passed since the times they were first Sachs, Curt (1975). Historia instrumentÛw muzycz- built and used. The ancient musical instruments nych. T˘umaczy˘ Stanis˘aw OlÊdzki. Warszawa: allow us to ëhearí the past through the sounds PWN. they produce (Pyka 2018). Ska˘uba-Krentowicz, Ma˘gorzata (ed., 2015). Us˘ysze„ ZiemiÊ. Katowice: Uniwersytet ⁄l‡ski. Sturrock, Susan (red., 1996). Encyklopedia instru- mentÛw muzycznych ˙wiata. Trans. Krzysztof REFERENCES Jachimczak and Ryszard Wojnowski. Warszawa: Bellona. Ames, David (1973). Igbo and Hausa musicians: A Tomaszewski, Mieczys˘aw (2013). Penderecki miÊdzy comparative examination. Ethnomusicology 17 (2): sacrum a profanum. Pro Musica Sacra 11: 111ñ 250ñ278. 121.

8 The Greek mythology says that Prometheus made man from clay and tears, and his soul from sparks stolen from the Sunís chariot. In the Polish language, there are a few proverbs referring to pottery and the myth of creation: nie ˙wiÊci garnki lepi‡ (pots are not made by saints ñ i.e. ëyou can learn anything with a bit of practiceí); garnkÛw w gospodarstwie nigdy nie za du˝o (there are never too many pots in the house) (Krzy˝anowski 1969: 602ñ3); pottery is as old as the world, for just after God had created the world, he made Adam and Eve from clay (Czubala and Czubalina 1980: 54). 9 Clay is an argillite sedimentary rock containing various admixtures of colloid substances, feldspars or quartz; its composition varies depending on the occurrence. Its formation is connected with a material being transported and deposited through external factors, such as wind, water, ice, air pressure, and temperature. Depending on the place of its occurrence, clay can display different properties, either physical (consistency, weight) or chemical (composition, colour), which result from differences in the proportions of various chemical substances, e.g., iron or manganese oxides. The natural colours of clays are varied, including different hues of beige, brown, red, white, grey, green and yellow. Clay has been known since immemorial time and used by both folk and professional artists for creating visual ceramic works.

158 Features of Education in Lithuanian Music Schools: Opinion of Students and Graduates

PhD GIEDRÀ GABNYTÀ Associate Professor at Lithuanian Academy of Music and Theatre

The article considers the features of education in Lithuanian music schools basing on the results of the questionnaire of music school students (N = 100) and music school graduates (N = 6). It has been clarified that in todayís education when teaching paradigms are changing, education in music schools is changing slowly. In the studentsí opinion, it is not attractive; it is based on conservative teaching methods and is oriented to perfection rather than creativity. The research results confirm the hypothesis of the researcher that music school studentsí experiences are often negative in relation to their learning at school. It is obvious that the analysis of such experiences provides important information about the situation of music education in Lithuania and shows the need for improvement in some areas. Keywords: Lithuanian music school, features of music education, opinions of music school students and graduates.

INTRODUCTION ticipating in music activities (DubosaitÎ 2009); the cooperation of people involved in the learning Previous investigations of the topic; its signi- process (GabnytÎ, StrakienÎ 2014); teacher trai- ficance and the problem. ning (GabnytÎ, DubosaitÎ 2017); teacher training In Lithuania, alongside mandatory music and their competence development (GabnytÎ education in formal education (primary, lower- 2016); learnerís assessment (KriËi˚naitÎ, Strak- ienÎ 2015); the assumptions of successful learnerís secondary, upper-secondary), music education is performance on stage (BalËi˚nas 2012), the deve- also implemented through a specific platform, lopment of creativity (LapÎnienÎ, Mald˛i˚tÎ- which has retained deep music playing traditions, ValaitienÎ 2012), etc. that is in music and art schools. Music and art The object of this article and research is the schools were founded in the fifth decade of the education and its features in Lithuanian music previous century (–eËkuvienÎ 2004). In the funda- schools. The aim is to reveal the features basing mentally changing political and sociocultural con- on the opinions of students and graduates of ditions of the country, the following questions music schools. The researcher had a hypothetical th arise: to what extent does the product of the 20 supposition that experiences of music school century, present-day music school and its teaching students are often negative in comparison to content, meet the new objectives of education and learning at school. It cannot be excluded that the teaching? Is it able to adapt to new challenges reason of this is the fact that music education is the society is facing? Is it able to adapt to learnerís not attractive, teaching methods are conservative personal and educational goals and to ensure as well as the aspiration to achievements is oriented qualitative education? These questions are consi- towards a professional musician by using high dered in the area of scientific research by discussing educational standards. It is unlikely that such the following topics: the problem of differentiating education may help a learner to achieve personal education while educating learners who do not goals and at the same time implement strategi- aim to become professional musicians and those cally important goals of the national education. who seek to be professional (GabnytÎ 2011; Igna- To fulfil the aim, the following objectives tonis 2010); various psychological aspects of par- were set:

159 MUSIC SCIENCE TODAY: THE PERMANENT AND THE CHANGEABLE ñ 3 (11)

1) to examine the features of music school edu- sation and contextualization strategies (Maxwell cation as discussed in the scholarly literature; 2013). 2) to carry out music school studentsí and gra- Constructionism and the grounded theory duatesí opinion poll; method of qualitative research were used ñ con- 3) to summarize the features of education in structing categories of the data obtained, when Lithuanian music schools based on the findings the elements of the data are compared and the of the research. categories are given the names based on the data content (Charmaz 2006). The following research methods were used: theoretical ñ the analysis of scientific literature, empirical ñ the questionnaire of music school students and the interview of the graduates. PROCEDURE AND METHODOLOGY

The research on the studentsí and the gradu- THE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK atesí opinions of Lithuanian music schools was conducted in two stages. In the first stage, 100 students of the seventh grade, taking classes in The research was based on Praxial theory different music subjects in Vilnius music schools which is interpreted as the basis of pragmatic deci- were selected by using random sampling, 32% sions of an individual, and really reflects the role boys and 68% girls. The aim was, by means of of music in human life (Elliot 1996). Music educa- quantitative measures and open questions, as well tion based on praxis is not unpleasant; it is attrac- as the questionnaire of a semi-closed type, to sum- tive, involving in the activity by its forms, such marise the following: as ...music for us... (Regelski 2011: 43). Music 1) the prevailing objectives of education in the education based on Praxial theory would enable principal subject class; to view teaching music in music schools as learner- 2) attractive and unattractive aspects of the centred, reveal new artistic forms not limiting to teaching content to students in music schools; a narrow teaching framework. 3) the reasons why students drop out of music A paradigm shift (Kuhn 2003) was also con- schools1. sidered as the starting point of the research. It The respondents of the second stage were six was hypothetically assumed that when generally music school graduates (2010ñ2014), one man recognized teaching canons change, processes in and five women, who work in sales, nursing, music the field of music teaching are not adequate to management, and law, two of whom were the the rapid sociocultural development. The research students and two attended the school. Three res- findings were interpreted in relation to the educa- pondents lived in Vilnius, one in Kaunas, the other tion paradigms: teaching ñ when teaching is based two lived and worked abroad, Great Britain and on essential measures of effect, using words and the USA. In music schools the respondents took examples, interaction ñ when pedagogical relation classes in different subjects: piano, jazz singing, of teacher and learner changes based on coopera- accordion, solo singing, violin and choir singing. tion determining teaching content and forms, and To obtain the results, a semi-structured ques- learning ñ when the importance of critical thin- tionnaire was used and it was made up of these king and diversity of approaches becomes more diagnostic topics: The features of musical activi- pronounced, when building of personal knowledge ties; Relationships with teacher and emotions and active learning are emphasised (–iauËiukÎ- experienced in the class, Motivation to learn. Each nienÎ, StankeviËienÎ, »iu˛as 2011). diagnostic topic had a certain number of questions To process the findings of the interview, quali- that were asked during the interview. The article tative data analysis methods were used ñ categori- examines a part of the interview2.

1 The article presents not the whole research but only a part of it. 2 The interview with the graduates was conducted in 2016. The author of the research ñ A. UgianskaitÎ, a student at LAMT, the programme of general didactics of music (the research supervisor ñ Assoc. Prof. Dr. G. GabnytÎ). The article contains only a part of the research.

160 G. GABNYTÀ. FEATURES OF EDUCATION IN LITHUANIAN MUSIC SCHOOLS: OPINION OF STUDENTS AND GRADUATES

THE RESULTS in the capital city has decided to eliminate the mandatory requirements of repertoire, as a result, Analysing the features of music education in now students choose the repertoire based on their present-day music schools, the studentsí attitude preferences. towards attractive teaching content was analysed. Based on the results of the opinion poll it has The questionnaire asked the students what educa- been confirmed that some music schools provide tion goals prevailed in instrument lessons. 96% opportunities to choose other subjects alongside of the respondents state that teachers aim to achieve the principal subject (25% of the respondents). a very concrete result, i.e. the completeness of Although being insignificant, these changes bring interpretation of a piece of music and performance expectations of new results in education when a perfection. The teachers use strict and time-tested student receives broader music competence not teaching strategies, high standards, and aim to limiting it to mastering a single instrument and achieve results oriented to educate a future profes- acquiring abilities to play music. It is interesting sional musician. The students were asked to that some music schools give opportunities for indicate what was attractive to them in education, students to learn improvisation in class, read music what motivated them to learn in music schools. from sheet, play by ear, etc. (indicated by 33% of Most of the students (91%) stressed that the the respondents). Trying to find out what teaching changes in the choice of pieces of music and reper- content the students would like to have, the ques- toire were highly attractive. Artistic expression tions were designed to reveal definite studentsí and music making are directly related to the inter- needs which later could be included in the teaching pretation of pieces of music. Therefore, attractive content, what subjects to leave out as ëunnecessaryí education is often understood as performing music and not relevant to present-day. The question to they like and that is appealing to them. The results the students, Think and name what you donít may suggest that a more liberal pedagogical ap- like in your instrument lesson and what, in your proach is possibly becoming predominant in most opinion, is not necessary. The studentsí answers of the music schools. For example, when choosing are presented in Example 1. the repertoire, besides the mandatory pieces of In total, 6 unattractive and absolutely unne- music, a student can express his preferences which cessary activities in instrument lessons were pre- authors, genres and styles of music he likes, what sented by the students: scales (75%), examinations he would like to learn to play and what pieces of (52%), playing by heart (12%), etudes (15%), music he would be good at interpreting. The assessment (18%), and a test in playing techniques research has also indicated that one music school (8%).

Example 1. Activities unattractive to the students

The students were asked the question: What them. Having analysed the most common state- else would you like to learn, try or find out in ments in this category, it can be assumed that the class? The table presents the most frequent pieces of modern music, pop music, and jazz answers grouped into four categories. gradually appear in the repertoire; however, the Analysing the answers, three major categories repertoire for ensembles receives insufficient describing the studentsí preferences in lessons were attention. singled out. The variety of repertoire is one of

161 MUSIC SCIENCE TODAY: THE PERMANENT AND THE CHANGEABLE ñ 3 (11)

Name of category Examples of statements Response number Variety of repertoire To play more modern pieces of music 19 To play more pop music 62 To play jazz music 41 Iíd like to play a concert by some music composer 2 To play music from different time periods 6 A greater variety of the To have more ensemble playing 12 forms of expression in Iíd like to learn to improvise 53 class Iíd like to learn to accompany on other instruments 14 Iíd like to learn to play ìby earî 4 Psychological aspects Iíd like to learn how not to be nervous or worried while playing 8 Iíd like to have more freedom during lessons and the teacher 9 not to be strict Iíd like teachers not to shout 16

Example 2. Studentsí preferences in instrument lessons

Another category of students reflecting their will and determination; they do not like playing education preferences is more diverse forms of music; they feel parentsí pressure to learn; it takes expression in lessons. It proves that the traditional too much time; they do not like their teachers; forms of expression possibly prevail in the teaching lessons are boring, there are no innovations; they content, where accompanying, improvising, en- are bullied by their peers; because of theory subjects; semble playing and playing by ear are not included teachers do not take into account studentís needs in the education process. Analysing the studentsí and preferences. preferences for instrument lessons, a category of The reasons indicated by the students show psychological aspects is distinguished. The most that the teaching content and form in present-day common statements reveal the autocratic teacherís music school are not attractive and modern enough. role in the present-day education, a lack of equiva- It can be assumed that this can possibly be lent conduct between a teacher and a student, and one of the reasons why students do not finish possibly too little interest of the teacher in a music schools. studentís psychological state of mind. During the second stage of the research, an The students were asked the question: Why interview with the graduates of music schools was do you think children sometimes drop out of music conducted. The aim was to find out what activi- school not having finished it? Several different ties at school were most and least attractive to types of answers were provided: students lack the graduates.

