Paper NordMedia, August 8-11, Oslo 2013

Aucun flocon de neige dans une avalanche ne se sent jamais responsable. - Voltaire To intervene or be neutral, to investigate or entertain; Persistence and changes in the professional ideals of Nordic journalism students 2005-2013.

Jan Fredrik Hovden, [email protected] Department of Information Science and Media Studies, University of Bergen

Rune Ottosen, [email protected] Department of Journalism, Oslo and Akershus University College of Applied Sciences

Abstract In the last decade, the Nordic countries have experienced a series of transformations of journalists´ working life and job markets analogous to those in many other western countries. Through a series of large-scale surveys of Nordic journalism students in 2005, 2008 and 2012 (including in total 4665 respondents from 30 institutions in five countries), this paper focuses on these young journalists´ adherence to traditional journalistic ideals in times of change, and the roots of these ideals. After discussing some methodological challenges in national-comparative studies of journalistic ideals, two analytical parts are presented. In the first part, the major differences between the ideals of Nordic students are extracted using correspondence analysis, and then studied in relation to a range of supplementary characteristics of the students at national, institutional and personal level. Following that, the same analysis is repeated separately for four Nordic countries, thus studying to what degree the overall Nordic differences also are relevant to understand intra-national differences, which suggest some common determinants for adherence to the ideals. Second, the differences between the countries and apparent changes in the period 2005-12, including but not limiting ourselves to journalistic ideals, are discussed in more detail, and considered in light of changes in the personal, institutional, national and trans-national levels.

I. Times of change, changing journalistic ideals? The Nordic media market is under pressure, mainly due to general problems in the European finance market and the problems within EU. The consequences for the Nordic EU- members, Sweden, Finland and Denmark has been more noticeable, but as member EEA (EØS) states, Iceland and Norway are also affected. In troubled times media policy are also under pressure. Traditional common Nordic values, linked to a strong Public service in broadcasting and government press support system, is under debate (Flisen, 2010). The media market is essentially an international market, and huge international conglomerates controls an increasingly bigger part of this market (Pickard & McChesney, 2011). The scandals related to corruption and phone hacking linked to the Murdoch- company in UK has raised serious issues of the darker side of media power (Watson & Hickman, 2011). When we last conducted our Nordic survey of journalism students in 2008, the British company Mecom bought a group of Norwegian local newspapers. A controversial business model and a harmful practice of moving resources and profit from successful Norwegian newspapers angered the journalists (Ottosen & Krumsvik, 2008). Similar debates occurred in Denmark when Mecom approached the Danish markets. But things happens quickly in the media market: Mecom

- 1 - Paper NordMedia, August 8-11, Oslo 2013 is now history and A-pressen with the LO (The Norwegian trade unions) as the major owner bought Edda (the Norwegian branch of Mecom). Even though the purchase was controversial due to limitations in the right to cross-ownersip, it was accepted by Norwegian regulating authorities in the spring 2013. Amedia (former A-pressen) now finds itself as an owner of a group of traditional conservative newspapers. Their ownership interest in the Norwegian commercial channel TV2 at the same time was bought by the Danish company Egmont. Danish owners in the largest commercial company in Norway? Many were worried. But let’s face it: the media capital is international and it belongs to a global economy. Take Schibsted as example. The biggest player on the Scandinavian market with 7400 employees in 27 countries is Norwegian based, but a huge part of the stocks are controlled by finance company and banks in USA and UK. The Schibsted company has increased its control of the Nordic media market by buying important Swedish newspapers like Svenska Dagbladet and Aftonbladet. Jens Barland, in his PhD dissertation, uses the development in Schibsted as an example on how increased market power for the biggest corporations and how increased commercial intensity has affected journalism (Barland, 2012, p. 2). Historically, newspaper economy has been based on income from sales and advertisements. This way of thinking has been challenged by Schibsted by establishing the classified ads webpage finn.no as a separate company, taking all the profits from advertisments market unavailable for the journalistic part of the business model. At the same time, they cut hundreds of jobs in the newspapers they control in all the Scandinavian countries to prepare for new digital investments. The trade unions were furious, and blamed the company for betraying traditional values in the Nordic publistic tradition, with balance between the level of profits and respect for the integrity of the news room (Dagens Næringsliv, Feb 15th, 2011). The owners pointed to the realities of the market. In the four years that has passed since the last survey, we have also experienced a general economic crisis in the media market with huge losses in the circulation on traditional newspaper. Lower sales of newspapers and a dramatic fall in the advertisement market has been followed by cost saving and cutbacks in staff and removal of journalist positions. Gunnar Nygren has through his research pointed out that changes in the media market in direction of multimedia platform has the base in traditional newspapers (Nygren, 2008). In Iceland and Denmark, the increase in free newspapers has changed the newspaper market dramatically with potential implication of the role of journalists (Schultz, 2007). The future journalist will be expected to have professional knowledge in all platforms (Ottosen and Krumsvik 2008). One sign of this is the reduction in the total number of journalists. In Norway, for the first time since the Second World War, there has been a reduction in the number of members in the Norwegian trade union of journalists (www.nj.no). This background suggests an unpredictable future for the Nordic journalism students. Will they get jobs? What kind of future is expecting them? A crucial issue we want to investigate is how these changes are having an impact on their journalistic ideals.

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II. Trans-national studies of professional ideals: methodological troubles

Ideals - for whom? In the research literature on journalistic ideals, the focus has normally been on journalists´ adherence to general ideals or tasks for the profession like neutrality and objectivity, setting the political agenda, provide entertainment and relaxation etc. (for some influental studies in this vein, see Johnstone, Slawski, & Bowman, 1976; Weaver & Wilhoit, 1996) 1. For example, Weaver et. al (2007) ask American journalists “… how important you think a number of things are that the news media do or try to do today”. In the surveys of Nordic journalism students we will present below, we similarly ask them to what extent they think similar ideals ought to be part of the role of a journalist. These kind of general questions do, however, run into a number of methodological problems, where two are particularly worrisome. The first is that such general questions likely increase the chance of impersonal and stereotypical responses (see Foddy, 1993) - that instead of saying what is their own views, journalists say what they perceive to be accepted to be the “the correct answers” in the journalistic culture. The second problem is that such questions presuppose an universalistic ideology - that all forms of journalism can be meaningfully rated on a uniform scale from lower to greater importance, which is a belief which varies in the profession (see e.g. Hovden, 2012). A more realistic view, we think, is instead that journalists - and journalism students - can entertain both general and particular ideals for the profession simultaneously: one might believe, for example, that a talk-show host should be less investigative and more entertaining in their approach to a politician than a news journalist should, and that the general task for journalism in society is important, but not necessarily a personal demand on oneself. This does not mean, however, that asking journalists/students of their general ideals for journalism is meaningless: as shown in the above studies, and as we also will demonstrate, there are important statistical variations in their adherence to such ideals which reveal crucial differences in their view of the role of journalism in society. It does mean, however, that it appears fruitful to combine an investigation of journalism students´ ideals with more particular and personal aspirations, which we will do by including other aspects of their journalistic orientations in the analysis, like their preferred future place and theme of journalistic work.

National comparisons, national problems Whereas much empirical research on the professional ideals and aspirations of journalists and journalism students earlier was focused on a single nation (e.g. Delano & Henningham, 1995; Johnstone et al., 1976; Scholl & Weischenberg, 1998; Weaver & Wilhoit, 1986, 1993; Weibull, 1991; Weischenberg, Malik, & Scholl, 2006), with some exceptions (in particular, (Splichal & Sparks, 1994) and, later, (Weaver & Wu, 1998)), the increasing internationalization of journalism research and ease of conducting surveys and statistical analysis have lead to a proliferation of national-comparative studies of both journalists and journalism students (see e.g. Hanitzsch & Berganza, 2012; Hovden, Bjørnsen, Ottosen, Zilliacus-Tikknanen, & Willig, 2009; Sanders, Hanna, Berganza, & Sanchez Aranda, 2008). Overall this is undoubtedly a positive development, remembering that for both Max Weber and Emilé Durkheim comparative research (both historical and national) was seem as the via media between complexity and generality which made sociology possible2. While these studies have no

1 Of other Nordic studies of this kind, see (Hovden, 2010; Melin-Higgins, 1996; Thurén, 1988; Weibull, 1991; Windal, 1975).

2 For a discussion of the relative position of Weber and Durkheim, see (Ragin & Zaret, 1983).

- 3 - Paper NordMedia, August 8-11, Oslo 2013 doubt provided us with major insights into the variability and commonalities of journalists´ professional orientations, however, the grander ambitions they display appears often marred by a concerning lack of concern of well-known methodological problems of national comparisons through survey methods. The first problem is the equivalence of survey questions. Walter Benjamin (1923) famously wrote: "Any translation which intends to perform a transmitting function cannot transmit anything but information–hence, something inessential." Even if we do not believe that national comparisons are impossible, it is important to stress that when comparing nations we also usually also comparing translated questions which might be lexically but not necessarily semantically similar, given that connotations varies culturally (in our case, both in terms of a national, common culture and a specific journalistic culture). How could, for example, the world "neutral" have the same connotations for a journalist in USA as "neutre" for a French journalist, given that French journalism, in the words of Pierre Albert (cited in Benson, 2005) traditionally have been more a journalism of expression than a journalism of observation, and the countries very different experiences of World War II?3 And do we really know that such differences are not important also in countries with more similar societies and journalistic traditions? Do hlutlaus [neutral] in Icelandlic really mean the same as puolueeton in Finnish? Do even a neutral rapportør in Danish and nøytral rapportør in Norwegian [a neutral reporter], in their close linguistic similarity (the Scandinavian languages are mutually intelligble) give rise to the same journalistic connotations? This problem appears grossly underappreciated in current journalism research. Secondly, while the later trans-national studies of journalists have improved somewhat the still prevailing Western- and large-nation bias in journalist research (a tendency to focus on USA and the largest European states), there are still a major tendency to gravitate uncritically towards national-level comparisons, an imbalance that Stein Rokkan in political science more than forty years ago termed whole-nation bias: "… most comparisons have been limited to institutional or aggregate statistical data for each nation as a unit and have tended to neglect highly significant variations .." (Rokkan, 1970). In their hurry to reach their final ambition - to compare national journalistic systems - comparative journalism researchers are - if not in words, then by their research design - often forwarding two arguments: The first is that journalism is, inside a country, basically a shared culture, and second, that the important differences (and thus, explanations for these differences) are to be found on national level. These are both problematic, as national-level studies have uncovered large intra-national variations in ideals, in regard to types of journalistic work, centre-periphery, gender, social background e.t.c. (see e.g. Hovden, 2012) 4. The same problem goes for studying journalism students, where national comparisons are usually made by aggregating students from very different types of institutions, with different specialisations (e.g. TV versus newspaper journalism) and courses. Also, one must not forget that when we are comparing journalists from different countries, we are never only comparing different journalistic systems, but also different societies. For such reasons, political scientists often choose to focus on regions within a country than between very different countries, as it becomes difficult to separate the causes in the multitude of differences which usually separate two countries (c.f. Lijphart, 1971). While these problems can to some

3 This problem is accentuated by the usual slipshod nature of survey translation in journalism research, which - in contrast to the strict linguistic quality procedures of surveys like ISSP and ESS - usually are done by journalist researchers themselves.

4 To paraphrase Bourdieu´s critique of public opinion (1993), it is here useful to remind oneself that in one important sense national journalistic opinions do not exist: the sociological reality we are dealing with is always multidimensional, it is a myriad of individual differences in journalistic ideals and opinions, and aggregating these data to averages are, at best, a problematic sociological object.

