The Campaign Process By the time Senator Barack Obama Florida and Ohio, as well as to compete secured his party’s nomination in June, 2008 vigorously in a number of reliably Republican the electoral environment looked favorable states, most notably Virginia, which had not for the Democrats. President George W. voted for a Democrat for president since Bush’s approval rating was around 25 1964. While this plan seemed risky to many percent, the Democratic base was energized, seasoned observers, the Obama campaign and a hunger for change was sweeping the was confident in its decision to pursue this nation. Obama’s path to the presidency was strategy, which also included grassroots not assured, however. Democrats worried organizing in all fifty states, extensive use of that not enough white Americans would technology, including social networking sites be willing to vote for an African American such as Twitter, and opting out of the public for president. And, Obama’s Republican financing system, which would allow it to opponent, Senator John McCain, was a more raise and spend unprecedented sums of experienced candidate with a distinguished money. war record and history of breaking with his McCain’s campaign, in contrast, planned to own party’s policies. The decision awaiting hold all the states George W. Bush had won both campaigns was how best to accumulate in 2004 and to target one or more states that a majority of Electoral College votes, given generally did not vote Republican. This was a the advantages and disadvantages at hand. difficult challenge in an unfavorable political The Obama campaign decided to pursue climate. McCain’s challenge was made more electors in the key battleground states of difficult by his decisions to limit his campaign 450 Presidential campaigns leave indelible marks on the nation. At left,Theodore Roosevelt gives a campaign speech from the back of a train in 1912. At right, President Barack Obama and his family wave to over 100,000 supporters in Chicago’s Grant Park after Obama was declared the winner of the 2008 presidential election. spending in return for federal financing and to In contrast, Obama was able to develop a focus his early attention and scarce resources broad national base of support, and he even only on key battleground states. energized many young voters, who are often On Election Day, the Obama campaign’s unwilling or uninterested in going to the polls. strategy proved to be decisive. Obama won As a result, Obama not only held on to all of the early victories in liberal northeastern states and states the Democrats had won in 2004, but he was competitive in a number of traditionally also won Florida, Ohio, Virginia, North Carolina, Republican states. The outcomes in Indiana, and Indiana, for a total of 364 electoral votes Georgia, North Carolina, and Virginia, for exam- and a victory in the Electoral College. ple, remained in doubt for most of the evening. A similar pattern soon became apparent in the West, with the networks unwilling to make What Should I Know About... early calls on the outcomes in traditionally After reading this chapter, you should be able to: Republican Montana, North Dakota, and even 14.1 Trace the evolution of political campaigns in the McCain’s home state of Arizona. United States, p. 452. In the end, McCain won states in the 14.2 Assess the role of candidates and their staff in the South, Midwest, Southwest, and Mountain campaign process, p. 453. West, which were large in landmass, but small 14.3 Evaluate the ways campaigns raise money, p. 458. in population and electoral votes. Ultimately, 14.4 Identify the ways campaigns use the media to reach potential voters, p. 464. his strategy to target only Republican 14.5 Analyze the 2008 presidential campaign, p. 468. strongholds proved to be a poor one. 451 452 CHAPTER 14 The Campaign Process odern political campaigns have become high-stakes, high-priced extrava- ganzas, but the basic purpose of modern electioneering remains intact: Mone person asking another for support. The art of modern campaigning in- volves the management of a large budget and staff, the planning of sophis- ticated voter outreach efforts, and the creation of sophisticated Internet sites that provide continuous communication updates and organize voter and donor support. Campaigning also involves the diplomatic skill of unifying disparate individuals and groups to achieve a fragile electoral majority. How candidates perform these exquisitely difficult tasks is the subject of this chapter, in which we will discuss the following topics: ■ First, we will explore the roots of modern political campaigns, including the nomination and general election campaigns. ■ Second, we will examine the process of assembling a campaign staff. ■ Third, we will investigate the ways campaigns raise money, including the rules that govern campaign finances and the sources of funding. ■ Fourth, we will analyze how campaigns reach voters. ■ Finally, we