Resp. Which of the activities you mentioned What were the activities you didnít like? did you like most? Why? X The history of music because it was clear what Piano lessons, because the teacher was soviet-like, to do and what to learn. teaching by standards, no room for self-expression. X1 Solfeggio/choir singing. I enjoyed singing with Piano lessons. I didnít like tests in scales and the other children, taking part in concerts. I liked stress during tests. the solfeggio because I liked the dictations. X2 Choir. Choir singers had most concerts in their I most disliked piano lessons; I didnít like the piano towns and in other towns all over Lithuania. In teacher. She would smoke and I would get a head- the choir I felt safer and more confident; I had ache from it. She made me shiver and cry when she no fear to make a mistake. I even had no shouted at me. When I missed the keys because my worries. hands were trembling of fear, she would hit me on my fingers and on the back of the head. X3 Orchestra. I enjoyed meeting all friends and Piano lessons. I didnít have good relations with the playing favourite and well-known pieces of teacher. music.

Sequel to Example 3 see on the next page.

162 G. GABNYTÀ. FEATURES OF EDUCATION IN LITHUANIAN MUSIC SCHOOLS: OPINION OF STUDENTS AND GRADUATES

Sequel to Example 3. X4 Singing. It was my major subject and singing Mandatory piano subject. I didnít want to play and was the reason I started going to music school. the teacher was very unpleasant, she would smoke, was drunk, she shouted, hit me on my fingers. All the students were afraid of her. A lot of students lost their interest in music. X5 Choir, because I liked playing and taking part Solfeggio, because itís a difficult subject and I in concerts. didnít understand it.

Example 3. Most liked and disliked music activities by the graduates at music schools

As the table shows, most attractive activities music with their friends. This leads to the conclu- are related to playing music in a group as the sion that not only the subject of music is important respondents emphasize the positive atmosphere. but the atmosphere in class, a teacherís teaching In contrast, they emphasize that they did not like style and the methods used in class. In order to individual lessons and the reason for this was evaluate the characteristics of the teacher-student poor personal relationships with their teachers. relationship, the graduates were asked to comment The graduates in their responses speak about the on their relationship with the teacher of the prin- feeling of security during lessons, the joy of playing cipal subject.

How would you describe your How has the relationship relationship with your teacher What was your emotional state Resp. with your teacher affected and the atmosphere in the during lessons? your personality? classroom? X My teacher was very categorical, I felt combative, not given enough It had a negative effect; I could not be myself, wanted to credit. I felt that the teacher did not I lost the desire to sing for frame me, we were not close. pay enough attention to me because some time. I had the most abilities in my group. X1 The relationship was business- I had unpleasant feelings because the It had a negative effect, I like, cold. She was demanding teacher was horrible. To be in the realised that in life you and strict. class was really suffering. meet not only friendly, kind and smiling people. X2 The teacher addressed me as a In classes of the principal subject, I Only good memories of friend but kept distance. I addres- had different emotions, depending the main teacher, We are sed her as a student: I was meek on how well prepared I was, but it still in touch like friends. and polite, never argued with her. was not fear. X3 With the first and the second I had the desire to leave the class as I do not think the teachers teacher I had a friendly relation- soon as possible because I did not had any effect. ship. like the pieces of music and I felt bigger pressure on me than on others. X4 It was a cold and emotionless Most often the emotions were not In a negative way, I lost relationship. positive. my self-confidence. X5 Our relationship was friendly I was calm because I ignored the Had no effect. though sometimes cold. demanding teacher.

Example 4. Teacher-student communication characteristics, effect on studentís personality

The findings received show that five respon- nalities. However, three respondents stated that dents had cooperative but at the same time rather the effect on their personality was negative and cold relationships with their teachers. Almost all only one respondent indicated that it was positive. respondents consider their emotions in classes The research aimed to find out how the gra- negative indicating that the reason for that was duatesí motivation to learn at music school had the teachersí behaviour. changed during all years. The graduates were asked Some respondents state that the relationship to describe their motivation. with the teacher had no influence on their perso-

163 MUSIC SCIENCE TODAY: THE PERMANENT AND THE CHANGEABLE ñ 3 (11)

Resp. How would you describe your motivation How would you describe your motivation to learn in the initial learning stage? to learn in the later learning stages? X The first two years I went willingly because Later I lost my desire to learn but my parents would then I still had a good teacher. not let me drop out of the music school. X1 It was interesting in the beginning; I wanted I did not want to learn but my parents made me, to go to classes. besides, I felt the responsibility to finish, although I did not want to. X2 I liked the instrument I was playing from the The parents made me continue learning. very start. X3 I went willingly because I had nothing else I didnít want to learn but I was motivated by the to do. desire to get the diploma. X4 I always willingly went to principal subject I wanted to learn because I was good at it and I classes. wanted to learn more. X5 I went willingly because I was extremely Although I did not like that, I continued learning. I interested in the principal subject. felt sorry to quit after I had had so much input and it was not much left until graduation.

Example 5. Motivation of the graduates to learn at music school

The obtained results have shown that in the course tests and examinations that are more rele- beginning, all the respondents went to music vant to the future professional musician only prove school willingly, everything was new; it was inte- it. These tasks are given almost in every class and resting; they liked their musical instrument. Later are mostly disliked by the students. The graduates on, the motivation changed, all but one respon- of music schools related the activities they mostly dent marked that they had the wish to drop out disliked to the piano classes, and the subjects they of school. Their parents made them continue and liked were the subjects they had in groups, for they had the desire to obtain the diploma. example, the choir, the history of music, etc. The research has indicated that the students and the graduates consider the emotional atmo- CONCLUSIONS sphere in the classroom being a very important, as well as the relationship with the teacher. It became especially evident when analysing the The results of the research have shown the graduatesí experiences in music schools. The realities of present-day education in Lithuanian findings of the interview have shown that almost music schools based on the opinions of the students all respondents experienced depressing atmosphere and the graduates of music schools. The students during the classes in which they were learning to indicated both the appealing aspects of the teaching play a musical instrument, and the contact with content, as well as those to be improved. In the the teacher was rather business-like, cold and in studentsí opinion, it is an advance that today a some cases, it even had a negative influence on student can cooperate with the teacher when the studentís personality. choosing interesting and appealing repertoire for It can be presumed that in a present-day music a student. Some schools provide opportunities school, an autocratic role is dominant in teacher- for students to take several subjects at the same student relations, whilst empathy and friendly time thus expanding the opportunities for students feelings remain subordinate. It prevents students to acquire different competencies. It is gratifying from enjoying their classes and encourages to note that some schools give students an oppor- animosity towards the teacher and the subject tunity to learn to play by ear and improvise. How- and possibly even music in general. ever, the majority of the respondents agree that The research intended to find out why a signi- today education in music schools is oriented only ficant number of students in Lithuanian music to preparing professional musicians. The main schools do not finish them and if they do finish, objective in classroom always is the completeness they hardly ever go back to music and making of the piece of music and its perfection, thus the music. The respondents have indicated in the ques- classical paradigm prevails in the education process. tionnaire that they often lack will and enthusiasm Tasks such as practicing music scales, etudes, taking to learn. However, it is possible that students drop

164 G. GABNYTÀ. FEATURES OF EDUCATION IN LITHUANIAN MUSIC SCHOOLS: OPINION OF STUDENTS AND GRADUATES out of school because they dislike their teachers; Practical Conference of Young Scientists and Students the teaching methods are not appealing, there is in Rezekne. RÁzekne: RÁzeknes Augstskola, 219ñ a lack of innovation. During the interview, the 224. graduates confirmed that their motivation to attend GabnytÎ, GiedrÎ, (2016). Muzikos mokykl¯ pedagog¯ music school gradually changed, they finished profesinÎs nuostatos kaip perspektyvinio muzikinio school thanks to their own and their parentsí ugdymo projekcija. Vilnius: Lauros PetrauskienÎs IV Leidyba tau. efforts and will. It is possible, therefore, that it GabnytÎ, GiedrÎ & Diana StrakienÎ (2014). Occupa- was caused by unappealing education, conserva- tional motivation of music teachers as significant tive teaching methods, and possibly unsatisfied factor of social wellbeing. Social Welfare Interdis- individual learning needs. ciplinary Approach 4 (1). Lietuva, BMK leidykla, The research results confirm the hypothesis 64ñ70. that the experiences of music school students are GabnytÎ, GiedrÎ & Laura DubosaitÎ (2017). Pedago- often negative in relation to learning at music ginÎs praktikos Lietuvos muzikos ir teatro akade- schools. It does not conform with the vision of mijoje realijos ir perspektyvos. Ars et praxis 5. perspective music education in which education Vilnius: Leidybos centras, LMTA, 154ñ167. is based on changing education paradigms, high- Ignatonis, Eugenijus (2010). Muzikos mÎgÎjo rengimas lighting the value of studentsí knowledge, skills, fortepijono klasÎje. Alma mater ir pianistai. Vilnius: abilities, and creativity, and placing special emphasis Lietuvos muzikos ir teatro akademija. on emotional values. KriËi˚naitÎ, Asta & Diana StrakienÎ (2015). Nefor- maliojo muzikinio ugdymo pa˛angos ir pasiekim¯ vertinimas kaip mokinio savivertÊ s‡lygojantys veiksnys. Mokytoj¯ ugdymas 24 (1). –iauliai: –iauli¯ REFERENCES universitetas, 87ñ100. Kuhn, Thomas (2003). Mokslo revoliucij¯ strukt˚ra. Vilnius: Pradai. BalËi˚nas, Gintaras (2012). Muzikinio k˚rinio moky- LapÎnienÎ, Asta & Sigita Mald˛i˚tÎ-ValaitienÎ (2012). Meninio ugdymo masis ir jo atlikimas scenoje. Mokini¯ k˚rybikum‡ skatinanËios programos tai- realijos ir plÎtros perspektyvos: mokslini¯ straipsni¯ kymo patirtis muzikos instrumento pa˛inimo pamo- rinkinys. Kaunas: VDU, 3ñ11. kose: atvejo analizÎ. Meninio ugdymo realijos ir Charmaz, Kathy (2006). Constructing Grounded plÎtros perspektyvos: mokslini¯ straipsni¯ rinkinys. Theory. A Practical Guide through Qualitative Kaunas: VDU, 87ñ98. Analysis. London: SAGE Publications. Maxwell, Joseph (2013). Qualitative Research Design. DubosaitÎ, Laura (2009). Mokini¯ rengimas vieam An Interactive Approach. Applied Social Research pasirodymui: psichologiniai palaikymo b˚dai. ﬁy- miosios muzikos ir teatro asmenybÎs: j¯ veiklos Methods Series. London: SAGE Publications. projekcija Lietuvos kult˚roje: mokslinÎs konferen- Regelski, Thomas (2011). EstetinÎs ir praktinÎs muzikos cijos praneimai. Vilnius: Lietuvos muzikos ir teatro filosofijos taikymas formuojant muzikinio ugdymo akademija, 130ñ137. programos teorij‡. Meninis ugdymas Lietuvoje: tyrim¯ Elliot, David (1995). Music Matters: A New Philosophy tradicijos ir perspektyva: mokslinÎs konferencijos of Music Education. New York: Oxford University praneimai. KlaipÎda: KlaipÎdos universiteto lei- Press. dykla, 43. GabnytÎ, GiedrÎ (2011). The reasons and premises of –eËkuvienÎ, Henrika (2004). Vaiko muzikini¯ gebÎ- changes of non-formal music training system in jim¯ ugdymas. Vilnius: VPU. Lithuania. Evaluation of piano teaching programmes. –iauËiukÎnienÎ, Liuda, Nida StankeviËienÎ & Renaldas Time of Challenges and Opportunities: Problems, »iu˛as (2011). Didaktikos teorija ir praktika. Kaunas: Solutions and Perspectives: International Scientific- Technologija.