- 4 - Paper NordMedia, August 8-11, Oslo 2013 degree be lessened through the use of multivariate analysis, one can never control for every variable, and this suggests that there are some comparative advantages also to be found in studying similar regions when studying journalistic ideals. A third, related problem regards sampling, and here journalism researchers are in a much worse position than those who want to compare the general population of countries. Who counts as a journalist or not is not clear-cut in any country, not only because of the very varying degree of professional organisation, but also because journalism as a profession is marked by a distinct lack of borders, both in the requirements of formal skills and education, and also in institutional membership (e.g. bloggers, academics and free-lance authors etc.). This problem is usually managed in two ways. The first is by focusing on random samples of national professional organisations. The major problem here is not only the widely varying success of national journalistic professional organisations, but also that journalist "is not a scientific research object, but essentially a lay term, a folk concept rooted in various extra-scientific practices and needs for definition and labelling" (Hovden, 2008), and that the question of who “is” a journalist or not - is the fundamental nomos (law/struggle) of the journalistic field (Hovden, 2008). What might be regarded as a journalist thus varies both historically and nationally, determined by the dominting groups in the field, regardless of the nature of the work considered (for example, PR workers are not allowed to be members of the Norwegian journalist organisation, but no such restrictions are found in the other Nordic countries). Also notable is that such random samples often are accompanied by arbitrary additional filtering5. The Global Journalist (Weaver & Wu, 1998), for example, is clearly comparing quite different groups in the different countries, all gathered under the term "journalists". A second sampling strategy is some form of strategic sampling, by selecting journalists from "similar" institutions - types of news organisations in case of journalists (c.f. Hanitzsch & Berganza, 2012). This, however, involves judgements which are clearly not less problematic (is BBC the "same" institution as RAI, PBS or Russia´s VGTRK?) When comparing journalism students cross-nationally we are obviously encountering very similar methodological problems. First, it is in many cases hard to see clear borders between “journalism studies” and other, similar studies (e.g. documentary film studies, media studies, information/PR studies) which often lead to jobs of a journalistic nature in their work, if more often outside traditional journalistic organisations. Second, if one is strategically sampling only one or a few of the many journalism educations in each country, the variety of the institutions in terms of age, the number of students, specialisation, regional placement and educational profiles makes it hard to evaluate their comparability (e.g. do the The Danish School of Media and Journalism best equal Reykjavik University´s journalism programme or the journalism studies in Akureyri?). An additional problem when analysing trends over time is that the often varying response rates of the schools at different years (a common feature of real-life data) makes aggregated national trends often quite unreliable (as trends might be due to the different mix of the above factors).

III. The data and analytical strategy By comparing journalism students in the Nordic countries, we are - in the international perspective of things - comparing very similar societies and journalistic systems (as suggested by Hallin & Mancini, who not only sees them as belonging to the same type of media system (the

5 E.g. in the case of Weaver and Wilhoit (1986), all freelancers, most people working in magazines, all working in the specialist press, all photographers and camera operators and everyone working in the non-English press (including the large Hispanic press) were excluded from the sample. For a more detailed discussion of Weaver´s study and the problematics of sampling journalists, c.f. (Hovden, 2008) chapter 2.

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Democratic Corporatist model), but also to be form a distinct, close cluster within that model (Hallin & Mancini, 2004). While clearly doing a what political scientists term a between-systems approach, this similarity of the Nordic countries means that the study also have element of a within-system analysis. In addition to shedding more light on the variance within what is often seen as relatively similar journalistic systems, this design makes it easier to make comparisons, and see how similar process in journalism (digitalisation, job market, education etc.) impact´s the journalism student´s ideals and ambitions in each country, and also the potential to provide more complex explanations of the possible causes of - and changes in - journalistic ideals and general trends in this period.

The data The data used in this paper are based on three web questionnaires administered to a selection of Nordic schools of journalism in 2005, 2008 and 2012. In total, 4674 students from 30 institutions responded to the surveys, a response rate of 51%6. In 2005 and 2008, 19 and 18 schools in Norway, Denmark, Sweden and Finland was surveyed. In 2012 the number of participating schools was raised to 25, including two schools from Iceland. All first-year students were surveyed in 2005, in 2008 and 2012 every student were surveyed. The participating institutions, population, sample and overall response rates are given in table 1 below7. The questionnaires8 were translated to each of the five major Nordic languages, and contained over sixty questions covering a wide array of subjects including social recruitment, motivation for studying journalism, preferences regarding future journalistic working life, views on the role of journalism in society, attitudes toward the profession, journalistic ideals, media use and ideas about what traits are most important for journalists 9.

6 Note that even if the total response rate for each year is relatively stable (varying from 45 to 53%), the response rates varies much between institutions and the year of their sampling. For example, of the 25 institutions surveyed in 2012, eleven had a response rate between 50 and 85%, seven between 50 and 40%, three between 40 and 30%, and four below 30%. What then, explains the large differences in response rates? Our general procedure was to get complete lists of email-addresses from the institutions, which was then used for a direct email with an invitation letter and the link to the survey. Students which did not answer was then reminded with new emails up to six times over the following two months. Brief orientations were given to the students beforehand on-site by members of the Hovdabrekka research group or local teachers. The lowest response rates appear among the schools which refused us access to the student´s email addresses, and instead distributed the link to the survey in the way they seemed fit (Haaga-Helia, Tammerfors and Turku (F), Odense (D) and Lund (S)). This combination of general invitations and the lack of selective reminders is commonly associated with low response rates (Dillman, 2000). The second major negative factor was the unreliability of many of the lists of email-addresses given us: First, in many cases the lists contained names of people who were not in fact active students (either because they had quit, or in case of the first-year students, because they had accepted the invitation to become a student, but had later changed their minds and never turned up). Second, and a even bigger problem, is that with the proliferation of learning management systems (LMS), students and schools are now much less dependable on email-contact, and probably for this reason less concerned with updating the email-lists (this, of course, varying greatly from school to school and LMS to LMS). For a more detailed summary of the response rates, see http://hovdabrekka.wordpress.com/the-surveys/.

7 In addition, some comparative data from a similar survey of the Norwegian students in 2000 will be included in some of the tables. For an introduction to these earlier surveys of Norwegian students, see (Bjørnsen, Hovden, & Ottosen, 2007).

8 The questionnaires can be downloaded from the projects web site at http://hovdabrekka.wordpress.com/the-surveys/. An English translation of the 2012-survey can be found at http://wp.me/aNLnS-36 .

9 The 2005 and 2008 questionnaires were close to identical, the 2012 was somewhat reduced in length and included some new questions.

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Table 1. The Nordic journalism student surveys 2005, 2008 and 2012.

Finland Sweden Norway Denmark Iceland

TOTAL SAMPLE (28 institutions, N=4615) Institutions included in Uni. Helsinki U Gothenburg HVO, HiOA, UiS, UiB, UiN, DSMJ, U. Roskilde, Syddansk U. Uni. Akureyri*† the sample Uni. Jyväskylä U Stockholm* Gimlekollen, BI☩, NKF†, Bjorknes Uni. Reykjavik*† Uni. Tammerfors U Sodertörn☩ ☩, Samisk hs.† Uni. Turku*† U Kalmar*☩ Haaga-Helia*† U Umeaa*† U Lund*† U Uppsala*† Mid. Sweden U Year 2005 2008 2012 2005 2008 2012 2005 2008 2012 2005 2008 2012 2012

Sample size (N) 63 245 189 74 573 297 287 511 537 179 854 747 60

Female (%) 56 71 81 64 65 62 57 60 64 58 52 52 67

Master student (%) 0 33 20 0 9 2 0 1 2 0 14 26 45

Mean age (years) 23,4 24,9 25,8 22,6 24,1 24,6 23,3 22,8 23,2 26,2 25,3 25,4 30,0

*=Not surveyed in 2005. †=Not surveyed in 2008 ☩=Not surveyed in 2012.

Analytic design In regard to the previous discussion, it should first be noted that rather than making a strategic sample of journalism educations, we have aimed for a more complete10 sample of the relevant Nordic institutions who are providing practical journalism training - if not always with the same success in each country (the list appears most complete in Denmark, Norway and Iceland). Second, while we will discuss some trends and differences between the countries in the final part of the paper, we are reluctant to use aggregated data to “represent” the nations in the statistical analysis, as we believe this approach - as suggested earlier - are bound to introduce all kinds of errors into real-life data. As a methodological rule, we will treat the nation as only one variable on par with other attributes of the individuals (doing what in Hopkins and Wallerstein´s terms a multi-national but cross-individual / cross-institutional analysis instead of a “one nation- one case” approach11): Our aim is here not only on the comparison of countries, but also on understanding changes the underlying conflicts between various ideals and how these are connected to other types of differences - nationally, institutionally, individually, including their type of institution, their career aspirations (place of work and journalistic beat), their ideas on what is important to learn and what they see as important personal traits for a good journalist. In the following, we will explore differences in the Nordic student´s journalistic orientations in two parts. In the first part, the major differences between the ideals of Nordic students are extracted using correspondence analysis, and then studied in relation to a range of supplementary characteristics of the students at national, institutional and personal level. The same analysis is then repeated separately for four Nordic countries, thus studying to what degree the overall

10 We need to stress that we are not comparing every Nordic journalism student. First, whereas we have been able in each country to sample the largest and oldest vocational schools of journalism training at an university level, it is some variation to what degree the smallest schools of this kind is included (e.g. the list is close to complete in Norway, Danmark, and Iceland, but less so in Sweden and Finland). There is also some changes in the selection of schools between the time of the surveys (e.g. in Norway, two schools of journalism was discontinued between 2005 and 2008). Second, the ambiguity of the profession and the variety of educational pathways to a job as a journalist means that many semi-journalistic educations - e.g. film studies, media science, PR - which in many cases lead to journalistic type jobs are not included. Finally, note should be given on the large national differences between the journalism schools. For example, in Denmark all vocational journalism education was until the late nighties done at Danmarks journalisthøjskole, which is still numerically dominant, wheras in Norway journalism education, if similarly originating in a school driven by the profession (Journalisthøyskolen, which was later incorporated into the Oslo University College), was largely decentralised into a number of “district universities” [Distriktshøyskoler] in the seventies. Some schools have specialised in particular forms of journalism and media, other less so, c.f. (Bjørnsen, Hovden, & Ottosen, 2009).

11 Cited in (Lijphart, 1971).

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Nordic differences found before also are relevant to understand intra-national differences, and in this way suggesting some common determinants underlying the adherence to the ideals. In the second part, we will discuss changes in the journalistic ideals and orientation in the period 2005-12 for some selected journalism schools, also adding some data on the student´s views on various threats to a free journalism in their countries. In the final part of the paper, the differences and changes in the students journalistic ideals and orientations are discussed further in light of institutional factors (social recruitment, changes in the educational programs), national factors (both general changes in society and more specific changes in the national media markets and job markets for journalists) and transnational factors (e.g. changes in journalist work following digitalisation).

IV. Journalistic ideals, Nordic spaces

The Nordic space of journalistic ideals The problem with conceptual equivalence of survey questions to journalists in trans- national comparisons was noted earlier. This problem is a good argument for analysing such data using some kind of reductive statistical technique (which can summarise the information on many variables). In our case, we will use multiple correspondence analysis for this purpose (MCA) 12. MCA is a statistical technique which Bourdieu has used many times in his analysis of social spaces and fields, most famously in Distinction (1984). It is a specific form of Geometric data analysis (GDA), closely related to principal component analysis (PCA), and aims to optimally represent a large set of categorical variables (modalities) and individuals as two superimposed clouds of points in a low-dimensional space. The distances are computed on the basis of the chi2- differences between attributes of the total set of modalities which form the basis of the statistical construction. Both MCA and PCA “looks” for underlying dimensions (factors in MCA, components in PCA) which explain most of the variance in the matrix, which is then usually represented in a two-dimensional Cartesian plane (the “map of correspondences” in MCA). While this procedure obviously means the loss of some nuances, we will argue that reductive techniques are particularly apt for the realities of cross-national survey research, as it is better able to bring out the structural information while ignoring the noise. In the questionnaires, the Nordic journalism students were asked: “Here are some assertions regarding the professional role of the journalist. What is your opinion of these? A journalist ought to regard himself as ...”. The students then rated different assertions from “very much agree” to “very much disagree”, of which we have selected 16 for analysis (table 3). They were then recoded into dummy variables (agree very much vs. other) 13.

The main oppositions A MCA of the dataset (figure 1) suggest four underlying dimensions which oppose the Nordic journalism students in this period in their answers to the professional ideals: The first axis (not shown) simply divides the students according to their propensity to cross of many versus

12 For a short introduction to the methodology, see (Brigitte Le Roux & Rouanet, 2010)

13 The reason we have chosen to only provide statistics for the category of “very much agree” to the ideals (a dummy coding, which also forms the basis of the MCA) is simply because the students tend to agree to most ideals presented, so that the important distinction (statistically and analytically) appears to be between those who say that they wholeheartedly agree and those who do not, and not between supporters and opposers. For typical critical/investigative ideals, often more than 80-90% agree (wholeheartedly or somewhat), and even more controversial ideals like “being neutral” and “educate consumers” are an ideal to which 60-70% agree to in some form. In this way, using this simple dummy coding do not result in a great loss in the variance to be explained.