will assess the lessons of the 2008 presidential campaign. ROOTS OF Modern Political Campaigns 14.1 . Trace the evolution of political campaigns in the United States. nomination campaign No two political campaigns are the same. Each aspect of the campaign interacts with the Phase of a political campaign aimed other aspects to create a dynamic set of circumstances that make campaigns unpredictable at winning a primary election. and add to their excitement. Despite the unique qualities of each race, however, most elec- toral contests are similar in structure, consisting of a Why are political campaigns important? Political campaigns help voters to nomination campaign and a general election. make informed choices on Election Day. They do this through a complex set of political tools, including media signs and slogans. Here, a sign encourages voters to endorse Dwight D. Eisenhower and Richard M. Nixon for president and vice president, respectively, in 1952. The Nomination Campaign The nomination campaign, the phase of a politi- cal campaign aimed at winning a primary election, begins as soon as the candidate has decided to run for office.This may be years prior to the actual elec- tion. During the nomination campaign, the candi- dates target party leaders and interest groups. They test out themes, slogans, and strategies, and learn to adjust to the pressure of being in the spotlight day in and day out. This is the time for the candidates to learn that a single careless phrase could end the campaign or guarantee a defeat.The press and pub- lic take much less notice of gaffes at this time than they will later, in the general election campaign. A danger not always heeded by candidates dur- ing the nomination campaign is that, in the quest to win the party’s nomination, a candidate can move too far to the right or left and appear too extreme Photo courtesy: David J. & Janice L. Frent Collection/Corbis L. Frent J. & Janice Photo courtesy: David to the electorate in November. Party activists are Assembling a Campaign Staff 453 generally more ideologically extreme than party-identified voters in the general elec- torate, and activists participate in primaries and caucuses at a relatively high rate. If a candidate tries too hard to appeal to the interests of party elites, he or she jeopardizes the ultimate goal of winning the election. Conservative Barry Goldwater, the 1964 Re- publican nominee for president, and liberal George McGovern, the 1972 Democratic nominee for president, both fell victim to this phenomenon in seeking their party’s nomination—Goldwater going too far right, and McGovern going too far left—and they were handily defeated in the general elections by Presidents Lyndon B. Johnson and Richard M. Nixon, respectively. general election campaign Phase of a political campaign aimed The General Election Campaign at winning election to office. After earning the party’s nomination, candidates embark on the general election campaign, or the phase of a political campaign aimed at winning elec- tion to office. Unlike the nomination campaign, where candidates must run against members of their own political party, during the general election campaign, candidates in partisan elections run against nominees from other political parties. All eligible voters, regard- less of political party, have the opportunity to vote in Length of Legislative Campaigns these elections. For this reason, most political scien- tists suggest that candidates running in general elec- There is no official campaign season in the United States, although tions have an incentive to move their positions on to the public, it may seem as if legislators and legislative candidates political issues toward the ideological center. These are always campaigning. Election campaigns in other established scholars argue that candidates representing the two democracies, however, vary greatly in length, with most being only major parties are unlikely to lose the votes of party thirty to sixty days.The table lists the lengths of the legislative cam- loyalists. The citizens whose votes are “up for grabs” paigns in several countries. are often political moderates, and choosing middle- Japanese law, for example, establishes different official campaign of-the-road positions on controversial issues may help periods for election to the Lower House (12 days) and to the Upper to attract these individuals’ votes. House (17 days) of its legislature. Japanese law also imposes a number The length of the general election campaign of highly restrictive conditions on candidates during this period. varies widely from state to state, depending on the Campaign rallies are only permitted between 8:00 a.m. and 8:00 p.m. date of the primary elections. In states that hold pri- Direct mailing or e-mailing of campaign materials to voters is prohib- mary elections in March, the general election cam- ited. Candidates are also limited in the number of campaign vehicles paign can be quite long.