165 Elements of Modern Musical Language in Selected Piano Pieces for Children by Silesian Composers (Poland) from the 20th and 21st centuries

PhD ANNA STACHURA-BOGUSŸAWSKA Faculty of Art, Jan D˘ugosz University in CzÊstochowa

The paper presents selected piano compositions for children written by Upper Silesiaís composers (Poland) in the 20th and the beginning of the 21st century (i.a. W˘adys˘awa MarkiewiczÛwna, Boles˘aw Szabelski, Edward Bogus˘awski). In their colourful miniatures, they fuse specific problematic issues of piano technique with the elements of improvisation, aleatoric or new musical notation issues, which contribute to the development of musical imagination of a child and open its mind to new trends in art. As composer W˘adys˘awa MarkiewiczÛwna said: ìIn future, they are to be not only the recipients of contemporary music but the creators and performers as wellî. Keywords: Upper Silesia, music for children, piano music, modern musical language.

INTRODUCTION poser techniques of modern music. Therefore, these are pieces in which artists ìwanted to Compositions written with consideration of present in short, ënot for realí everything that may 1 the youngest performers constitute, or at least be found in their piecesî . should constitute, a very significant music genre. This paper presents selected piano pieces Frequently, while being the first point of contact composed with consideration of the youngest between a child and an instrument, they signifi- performers by artists related to Silesia. cantly influence their further musical future. Among modern Polish artists, there were and are composers, who are almost entirely dedicated DISCUSSION to activity for children. This is evidenced by rich musical curricula vitae of Janina Gar˙cia or Andrzej Composer environment of Silesia, mainly Hundziak. However, there are many artists, who focused around the Karol Szymanowski Academy have dealt with this type of compositions only of Music in Katowice, is characterized by its open- occasionally. Often the creation of such pieces ness to new trends in music. Starting from the first relates to their life ñ to use the terms of musico- generation (which includes W˘adys˘awa Markie- logist Mieczys˘aw Tomaszewski ñ the so-called wiczÛwna and Boles˘aw Szabelski), which contri- autobiographical moment, i.e., competition or buted to recovering of musical culture in Silesia musical dedication for a specified person (Toma- after the war, artists were connected by open szewski 2003: 24). The educational value of those mind, accepting new, European aesthetic thinking miniatures, however often treated by composers as well as acquiring technical and workshop themselves as marginal, is very high. Not only achievements of the worldís music (WÛjcik 1993: does their musical matter focus on piano issues 45). Katowice was recognized as one of the largest in particular, but also uses the elements of com-

1 Words of Witold Lutos˘awski from a radio program (1974). https://www.polskieradio.pl/6/13/Artykul/ 759058,Lubie-pisac-dla-dzieci ñ visited on March 18, 2018.

166 A. STACHURA-BOGUSŸAWSKA. ELEMENTS OF MODERN MUSICAL LANGUAGE IN SELECTED PIANO PIECES FOR CHILDREN.. modern music centres at the turn of the 1950s zÛwna did not talk about new music. She served and the 1960s. That happened due to the sono- us her own short pieces to play, with suggestive ristic creativity of a group of young artists, led titles ñ and imagination worked by itself. Despite by Henryk Miko˘aj GÛrecki and Wojciech Kilar, that, we ñ students, just started our adventure described by Western critics as more Western with music and just assumed such chords to be than the West itself (Wilczek-Krupa 2015: 128). natural. She certainly showed us a wider sound The same artists led another great breakthrough horizon (JasiÒska 2013). What does this horizon in Polish music in the 1970s by turning their backs look like? The first example comes from the on extreme avant-garde in favour of simplifying handbook for the youngest, CñDñEñFñG. In this the means of expression, returning to abandoned handbook, MarkiewiczÛwna places didactic notes old melodics, as well as searching for new musical for a child, in such a way like she conducted classes spirituality. (MarkiewiczÛwna 2013: 95). In her piece entitled In the catalogue of piano literature written Strach na wrÛble (Scarecrow), she presents the for beginner artists by Silesian composers, there sound of the chromatic scale. However ñ which are pieces where the elements of composer tech- must be highlighted ñ the scale is not presented niques of modern music are used. In their colourful only as melodic pieces. The composer is not afraid miniatures, they do not shy away from sound and of using characteristic chords, which may be formed colour ideas, as well as bravely introduce the from particular elements. There sometimes sound youngest performer to the world of music, full accented triton intervals as well as tertiary and of dissonances and atonal structures. They compare secundal sections, which certainly could associate specific problems of pianistic technique with the with the funny and gnarled title character. elements of improvisation, aleatorism or the issues Operating a full chromatic scale with a parti- of new musical notation, which vastly contributes cular preference for the exposure of dissonances to the development of musical imagination of may also be noted in further miniatures composed children and the opening of their mind to new for young pianists. Both examples come from the trends in art. Ma˘y zwierzyniec (Small zoo) cycle. There are The presentation begins with the art for child- Radosny kozio˘eczek (Happy little goat) and ren by W˘adys˘awa MarkiewiczÛwna (1900ñ GroÍny lew (Dangerous lion). To depict both, 1982), a pianist, composer and pedagogue with the happy play of the little goat, as well as the the heart (as her students called her). Her com- roaring of the king of animals, the composer uses poserís portfolio mainly contains piano pieces, but triton intervals and secundal courses while bearing there are chamber pieces and songs as well. A in mind the radically different nature of the animals. special place is reserved for pieces dedicated to Frolics of active little goat shall include both the children ñ MarkiewiczÛwna dedicated most of highest and the lowest sound registers ñ the atten- her creative life to beginner pianists. Miniatures tion is drawn by the introduction to crossing your contained in the Do-re-mi-fa-sol (1940ñ1945) hands while playing; however, the lion dangerously textbook as well as in Ma˘y zwierzyniec (Small roars with low tones. Zoo ñ 1977) and Kolorowe obrazki (Colourful The effect of the simultaneous combination Pictures ñ 1948) cycles constitute the most vivid of two different sound plans was applied by Mar- evidence of MarkiewiczÛwnaís fascination by kiewiczÛwna in Walc na starej katarynce (Waltz modern music achievements. Each of several or on an Old Barrel Organ) from the second volume several-ten-beat musical stories surprises with a of Kolorowe obrazki (Colourful Pictures). Like brave combination of traditional sound and phrases Bela BartÛk in Mikrokosmos, the composer con- exceeding the dur-moll system. The way, in which trasts a diatonic-sounding melody with an accom- MarkiewiczÛwna turned the discovery of modern paniment abundant in second intervals. This is sounds into a fascinating story, is evidenced by not the end of the dissonances: their greatest her former studentsí statements. Adolfina JasiÒska density, achieved by combining the sound proper- (MarkiewiczÛwnaís student) still remembers her ties of both plans, takes place in the middle section chords, so frequent secundal intervals. In what of the work. However, the surprising sonority other school there are such chords? Itís a unique here does not surprise at all. Who would not smile primer! Her songs constitute a unique introduction at the memory of an old, destroyed barrel organ to modern music (JasiÒska 2013). She also adds of a grandmother, who plays a slightly ìsloppyî another observation: During classes, Markiewic- waltz, found accidentally in a dusty attic?

167 MUSIC SCIENCE TODAY: THE PERMANENT AND THE CHANGEABLE ñ 3 (11)

Example 1. W˘adys˘awa MarkiewiczÛwna, Waltz on Old Barrel Organ (mm. 1ñ18)

In 1976 there was a set of piano miniatures striving for own sound imaginations (Markiewicz for children developed; they were dedicated to 1991: 56), as well as a thought-over workshop Stefan ⁄ledziÒski ñ President of the Management of created pieces. And such a message seems to Board of the Polish Composersí Union, for his be delivered to young pianists by Fughetta2. seventieth birthday. To celebrate the event, among This composition is dedicated to little older others Witold Lutos˘awski, Gra˝yna Bacewicz and children, who have mastered the basic piano skills. Bernadetta Matuszczak ñ in witness of apprecia- The polyphonic texture, a difficult task as it is, tion for valued and distinguished president, they in this case, of carrying three independent voices decided to celebrate his birthday in the finest way ñ has additionally been complicated by quick tempo, musical pieces dedicated thereto (StÊszewski 1975: changes of meter and rich articulation. The sound 3). The compositions also included Fughetta by language is not less demanding: free from dur- Boles˘aw Szabelski. moll system and even deprived of any tonal centre Boles˘aw Szabelski (1896ñ1979), besides it operates a freely ordered 12-tone material, with Boles˘aw Woytowicz, is recognized as the father a predilection to secundal, seventh and tritone of the post-war Silesian composer school. From intervals. However, the neoclassical sound has his master class of composition graduated, among been put by Szabelski in a strict framework. Even others, Henryk Miko˘aj GÛrecki and Edward Bo- a brief analysis shall allow a young pianist to out- gus˘awski. Among his students he was recognized line the primary principles of the construction of as the epitome of gentleness and understanding a polyphonic form. Therefore, we have a developed, towards attitudes and views (Markiewicz 1991: easy to capture topic, with a characteristic begin- 56); however, with tenacity and persistence in ning, slightly more active medial part and visible

2 Fughetta is a short version of the Third Organ Sonata (1943) (Markiewicz 1995, 175).

168 A. STACHURA-BOGUSŸAWSKA. ELEMENTS OF MODERN MUSICAL LANGUAGE IN SELECTED PIANO PIECES FOR CHILDREN.. closure and three complete and incomplete courses. constancy, which may in some way be suggested Only counterpoints do not have the features of by the title of the composition fughetta.

Example 2. Boles˘aw Szabelski, Fughetta (mm. 1ñ9)

Upon consecutive composition, there returns ñ composed by Henryk Miko˘aj GÛrecki. Quasi however, in a little more anecdotal way ñ the Valse is a miniature full of contrast, in which the spirit of W˘adys˘awa MarkiewiczÛwna. This is composer combines sound and workshop elements, Quasi Valse (1961) by Henryk Miko˘aj GÛrecki which are the most significant for the dedicant. (1933ñ2010)3. Why anecdotal? In the 1960s, Mar- It primarily is a shorter, aphoristic composition kiewiczÛwna and GÛrecki were neighbours in with a dance rhythm as well as modern sound Katowice in the Koszutka district. There they often effects achieved by means of dodecaphonic order, met to talk about music, and one could often which MarkiewiczÛwna was fascinated with. hear lasting sounds from their flatsí windows. However, the dodecaphonic series has been applied Therefore, there is the dedication: For Dear Mrs. restrictively and has not been used as a consequen- Professor, on her Name day (to kill the neighbours) tial method of organization of the sound material

3 The composition was entered to 52 opus of GÛrecki ñ RÛ˝ne utwory na fortepian (Various Piano Pieces). Besides Quasi valse there are also contained Recitativo and Mazurek, Dwa utwory (Two Pieces) and Trzy utwory dodekafoniczne (Three Dodecaphonic Pieces). Miniatures included in this cycle are not mutually related by composer language or extra-musical or formal idea (GÛrecka 2012: 50).

169 MUSIC SCIENCE TODAY: THE PERMANENT AND THE CHANGEABLE ñ 3 (11) in the whole miniature. Besides the serial complexes, The next composition to be discussed for there are tonally sounding fragments, too ñ mainly children is a chamber music proposal that was those, which expose the dance factor. What does finished in 2001 Children Preludes for two pianos the initial dodecaphonic fragment look like? by Edward Bogus˘awski (1940ñ2003) ñ another GÛrecki constructs a certain musical puzzle. He graduate of composer class of Boles˘aw Szabelski. does not disclose the order of twelve notes of the It was created for the contest of chamber music series at the beginning of the piece but discloses for children and youths organized by the Karol the order thereof in the further bars. Quasi Valse Szymanowski Academy of Music in Katowice. opens with the eighth note motifs ñ a type of dance Children Preludes comprises ten pieces put by accompaniment, however preserving a certain the composer in non-random order, both in terms pitch order. In further fourteen bars, all notes of of the degree of advancement of the piano tech- the series are introduced but still with the rotation nique as well as due to the use of issues of modern of elements. Full image of the order of series is sounds. Regular gradation of technical complexity introduced by the composer in bars 23ñ25. Quasi certainly is Bogus˘awskiís tribute to BartÛkís Micro- Valse, despite being a type of a witty gift for Mar- cosmos. Although every miniature creates sepa- kiewiczÛwna, is certainly consistent with her way rate and closed sound and word landscape, of thinking about compositions for children ñ combined they acquire particular colour of sound space, creating a chain of contrasting links con- compositions that should not only teach, but mainly nected with a buckle of a quasi-arc form (Stachura raise interest. 2005: 237).