- 8 - Paper NordMedia, August 8-11, Oslo 2013 fewer ideals as “very important”. Whereas this is statistically the most important dimension (as it explains most of the variance in the table), it does not appear have much analytical importance and will be ignored in the following analysis, as it is not clearly related to any observable characteristic in the data14. The second axis (the horizontal in figure 1) opposes the students in a manner close to Johnstone, Slawski and Bowman´s (1976) well-known separation between an “participatory role” and “neutral role”: students on the left side more often mentions as very important ideals of criticising injustice, scrutinise the powerful, stimulate the public to new ideas, influence public opinion, defend individuals against injustice and contribute to inter-cultural understanding , whereas the students on the right side more often say as important being a neutral reporter of events, give objective information, mirror common opinions and being free from all interests, in other words a adherence to a role of spectators vs. a role of participant. We will term this the intervention-neutralism/objectivity axis. The third axis (vertical) is first and foremost linked to the question if providing recreation is a very important journalistic ideal, where those who agree with this also tend to agree to mirroring society and bring forward various opinions as important, which is opposed to classic investigative ideals (criticising injustice, defend the individual and scrutinise the powerful). Even if this axis also has elements of separating ideals of the press related to a well-functioning public sphere versus more private ideals, we will term this the investigative-recreation axis15.

14 There are two explanations which may account for this lack of correspondence between axis 1 and other characteristics. The first is that this tendency reflects a personal response-style in surveys (that some people tend to agree strongly to any Likert-type question). The second, and in our view more important, is that the axis do not really reflect a clear opposition, as the opposites of this axis - to rank every ideal or no ideal as very important - in essence amounts to the same thing, i.e. in a lack of prioritising of the ideals. Note that this is quite normal procedure when analysing this kind of data with MCA (c.f. Brigitte Le Roux & Rouanet, 2004, p. 219).

15 The fourth axis, in contrast, opposes male and female students, in particular in regard to the ideal of "telling the truth regardless of consequences". As the last axis is not statistically significant, however, the ensuing analysis will be restricted to axis 2 and 3.

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Figure 1. The space of journalistic ideals (MCA), axis 2-3. Nordic students 2005, 2008 and 2012. Total sample, N=3794.

INVESTIGATION NEWSPAPER / NEWS AGENCY Göteborg (S) Reykjavik(I) CRITISIZE INJUSTICE Swe(male) News agency DEFEND INDIVIDUALS SWEDEN-12 SUFFERING FROM INJUSTICE Swe(Female) INVESTIGATE THE POWERFUL Gimlekollen(N) Volda(N) Stavanger(N) NORWAY-08 Bergen(N) Bodø(N) Helsinki(F) Society/politics MidSwedenU(S) TELL TRUTH REGARDLESS Fin(Female)Tampere(F) Parent journalist OF THE CONSEQUENCES NORWAY-12 Int.conflicts“A sense of justice” FINLAND-12BE FREE FROM ALL INTERESTS Nor(Male) “Understand society” Regional newspaper Ice(Male) Nor(Female) Crime BE A NEUTRAL REPORTER National newspaper ICELAND-12 FACILIATE PUBLIC“Compassion” DEBATE Accidents/distastersGIVE OBJECTIVE FACTSIce(Female) Prev. paid journ exp. Jyväskylä(F) INTERVENTIONISM Oslo(N) >24yrs SIMPLIFY COMPLEX ISSUES Akureuri(I) Father master degree SWEDEN-08 FINLAND-08 Umeaa(S) NEUTRALISM/OBJECTIVISM NATIONAL MEDIA Fin(Male) LOCAL MEDIA <23yrs Father bach./no high. edu dim 2 (10.1%) Inherited capital+ -.5 Nat.radio Dan(Male) Local radio/TV .5 Inherited capital- Charismatic ideology Economy National TV Sports Meritocratic ideology CONTRIBUTE TO Roskilde(D) “Creativity” DENMARK-12 Turku(F) INTERCULTURAL UNDERSTANDING Culture “Efficiency” Dan(Female)DJH(D) Magazine Stockholm(S) “Cheekiness”Odense(D) DENMARK-08 STIMULATE THE PUBLIC Entertainment Consumer affairs Iceland Health/personal NKF(N) Sweden PR TV production “Charm” Denmark

Finland Norway

) “Knowing what sells” % 7 . 7

(

3 EDUCATE CONSUMERS m i d

INFLUENCE PUBLIC OPINION 5

-. MIRROR SOCIETY FORWARD OPINIONS

PROVIDE RECREATION RECREATION PR / MAGAZINE /BROADCASTING

Notes: Active categories in bold type. Schools´ position and indicator for country / gender is based on 2012-data. Position of country and their overall confidence ellipses are based on the sub-sample of nine schools: Tampere and Jyväskylä (F), Gothenburg and Sweden Mid University (S), Oslo and Volda (N), DMJ and Roskilde (D) and Akureyri (I). Eigenvalues and explained inertia axis 1-4: .2187 (22%), .0991 (10%), .0738 (7%), .0655 (6%). Stata 12.0, normalisation=principal, method=indicator matrix. Additional statistical properties are given in table A1 in the appendix.

Interpretation of supplementary variables When looking at how a students´s position in this space of ideals is typically related to other characteristics (the supplementary points), we should first note some national differences: Finnish and Icelandic students tend more often than other students to say that being objective and neutral are very important ideals, whereas the Norwegian students are more likely to not agree to this. The Danish students, in contrast, are overall less likely to agree to ideals related to participatory, neutral and investigative ideals, and are thus placed closer to the pole of recreation, whereas the Swedes in 2008 occupied somewhat of a middle position in this space, but in 2012 appear to be more oriented towards “investigative” ideals. In regard to gender, year of study and country, the overall differences are not major - if considered on a variable-by-variable basis. A multivariate interpretation, however, their importance become more pronounced - and complex. For example, even if there is overall no significant overall differences between the sexes at the Nordic level in this map, and males and females within each country overall tend to have quite similar answers, their differences varies a lot in regard to specific questions. E.g. regarding the question of neutrality as an important ideal, females in Iceland and Norway more often agree to this ideal than males do, but it is the other way round in in Finland and Denmark (and no such differences in Sweden), illustrating that there is no simple bivariate relation between gender or country and journalistic ideals.

- 10 - Paper NordMedia, August 8-11, Oslo 2013

Another notable feature is that differences between the schools are larger than differences between countries: students at older universities, which are usually more academic in scope with more focus on theory and less on practical skills, tend to place themselves further from the right/neutral (and often also the lower/recreational) pole of this space, compared to other, more vocational schools in the same country (e.g. students from Helsinki (F) have more in common than students from Oslo (N), Roskilde (D) and Stockholm (S) than with students of Jyväskylä (F) or Tampere (F)). Furthermore, as these differences are also very notable even in first-year students surveyed in their first weeks of study (figure 2), the differences cannot simply be explained as an outcome of pedagogical practices or informal socialisation at these sites, but must also be sought in the characteristics of the students who are attracted to and able to enter these studies 16.

Figure 2a. The space of journalistic ideals (MCA), axis 2-3. The position of Nordic first-year students from 15 schools in 2005, 2008 and 2012 (supplementary points). X

INVESTIGATION Gothenburg12 ,5 Volda08 Gothenburg05 Bodø05 MidUni05 MidUni12 Tammerfors05 Jyväskylä08 Roskilde08 Tammerfors12 Oslo08 Bodø12 Bergen12 Stavanger05 Gimlekollen12 Helsingfors12 Gimlekollen05 Stavanger08 Stavanger12 Gothenburg08 Bodø08 Oslo12 Helsingfors08 X INTERVENTIONISM dimension 2 ( 9,9%) Akureyri12 NEUTRALISM/ Bergen05 X DMJ12 Tammerfors08 OBJECTIVISM -1 Bergen08 Oslo05 1 Volda05 Volda12 Helsingfors05 Roskilde12 Roskilde05 Gimlekollen08 Stockholm08 MidUni08 DMJ08 Stockholm12 Jyväskylä12 -,5 dimension 3 ( 7,4%) Jyväskylä05 RECREATION DMJ05

X

16 For example, in Norway the older state university colleges and the university-based programmes seem to recruit students with a somewhat higher social background than the private colleges and business schools, and the two oldest and largest state-governed schools of journalism– Oslo and Volda University College – also appear to provide a higher chance for access to the most prestigious national/city newspapers (for Oslo-students) and jobs in NRK, the national public broadcaster (for Volda-students), not only compared to other journalism schools, but also compared to alternative paths into journalism, suggesting that having a prestigious journalism education is an important form of capital for new entrants in the journalistic field, if less so for the highest positions (c.f. Hovden, 2008, p. 85).

- 11 - úÄ ù

Paper NordMedia, August 8-11, Oslo 2013

Figure 2b. The space of journalistic ideals (MCA), axis 2-3. The position of Nordic first- and second / third-year students from ten schools in 2012 (supplementary points).

Reykjavik 2-3y dim3 Goteborg 2-3y Goteborg 1y

Volda 2-3y -,5 Jyväskylä 2-3y MidSweden 1y

Helsinki 1y Reykjavik 1y Helsinki 2-3y MidSweden 2-3y Akureyri 2-3y Oslo 1y Oslo 2-3y Akureyri 1y ,5 dim2 -,5 Volda 1y DJH 1y Roskilde 1y DJH 2-3y Roskilde 2-3y

Jyväskylä 1y ,5

The students who adhere most clearly to the investigative type of ideals not only display stronger links to the profession - they more often have parents who are journalists, have done paid journalistic work before starting their studies, and are also more likely to say that they want to become a journalist (only 28% of the Nordic students in 2012 was "completely sure" of this). They also appear with the clearest affiliations to the traditional ideal-type of a journalist: more often than others, they prefer to work in newspapers with traditional "hard news": politics, society, crime, international conflicts e.t.c., and see knowledge of society and a sense of justice as key characteristics of a good journalist. They are contrasted to students with a preference for broadcasting and regular magazines, and even more clearly, with students who prefer to hold jobs in PR or TV/film production. While in no sense differing dramatically from the "traditionalists" (e.g. whereas 70% of those who wanted to work in a national newspaper in 2012

ùÄú said that "investigating the powerful" was a very important part of a journalist´s role, 61% of those who preferred magazines and 55% of those national broadcasting said the same), they are marked by a relatively stronger interest in lifestyle-type content, culture and entertainment (including sports), and more often agree to "charm", "knowing what sells" and "cheekiness" are important traits in a good journalist. The interventionism-neutralism axis appear to follow another logic. First, a leaning toward neutralism and objectivity is more common in students who want to work in local press or local broadcasting, and is also negatively linked to having a father with a master degree, e.g. an indicator of having a dominated habitus (Bourdieu, 1984). Not surprisingly, given the social dimension, those leading towards a participatory role for journalism also are more likely to see "charisma" as a more important trait for a journalist than "efficiency". In sum the two axes appears to represent two quite different kind of oppositions. The horizontal axis, the intervention-neutralism / objectivity axis appears to be linked first, to different national journalistic traditions - a Scandinavian tradition (Sweden, Norway, Denmark) vs. Finland (and possibly Iceland), and second, to class, in the way that it opposes dominant and dominated habituses. The vertical axis, on the other hand appears to be mostly linked to different professional

- 12 - Paper NordMedia, August 8-11, Oslo 2013 aspirations - towards traditional, ideal-typic “hard news” journalism (in particular, in newspapers), and broadcasting and “soft news”.