Example 3. Edward Bogus˘awski, Children Preludes for Two Pianos ñ Prelude IV (mm. 1ñ9)

170 A. STACHURA-BOGUSŸAWSKA. ELEMENTS OF MODERN MUSICAL LANGUAGE IN SELECTED PIANO PIECES FOR CHILDREN..

The first four preludes ñ as Bogus˘awski wrote the role of a player but also that of a co-creator down in the score ñ may be performed in four of the piece. The composer highlights that she hands. In those miniatures, the composer matches draws inspiration for her pieces from the entire the selected issues of piano skills with the pheno- musical history, as well as the possibility to juggle menon of extended tonality. In Prelude I, staccato various musical ëgesturesí and ëdialogí with an and legato are opposed, simultaneously exposing existing richness of resources (SiemiÒska 2018). whole-note passages as well as the sound of disso- She highlights, that the earliest contact of a child nances, e.g., small and large secundal intervals. with modern means is absolutely necessary. We Lyrical Prelude II, in its turn, is the presentation live in the 21st century ñ says SiemiÒska ñ and it of limited sound registers of the instrument as is just mandatory not to close yourself within well as of the elements of bimodality of overlap- the safe major-minor. Obviously, we raise future ping intervals of pure fifths. The attention shall audience of philharmonic repertoires, but letís be drawn to Prelude IV, where the melodic aspect also raise future music lovers, who are not afraid has been nearly entirely exempted, and the main of dissonance and experiments, who will happily focus is put on two ñ very important for modern go to a modern music concert (SiemiÒska 2018). music ñ elements of the musical piece: sound In Eureka (2016), not only does the composer colourfulness and texture. In this prelude, Bogus- familiarize children with selected elements of the ˘awski applies two types of textures: the first new sound language, principles of indeterminism ostinato with repetition, at first, of single notes and musical graphics, but also introduces them followed by the passages of secundal construction. to the world of electro-acoustic sounds, since this The second texture, in its turn, familiarizes children composition is for piano and tape. SiemiÒska cha- with Anton Webernís punctualism: there are sec- racterizes her piece as follows: It is composed on tions with a split in variable registers, melodically the crescendo principle and illustrates the work played octaves, with precisely marked dynamic of the mind of a child who comes up with an idea. layer and articulation. In the electronic layer, there are sounds heard The sound material included in five consecu- that the author associates with the operation of tive preludes, as well as slightly more advanced a processor ñ an artificial brain. The piano layer way of its disposal, visibly exposes the features is in contrast with euphonic sounds, which in of composer skills of Edward Bogus˘awski. Seeds some places are interrupted with strong quartal of ideas present in those miniatures may be found chords ñ symbols of something that obstructs in many of his instrumental pieces. There must thinking (a fly?...). The entirety of this intense be listed a.o. the predilections to sharp dissonance ìthinking processî ends with a thunder and happy chords, a gradual density of the sound spectrum shout ñ IíVE GOT IN IDEA! (SiemiÒska 2017) by adding further elements to chords, as well as The tape layer has been prepared in popular characteristic, short ornaments. computer software and makes use of synth bell In Prelude VIII, the composer introduces the sounds, as well as processed sound effects of mobile elements of controlled aleatorism, thus following and murmur background. In the piano part, the Witold Lutos˘awski, certain time freedom of par- initial or even lyrically sounding repetitive themes ticular music phrases, although with a strict marking are gradually enhanced with singular sound pulses of all pitches. The lack of meter, the bar lines, as in quite distant sound registers, which finally lead well as the frequent application of fermata, dece- to the changes of texture to Webernís punctua- lerations, and accelerations, shall allow young lism. Since then, the traditional sound and rhythm- pianists more significantly affect the shaping of metrical recording is replaced by a modern one, the complete narration of the miniature. and a young performer ñ following SiemiÒskaís Anna SiemiÒska (born in 1979) ñ a graduate guidelines ñ decides on the further image of the of the Musical Academy in Katowice, teacher of piece. It is their responsibility to fill a 15-second music theory, author of books for children, a.o. punctualism and then glissando space with sounds, Kot w nutach (Puss in Notes), Bajka o Feliksie where only the initial sound is indicated by a (Tale about Felix), as well as choral and piano triangle graphical symbol. The soloistís improvi- pieces ñ took up the aleatorism to a much larger sation concludes with thunder that signalizes the extent, thus entrusting a young pianist not only occurrence of an idea...

171 MUSIC SCIENCE TODAY: THE PERMANENT AND THE CHANGEABLE ñ 3 (11)

Example 4. Anna SiemiÒska, Eureka (last section)

CONCLUSION JasiÒska, Adolfina (2013). Interview with Anna Sta- chura-Bogus˘awska. Markiewicz, Leon (1991). Boles˘aw Szabelski. Kato- Childrenís world, also the musical one, is wice: Wydawnictwo Zwi‡zku KompozytorÛw beautiful, interesting and has multiple colours. It Polskich Oddzia˘ w Katowicach i Akademii Mu- fascinates also us ñ adults. However, it is extremely zycznej im. Karola Szymanowskiego w Katowicach. important that, together with the joy of making Markiewicz, Leon (1995). Boles˘aw Szabelski ˝ycie i music, it also gives the youngest an idea of the twÛrczo˙„. KrakÛw: PWM. world of sounds that are around them in concert MarkiewiczÛwna, W˘adys˘awa (2013). Do pedagoga. halls. It is necessary, as ñ quote from W˘adys˘awa Do-re-mi-fa-sol. Pocz‡tki nauki gry na fortepianie. MarkiewiczÛwna ñ children react livelily and well KrakÛw: PWM. to everything thatís new, so why would we muffle Polskie Radio (2013). ìLubiÊ pisa„ dla dzieciî. https://www.polskieradio.pl/6/13/Artykul/759058, this type of interest since in the future they are Lubie-pisac-dla-dzieci ñ visited on March 18, 2018. supposed not only to be recipients of modern SiemiÒska, Anna (2017). Interview with Anna Stachura- music but to perform or create one (Markiewic- Bogus˘awska. zÛwna 2013: 95). SiemiÒska, Anna (2018). Interview with Anna Stachura- Bogus˘awska. Stachura, Anna (2005). O muzyce Edwarda Bogus˘aw- REFERENCES skiego. In: Iwona Bias, Monika Bieda, Anna Stachura. Emocja utkana z dÍwiÊku. Edward Bogus˘awski ˝ycie ñ dzie˘o. CzÊstochowa: Akademia im. Jana GÛrecka, Anna (2012). Rola fortepianu w ˝yciu i twÛr- D˘ugosza w CzÊstochowie. czo˙ci Henryka Miko˘aja GÛreckiego. Katowice: StÊszewski, Jan (1975). Przedmowa. Dedykacje. ZbiÛr Akademia Muzyczna im. Karola Szymanowskiego miniatur fortepianowych dla dzieci. Warszawa: w Katowicach. Wydawnictwo Muzyczne Agencji Autorskiej.

172 A. STACHURA-BOGUSŸAWSKA. ELEMENTS OF MODERN MUSICAL LANGUAGE IN SELECTED PIANO PIECES FOR CHILDREN..

Tomaszewski, Mieczys˘aw (2003). Muzyka w dialogu ze s˘owem. KrakÛw: Akademia Muzyczna w Kra- kowie. Wilczek-Krupa, Maria (2015). Kilar. Geniusz o dwÛch twarzach. KrakÛw: Wydawnictwo Znak. WÛjcik, Andrzej (1993). Nurt neoklasyczny w twÛr- czo˙ci kompozytorÛw gÛrno˙l‡skich. TwÛrczo˙„ kompozytorÛw ˙rodowiska katowickiego. Zeszyt Naukowy Akademii Muzycznej w Katowicach 26: 43ñ56.

173 Selected Issues in Methodology of Conducting a Primary Music School Orchestra

Dr. hab. MAŸGORZATA KANIOWSKA University of Silesia in Katowice (Poland)

The author discusses selected issues concerning conducting orchestras at primary music schools. The paper analyses the ways of organizing and conducting ensembles, particularly string ones. The paper is an attempt to approach the key issues for the effective work with an orchestra, such as preparation of orchestral parts, repertoire or general music education. The music performance and the organization of the process of ensemble teaching should be based on the general principles of teaching regarding the most efficient possible use of the conductorís professional skills. The paper is completed with the discussion of the structure and characteristics of works for children, which serve as a kind of introduction into simple arrangements for childrenís orchestras. Keywords: teaching, school orchestra, conductor skills, arrangement.

INTRODUCTION STRUCTURE OF A PRIMARY MUSIC SCHOOL ORCHESTRA

My interest in this subject springs from my long service as a juror at the Festival of Music Orchestras with string instruments as their School Orchestras organized since 1995 under core are among the most common ensembles found the auspices of the Artistic Education Centre at in primary music schools. The strings are often the Frederic Chopin State Primary Music School supplemented with wind and percussion instru- in Bedzin and from my personal experience gained ments and occasionally the piano, depending on while working with primary and secondary music the availability of given instruments. Recently, school ensembles. brass bands and big bands are enjoying growing In most primary music schools, orchestras popularity. Since intonation problems, frequent are led by instrumentalists without appropriate at this stage of education, need to be solved, it conducting skills. In a few schools employing pro- seems advisable for school orchestras to be homo- fessional conductors, their inadequate methodical- genous ñ string or brass, with the possible addition didactic preparation for work with children can of other individual instruments for the enrichment be seen. The present educational programme for of the ensembleís timbre, rather than quasi-sym- conductors, in most cases, prepares them for phonic orchestras, usually either incomplete due working with ensembles of professional musicians, to the absence of double-bass or viola in primary whose playing competences and comprehensive music schools or supplemented by non-orchestral musical education enable them to create satisfac- instruments such as the accordion. In this paper, tory artistic interpretations but not to solve tech- I will concentrate on the problems of conducting nical problems of playing a given instrument. string orchestras. At the elementary stage such Work with childrenís and teenagersí ensembles ensembles usually consist of: first, second and poses for the conductor various methodical- third violins (less often viola), cello and in rare didactic problems which his academic training cases double-bass in schools with double-bass does not always prepare him for. classes.

174 M. KANIOWSKA. SELECTED ISSUES IN METHODOLOGY OF CONDUCTING A PRIMARY MUSIC SCHOOL ORCHESTRA

METHODOLOGY OF WORKING WITH familiarize the students with the piece played and SCHOOL ORCHESTRAS its composer and to explain in a few words why he has chosen this particular repertoire and not The ensemble ñ with each section consisting another one. of, as far as possible, an equal number of advanced The reading of a composition at a slow pace players and beginners ñ should enunciate a unified, helps to understand the structure of the piece. cohesive sound with balanced dynamics in terms This is followed by the verification of bowing, of harmonic consonance. Due to the customary fingering, dynamics, articulation and possible difficulty of lead parts, children with the best tech- errors in the musical text. The children are required nical skills should be assigned to the first violin to bring writing materials to the initial meetings section. The orchestra concertmaster and principals in order to mark the performing and conducting of each section may be chosen through a compe- directions on the margins. tition obligatory for all children. Such a compe- Proper seating of the ensemble on stage or tition additionally familiarizes the conductor with in a practice room is also important. It is necessary the technical and musical skills of individual for music-stands and chairs to be placed so as to children, especially in cases when the conductor give the students enough space for unconfined had no previous opportunity to verify their abili- hand movements. The height of the music-stands ties or when the children are joining the orchestra has to be adjusted to the height of the children ñ for the first time. not too low so that they would not lower their The fundamental problem the conductor of violins too much and not too high for them to be a childrenís orchestra faces in the early stages of able to follow the conductorís gestures without instrumental education is the proper realization difficulty. Just as in a professional orchestra, the of pitch and rhythm. Before this happens, a pre- students are assigned fixed places at the stands; rehearsal verification of the tuning is necessary. however, occasional rearrangements within a The tuning may pose a problem for beginning group are possible when moving some children instrumentalists who lack satisfactory skills in from the back stands to the front ones is intended this field. At this stage, it is the conductorís role to further mobilize them. to personally tune individual violins or cellos, a It is most important for the conductor to teach task which may be difficult for someone not fami- the students how to listen to each other and to liar with the structure of string instruments and make them aware of the relations between various the principles of their tuning. It calls for close instrumental groups and of their interdependence, cooperation with teacher-instrumentalists who and proper execution of the leading and accom- will tune the instrument or replace a broken string in ìcriticalî situations. The proficiency in instru- panying voices. The knowledge that is taken for ment playing techniques is indispensable for editing granted in a professional orchestra player is not individual orchestral parts. available to a student at an early stage of instru- For the sake of saving time and making his mental education and needs to be constantly broa- work more effective during rehearsals, the con- dened. It is essential for a student to be familiar ductor, prior to a rehearsal, should ñ on the scores with his part and to execute the musical text as of the first music-stands in each group ñ indicate far as the pitch, rhythm, proper articulation and appropriate bowing techniques and fingering in dynamics are concerned in the tempo set by the difficult places. The markings will be then copied conductor. Periodical auditions of individual stu- by children seated at farther music-stands. This dents help to verify their progress in assimilating allows for unifying the phrasing and sound of orchestral know-how and to correct errors in their particular instrumental groups. The analysis of performance. If the conductor lacks proper skills the score by the conductor is important not just for playing a given instrument which would aid for the creation of an interesting interpretation, him in solving problems emerging during rendering but, above all, for singling-out the fragments that a given part, close cooperation with teacher-instru- might be most difficult for a young performer mentalists is essential. and for devising a strategy for solving technical The knowledge students gain in the educa- and musical problems which might appear during tional process and the technical proficiency in the rendition of individual parts. The conductor playing an instrument they acquire have to be of a school orchestra, as opposed to one working effectively used by them during the school orchestra with professional musicians, is also obliged to practice. Any shortcomings should be reported

175 MUSIC SCIENCE TODAY: THE PERMANENT AND THE CHANGEABLE ñ 3 (11) to relevant teachers responsible for other areas ó principle of demonstrating, or showing the of the childís musical development and dealt with. forms of performance and exercise, The fact that school orchestra members change ó principle of systematic approach or the main- from year to year poses an additional challenge tenance of continuity in the teaching process, for the conductor. A student, meticulously pre- logical choice of means and instructional pared for teamwork, leaves the orchestra upon materials, building on materials and skills graduating and his place is taken by a new one previously acquired, adherence to the proper who starts at the beginning. When a steady number order of issues at hand (KolasiÒski 1972: 30), of students playing a given instrument at various ó the principle of conscious participation in the levels of proficiency is at hand, it is possible to didactic process in which the studentís indivi- maintain the achieved standard of performance dual work is guided by a teacher who helps despite constant rotations. When, however, there him perfect his ability to solve problems on is a significant difference in the number of children his own, in various classes, it is necessary to restructure the ó the principle of intelligibility or adjustment ensemble at the beginning of a school year in a of technical-interpretative requirements to fashion allowing for fruitful and satisfying work ñ the studentís age, abilities, and talent, didactically and artistically. ó the principle of reinforcement of acquired The students beginning their adventure with knowledge ñ strengthening of acquired tech- an orchestra need to be familiarized with the basic nical skills in instrument playing helps to movements of the conductor and their meaning. form a habit of associating symbols of musical To begin with, the role of the upbeat, simulta- notation with aural perception and automating neous beginning and ending of playing, starting motor functions during a performance (Kola- and ending fermatas, an indication of dynamic siÒski 1972: 32). and articulation changes should be explained and demonstrated, in order to later receive an exact Teaching children how to properly behave and proper reaction from the young performers on stage is also an important issue. Standing up to a specific hand gesture. The achievement of upon the conductorís appearance, shaking hands desirable didactic effects depends on a schedule with the concertmaster and the principal of the prepared beforehand, providing for a uniform cello section, indicating to the ensemble to resume development of all aspects of performance and the sitting position, preparation for playing, and broadly understood the appreciation of music. finally a precise, clear preparation gesture allowing At the initial stage of their education, children the ensemble to begin ñ such behaviour, evident should be familiarized with the basic elements of and natural for every conductor and professional music such as cadence, dynamics, phrasing, into- musician, is not obvious to children just beginning nation, etc. Only after the students have mastered to play in an orchestra. It becomes habitual only the above, can one expect gratifying results from after repeated practice. the conductorís and the ensembleís work. Ob- viously, with advanced ensembles the conductor will work on maximum rhythmic and intonation precision, on unifying the quality of the sound SELECTING THE REPERTOIRE and the diversification of style of the works performed, while with beginners he will concentrate Selecting the repertoire is one of the most on the precision of rhythm, expressiveness of the important tasks a primary music school conductor melody, intonation purity, adequate performance faces. Before making a selection, the conductor and the overall culture of playing. Teaching music has to determine the studentsí level of achieve- principles in a skilful, lively and interesting way, ment to make sure that the chosen works match as if sneaking it through to the students while the ensembleís abilities. playing a piece of music, is a much-desired ability With the development of an ensembleís capa- (Dyrda˘ 1979: 47). bilities, the difficulty level can be gradually raised. Covering the educational programme and The issue which invariably appears in conversa- organizing the teaching process while working tions with conductors at primary music school with an ensemble ought to be based on general festivals is the scarcity of suitable repertoire posi- didactic principles explained in detail by Jerzy Ko- tions. The Polish publishing market offers very lasiÒski in his publication Instrumental Ensembles: few original compositions written with childrenís

176 M. KANIOWSKA. SELECTED ISSUES IN METHODOLOGY OF CONDUCTING A PRIMARY MUSIC SCHOOL ORCHESTRA orchestras in mind. Most conductors are forced ó avoidance of too many sounds which to create arrangements, some more successful are difficult to produce, than others, for the orchestras they are currently ó avoidance of awkward leaps at a fast working with. Here film music arrangements tempo, prevail, which are most readily played by ó adherence to similar motif and rhythm children. There are no competitions for compo- patterns; it facilitates reading at a fast sers that would focus on creating a new repertoire pace. for school orchestras and ensembles, a repertoire In general, each part ought to match the per- that would undoubtedly positively affect the formerís skills. It should be diverse with easy and understanding and the ability of elementary level difficult fragments and some passages a ìnotch students to perform contemporary music. aboveî the current level of the studentís achieve- The repertoire should balance works repre- ment. This helps to develop an individual musi- senting various performance styles diversified in cianís proficiency and in effect to advance the form, character and musical means employed in competence and technical proficiency of the entire order to familiarize young musicians with the ensemble (SzaliÒski 1971: 157ñ158). broadest possible spectrum of stylistics and playing techniques. The educational music publishing house The mastery of the conductorís craft is not Carl Fischer Music, featuring a wide range of always sufficient to obtain desired performance original works for school string orchestras for effects. Often, especially at the beginning of working beginners and intermediary students, seems to with children, even the overly exaggerated style be worth recommending. of conducting is necessary for the comfort of young Each of the proposed scores focuses on specific musicians. Expansive gesticulation helps the stu- performance problems and, at the same time, dents play with more confidence, get accustomed teaches the youngest chamber musicians to work to the sound of the entire ensemble and become in a group. its organic part. Equally important is a steady eye-contact between the conductor and the perfor- When arranging a piece for a childrenís mers. Each entry of a group or a single instru- orchestra, the following should be kept in mind: ment, besides a properly signalled upbeat, should 1. A melody, whether easy or difficult, should be preceded by a glance, a nod or a smile. Each always be interesting. It will be rehearsed phrase, especially a solo one, should be introduced over and over again and should not bore the by the conductor with an expressive, dynamic performer, gesture not only suggesting the way it should be 2. Each instrumentís part should use its broadest played but also encouraging the performer or possible scale (Ö) Having the third violin performers. Facial expressions and body language play only empty strings (Ö) is unacceptable, are additional attributes that contribute to the 3. Each group and each instrument should be performance effectiveness of a childrenís orchestra. given a longer or shorter solo part. Easier fragments of the melody should be occasionally played by second or third violins (Ö), 4. The prominent fragments can and should CONCLUSIONS include interesting technical and rhythmic problems which demand practice and thinking The above reflections clearly demonstrate that while playing, a leader of a school orchestra has to cope with 5. Background fragments, especially in forte, more challenges than a conductor of a professional should be technically easy (Ö). With many symphony orchestra. Only when combined with instruments playing together in tutti, the the ability to play a number of instruments, to sounds are inaudible. No instrumentalist will arrange a composition, in addition to a broad be eager to practice difficult passages, which overall musical knowledge, teaching abilities and will not be heard, an in-depth understanding of children and young 6. The authorís concern for the performer and peopleís developmental psychology does the con- his instrument can be read between the lines ductorís range of techniques become an effective of a well-written part, as exemplified by: tool in working with young music apprentices. ó a number of pauses for rest (Ö) to put It leads to excellent results and develops a predi- on a mute or remove it, lection, natural for children, for group music-

177 MUSIC SCIENCE TODAY: THE PERMANENT AND THE CHANGEABLE ñ 3 (11) making. It remains an open question whether their satisfaction from playing in a school orchestra. primary music school orchestras should (as is There still remains the problem of the ambitions common in many facilities at present) be led by and aspirations of young conductors which often instrumentalists often lacking conducting know- reach beyond the domain of school orchestras. ledge and skills or conductors without proper didactic training and proficiency in string instrument playing techniques. Including the basics of REFERENCES conducting in the curriculum of instrumental music students and introducing a course of leading primary music school orchestras as an elective Dyrda˘, Andrzej (1979). Amatorski zespÛ˘ smyczkowy for conducting majors in Academies of Music could [Amateur String Ensemble]. Warszawa: Centralny be the solution of this dilemma. Contact with a O˙rodek Metodyki i Upowszechniania Kultury. professional conductor, who is aware of the tasks KolasiÒski, Jerzy (1972). Zespo˘y instrumentalne he has to face when leading a childrenís orchestra, [Instrumental Ensembles]. Warszawa: PaÒstwowe tasks that are different from the ones he tackles Zak˘ady Wydawnictw Szkolnych. SzaliÒski, Antoni (1971). Muzykowanie zespo˘owe when dealing with professional ensembles, would [Ensemble Music-Making]. Warszawa: Centralny undoubtedly improve the progress of children at O˙rodek Metodyki Upowszechniania Kultury. the primary level of musical education and increase

178 Interplay of Performance Expression Elements: Teaching Organists to Perform in Concerts

PhD EGLÀ –EDUIKYTÀ KORIENÀ Associate Professor at the Lithuanian Academy of Music and Theatre ﬁIVILÀ MEIL¤NAITÀ Master degree Student at the Lithuanian Academy of Music and Theatre

When teaching a performer to be professional and play in concerts, the success is determined not only by his talent and continuous work but largely by the teacherís ability to know and reveal the studentís personality and guide him towards comprehensive professional development. In the education of a contemporary performer, it is essential to develop all the elements of performance expression such as musicality, emotionality, awareness, and artistry. Conscious- ness is the most essential feature for a performer; however, the dominance of the rational origins may hinder the way to emotional expression. Conveying emotions in music is one of the most important aspirations for the performer. Keywords: performer, performance expression, the elements of organistís performance expression, organ concerto performance.