The homology of national spaces So far we have identified some important differences in ideals among the Nordic journalism students, and their links to certain features of the students and their institutions.The question remains, however, of the generality of these patterns: are they only valid at a Nordic level, or can we observe similar patterns - structural homologies - also inside the different countries? By repeating the MCA with the same variables, but this time separate for each country, we can affirm the first notion: more or less, the oppositions we identified in the previous trans- national MCA are generally repeated inside each country (table 2). The second axis in all countries involves some kind of opposition between the ideals of neutrality and objectivity vs. more participatory / intervening ideals, if with some differing weights to the ideals involved (e.g.. in Norway the later appear to more involve ideals related to ideals of investigative and critical journalism, and less related to the perhaps more intellectual* ideal of influencing the opinion). The third axis similarly always opposes ideals of recreation (and also usually, the ideal of consumer guidance) to some ideals of investigative / critical journalism (the public scrutiny of the powerful, a journalism without regard for the consequences, the fight against injustice). The supplementary variables suggest a similar underlying logic at work, but also offers some nuances. A tendency for neutralism (figure 4a-b) is in most countries usually most common among first-year students, in those with a preference for local media or national broadcasting, who are more interested in working with culture news than in society / politics news, and those with father with lower educational credentials. A preference for investigative ideals, on the other hand, is more common among males in every country (and with the exception of Norway, more common in 2012 than in 2008), it is more common among older, 2nd/3d year students with some previous paid experience from journalism, among those who mark themselves more interested in social/political news than culture, would prefer to work in a newspaper (figure 5). This analysis brings some nuances our earlier analysis: while the investigative axis are clearly related to job preferences in journalism, there is also a gender logic at work. In particular, the investigative-recreational axis tend to oppose male and female students inside each country. Furthermore, it is clear that differences in the students habitus (Bourdieu, 1984) is not restricted to his aspect, as a preference for intervention (vs. neutralism) is usually related to students with having relatively higher class backgrounds. The robustness of these findings 17 are shown not only by the way they are repeated in each country, but also by that very similar links between habitus and journalistic preferences have been found in earlier analyses of Norwegian journalism students and journalists (Hovden, 2008, 2010). Thus very probably, the taste for intervention (vs. non- intervention) in journalism reflect differences in a certain type of confidence which is at least some part social in origin (one is reminded of the fact that avant-gardes in art are often marked by privileged social backgrounds (Bourdieu, 1996). Note, however, that our statistical analysis in

17 Also c.f. table A2 in the appedix, which provides a statistical interpretation of the same data from the traditional statistical dialect of regression analysis.

- 13 - Paper NordMedia, August 8-11, Oslo 2013 this paper is very coarse in the regard to the question of habitus, which has been analysed in more nuance elsewhere18.

Table 2. The space of ideals. MCA, total and separate for four countries, active categories. Absolute contribution for axis 1-4. Journalism students of Finland, Sweden, Denmark and Finland 2005, 2008 and 2012 (full sample, N=3738). Percentages.

Axis 1 AXIS 2 AXIS 3 Axis 4 Interventionism(+) vs Neutralism(-) Investigation(+) vs Recreation(-)

Total Total Fin Swe Nor Den Total Fin Swe Nor Den Total

Active categories (only “yes” categories shown) % Absolute contribution (only explicative categories shown)

Critisize injustice in society 2 1 2 3 3

Stimulate to new ideas and thoughts 2 2 1 1

Be a neutral reporter of events 2 −5 −3 −5 −7 −6 3 2

Mirror common opinions in society 2 −1 −1 −3 −4 −1 −3 −3

Investigate the powerful in society 2 2 1 2

Explain complicated events to the public 2

Be free from all interests in society 2 −2 −4 −5 4 1

Provide recreation −5 −2 −5 −3 1

Objectively report news and facts 2 −4 −2 −3 −3 −5 2

Influence the public opinion 2 1 1 2 −2 −1 −3 −3 3

Tell the truth regardless of consequences 2 2 6

Be a spokesperson for local opinions −1 −7 −1 −1 1

Contribute to intercultural understanding 3 2 1 2 2 1 −1 −1

Educate the consumer 3 −3 −3

Faciliate public debate 2 1 1 1 1 1 −2

Defend individuals from injustice 3 1 5 1 1 2 1 −1

Notes: Only “yes”-categories are listed (=”very much agree” to the importance of the ideal), and numbers are only given for categories with an absolute contribution over average for the axis (=explicative category). Cf. Jambu (1991, p. 286). -/+ indicates position on the side of the axis (following the logic of figure 1). N and eigenvalues (proportion of explained variance) for axis 1-4: Finland (N=434) .210/.107/.084/.074, Sweden (N=770) .221/.104/.076/.070, Norway (N=1133) .232/.100/.078/.066, Denmark (N=1401) . 193/.111/.077/.066.

18 In an analysis of Norwegian journalism students in 2000, it was for example found that “ … One opposition which follows the social hierarchy … which also separates those wanting to work in the national versus in the local media ... is the relation between on the one hand, a belief in personal talents, in the charismatic ideology (which Bourdieu has suggested is a common disposition in groups with success in the school system), and on the other hand, in the belief in journalism as basically a set of practical skills, which can be learned through practice, a belief (or hope) which is more common in those recruited from the lower classes. [Also ...] students with the most privileged social backgrounds tend to conceptualise the public as a distant mass, placed below the journalist, which provides them with information but otherwise feels little connection, students from the (relatively) lower classes are more bound to see themselves as a part of the public, and feel stronger the obligation to facilitate public debate and contribute to mutual understanding. In a somewhat middle position in this space, we find those students who feel more comfortable with a role of representing the public ... This basic opposition, between identifying and not identifying with the public, is related to another difference, of on the one hand feeling the need to have compassion with ordinary people, on the other hand, the felt need to have “a certain cynicism with people”, the necessity of breaking some eggs when making the journalistic omelette. As this opposition follows the same vertical dimension of higher and lower social backgrounds, this forms an interesting parallel to Bourdieu’s’ distinction between pure and barbaric taste. … It seems not unreasonable to suggest that the relations of a journalist to their sources is similarly related to in their habituses, as a taste for a “barbaric journalism” versus a “pure journalism”, the latter a journalism for its own sake, disregarding the consequences, and which seems to suggest a link between sharing the illusio of a social field (which will, by definition be a defence of its internal values vis-à-vis other social logics) and privileged social upbringing. In this context, we should also note the working classes’ greater adherence to an ideology of journalistic neutralism.“ (Hovden, 2008, p. 95)

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Figure 3. The space of journalistic ideals, axis 2-3. MCA separate for each country. 2005, 2008 and 2012. Full sample, N=3738.

FINLAND SWEDEN ,5

,5 freeallinter - freeallinter defendindivi defendindivi - - faciliatepub - objectiveinf - critisizeinj investgpower- - neutralrepor faciliatepub - neutralrepor intercultund intercultund - - simplifyexpl- critisizeinj -

objectiveinf 0 educonsumers telltruthreg

0 - investgpower - - simplifyexpl- - - - stimulatepub------telltruthreg- - educonsumers - - - - -,5

stimulatepub

-,5 forwardopini recreation mirrorsociet -1 dimension 3 ( 8,4%) dimension 3 ( 7,6%) -1 recreation mirrorsociet -1,5 forwardopini -2 -1,5 -1 -,5 0 ,5 1 -1 -,5 0 ,5 1 dimension 2 (10,7%) dimension 2 (10,4%) NORWAY DENMARK ,5 neutralrepor 1 defendindivi investgpower faciliatepub mirrorsociet - - objectiveinf critisizeinj critisizeinj telltruthreg simplifyexpl- - - - intercultund - ,5 investgpower 0 - - defendindivi - freeallinter - simplifyexpl------faciliatepub - 0 - - objectiveinf stimulatepub stimulatepub- - - telltruthreg - educonsumers -,5 freeallinter - neutralrepor forwardopini - intercultund - -,5 forwardopini dimension 3 ( 7,8%)

dimension 3 ( 7,7%) -1 educonsumers recreation -1 mirrorsociet

recreation -1,5 -1,5 -,5 0 ,5 1 1,5 -1 -,5 0 ,5 1 1,5 dimension 2 (10,0%) dimension 2 (10,6%)

- 15 - Paper NordMedia, August 8-11, Oslo 2013

Figure 4a. "Interventionism-neutralism axis" (axis 2): Coordinates of various supplementary characteristics of respondents, Country-specific MCA. FINLAND SWEDEN Master stockhol 0 lund helsingf ,1 Paid_ful uppsala >25 Master radio_na cult=soc goteborg newsp_na -,05 sodertor pr_other magazine 1st year newsagen Bachelor cult=soc M 2008 newsagen 2012 22-25 Unpaid magazine soc>cult M 2008 F

0 Paid_par <22 2nd/3d y None -,1 2nd/3d y luleaa tv_natio None tammerfo Paid_par radio_na soc>cult Unpaid newsp_na cult>soc Paid_ful 22-25 Bachelor <22 None tv_natio tvrad_lo F >25 -,15 mittuniv 1st year tvrad_lo None newsp_lo

pr_other -,1 haagahel kalmar 2012 newsp_lo

-,2 jyväskyl cult>soc umeaa

turku -,2 -,25 Year Location Gender Age SchoolYr JournExp PrefWork PrefTheme EduFather Year Location Gender Age SchoolYr JournExp PrefWork PrefTheme EduFather NORWAY DENMARK

,2 ,1 roskilde

pr_other Samisk Bergen Volda Oslo soc>cult

,1 radio_na 2008 Paid_ful newsp_na ,05 F >25 tvrad_lo 2nd/3d y Paid_par magazine Master Stavange cult=soc 22-25 Bachelor >25 newsagen cult=soc Bodø Unpaid Unpaid Master 1st year None newsp_lo 2012 <22 None F tv_natio 2012 2nd/3d y newsp_na M Paid_par magazine soc>cult

0 pr_other 0 cult>soc None newsagen 2008 M 22-25 1st year None Bachelor GimleBI odense newsp_lo Paid_ful radio_na cult>soc djh tv_natio <22 -,1 -,05

NKF tvrad_lo

bjorknes -,2 -,1

Year Location Gender Age SchoolYr JournExp PrefWork PrefTheme EduFather Year Location Gender Age SchoolYr JournExp PrefWork PrefTheme EduFather

Figure 4b. "Investigation-recreation axis" (axis 3): Coordinates of various supplementary characteristics of respondents, Country-specific MCA. FINLAND SWEDEN Unpaid lund ,1 newsagen ,2 >25 soc>cult haagahel M radio_na uppsala tammerfo ,15

Paid_par magazine 2nd/3d y ,05 tvrad_lo None Bachelor 2012 newsp_na ,1 newsp_lo 2008 helsingf 22-25 goteborg tv_natio 2012 tvrad_lo F mittuniv >25 newsp_lo M None 1st year ,05 pr_other pr_other cult=soc cult=soc None 0 jyväskyl Paid_ful magazine soc>cult cult>soc 22-25 1st year None Paid_par newsp_na <22 2nd/3d y Master umeaa radio_na Master F Unpaid tv_natio

turku 0 kalmar cult>soc Bachelor 2008 Paid_ful sodertor

luleaa <22 newsagen stockhol -,05 -,05 Year Location Gender Age SchoolYr JournExp PrefWork PrefTheme EduFather Year Location Gender Age SchoolYr JournExp PrefWork PrefTheme EduFather NORWAY DENMARK

newsagen ,1 newsagen ,2 ,05

soc>cult ,1

0 Paid_ful Bergen soc>cult Bodø newsp_na Volda newsp_lo Stavange Paid_ful newsp_na roskilde tvrad_lo 2012 M Paid_par Master M 2008 Gimle 22-25 2nd/3d y pr_other cult=soc 2012 Bachelor Paid_par Oslo >25 1st year Unpaid tv_natio 22-25 1st year tv_natio Master F <22 None None odense 2nd/3d y Unpaid Bachelor -,05 2008 >25 newsp_lo cult=soc radio_na djh None None 0 F <22 cult>soc radio_na tvrad_lo pr_other magazine -,1

NKF BI magazine -,1 cult>soc bjorknes -,15 Year Location Gender Age SchoolYr JournExp PrefWork PrefTheme EduFather Year Location Gender Age SchoolYr JournExp PrefWork PrefTheme EduFather

- 16 - Paper NordMedia, August 8-11, Oslo 2013

IV. Differentiation and homogenisation, 2005-12 So far, we have established some major patterns in terms of both journalistic ideals and aspirations for journalism students in the Nordic countries, both on a trans-national and intra- national level. In the remaining analysis, the question will in contrast be on the changes in the period 2005-12: to what degree are the changes in the Nordic societies, media markets and journalistic job market and working lives correlated with changes in the students´ journalistic ideals and aspirations? For reasons given earlier, we will for this part of the analysis refrain from using national aggregations, and instead look at these factors for nine selected journalism schools - two from each country for each of the three years, and one school from Iceland in 2012. To further improve comparability, we will only include first-year bachelor students. While this in some instances involve comparing quite small numbers of students (in particular in the non- Scandinavian countries, Finland and Iceland), the fact that we are here dealing with populations (i.e. the full set of students) and not a random sample, while alleviating this problem somewhat, is still a reminder that rather than interpreting the changes in single schools, we should look for more overarching patterns rather than statistical particular, which will be the aim of our discussion.