INTRODUCTION tional means of organistís expression and the application of such means in individual cases. The An educator plays a very important role in a objectives of the study: to examine performerís future musicianís journey. A student remembers main elements of expression in the education his first teachers for the rest of his life. It is a process; to distinguish the means of expression person who through his knowledge, competence that are essential in educating organists; to define and authority may motivate a student or kill his specific elements of performance expression in motivation in music. A teacher has to perceive organ music. The research methods: the study of what halts his studentís development. Thus, psycho- methodological and psychological literature, inter- logical training for a teacher is as important as a view. well-considered tactic how to educate. It is important not only to show how to play an instrument but at the same time to broaden studentís know- 1. OBJECTIVES AND MEANS IN DEVELOPING ledge of culture, music, nurture his emotions and PERFORMERíS EXPRESSION self-expression. This stage comes only when certain skills have been mastered: playing technique, movement control, developed consciousness and 1.1. PLAYING TECHNIQUE AND MOVEMENT CONTROL observation. Organists face specific conditions while performing on stage where particular elements of expression come into force: the performer is invisible Playing technique is one of the initial stages to the listener, the success of his performance each person faces beginning to play a musical partly depends on the assistants, acoustics and instrument. According to Chris Corfield (2015), the performance capabilities of the instrument. who researches the nature of playing music and The research object ñ the development of orga- its benefits to people, six beneficial performance nistís performance expression in the process of development techniques can be singled out. education. The aim of the study ñ to analyse educa- 1. Patience. The biggest challenge for beginners

179 MUSIC SCIENCE TODAY: THE PERMANENT AND THE CHANGEABLE ñ 3 (11) playing an instrument is the development of rhythm, sound and melody (Gabrielsson, patience. Perseverance is the first means in goal Lindstrˆm 2001); achievement. Allotting enough time every day to 2. Performance features. Performerís skills and develop playing technique, a musician is building his state affect the way a piece of music is up patience. Having developed patience, perfor- played. By skills we mean performerís abili- mers become more self-confident. 2. Achievements. ties, technical skills and appearance, including Usually, each musician has his dream piece of physical appearance. By state, we mean moti- music he would like to play but cannot do it for vation and interpretation of the piece of certain reasons. However, practicing for hours music. you can reach your goals and it helps you move 3. Listener features. How musical emotion is forward. 3. Concentration. One of the reasons perceived is determined by the listenerís age, why parents encourage their children to play a knowledge about music art and listening musical instrument is that playing music has a motivation. positive effect on developing concentration. The 4. Contextual features. The venue and event can ability to concentrate is useful in other fields of boost the emotions of performance, for life, such as general studies, driving and others. example, funeral, wedding, or celebration 4. Socialising. Although performerís life may seem (Scherer, Zentner 2001). rather isolated because you play for hours isolated from the world, musicians socializing with like- When listening to music we experience feelings minded people make up their own community, and emotions. They are similar concepts but they where they share their experiences, find ways how denote different states. Feeling is related to physical to make the learning process easier. 5. Physical needs and is often stable. Emotion is a psycholo- benefit. The development of technique can be gical change and it can be temporary, depending beneficial not only to the psychological state of on a situation that is caused by feelings. Therefore, mind and creativity; it can be good to studentís the performance of music composition firstly physical health. In the course of time, playing stimulates physical change through the senses, builds muscle memory which helps to keep the thus evoking emotions. body active, strengthens the body parts which are most often trained, for instance, wrist, knuckles, legs, and back. 6. Empathy. Finally, of all the 1.3. CONSCIOUSNESS AND OBSERVATION benefits, all five listed aspects give a musician the most important feeling of empathy, the feeling of pleasure. The ability to play technically makes Consciousness is purposeful attention, a con- the musician happier and more self-confident. centration that requires being precisely concen- Having mastered the technique, he can concen- trated on a certain action. If a person develops trate on the expression of artistic performance deliberate thinking, he develops consciousness. (Corfield 2015). Consciousness permits to live a quieter life because It is necessary to encourage the performer to some events, especially negative ones, usually have improve playing technique since it is the funda- a negative impact on your emotions and then it mentals of quality performance. However, con- is difficult to concentrate and realize that it is centration only on technique development may already the past. Scientific research confirms that have some drawbacks, too. consciousness is beneficial for human beings. 1. It enables to process information faster and encourages one to forget negative past events that have an effect on our present. 2. It develops the ability 1.2. EXPRESSION OF EMOTIONS to control your emotions in difficult and stressful situations. 3. It strengthens empathy and good- Ability to understand emotions that come will. 4. It lengthens attention span and concentra- from music develops in early childhood. Resear- tion. 5. It stimulates creativity. 6. It inspires a chers of music performance expression state that person to be happier, understand and experience emotions, which are evoked when playing music, the joy of the present moment. consist of several features: The development of consciousness is a very 1. Structural features. Important factors in ex- important task because conscious performers pressing musical emotion are tempo, duration, become more courageous, happier and self-con-

180 E. –EDUIKYTÀ KORIENÀ, ﬁ. MEIL¤NAITÀ. INTERPLAY OF PERFORMANCE EXPRESSION ELEMENTS: TEACHING ORGANISTS.. fident, are able to concentrate on the piece of 2. ISSUES IN DEVELOPING ORGANISTíS music. An educator has to teach a student to be PERFORMANCE EXPRESSION conscious not only when he is playing but to be aware of emotions which occur in different life To find out the possibilities of organistís per- situations (William 1998). formance expression, to single out the most effective means of developing them and reveal specific conditions, which a performing organist faces, on 1.4. THE NEED FOR SELF-ACTUALIZATION March 20ñ23, an interview was conducted with three highly experienced educators from LAMT Organ and Harpsichord Department. All three The founder of humanistic psychology, author respondents have graduated from the Piano and of positive psychology, American psychologist Organ Department at the Lithuanian Academy A. Maslow, creator of the five-stage pyramid of of Music and Theatre. Twelve questions have been human needs, has said that the need for self-actua- asked to thoroughly examine the features of lization equals the importance of physiological organ performance mentoring, the problems and needs. Only a self-actualized person can become ways to solve them. happy. It is as important as eating and drinking. Depending on their strengths, people can self- 1. Every teacher wants their student to be actualize themselves in different fields, for example, professional. To a question of what factors are to become artists, businessmen, doctors, etc. A of essential importance and most effective in all- person has to overcome difficulties when he aims round education of an organist, and what an to self-actualize himself. He can take a step back educator has to pay attention to, all educators when he is afraid of difficulties and stay in his have provided a unanimous response. Education comfort zone and, according to Maslow, move has to be individually adjusted by having evalu- away from his happiness (Maslow, 2009). ated studentís possibilities. It is significant to know A performer has to cross the boundaries of the strengths and the weaknesses of your student safety and comfort all his life. Each performer and support the strong points and strengthen the has experienced a failed concert, during which due weak ones (R1). Besides, it is necessary to encourage to stress or fear, he failed to perform the way he studentís interest in music: In the first place, it is wanted. The educatorsí task is to encourage the listening to music ñ going to concerts, watching student to take it as a useful experience and go videos and listening to sound records, listening again on the stage. So, each test should be per- to colleagues and school mates playing (R1). Some ceived as an experience which would encourage educators believe, that educatorís activities are to be more resistant to unfavourable conditions. no less important factor, which could be a model Organ playing technique as that of any other encouraging to pursuit good results. The educa- instrument is developed from the very first learning tors emphasize that it is essential to develop not days. The founder of present organ school in only studentís technical skills but also his/her Lithuania, professor Leopoldas Digrys (born personality. Therefore, it is important to consider 1934) emphasizes the first stage in teaching playing all aspects necessary for all-round education organ, when it is essential to become conscious because teacherís activities and personality, as well of the differences in playing the piano and the as individual features of a student, may influence organ (Digrys 1998). the results, progress and speed up music learning. An educator, considering all the features of 2. Supposing that an educator has ignored the organ instrument, has to see that all skills are all the factors determining organistís advance- developed gradually. The future performer with ment, how would it undermine the performerís the help of his teacher has to become friends with expression? All educators agree that if an organist the instrument. Having mastered the technique, does not have all-round education, he will not an organist meets other characteristics of the be able to perform further and more difficult tasks instrument during a concert, such as differences in music and will not be interesting to a listener. in organ tracture and playing panel, a variety of If we do not increase the requirements, the result acoustics, different voice and register abilities. will be similar to ìstagnant waterî (Ö) if a musician These challenges become the routine of a perfor- is not interesting, how can he play in an interesting ming organist. way... (R3). It is necessary to discuss not only

181 MUSIC SCIENCE TODAY: THE PERMANENT AND THE CHANGEABLE ñ 3 (11) technical problems but also speak about the beauty (R2). It is really difficult for an organist to deal of music, the idea and the significance of a piece with problems, especially if concerts are not given of music. A performer often becomes a well-known often. Performance anxiety is a common feeling person in the society, therefore, his success, popu- that accompanies us. However, when conditions larity, and evaluation depend on what message of the performance are inconvenient, one has to he passes on to the listener and what kind of perso- forget the anxiety and adjust to the present situa- nality he is himself. Thorough use of all means tion by keeping composure. None of the listeners of expression in education is the beginning of have to sense that music suffers due to the feeling proper development where the development of of discomfort experienced by a performer. art perception is equally important and it will 5. When performing, an organist usually help the performer to become interesting. plays with the help of an assistant who changes 3. Being asked whether it is important to the voices of the organ. The question whether an adjust repertoire individually to a student, and assisting person may disturb, distract or, on the what should be taken into consideration when contrary, help the performance, has been answered choosing a piece of music, some respondents have by organ educators by stating that an assistant stated that it is important to select a piece of music should not affect the performance unless the assis- not only considering the studentís weakest points, tant is incompetent. However, many people think which could be faster strengthened with the help that there might be some interference. If you have of pieces of music, but it is necessary to familiarise to keep an eye on the assistant and help him deal students with music and traditions of different with his tasks, then he interferes. Most important epochs. One respondent noted that it is necessary is a reliable assistant, then the performance will to choose a more complex piece of music designed not suffer (R2). On the one hand, an assistant to develop studentís abilities, but also such a piece may hinder the organistís concentration on music of music which would be feasible to perform, and distract him. On the other hand, it is often and which would bring the joy of creativity. impossible to manage without an assistant, there- The choice of proper repertoire can have a fore, it is necessary to adapt to the assistantís strong influence on studentís development; there- presence. It is important to have an assistant who fore, it is essential that all present studentís abilities is competent and can be trusted. are considered. A good educator can feel what a 6. Organists often play from sheet music student needs at a certain stage. Mastering some because it also helps the assistant to follow the pieces of music takes a long time and effort but course of musical composition. Does it affect the the result is far from effective (R2). An appro- expression of performance? Does sheet music priately chosen piece of music may help achieve before your eyes help you stay calm or restricts excellent results and motivate a student to play creative freedom? Some people believe that sheet and be interested in music. music disturbs concentration on the essence of 4. Organs and the place for performance often the musical composition because then your con- change; the performer meets unforeseen problems, centration is on the notes rather than on the com- such as uncomfortable panel/stand of organs, position. Others think that sheet music has no complicated mechanics of an instrument, the lack influence on music interpretation. On the contrary, of practice and bad acoustics of a church. Thus, it helps you stay calm. Finally, when you learn a question is how to deal with these challenges the music composition well, you do not look at the sheet music in front of you. Organists are during a concert? According to the educatorsí used to playing from sheet music; therefore, we opinion, when facing these challenges, one can sometimes miss the moment when we can play only overcome them if he has sufficient experience. without it (R2). The main objective of a performer, Not having an opportunity to give concerts in as well as an organist, is to interpret music expres- different places, they can get used to inconvenience sively, thus all other factors should not have any in the classroom creating certain unfavourable influence on the quality or freedom of emotions. conditions. Performerís attitude and adjustment Thus, each performer chooses a way that is best to unexpected situations are extremely important. for him, to play from or without sheet music. Practice is the best teacher. Organistís attitude is also crucial. Organists have to face inconveniences 7. Being asked the questions whether the meekly and try to adjust to them here and now rendering of emotions and interpretation is easy