Neutrality on the decline, investigative ideals on the rise Looking first at the distribution of first-year students from selected schools at various years in the Nordic space of ideals (figure 2a), combined by the Bertin plot in figure 6 (which represents the relative over- and under-representation of various ideals of the selected schools at different years), we can note some tendencies - or even trends - in the data. The first observation is simply that there appear to be no simple trans-national process of professional homogenisation of values and orientations at work in the Nordic countries - or at least not among the journalism students - but, rather, a more complex process where the Nordic students are becoming more alike in some aspects, but more divergent in others. In regard to ideals, the data suggest a shared reorientation, with the decline of ideals of neutrality and objectivity - and to some lesser the degree, cultivating the public either in their aspect as citizens or consumers (stimulating to new thoughts, facilitating public debate, educating consumers, provide recreation), whereas there is simultaneously a strengthening of investigative ideals (investigate the powerful, tell truth regardless of consequences) which at the same time appears to be more detached from ideals of justice. The data in this way cautiously support a thesis of a strengthening journalistic ideology, where journalists´ mission appear to be seen as a less neutral mission on behalf on a public, and more as an activity on behalf of the journalistic profession as a competing elite (Eide, 1998; Hovden, 2008; Petersson, 1994; Raaum, 1999). At the same time, the countries diverge, which was also suggested in the first correspondence analysis but is here nuanced by the tabular analysis: These trends appears most clearly in the Swedish schools (but are here combined with stronger adherence to objectivity) and in Finland (with less movement away from neutrality and a decline of the ideals of public debate). Norway in these matters appears most close to Finland, and Denmark to Sweden (while the Danish students differ by their tendency to rank much fewer ideals as very important than the others). We should, however, note - a tendency which is most easily seen in the Bertin graph, that journalism schools of the same country still tend to be similar in their ideals (although, as earlier noted, with some variation according to type of school) more or less regardless of year (this also goes for the institutions themselves) - two facts which suggest the presence of persistent national

- 17 - Paper NordMedia, August 8-11, Oslo 2013 and institutional differences. Statistically, there are no clear indicators that the students of the different Nordic countries have become more similar in their journalistic ideals 19.

Figure 5. Preference for working in Broadcasting, Newspaper/agency or Magazine/PR/Other as first Choice. Triplot, first year students.

BROADCASTING 80% 20%

Volda 00 Volda 08 Stavanger 08 Akureyri 12 60% Volda 12 40% Gimle 08 Volda 05 Oslo 12 Stavanger 12

Gimle 12 Goteborg 12

Gimle 05 Bodø 08 Odense 12 Djh 12 60% 40% Bodø 12 Odense 08 Bergen 08 Helsingfors 08 Odense 05 Goteborg 08 Bodø 05 Bergen 12 Roskilde 12 Oslo 08 Djh 08 Helsingfors 12 Djh 05 Bergen 05 Mittuniv 05 Stockholm12 Roskilde 08 Oslo 00 Mittuniv 12Stockholm08 Mittuniv 08 Roskilde 05 Jyväskylä 12 Jyväskylä 05 80% 20% Oslo 05 Stavanger 05 Tammerfors 08 Goteborg 05 Tammerfors 12

Jyväskylä 08 Helsingfors 05

Tammerfors 05 100% 80% 60% 40% 20% MAGAZINE / PR / OTHER NEWS AGENCY / NEWSPAPER

19 Average chi-square by year for the 16 ideals in table 3 (dummy) cross-tabulated with the countries (excluding Iceland) in the subsample: 13 (2005) 29 (2008) and 22 (2012). The same statistic for some other variables/sets of variables listed in table 3 follows. Preferred publication (first choice, one variable): 90 (2005), 64 (2008) and 64 (2012). Preferred themes (7 variables): 11 (2005) 12 (2008) and 15 (2012). Very important personal qualities for a journalist (7 variables): 24 (2005) 50 (2008) and 36 (2012). Very important to learn in journalism school (first seven variables): 20 (2005) 50 (2008) and 24 (2012).

- 18 - Paper NordMedia, August 8-11, Oslo 2013

Figure 6. Agreement to various journalistic ideals by first-year students at nine Nordic journalism schools in 2005, 2008 and 2012 (N=1324). Bertin plot.

FINLAND - ICELAND - SWEDEN - NORWAY - DENMARK ----> TIME UNIVERSITY COLLEGE <--> UNIVERSITY F-Jyvaskyla 12 F-Jyvaskyla 08 F-Jyvaskyla 05 F-Jyvaskyla 05 D-DMJ 12 I-Akureyri 05 F-Helsinki 08 F-Helsinki 12 S-MidUni 05 D-Roskilde 08 S-MidUni 08 D-DMJ 05 S-MidUni 08 S-Gothenburg 05 S-Gothenburg 05 N-Oslo 12 N-Oslo 05 N-Volda 12 N-Volda 08 N-Oslo 12 S-Gothenburg 08 N-Volda 12 F-Helsinki 12 D-DMJ 12 D-Roskilde 08 D-Roskilde Influence.the.public.opinion

PEDAGOGIC Explain.complicated..events ROLE Tell.the.truth.regardless.of.consequences

CONSUMER Educate.the.consumer GUIDANCE Provide.recreation

Be.a.spokesperson.for.local.opinions

Objectively.report.news.and.facts OBJECTIVITY NEUTRALITY Be.a.neutral.reporter.of.events

Be.free.from.all.interests.in.society

Mirror.common.opinions.in.society FACILITATE DEBATE Stimulate.to.new.ideas.and.thoughts

INVESTIGATE Faciliate.public.debate THE Investigate.the.powerful.in..society POWERFUL Contribute.to.intercult..understanding FIGHT INJUSTICE Critisize.injustice.in.society

Defend.individuals.from.injustice

Ordering by sum of absolute rank differences (=Minkowski distance with power 1), c.f. (Hahsler, Hornik, & Buchta, 2013). Height shows relative overrepresentation of those who “agree very much” for a specific ideal relative to other institutions/years (the bars does thus not show the differences in agreement between two different ideals, but rather the specific “profile” of a particular ideal across institutions/years) Percentages above average for the category in black. Full table in the appendix A3.

Shunning newspapers, embracing magasines and broadcasting

The aforementioned changes coincide with an increasing preference for broadcast journalism and the decline of newspapers (figure 5): whereas on average20 only 28% of the Nordic first-year students in 2005 said they wanted to work in broadcasting (the rise appears both in national television and radio), this percentage rose to 42% in 2012, and newspapers and national news agencies declined

20 The national numbers in this section are made by aggregating alle the students from Tampere and Jyväskylä (for Finland), Gothenburg and Sweden Mid University (Sweden), Oslo and Volda (fNorway), DMJ and Roskilde (Denmark).

- 19 - Paper NordMedia, August 8-11, Oslo 2013 from 54 to 32% (national newspapers from 42 to 24%) as first choices. Also here this trend differ somewhat: The decline of newspapers as first preference appear strongest in Finland and Denmark, but where this in Finland appears mostly as a shift towards magazines, this is Denmark appears also as a shift towards PR and other forms of what we may term “non-journalistic journalistic work” (in the sense that is involves the use of journalistic expertise outside traditional media organisations). In Norway the fall of the national newspaper is somewhat less pronounced and appears as a shift towards broadcasting. Of note is that the decline in interest in the national newspaper appears in the period 2005-2008 in Sweden and Denmark, but not until 2008-2012 in Norway, which might be attributable to a later shift in the industry*. In Sweden, in contrast, there is no such decline, and the changes appears mainly as a shift away from magazines and towards national broadcasting. Sweden also shares with Finland an increasing interest in working with society and politics, a theme which is on the decline in Norway and Denmark (along with most other themes). Also of note is the increasing importance placed on press ethics in Sweden and Finland (coming up to the Norwegian level), while this has decreased markedly in Denmark. Finally, we see that charismatic ideals (curiosity, creativity) appears to decrease in Denmark, while in Norway there is some movement away from a knowledge-based ideal of journalism (e.g. the need to master grammar or have knowledge of society), while both such ideas appear to be on the increase in Sweden and Finland.

Disenchanted and déclassé? Parallel to, and undoubtedly to some degree also responsible for, these changes in ideals and aspirations has happened some changes in the social recruitment of the students (table 4). First, the gender ratio have become less balanced, as the proportion of first-year female students in Finland and Norway in 2012 increased to over 70%, whereas they in Sweden and Denmark appear relative stable at between 40-50%. In regards of age, there has been little overall change, but here the countries have moved in different directions: the students are becoming younger in Finland and Denmark, but older in Sweden. Not very surprisingly given the student´s typical young age (in 2012, over half of the first-year students in Norway and Finland was less than 22 year old, meaning that journalism school often was their first study after finishing secondary school), only 25-30% in each country are very sure that they want to be journalists in the future21. Another interesting trait in the data is the decline in students with a parent with a master degree (which is most marked in Norway and Denmark), which, given the general rise the educational level in all countries in this period, looks odd, and might suggest a stagnation or even déclassé of journalism education, and in extension of this, a toll for the decreasing status of the profession.

21 This logic, which is the endpoint of a much longer trend, involves fundamental changes in Nordic (or at least Norwegian) journalism education: Whereas earlier journalism studies for many students came at the end of an educational career and marked the start (or in many cases, the continuation of) a work career in journalism, the majority of Nordic journalism students in 2012 do not plan to enter the journalistic career directly after studies. If not necessarily accompanied by a change in the organisation of journalism studies or in the expectations of the teachers, this simple change is bound to have an important impact on the students orientation towards the studies, in a sort of disenchantment (marking a looser mental and social integration into the world of journalism and it´s ideals, or to use Bourdieu´s terms, a weaker journalistic illusio). This change, which by the journalism teachers are bound to be perceived as a series of individual moral problems (“lack of interest”, “laziness”, “not serious enough” etc.) is probably a natural (given the changes in recruitment) shift away from a vocational orientation (or collegial, in the original Roman sense, the collegium of a guild being a religious brotherhood of craftsmen with their own deities and rituals), from journalism school as an apprenticeship towards journalism as merely a study among others (a sacrilegious belief seen from the viewpoint of the journalistic field).

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Figure 7a-d. Preferred future workplace (first choice), preferred journalistic theme, “very important” things to learn in journalism school and personal characteristics of a good journalist, by first-year students at nine Nordic journalism schools in 2005, 2008 and 2012 (N=1324). Bertin plots.

a. PREFERRED WORKPLACE (1st choice) b. “VERY INTERESTED” IN THEME/BEAT I-Akureyri 12 I-Akureyri 05 F-Jyvaskyla 12 S-MidUni 05 N-Volda 05 S-MidUni 08 S-MidUni 12 N-Volda 05 D-DMJ 08 N-Oslo 12 S-Gothenburg 05 N-Oslo 08 N-Volda 08 S-Gothenburg 05 S-Gothenburg 05 D-Roskilde 08 D-DMJ 12 D-Roskilde 12 N-Oslo 12 D-DMJ 12 F-Helsinki 05 F-Helsinki 12 F-Jyvaskyla 08 F-Helsinki 08 D-Roskilde 08 F-Jyvaskyla I-Akureyri 12 I-Akureyri 12 D-Roskilde 05 D-Roskilde 08 D-Roskilde 12 D-DMJ 05 N-Volda 08 D-DMJ 05 D-DMJ 08 S-Gothenburg 08 N-Volda 12 N-Volda 12 N-Oslo 12 S-Gothenburg 05 S-MidUni 12 F-Jyvaskyla 12 S-MidUni 08 F-Helsinki 12 F-Helsinki 08 N-Oslo 05 F-Helsinki 05 F-Jyvaskyla 05 N-Oslo 08 F-Jyvaskyla 08 S-MidUni 05 S-Gothenburg EconomyTrade Newsp.nation SocietyPolitics Specialist.press Multicultural

Magazine Religion

IntConflicts PR PopularScience TVRad.local Culture

TV.nation Consumer

Entertainment MovieTVprod Sport Newsp.local Crime

Newsagency Emergencies

HealthSocial Radio.nation

c. “VERY IMPORTANT” TO LEARN: d. “VERY IMPORTANT” PERSONAL TRAITS: D-DMJ 12 D-DMJ 05 D-DMJ 08 D-Roskilde 08 D-DMJ 05 D-Roskilde 12 D-Roskilde 05 S-MidUni 08 F-Jyvaskyla 05 S-Gothenburg 12 F-Jyvaskyla 08 S-MidUni 12 S-Gothenburg 08 S-Gothenburg 12 S-MidUni 12 F-Helsinki 08 N-Volda 12 N-Volda 08 N-Oslo 05 N-Oslo 12 N-Oslo 08 F-Helsinki 05 F-Jyvaskyla 05 N-Volda 05 F-Helsinki 12 I-Akureyri F-Jyvaskyla 05 F-Jyvaskyla 12 I-Akureyri 08 F-Jyvaskyla 12 S-Gothenburg 12 F-Jyvaskyla 05 N-Oslo 08 N-Oslo 12 F-Helsinki 08 N-Volda 05 D-DMJ 12 N-Oslo 12 D-Roskilde 12 N-Volda 05 N-Volda 05 D-Roskilde 12 S-MidUni 08 D-DMJ 05 S-MidUni 08 S-MidUni 08 S-Gothenburg 05 S-Gothenburg 08 F-Helsinki 05 F-Helsinki 08 D-Roskilde 12 D-DMJ SourceCrit HaveLifeExp

PressEthics Compassion

CommTheory BeCreative

SocialScience SenseOfJustice MediaHistory BeThorough MediaStructures BeEffective LangGrammar Language StateAdmin KnowSociety CreativeWriting Curiosity Editing Charm PressLaw

JournGenres PolNeutrality

Interviewing SomeCheek

Ordering by sum of absolute rank differences. Percentages above average for the category are in black. Full tables in the table appendix A4-A5.

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Table 4. Various characteristics of first-year students at nine Nordic journalism schools in 2005, 2008 and 2012 (N=1324). ICE COUNTRY NORWAY SWEDEN DENMARK FINLAND LA ND GOTHEN- MID JYVÄ- AK SCHOOL OSLO VOLDA DMJ ROSKILDE HELSINKI UR BURG SWEDEN SKYLÄ EY

YEAR 5 8 12 5 8 12 5 8 12 5 8 12 5 8 12 5 8 12 5 8 12 5 8 12 12

N= 59 49 39 56 49 42 15 46 35 48 26 24 66 194 126 89 19 35 18 17 15 10 12 11 14

Gender Female 64 63 84 48 67 61 73 54 37 54 56 48 53 46 35 64 58 54 44 71 67 70 83 90 57 <22years 44 51 47 39 63 51 0 11 13 58 56 57 15 29 39 0 0 8 83 82 73 60 83 70 7 Age 22_25years 41 37 32 55 27 44 79 65 47 19 28 35 49 55 47 19 61 81 17 12 20 40 8 20 50 >25years 15 12 21 5 10 5 21 24 41 23 16 9 35 16 14 81 39 12 0 6 7 0 8 10 43 Father or Has master dgr 46 45 47 49 23 25 27 46 41 19 13 5 45 27 22 55 44 53 38 47 79 22 14 11 31 mother ... Is a journalist 9 14 10 2 0 0 0 9 3 0 4 4 5 4 2 1 11 3 6 18 13 0 0 18 7 None 29 46 45 48 27 50 64 52 60 62 52 81 49 54 56 19 28 50 39 18 53 22 27 10 57 Previous Yes, unpaid 25 20 24 27 23 31 36 34 17 22 28 10 24 33 27 16 39 32 22 47 20 44 45 0 29 journalistic experience Yes, part-time 15 9 24 19 42 17 0 9 20 11 20 10 24 10 14 34 33 14 17 29 20 11 9 60 7 Yes, full-time 31 26 8 6 8 3 0 5 3 4 0 0 4 2 3 31 0 5 22 6 7 22 18 30 7 Sure they want to Very sure 38 30 34 27 42 36 43 36 30 23 40 29 66 32 30 45 53 29 0 12 7 33 18 30 29 become a journalist in the Somewhat sure 20 38 26 27 46 42 43 43 60 45 48 52 28 44 50 39 42 38 72 53 53 33 55 30 57 future Not sure/don´t want 43 32 39 46 13 22 14 20 10 32 12 19 6 24 19 16 5 33 28 35 40 33 27 40 14

Is journalism in danger? Overall, the Nordic journalism students have not become much more pessimistic in regard to threats to a free and independent journalism in the countries, with one exception: the increased work tempo, which is noted as a very strong threat by more than one-third of the first-year students. Also of note is that while the Swedish students are increasingly pessimistic, the Finnish students are more optimistic.

Table 5. Agreement to various threats to a free and independent journalism, by journalism school and year. Percentage who say the factors are a “great danger”. Selected first-year Nordic bachelor students 2005, 2008 and 2012 from nine institutions (N=1324)

ICE COUNTRY NORWAY SWEDEN DENMARK FINLAND LA ND GOTHEN- MID JYVÄ- AK SCHOOL OSLO VOLDA DMJ ROSKILDE HELSINKI UR BURG SWEDEN SKYLÄ EY

YEAR 5 8 12 5 8 12 5 8 12 5 8 12 5 8 12 5 8 12 5 8 12 5 8 12 12

N= 59 49 39 56 49 42 15 46 35 48 26 24 66 194 126 89 19 35 18 17 15 10 12 11 14

Foreign ownership of media companies 12 24 18 31 13 19 18 13 26 11 24 10 10 8 9 13 11 29 0 18 21 0 22 8 14

State ownership of media companies 25 26 0 7 33 16 18 15 11 8 12 10 18 20 10 4 6 0 6 18 7 29 0 0 14

Party ownership of media companies 50 50 36 27 54 25 18 31 41 24 29 20 44 35 33 17 39 0 19 29 36 71 67 46 34

Cross-ownership of media companies 29 29 43 38 33 28 64 54 44 27 65 25 26 19 25 21 22 18 31 41 29 14 44 31 30

The public’s need for simplification 4 16 21 16 8 6 9 21 7 11 18 5 10 17 15 9 17 35 6 6 14 14 11 15 13

Advertising-driven financing 17 29 39 13 21 3 9 18 19 14 6 5 10 18 18 20 28 53 6 12 7 0 11 8 17

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ICE COUNTRY NORWAY SWEDEN DENMARK FINLAND LA ND GOTHEN- MID JYVÄ- AK SCHOOL OSLO VOLDA DMJ ROSKILDE HELSINKI UR BURG SWEDEN SKYLÄ EY

YEAR 5 8 12 5 8 12 5 8 12 5 8 12 5 8 12 5 8 12 5 8 12 5 8 12 12

Journalists’ self-censure 17 26 46 31 33 19 27 36 37 22 35 50 15 20 22 25 11 12 19 29 21 14 33 23 25

Lack of knowledge of society 13 32 25 38 33 34 55 33 19 11 24 20 15 21 19 30 11 12 19 41 21 29 44 23 24

Too “First city”-driven journalism 17 16 18 16 26 34 9 31 26 16 0 15 33 14 13 5 6 12 6 6 14 14 33 31 17

Journalists “hunting in packs” 25 45 36 29 38 22 36 23 33 8 18 5 21 12 14 32 39 12 6 0 7 0 22 31 22

Competent sources 6 5 7 29 13 3 9 0 4 5 0 0 10 15 24 18 22 6 6 0 0 14 33 0 12

Weak professional ethics 4 3 11 2 15 9 36 28 19 16 6 10 8 7 6 3 6 6 50 12 7 29 44 8 11

Increased work tempo in newsrooms 23 34 36 20 49 22 27 36 26 16 24 15 8 31 33 49 33 76 25 41 21 14 67 8 31

Profit-oriented owners 50 39 50 44 51 38 45 49 63 22 35 25 23 29 29 29 22 59 56 24 29 14 56 23 37

IV Concluding discussion Our analyses of the ideals of Nordic journalism students in the period 2005-12 suggests some interesting patterns. First, our finding of persistent, marked oppositions in ideals between, on the one hand, the Scandinavian countries (Sweden, Norway and Denmark) and, on the other hand, Finland (perhaps also Iceland), where the later display a stronger adherence to neutrality and objectivity suggests at least two important clusters of countries, maybe even suggesting that these are two journalistic subsystems in the Democratic Corporatist model as suggested by Hallin & Mancini (2004). As have been made clear by subsequent analyses, the differences in ideals are only partly “national” in character, as they are simultaneously related to many other differences, at both institutional and a individual level. In the MCA, we identified two main lines of conflicting ideals in the students at a Nordic level: between interventionism vs. neutralism/objectivism (which is correlated to the national differences mentioned above, but also to a preference for work in national vs. regional media), and between investigation vs. recreation, which opposes students in regard to having ambitions towards traditional “watchdog”/”newshound” type of ideals - often coupled with a preference for work in newspapers - and students who are more interested in work in broadcasting and on the field- moral outskirts of the most celebrated forms of investigative journalism (PR, magazines, trade journals, TV production etc.). On the institutional level, we have made note of the large institutional differences (often larger than between countries) which also points to the importance of both the differences in their educational offerings and their differing social recruitment (in particular, separating universities and older studies from smaller/district universities with younger journalism programmes). As subsequent analyses of the difference ideals inside four of the five Nordic countries, we find that these two oppositions tend to persist in some form, and are usually linked to similar differences. This not only points to the overall similarity of the journalistic systems and societies involved in the analysis, but also the importance of personal ambitions and social characteristics (gender, class) for forming journalistic ideals similarly across national borders.

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In regard to changes, four overall trends in the period 2005-12 was note an increased interested in broadcast journalism, and a general strengthening of investigative ideals vis-a-vis other journalistic ideals, and the decline of neutrality and objectivity as important ideals.

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Table appendix

Table A1. The space of ideals. MCA, active categories. Statistical properties (total and by country) for axis 1-4. Journalism students of Finland, Sweden, Denmark and Finland 2005, 2008 and 2012. Percentages.