182 E. –EDUIKYTÀ KORIENÀ, ﬁ. MEIL¤NAITÀ. INTERPLAY OF PERFORMANCE EXPRESSION ELEMENTS: TEACHING ORGANISTS.. and what would stimulate an organist to become structure, the idea, and the key points. It is better more emotional, some respondents have said that to learn not by page but by patterns ñ sentences, organistís emotions may be affected by several phrases (R3). When working independently, an factors: 1) interest in music; 2) analysis of musical organist has to learn to listen to himself, as if from compositions; 3) personality type. Rendering of aside, and be able to select the most difficult parts, emotion is one of the main tasks of an organist so that he could improve them. Analysis and and not everyone manages to do so (R2). To get perception are also very important. An educatorís to know the personality is the first step of an task is to give precise tasks how to learn. First of educator, and later you have to choose the right all, a student upon leaving the classroom has to means which would stimulate emotions. It can know what tasks he has to do. I applied a 30- only be added that organists, different from other minute method: a student in the classroom works performers, are not seen on the stage because exactly the same way as he has to do at home. I organ music concerts often take place in churches. observe him and later tell him which element Thus, organists have to communicate their own prevents him from learning fast one or another emotions directly through music. It is where the place. A teacher has to give precise tasks how to music ends, music begins and emotion is in- practice rather than play (R3). A well-presented between (R2). task for the student is a guaranty of a quickly achieved result. 8. Can there be too many emotions? How can it affect the quality of performance? Yes, there 11. The respondents have answered the can be too many emotions, and it can harm question What performer can we call a professio- phrasing, retaining the idea in music, technical nal? by saying that a professional has to have stability, and interpretation (R1). Emotion can mastered the technique and musical means of be spontaneous and impulsiveness often disturbs expression. A professional is someone who can the performer. Emotion has to be purposeful, read music, understand it and convey it. If he only the right amount of it. If there are too many achieves it by all means of music that he is sup- emotions, they prevent action control and it is posed to have mastered, then we can call him a very likely that the idea of music will be lost (R3). professional (R2). A professional does not neces- Thus, consistent expression of emotions and their sarily have to arouse every listenerís interest. How- control stimulates not only good performance of ever, every musicianís goal is to be special and musical composition but also gives the performer unique. Professional performers can be of two stability and mysteriousness. kinds, interesting and not interesting. A professional performer causes the listenerís interest; he 9. When highly experienced educators were asked how to develop playing technique in order has a distinctive feature which makes him inte- to avoid injuries (overstrain of hands) ñ educators resting to the listener (R1). Perhaps a professional stated that it is important to pay attention to the does not play pieces of music that require sophis- position of organistís body and find the place ticated technique, but his distinctive interpreta- which causes the tension. Before playing the organ tion and convincing performance will enchant the it is useful to have some warm up and play different listener. exercises and scales on the piano. Not to play 12. Asked the questions When trying to too long without pauses, to give rest to hands, achieve a better result when performing on stage, itís important to pay attention to the position of how much do natural abilities and work of the hands (R1). It is also useful to practise certain musician decide? Can work exceed your natural body relaxation exercises. The development of abilities?, organ teachers have unanimously stated the performerís techniques requires special super- that by working, you can develop and even exceed vision and precision, because improper work may your abilities. One of the respondents states: end in a negative outcome and even the end of Although this question is differently solved by the performerís career. many psychologists, I think, by work you can 10. It is important to know what is purpose- really exceed your natural abilities. I agree with ful independent work of a student? How to achieve the statement of 90% work and 10% talent (R1). it? First of all, you have to understand what you One who has less talent will need a longer time are playing. To start analysing musical compo- to reach professional skill, therefore, only the length sition from details to the whole, to learn the of time differs (R3). Teachers know a lot of cases

183 MUSIC SCIENCE TODAY: THE PERMANENT AND THE CHANGEABLE ñ 3 (11) of finished careers. A lot of talents have failed helps avoid the tension of technique and ensures when a sufficient amount of work was not put in the performance quality and stability. at the right time because natural abilities must The ability of an organist to adjust to the be developed (R2). Not every musician is born instrument in any environment, calm state and with distinct natural abilities, you learn the art of attentiveness to the listener show his professional music for all your life and when you have reached skills. However, too complicated conditions of a rather high level, we still may say that music is performance and insufficient time for rehearsals beyond the boundaries of human perception and may affect the quality of performance during a abilities1. concert, thus it is important to practice in different conditions as often as possible.

CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES An educator influences not only the skills of a young performer but also the shaping of his Corfield, Chris (2015). What are the Benefits of Playing character features. An educator shows possibili- a Musical Instrument? https://www.dawsons.co.uk/ ties of expression, develops all-round acquisition blog/the-benefits-of-playing-a-musical-instrument ñ of music knowledge, features of self-expression, visited on May 24, 2018. and self-critique. Digrys, Leopoldas (1998). Kaip groti vargonais [How Educating a young organist, an educator to Play Organ]. Vilnius: Lietuvos muzik¯ draugija; ReliginÎs muzikos centras. should evaluate the studentís abilities and flaws, Emotional intelligence: Why It Matters and How to choose a musical composition accordingly, try Teach It (2017). https://www.theguardian.com/ to reveal his best features when playing music teacher-network/2017/nov/03/emotional- and stimulate the development of the weak ones. intelligence-why-it-matters-and-how-to-teach-it ñ When playing, technique and movements are visited on June 4, 2018. developed by choosing suitable learning means Gabrielsson, Alf & Erik Lindstrˆm (2001). The influ- after having analysed the features of the instru- ence of musical structure on emotional expression. ment. However, it is important to highlight that Music and Emotion: Theory and Research. Edited technical skills should not overweigh the idea of by Patrik N. Juslin and John A. Sloboda. New York, music. NY, USA: Oxford University Press, 223ñ243. Playing music requires purposeful emotions Katkus, Donatas (2013). Muzikos atlikimas [Music that are based on the idea and the meaning of Performance]. Vilnius: Tyto alba. music. An educator has to adjust subjective emotion Scherer, Klaus R. & Marcel R. Zentner (2001). Emo- to objective performance because too many tional effects of music: Production rules. Music and Emotion: Theory and Research. Edited by Patrik emotions may trouble the performer and have a N. Juslin and John A. Sloboda. New York, NY, negative effect on the quality of performance and USA: Oxford University Press, 361ñ387. distract the listener. William, James (1998). Pokalbiai su mokytojais: apie It is very important to develop studentís psichologij‡ ir su studentais apie kai kuriuos gyve- awareness and observation not only on stage but nimo idealus [Conversations with Teachers: About also when practicing. Constant attentiveness affects Psychology and with Students about some of the the speed of studentís results and productivity, Lifeís Ideals]. Vilnius: Vaga.

1 An interview with educators from LAMT organ and harpsichord department (20ñ23 March 2018, Vilnius).

184 Forms of Ethnic Culture Activities in Non-Formal Education of Lithuania

Dr. soc. MARIJA JONILIENÀ Associate professor at Vytautas Magnus University, Academy of Education (Lithuania)

Dr. (hp) Ethnology VIDA PALUBINSKIENÀ Professor at Vytautas Magnus University, Academy of Education (Lithuania)

In the European documents, non-formal education of children and the youth is given a high priority by highlighting the opportunities offered to a person to become an active member of the society, successfully function in the society, and to help satisfy oneís personal needs for knowledge and self-expression. Non-formal education is much more appealing to children and youth than formal learning. It is a purposeful activity that helps a child to acquire competences which would help him or her become a conscious personality that would be able to solve personal problems responsibly and creatively and actively function in society, adapt to the changing environment (Rukus, ﬁvirdauskas, StaniauskienÎ 2009: 185). Various forms of activities of ethnic culture allow children and the youth to cognize, take over our nationís traditions and customs, form their national identity and the values of nationalism and patriotism, compose an image of the nationís cultural integrity. Keywords: non-formal education, ethnic culture, forms of activities, music education.

INTRODUCTION educational content does not provide enough opportunities for independent realization of the Non-formal teaching and learning are certainly character, creation of personality, emergence of appealing and significant to children and the youth, the national identity, acceptance of the role of since specific education principles are followed: cultureís creator, and the development of creative education in groups, positivity, and experience, freedom and creativity; see National Education that is, when education is based on the principles Strategy ñ ValstybinÎ vietimo 2013ñ2022 met¯ of experience and its reflection, voluntary service, strategija (2013). The socialization process of a accessibility, relevance, democracy, etc. (PaurienÎ child, which begins in early childhood when he/ 2012: 1). The increasing value of quality leisure she by learning social norms, laws, and lifestyle activities requires a new approach to non-formal becomes a part of the society, is very important education. Forms of ethnic culture activities can (PaurienÎ, »iu˛as, KvieskienÎ 2014: 1). become one of the major levers determining the Childhood is one of the most beautiful periods formation of ethnic identity during the time of of life, full of explorations and discoveries. It is challenges of globalization (PalubinskienÎ 2015: the time when the childís character traits and value 98). scale are forming, first life experience is gained. One of the aims of the project of National In addition, it is a time when the child is particu- Education Strategy for 2013ñ2022 ñ while deve- larly sensitive to failures, relationships and moods loping the coverage of non-formal education of of other people, and the influence of the social children and the youth, provide young people with environment (–alaeviËi˚tÎ 2009). the most favourable opportunities to reveal their Non-formal education is not merely spending individual skills and fulfil their educational needs. of oneís free time. It is a pleasant and interesting It is highlighted in the strategy that only formal way of gaining knowledge, skills, and competencies.

185 MUSIC SCIENCE TODAY: THE PERMANENT AND THE CHANGEABLE ñ 3 (11)

Non-formal education is not cognition for the Since the term of non-formal education in the sake of cognizing; its purpose is to satisfy the documents and scientific works became prevalent needs that ensure the quality of life now and in only after the year 2003, this activity is still most the future. often regarded as an after-class activity, additio- Childrenís non-formal education systems in nal education, and employment. Scholars examine European countries have their own peculiarities; non-formal education in the context of socializa- however, they also have quite many similar traits. tion (BarkauskaitÎ 2001, KvieskienÎ 2003, 2005), The post-Soviet countries have a different tradition analyse its forms and ways (RamaneckienÎ 2002, of non-formal education than Western countries, Ratkus 2000, SurvutaitÎ 2004), while most of the but nowadays they are moving towards the new, research works are devoted to the detailed analysis European culture. Nevertheless, different defini- of concrete areas of non-formal education (music, tions do not mean that concepts, methods, aims art, sports, etc.) (JonilienÎ 2007, KaluinaitÎ 2002, or sources of financing are understood differently. MakarskaitÎ 1998, PeËeli˚nas 2001, a.o.). How- However, the active politics of non-formal educa- ever, the forms of ethnic activity have not been tion in each country is determined by the countryís separately analysed in Lithuanian non-formal cultural and historical peculiarities. At the same education. time, the fact that many European countries have The aim of the research is to find out the distinctive systems of non-formal education, their forms of ethnic culture activities in non-formal description, implementation, and philosophy, is education of Lithuania. not a problem, since in this way countries can The objectives: learn from each other (Clarijs 2008). ó carry out the theoretic analysis of the problem; Non-formal education is much more versatile ó find out teachersí opinions about the forms than formal. In Europe, non-formal education of ethnic culture activities in non-formal means solidarity, unity, teaching social skills and education of Lithuania; in groups, while formal education is focused on ó conduct quantitative and qualitative data individual cognitive achievements. analysis. Ethnocultural education, based on the preservation of ethnic originality, is especially relevant The methods of research: the analysis of scien- today: when children and the youth are influenced tific literature and documents; the quantitative by the ëmass cultureí; when it is being ëmeltedí, and qualitative research strategy, documentary as well as by modern technology and the cult of research method (McCulloch 2004, Bruzgelevi- consumption, which has raised on a pedestal the ËienÎ, ﬁadeikaitÎ 2007); teachersí survey. material and sensual human needs (Grigas 2001: 100 participants took part in the research 20); when the whole world searches for points (2016). All of them were teachers working in of contact with the past, so that it would be pos- various primary, pre-school and other institutions sible to build roads to the future and feel the conti- of non-formal education from different cities and nuity inwardly. Marija GimbutienÎ encourages not regions of Lithuania. forgetting oneís roots, preserving and enhancing In order to carry out the qualitative and the ethnic culture, which is our main opportunity and quantitative research, Teacherís Survey was pre- source of persistence (GimbutienÎ 1994). Lithu- pared, which has helped to find out what forms anian non-formal education highly contributes of ethnic culture activities are applied in non- to the deeper cognition and preservation of ethnic formal education in Lithuania. For that purpose, culture. teachers have answered the questions of the survey Today, ethnic culture is defined by the pecu- about ethnic culture, its values and importance liarities of local culture and education; it is gaining in education of children, their national identity, a particular significance in oneís understanding the formation of their convictions concerning of personal identity, becoming aware of the nationalism and patriotism, the employment of nationís values in the context of other cultures. ethnic culture and music in various childrenís Therefore, ethnic arts, music, song, and dance activities, the forms of ethnic culture activities in can provide life with a strong cultural basis (Juce- non-formal education in Lithuania, etc. viËi˚tÎ-BartkeviËienÎ, PalubinskienÎ 2016: 56). The survey results of non-formal education Lithuanian scholars have researched the non- teachers from Lithuania reveal that the cognition formal education of children and the youth and of ethnic culture, as well as the abilities and skills the related activity areas from different aspects. in this field, are acquired through various forms

186 M. JONILIENÀ, V. PALUBINSKIENÀ. FORMS OF ETHNIC CULTURE ACTIVITIES IN NON-FORMAL EDUCATION OF LITHUANIA of ethnocultural self-expression: activities in folk 2013; Bitinas, RupienÎ, ﬁyd˛i˚naitÎ 2008). and stylized ensembles, folk dance clubs, childrenís In order to comply with the research strategy choirs, folk art studios, theatres and other collec- of the qualitative survey, written survey questions tives, as well as through the practices of preparing were open-ended. It helped to maintain the spon- festivities, excursions or sightseeing tours. The taneity and originality, since the research partici- forms of ethnic culture activities mentioned help pants were not limited by the answer options; children to widen and deepen their knowledge besides, the survey was conducted in the environ- of their ethnic culture, its history, and national ment of groups, which, according to Inga Gai˛aus- heritage. According to the teachers, ethnic culture kaitÎ and SvajonÎ MikÎnÎ (2014), could promote and values imprinted in it help to shape childrenís efficiency in primary contact with the informant, national identity, the convictions of nationalism increasing the degree of response in the question- and patriotism, to get acquainted with the national naire. traditions and customs. In addition, in the teachersí The data for the analysis were collected by view, ethnic culture is a significant means of inviting the research participants to answer the childrenís education, since it develops artistic, questions in writing, invoking the research instru- cognitive, social, health and communication comment ñ the questionnaire developed particularly petencies. for this research. First, it was important to find out what the nationís ethnic culture means personally for the teachers (see Example 1). THE RESEARCH RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The research data show that ethnic culture is significant for teachers because it encompasses The research data collected were processed the national values that must be conveyed to by applying the method of qualitative content ana- children (54 percent). About half of the teachers lysis. During this process, theoretically meaning- associate the importance of ethnic culture with ful statements were distinguished from the initial traditions, customs and their preservation (52 per- information, which was based on the informantsí cent), about one fourth (28 percent) ñ with the replies. The process of the qualitative content transmission of national heritage or countryís analysis consisted of the following steps: the con- uniqueness (6 percent). In the opinion of one- tent of the text was consistently analysed, divided fifth of the respondents, ethnic culture is primarily into analytical units, categories and subcategories important as a means of childrenís education, were formulated and their interpretation enabled since it develops their artistic, cognitive, social, to decode meanings contained in them (Lichtman health and communication competencies.