Multiple/Joint correspondence analysis Number of obs = 3794

Total inertia = 1 Method: Indicator matrix Number of axes = 4

| principal cumul Dimension | inertia percent percent ------+------dim 1 | ,2187433 21,87 21,87 dim 2 | ,0990705 9,91 31,78 dim 3 | ,0737695 7,38 39,16 dim 4 | ,065494 6,55 45,71 dim 5 | ,060993 6,10 51,81 dim 6 | ,0584922 5,85 57,66 dim 7 | ,057991 5,80 63,46 dim 8 | ,0502499 5,02 68,48 dim 9 | ,0480892 4,81 73,29 dim 10 | ,0450279 4,50 77,79 dim 11 | ,0420708 4,21 82,00 dim 12 | ,0401427 4,01 86,01 dim 13 | ,0385684 3,86 89,87 dim 14 | ,0375755 3,76 93,63 dim 15 | ,0341959 3,42 97,05 dim 16 | ,0295263 2,95 100,00 ------+------Total | 1 100,00

Statistics (x1000) for column categories in principal normalization

------overall ------dimension 1 ------dimension 2 ------dimension 3 ------dimension 4 --- Categories| mass qualt %inert | coord sqcor contr | coord sqcor contr | coord sqcor contr | coord sqcor contr ------+------+------+------+------+------critisizeinj | | | | | - | 35 513 27 | 437 244 14 | 276 98 9 | 351 158 16 | 104 14 1 critisizeinj | 27 513 35 | -559 244 18 | -353 98 11 | -449 158 20 | -133 14 2 ------+------+------+------+------+------stimulatepub | | | | | - | 41 256 22 | 310 180 8 | 152 44 3 | -109 22 2 | 74 10 1 stimulatepub | 22 256 41 | -580 180 16 | -286 44 6 | 204 22 3 | -139 10 2 ------+------+------+------+------+------neutralrepor | | | | | - | 41 682 21 | 325 202 9 | -464 411 28 | 70 9 1 | -177 59 5 neutralrepor | 21 682 41 | -621 202 18 | 886 411 54 | -135 9 1 | 337 59 10 ------+------+------+------+------+------mirrorsociet | | | | | - | 53 373 9 | 176 181 4 | -133 105 3 | -100 59 2 | -69 28 1 mirrorsociet | 9 373 53 | -1033 181 21 | 784 105 18 | 588 59 12 | 407 28 6 ------+------+------+------+------+------investgpower | | | | | - | 27 498 35 | 618 300 22 | 77 5 1 | 423 140 18 | 261 53 7 investgpower | 35 498 27 | -485 300 18 | -60 5 0 | -332 140 14 | -205 53 6 ------+------+------+------+------+------simplifyexpl | | | | | - | 28 303 34 | 534 237 17 | -130 14 2 | 53 2 0 | 246 50 7 simplifyexpl | 34 303 28 | -443 237 14 | 108 14 1 | -44 2 0 | -204 50 6 ------+------+------+------+------+------freeallinter | | | | | - | 50 403 12 | 227 207 6 | -201 163 6 | 50 10 0 | 76 23 1 freeallinter | 12 403 50 | -913 207 22 | 809 163 26 | -203 10 2 | -305 23 5 ------+------+------+------+------+------recreation | | | | | - | 54 433 9 | 146 132 2 | -22 3 0 | -214 286 9 | 44 12 0 recreation | 9 433 54 | -908 132 15 | 139 3 1 | 1334 286 57 | -274 12 3 ------+------+------+------+------+------objectiveinf | | | | | - | 36 581 26 | 430 256 14 | -467 302 25 | 91 12 1 | -91 11 1 objectiveinf | 26 581 36 | -595 256 20 | 646 302 35 | -126 12 2 | 126 11 2 ------+------+------+------+------+------influenceopi | | | | | - | 49 442 14 | 170 104 3 | 163 96 4 | -213 164 8 | 148 79 4 influenceopi | 14 442 49 | -611 104 11 | -587 96 15 | 768 164 30 | -534 79 15 ------+------+------+------+------+------telltruthreg | | | | | - | 49 487 14 | 177 111 3 | -17 1 0 | 51 9 0 | 323 366 20 telltruthreg | 14 487 49 | -624 111 12 | 60 1 0 | -180 9 2 | -1134 366 70 ------+------+------+------+------+------forwardopini | | | | | - | 53 397 9 | 218 270 5 | -2 0 0 | -137 107 4 | 59 20 1 forwardopini | 9 397 53 | -1238 270 31 | 12 0 0 | 778 107 21 | -337 20 4 ------+------+------+------+------+------intercultund | | | | | - | 46 520 17 | 323 281 10 | 210 118 6 | -51 7 0 | -206 115 8

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intercultund | 17 520 46 | -868 281 27 | -563 118 17 | 136 7 1 | 555 115 20 ------+------+------+------+------+------educonsumers | | | | | - | 54 430 9 | 196 231 4 | 69 29 1 | -116 82 3 | -121 88 3 educonsumers | 9 430 54 | -1182 231 27 | -419 29 5 | 702 82 16 | 730 88 18 ------+------+------+------+------+------faciliatepub | | | | | - | 33 497 30 | 517 293 19 | 295 95 9 | 154 26 3 | -275 83 10 faciliatepub | 30 497 33 | -566 293 20 | -323 95 10 | -169 26 3 | 301 83 11 ------+------+------+------+------+------defendindivi | | | | | - | 42 497 21 | 367 271 12 | 226 103 7 | 209 88 7 | -132 35 3 defendindivi | 21 497 42 | -739 271 24 | -456 103 14 | -421 88 14 | 266 35 6 ------Table A2. OLS regression on axis 2 and 3 of the MCA. Nordic students 2005, 2008 and 2012, (Iceland excluded). N=3544.

AXIS 2 (NEUTRALITY = +, INTERVENTION = -) AXIS 3 (INVESTIGATE = +, RECREATE = -) AXIS 2 AND 3 AXIS 2 AND 3 BY COUNTRY BY COUNTRY TOTAL, SANS COUNTRY TOTAL, WITH COUNTRY ------(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) FIN2 SWE2 NOR2 DAN2 FIN3 SWE3 NOR3 DAN3 TOT2a TOT3a TOT2b TOT3b ------Male 0,041 -0,117* 0,122*** -0,008 0,057* 0,079 0,049 0,060 0,019 0,046** 0,017 0,059*** (1,48) (-2,40) (3,98) (-0,21) (2,07) (1,55) (1,60) (1,60) (1,13) (2,74) (1,01) (3,53)

>22 years -0,008 0,041 -0,055 -0,076 0,046 0,081 0,029 0,092* -0,023 0,020 -0,019 0,045* (-0,25) (0,71) (-1,80) (-1,91) (1,48) (1,35) (0,93) (2,27) (-1,29) (1,10) (-1,03) (2,46)

Survey year -0,021 0,023 0,076* 0,022 0,116*** 0,089 0,088** 0,074 0,036* 0,080*** 0,038* 0,079*** (-0,72) (0,43) (2,25) (0,55) (3,87) (1,56) (2,60) (1,86) (2,08) (4,59) (2,22) (4,54)

Not first -0,015 -0,117* -0,071* 0,082* -0,002 0,058 -0,024 -0,035 -0,008 -0,015 -0,020 -0,008 year at study(-0,49) (-2,14) (-2,08) (2,17) (-0,06) (1,02) (-0,70) (-0,91) (-0,43) (-0,85) (-1,15) (-0,43)

Master 0,001 0,049 -0,025 -0,044 -0,049 -0,013 0,071* -0,069 0,035 -0,034 0,024 -0,021 student (0,02) (0,92) (-0,81) (-1,17) (-1,41) (-0,24) (2,32) (-1,80) (1,96) (-1,87) (1,34) (-1,15)

Old -0,167*** -0,160** -0,057 -0,169*** 0,070* 0,149* 0,024 -0,041 -0,095*** 0,056** -0,145*** 0,048** university (-4,90) (-2,88) (-1,87) (-4,12) (2,04) (2,57) (0,79) (-0,98) (-5,37) (3,17) (-7,92) (2,62)

Father or m. -0,030 -0,200*** -0,061* -0,048 0,002 -0,110* 0,028 -0,013 -0,082*** -0,012 -0,068*** -0,010 master degree(-1,08) (-4,03) (-2,02) (-1,28) (0,06) (-2,12) (0,94) (-0,35) (-4,88) (-0,74) (-4,13) (-0,62)

Would like to work in -0,065* 0,001 -0,027 0,004 0,078* -0,014 0,107** 0,024 -0,007 0,055** -0,019 0,063*** Newspaper (-2,05) (0,01) (-0,82) (0,09) (2,46) (-0,22) (3,27) (0,56) (-0,35) (2,92) (-1,03) (3,35) o.Broadcast. 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000 (.) (.) (.) (.) (.) (.) (.) (.) (.) (.) (.) (.)

Magazine/PR -0,102** -0,027 -0,002 -0,026 -0,095** -0,007 -0,038 0,011 -0,030 -0,043* -0,048** -0,037* or other (-3,21) (-0,44) (-0,06) (-0,62) (-3,01) (-0,12) (-1,17) (0,25) (-1,58) (-2,29) (-2,59) (-2,00)

FINLAND 0,100*** 0,006 (5,78) (0,36)

SWEDEN 0,026 0,050** (1,45) (2,80)

NORWAY -0,156*** 0,048** (-8,76) (2,67)

DENMARK -0,014 -0,115*** (-0,79) (-6,19) ------N 1296,000 401,000 1079,000 715,000 1296,000 401,000 1079,000 715,000 3544,000 3544,000 3544,000 3544,000 r2_a 0,036 0,096 0,025 0,045 0,032 0,019 0,023 0,011 0,018 0,015 0,052 0,036 ------Exponentiated coefficients; Standardized beta coefficients; t statistics in parentheses. * p<.05, ** p<.01, *** p<.001

In this table, students in 2005-12 was subject to a OLS regression where their position on axis 2 and 3 in the total MCA (figure 1) was controlled for by selected variables: gender (female=0), age >22 (<23=0), year (2005, 2008 or 2012), if they were 2nd/3d year-student (first year- journalism student=0), if themselves were master students, if they studied at an institution which had been an university for at least 20 years, if one of their parents had a master degree and country. The table shows first the regressions for axis 2 and 3 for each country (column 1-8), then for the total sample excluding Iceland (column 9-12), the first two columns without country as a predictive variable (9-10), the last two columns with country included (11-12). The inclusion of this table is not to offer a plausible model for professional values (as in most social science, the r2 is very low), but rather, in the tradition of regression offer another statistical view on the same data as analyzed with MCA in the main part of the paper. Of particular note is here the fact that year is significantly linked with increased score on both the intervention- and investigation-axis.

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Table A3. Agreement to various journalistic ideals, by journalism school and year. Percentage “agree very much”. Selected first-year Nordic bachelor students 2005, 2008 and 2012 from nine institutions (N=1324) COUNTRY NORWAY SWEDEN DENMARK FINLAND ICE

INSTITUTION OSLO VOLDA GOTHEN- MID UNI. DJH ROSKILDE HELSINKI JYVÄSKYLÄ AK BURG U. YEAR 5 8 12 5 8 12 5 8 12 5 8 12 5 8 12 5 8 12 5 8 12 5 8 12 12 N= 59 49 39 56 49 42 15 46 35 48 26 24 66 194 126 89 19 35 18 17 15 10 12 11 14

Critisize injustice in society 55 55 55 64 47 32 50 40 57 50 21 53 20 29 36 62 61 47 12 41 43 56 43 33 46 Stimulate to new ideas and thoughts 51 35 39 58 33 39 42 45 43 55 47 32 39 23 19 56 11 29 76 29 29 78 43 33 31 Be a neutral reporter of events 19 22 29 22 21 29 42 40 25 53 53 37 37 35 21 32 17 24 76 59 21 44 86 78 62 Mirror common opinions in society 8 12 10 16 14 19 17 12 14 21 11 21 2 15 5 16 6 6 12 6 7 11 14 22 23 Investigate the powerful in society 43 50 42 44 60 52 67 69 82 61 53 68 46 46 47 69 72 71 71 76 86 56 57 67 38 Explain complicated events 43 52 39 56 23 48 50 50 43 39 37 47 76 56 59 82 67 65 76 59 43 78 71 89 31 Be free from all interests in society 26 15 16 16 14 13 17 36 14 21 16 26 27 23 11 14 11 6 53 6 0 33 43 67 69 Provide recreation 26 5 16 16 2 10 8 14 4 13 16 16 29 16 10 18 6 24 6 18 7 33 0 44 15 Objectively report news and facts 53 40 26 36 19 39 42 38 46 45 47 68 54 42 36 45 11 29 47 47 43 67 86 56 46 Influence the public opinion 19 22 13 29 19 23 17 38 14 5 21 11 20 17 21 35 28 53 24 24 21 11 0 0 8 Tell the truth regardless of 11 10 19 16 14 13 8 17 18 42 42 53 7 21 22 26 17 29 12 24 7 11 0 33 46 Be a spokespersonconsequences for local opinions 11 12 13 20 5 6 8 10 7 5 16 21 22 13 12 21 6 18 12 29 21 56 29 56 23 Contribute to intercult. 34 32 29 20 35 45 33 36 39 32 26 21 20 24 28 29 6 24 29 18 36 33 29 44 38 understanding Educate the consumer 13 5 16 2 7 16 8 12 4 16 11 5 34 13 10 16 17 24 24 6 14 33 0 22 31 Faciliate public debate 77 57 42 44 65 55 75 62 71 45 47 42 29 34 38 68 33 71 71 65 57 78 43 44 62 Defend individuals from injustice 43 52 55 38 60 39 42 43 29 53 26 37 27 15 21 18 33 47 18 18 36 22 0 44 38