Example 1. Teachersí opinion about the personal significance of their ethnic culture1

1 P.S. The data presented in Examples 1, 4ñ8 were calculated from the number of choices made by the respondents.

187 MUSIC SCIENCE TODAY: THE PERMANENT AND THE CHANGEABLE ñ 3 (11)

The second aim was to find out whether the teachers have sufficient knowledge about their nationís ethnic culture and music, whether they would like to gain more (see Example 2).

Example 3. The frequency of childrenís acquaintance with ethnic music, according to teachers

The teachersí survey helped to find out which genre of ethnic music ñ folk song, dance, instrumental music or other ethnic activity, teachers usually introduce to children (see Example 4). Example 2. Teachersí opinion about the existing knowledge of the ethnic culture

Sadly, but even 64 percent of the respondents know very little about their nationís ethnic culture and music. About 18 percent of the teachers have fairly enough or some knowledge. Thus it is not surprising that 88 percent of the teachers do wish to acquire more knowledge about their nationís ethnic culture and music. They would like teachers to be provided with more courses, seminars and practical workshops on how to convey the values of ethnic culture and music to children. It is not Example 4. Teachersí opinion about childrenís relevant only for 12 percent of the teachers, who acquaintance with genres of ethnic music do not know or doubt whether they need more knowledge. The above-stated shows that for about The research data reveal that 28 percent of one-eighth of Lithuanian teachers, ethnic culture the teachers introduce children to Lithuanian folk is not important or relevant, thus, it may be assumed songs, 20 percent ñ to folk dances, circle dances, that they do not try to pass it on to their pupils. 10 percent ñ to ethnic instrumental music and Next, we examined whether during various 12 ñ to other ethnic culture activities. However, activities the teachers often introduce children as many as a half (50 percent) of the respondents to the Lithuanian ethnic music: songs, dances, do not introduce children to any of the genres of instrumental music (see Example 3). ethnic music. This once again shows the lack of According to the research data, the teachers teachersí competencies, since non-formal education very often (22 percent) or sometimes (24 percent) is not only the education of narrow specialization introduce children to Lithuanian ethnic music. but rather the development of competencies and However, one-third of the teachers do that rarely skills where the greatest attention is paid to per- (34 percent) or never (20 percent). Therefore, sonal, educational, social and professional compe- about half of the primary and preschool education tencies (JuceviËi˚tÎ-BartkeviËienÎ, PalubinskienÎ teachers admit that they are not prepared to convey 2016: 62). ethnic music to children or do not have such competencies. Non-formal education is a very per- Further, it has been examined whether it is spective form of education, which can effectively important to teach ethnic culture to children. While help to improve the ethnocultural competencies analysing the research data it has been clarified of teachers. It is only required to be more inte- that all the teachers (100 percent) agree that it is rested in the nationís ethnic culture. important to teach ethnic culture to children. Thus,

188 M. JONILIENÀ, V. PALUBINSKIENÀ. FORMS OF ETHNIC CULTURE ACTIVITIES IN NON-FORMAL EDUCATION OF LITHUANIA the teachers understand the importance of cogni- why, in their opinion, it is important to teach zing, preserving and conveying their nationís cul- ethnic culture to children? For this purpose, the ture and music to children. They were also asked qualitative research data analysis was conducted.

Category Subcategory Examples Knowledge Knowledge of It is important to teach children ethnic culture, since it helps to broaden about ethnic the nationís their knowledge about the nation; so that they know their culture, preserve culture history it; educated children better understand their own ethnic culture; they have to know their history and should not forget their roots; children especially broaden their worldview when learning the nationís history. Knowledge of It is important for children to know their nationís traditions and customs; traditions and (Ö) important to introduce children to traditions and customs since the customs assimilation takes place through Anglicism and influence of other cultures. Transmission Nationality (Ö) to form the nationality, since it gives the basis, language and nation and preserva- education remain through folk music; (Ö) so that when leaving their country and tion of ethnic going abroad they would still feel being Lithuanians. values Identity Ethnic culture helps to form one identity not only for children but also for education adults. Citizenship Ethnic culture helps to educate children about citizenship; only having taken education over the cultural values, a child develops as a Lithuanian citizen. Patriotism Ethnic culture is very important in patriotism education from the very first education days; the cognition of ethnic culture helps a child to become a real patriot, but only if s/he is taught to love his/her motherland from the very early days. Education of Ethnic culture primarily teaches a child to respect his/her motherland, defend respect for the it from rivals, love his/her parents and treat them with respect; ethnic culture homeland, helps a child to understand that motherland, mother, father, brother, sister, family and grandparents should be respected and cherished. Preservation We must convey our ethnic culture values to children to preserve what our of the past nation has developed through ages; while transmitting ethnic values we must aim for our nation not to vanish; (Ö) to preserve our national heritage in all the possible ways. Presentation Uniqueness, It is important not only to preserve ethnic culture, but also to present its of ethnic exclusivity of uniqueness to the world in the context of other cultures; Lithuanian ethnic values to the ethnic culture culture is unique not only for the oldest language but also for its traditions, world customs, and spirituality; it is interesting to present yourself to the world; our ethnic cultureís exclusivity must be shown to the whole world, since we have immensely rich national heritage.

Example 5. The importance of ethnic culture education, according to teachers

As a result of the qualitative research data of globalization, it is also important to show oneís analysis, three categories and nine subcategories ethnic culture and values to the world, disclosing have been distinguished, which are based on the their uniqueness and exclusivity. Therefore, the supporting statements of the informants. It appears teachers were asked during which teaching (lear- that ethnic culture education is so important because ning) activities they encourage children to get it provides children with the knowledge of the acquainted with ethnic culture and music (see nationís ethnic culture, its history, traditions, and Example 6). customs. The cognition of ethnic culture helps to The analysis of the research data testifies to preserve ethnic values and pass them on to future the fact that most of the teachers (74 percent) generations. In the respondentsí opinion, the most encourage children to get acquainted with ethnic important values that should be transmitted to culture through musical activities: singing, dancing children are nationalism, patriotism, citizenship, (circle dances a.o.), listening to ethnic instrumental personal identity, and respect for homeland and music. The other part of the teachers choose arts family. All these values can be passed to children and crafts (28 percent), encourage children to only in the process of education. In the conditions cognize ethnic culture through books, albums, fairy

189 MUSIC SCIENCE TODAY: THE PERMANENT AND THE CHANGEABLE ñ 3 (11) tales (26 percent) or playing games (20 percent). . The respondents have also stated in what forms they encourage children to get acquainted with their nationís culture. For this purpose, they choose celebrations, entertainment, contests (20 percent each), going to excursions, visiting museums (8 percent), and watching TV shows (4 percent). 10 percent of the teachers also claim that they do not talk to children about ethnic culture or music in any activity.

Example 7. The forms of non-formal education most appropriate for cherishing ethnic culture according to teachers

The most appropriate forms of non-formal education for cherishing ethnic culture are folk ensemble (60 percent), folk art studio (32 percent), folk dance club (42 percent), theatre, excursions, trips (10 percent each) and choir (8 percent). According to the teachers, children, while partici- Example 6. Educational activities and forms during pating in various ensembles, clubs, studios, going which children are encouraged to cognize their on excursions, visiting our countryís main sites, ethnic culture and music, according to teachers perceive our ethnic culture faster and deeper and show interest in the nationís history and heritage. Further, it was also analysed which non-formal It was also interesting to find out in which education forms are present in Lithuania and seem clubs operating in primary schools and kindergar- to be the most appropriate in cherishing ethnic tens children can receive additional education (see culture (see Example 7). Example 8).

Example 8. Non-formal education clubs for childrenís additional education, according to teachers

The data presented in Example 8 show that sports activities (36 percent). Other educational in primary schools and preschool education insti- institutions provide opportunities for children to tutions there are many various clubs in which dance folk and entertainment dances (32 percent), children can be educated in a non-formal way. participate in folk ensembles (20 percent), art About one-third of educational institutions have studios (14 percent) or learn a foreign language clubs for basketball, yoga, football and other (2 percent). However, even 42 percent of educa-

190 M. JONILIENÀ, V. PALUBINSKIENÀ. FORMS OF ETHNIC CULTURE ACTIVITIES IN NON-FORMAL EDUCATION OF LITHUANIA tional institutions do not provide any opportunity Moreover, the researchers wanted to find for childrenís additional development, which shows out whether cherishing of ethnic culture and that almost half of the educational institutions do music receives due attention in the above-mentioned not care about their pupilsí non-formal education. clubs of non-formal education (see Example 9).

Example 9. Teachersí opinion about the sufficiency of attention paid to cherishing ethnic culture in clubs of non-formal education

Currently, there is a lack of attention paid CONCLUSIONS to cherishing ethnic culture in the clubs of non- formal education. This is stated by 40 percent of The theoretical analysis of the problem had the teachers. Meanwhile, 20 percent of respon- shown that non-formal education of ethnic culture dents think that in childrenís clubs of non-formal of children and youth is provided with special education ethnic culture is paid enough attention. significance, highlighting the opportunities for a Some of the teachers notice that there is no atten- person to become an active member of society, tion devoted to ethnic culture (8 percent) and even successfully function in the society, help to satisfy one-third (32 percent) of them do not know or do the needs of cognition and self-expression. not have the opinion on the issue. As it has already The research results testify that: been mentioned (see example 7), 42 percent of ó most appropriate forms of ethnic culture acti- preschool educational institutions do not imple- vities in Lithuanian non-formal education ment any non-formal education activities. are those of folk ensembles, folk art studios, The present study aimed to find out whether an educational institution should pay more atten- folk dance collectives, theatre clubs, childrenís tion to teaching ethnic music (songs, dances, circle choirs, celebrations, entertainment, contests, dances, instrumental music). It has been clarified excursions, trips, visiting museums, and that some educational institutions devote sufficient watching TV shows; attention to ethnic music training, but almost all ó in the opinion of primary and preschool the teachers working in them (98 percent) agree education teachers, ethnic culture provides that in primary classes and preschool education children with knowledge of the nationís history, institutions the attention to ethnic culture and traditions and customs, helps to develop music is paid much more. Ethnic music can help respect and love for homeland, family and to form childrenís national identity, values of nature, to take over the values of patriotism, patriotism and nationality. Since song and dance nationality, citizenship and preserve them for accompany a Lithuanian from cradle to death, future generations. In the conditions of globa- Lithuania has become known as a singing country. lization, it is especially important to show In order for this tradition to remain, it is necessary the national culture and values to the world, to pay attention to that already in childrenís pre- disclosing their uniqueness and exclusivity. school age and strive for the maintenance of the Lithuanian long-standing national traditions.

191 MUSIC SCIENCE TODAY: THE PERMANENT AND THE CHANGEABLE ñ 3 (11)

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