Table A4. Preferred work place and themes, by journalism school and year. Percentage “agree very much” and average change 2005-2012. Selected first-year Nordic bachelor students 2005, 2008 and 2012 from nine institutions (N=1324)

COUNTRY NORWAY SWEDEN DENMARK FINLAND ICE INSTITUTION OSLO VOLDA GOTHEN- MID UNI. DJH ROSKILDE HELSINKI JYVÄSKYLÄ AK BURG U. YEAR 5 8 12 5 8 12 5 8 12 5 8 12 5 8 12 5 8 12 5 8 12 5 8 12 12

N= 59 49 39 56 49 42 15 46 35 48 26 24 66 194 126 89 19 35 18 17 15 10 12 11 14

TV nation 15 24 36 28 47 43 15 10 21 26 14 10 24 23 24 11 24 29 6 31 20 11 0 22 54

Radio nation 5 7 19 26 18 14 0 24 25 0 9 14 2 5 16 11 0 5 6 6 7 11 11 0 0

TV/Rad local 0 0 0 4 2 3 0 2 4 0 0 0 2 2 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 8

PR/trade/other 0 9 8 4 0 0 8 5 0 2 0 0 6 7 7 13 24 19 12 6 20 11 22 0 8

Magazine 13 18 14 4 4 14 46 19 18 33 23 38 0 8 5 1 6 10 0 13 13 11 11 33 8

News Local 7 4 6 19 9 3 0 7 14 9 0 0 2 5 5 2 0 10 35 0 7 22 0 22 15

News. nation 56 36 17 15 20 23 23 31 18 23 50 33 63 49 41 57 47 29 35 44 27 33 56 22 8

Newsagency 4 2 0 0 0 0 8 2 0 7 5 5 0 1 0 2 0 0 6 0 7 0 0 0 0

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COUNTRY NORWAY SWEDEN DENMARK FINLAND ICE INSTITUTION OSLO VOLDA GOTHEN- MID UNI. DJH ROSKILDE HELSINKI JYVÄSKYLÄ AK BURG U. YEAR 5 8 12 5 8 12 5 8 12 5 8 12 5 8 12 5 8 12 5 8 12 5 8 12 12

socpol 51 41 38 53 26 31 31 60 61 21 39 29 58 41 46 70 50 55 29 41 33 44 50 22 36

econ 16 13 8 2 4 0 0 0 7 0 0 5 0 4 6 4 17 14 12 18 13 0 20 11 14

healthsoc 5 11 0 9 4 3 8 2 7 12 9 10 4 2 1 2 0 5 18 0 7 22 0 33 14

sport 27 15 14 21 30 29 15 23 25 26 30 24 34 25 25 5 22 18 12 6 7 0 10 0 57

entertainm 16 15 22 49 26 29 23 37 32 19 26 38 16 18 8 2 0 18 53 24 20 11 10 11 50

culture 42 57 32 57 57 49 38 49 43 43 22 33 40 35 22 35 17 41 53 24 33 22 40 22 36

popscience 24 28 16 15 20 14 23 40 32 17 9 14 4 8 11 2 0 14 12 12 20 0 20 11 7

emergencies 15 24 5 13 9 9 8 7 14 7 13 24 18 4 1 6 6 5 6 0 0 22 0 0 29

crime 22 24 11 28 17 20 8 21 18 12 13 24 24 11 8 17 6 9 6 0 0 22 0 11 29

consumer 5 11 3 2 7 11 8 9 14 7 4 10 26 7 3 10 0 14 24 12 7 0 0 22 29

intconfl 36 35 41 26 41 34 38 47 39 24 35 10 38 42 43 37 28 45 59 41 40 22 30 33 29

religion 22 15 14 49 15 9 23 23 14 10 13 0 22 26 19 18 11 45 18 29 13 11 10 11 7

multicult 31 28 27 13 35 20 15 42 29 19 13 24 26 30 24 32 22 45 12 6 13 44 40 33 7

Table A5. Important to learn in journalism school and important traits for a journalist. Percentage “agree very much” and average change 2005-2012. Selected first-year Nordic bachelor students 2005, 2008 and 2012 from nine institutions (N=1324)

COUNTRY NORWAY SWEDEN DENMARK FINLAND ICE INSTITUTION OSLO VOLDA GOTHEN- MID UNI. DJH ROSKILDE HELSINKI JYVÄSKYLÄ AK BURG U. YEAR 5 8 12 5 8 12 5 8 12 5 8 12 5 8 12 5 8 12 5 8 12 5 8 12 12 N= 59 49 39 56 49 42 15 46 35 48 26 24 66 194 126 89 19 35 18 17 15 10 12 11 14

redigering 36 42 34 45 41 45 47 51 39 67 35 36 16 10 6 3 0 9 33 35 47 11 27 40 79 journ.genrer 55 81 82 69 43 58 93 89 74 56 77 73 44 66 46 64 84 61 78 88 73 100 91 70 93 intervjuteknikk 77 77 82 65 80 74 93 89 90 83 85 77 82 81 85 80 95 83 94 100 87 56 45 50 86 kildekritikk 84 83 87 95 94 92 67 84 94 73 73 77 79 68 77 77 79 87 89 76 73 100 91 90 79 språkogrettskriving 80 73 58 58 63 58 47 44 39 33 58 36 56 51 46 45 63 52 83 65 67 78 82 70 93 offentligforvaltning 23 31 16 13 24 11 20 11 45 17 12 9 10 9 7 18 5 13 22 29 13 22 27 70 21 pressejus 34 25 24 40 39 32 53 60 68 48 54 23 37 21 21 21 26 35 83 65 47 44 36 50 79 mediestrukturogpoliti kk 23 29 13 9 10 13 13 11 35 15 23 9 15 13 8 22 11 26 6 18 33 44 18 50 43 kreativskriving 54 46 39 27 33 42 53 80 61 50 62 36 61 44 20 24 16 43 50 24 60 67 55 20 50 mediehistorie 14 8 13 4 0 5 7 7 16 12 15 0 18 6 3 11 5 9 0 0 0 22 0 10 21 samfunnsfag 43 42 50 18 33 29 13 29 35 35 12 27 53 33 23 30 32 43 28 41 40 56 9 40 21 presseetikk 62 73 66 64 80 74 7 13 71 10 4 55 58 39 31 41 42 57 33 35 73 67 73 40 71 kommunikasjonsteori 36 19 24 13 18 16 7 11 26 10 8 23 29 17 10 13 5 17 6 6 27 11 0 10 29

curiosity 96 93 94 76 84 85 62 74 86 55 77 71 86 66 52 59 67 70 94 82 79 44 44 89 50 cheek 7 7 12 7 4 9 8 5 11 2 0 10 14 11 4 20 17 15 11 18 0 11 0 22 43

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COUNTRY NORWAY SWEDEN DENMARK FINLAND ICE INSTITUTION OSLO VOLDA GOTHEN- MID UNI. DJH ROSKILDE HELSINKI JYVÄSKYLÄ AK BURG U. YEAR 5 8 12 5 8 12 5 8 12 5 8 12 5 8 12 5 8 12 5 8 12 5 8 12 12 senseofjus~e 44 53 47 57 67 56 54 50 43 38 23 33 27 26 25 42 39 45 72 71 36 44 56 33 57 politicneu~l 20 13 18 24 11 18 0 17 18 15 23 19 12 14 10 9 17 20 17 35 7 11 0 11 50 compassion 22 29 24 33 31 21 23 36 32 25 14 33 24 9 10 11 17 20 39 24 29 33 11 0 29 effective 31 38 44 35 27 35 23 12 21 18 36 29 14 14 11 10 22 15 33 41 36 56 33 33 71 thorough 76 71 65 83 82 76 62 60 64 55 50 52 49 49 46 63 39 60 83 65 79 78 67 67 79 language 91 69 76 76 64 68 85 55 32 25 73 67 53 60 49 64 44 30 94 76 64 78 89 56 86 creative 38 40 38 46 36 50 31 71 50 45 59 67 22 29 14 25 22 25 50 53 57 44 44 33 57 charm 9 11 15 22 4 6 8 12 4 2 14 14 2 13 4 4 6 0 11 0 7 0 0 11 50 knowsociety 85 62 71 76 62 62 54 62 57 32 50 62 37 46 53 60 44 30 50 82 57 89 44 78 64 lifeexp 11 16 9 17 13 6 8 10 11 25 9 10 4 4 2 5 0 15 0 12 7 33 33 44 43

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SKAL SLETTAST Table 3. Agreement to various journalistic ideals, by country and year. Percentage “agree very much” and average change 2005-2012. First-year Nordic students 2005, 2008 and 2012, subsample (N=1084). FIN SWE NOR DEN ICE AVERAGE % CHANGE 2005-2012 1) 5 8 12 5 8 12 5 8 12 5 8 12 12 FIN SWE NOR DEN N= 45 24 31 63 72 55 115 98 77 66 194 117 14

Number of “very important” ideals 5,6 6,2 6,6 4,3 4,1 4,7 4,4 3,9 4,1 3,0 3,4 2,7 6,2

Critisize injustice in society 74 44 53 50 34 55 59 51 44 20 29 36 46 −11 3 −8 8 Stimulate to new ideas and thoughts 88 28 40 52 46 38 54 34 39 39 23 19 31 −24 −7 −8 −10 Be a neutral reporter of events 71 61 73 50 44 30 20 22 29 37 35 21 62 1 −10 5 −8 Mirror common opinions in society 12 11 13 20 11 17 11 13 15 2 15 5 23 1 −2 2 2 Investigate the powerful in society 59 56 73 62 64 77 44 55 47 46 46 47 38 7 8 2 1 Explain complicated events 59 56 77 42 46 45 49 37 44 76 56 59 31 9 2 −3 −9 Be free from all interests in society 59 39 53 20 30 19 21 14 15 27 23 11 69 −3 −1 −3 −8 Provide recreation 21 11 33 12 15 9 21 4 13 29 16 10 15 6 −2 −4 −10 Objectively report news and facts 82 67 73 44 41 55 45 29 32 54 42 36 46 −5 6 −7 −9 Influence the public opinion 12 6 3 8 33 13 23 20 18 20 17 21 8 −5 3 −3 1 Tell the truth regardless of 12 6 33 34 25 32 13 12 16 7 21 22 46 consequences 11 −1 2 8 Be a spokesperson for local 32 33 33 6 11 13 15 8 10 22 13 12 23 opinions 1 4 −3 −5 Contribute to intercultural 35 22 50 32 33 32 28 34 37 20 24 28 38 understanding 8 0 5 4 Educate the consumer 24 6 20 14 11 4 8 6 16 34 13 10 31 −2 −5 4 −12 Faciliate public debate 65 39 50 52 57 60 62 61 48 29 34 38 62 −8 4 −7 5 Defend individuals from injustice 35 17 37 50 38 32 41 57 47 27 15 21 38 1 −9 3 −3 1) Average change is given as the average of the percent changes 2005-08 and 2008-12.

Table x: Trends 2005-12 (skal slettast)

FINLAND SWEDEN

- + - + critisize injustice investigate the powerful stimulate the public investigate the powerful stimulate the public provide recreation neutrality objectivity objectivity explain compl. events educate the consumer faciliate public debate tell truth “regardless” of cons. defend individuals from injust.

National newspapers Magazines Magazines National broadcasting National TV

Society and politics Society and politics Entertainment

A sense of justice Curiosity Broad life experience Knowledge of society Creativity Creativity

Creative writing Interview technique Language/grammar Press ethics Press ethics

NORWAY DENMARK

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- + - + critisize injustice neutrality stimulate the public critisize injustice stimulate the public neutrality tell truth “regardless” of cons. objectivity explain compl. events faciliate public debate faciliate public debate provide recreation objectivity educate the consumer National newspapers National TV National newspapers National radio PR and other Society and politics Society and politics Culture Culture Crime Crime Consumer Mastery of Language Knowledge of society Curiosity Knowledge of society

Language/grammar Language / grammar Press ethics Creative writing Social Science

Table 4. Additional characteristics of students, by country and year. Percentage “agree very much” and average change 2005-2012. First-year Nordic students 2005, 2008 and 2012, comparative sample (N=1084). FIN SWE NOR DAN ICE AVERAGE % CHANGE 2005-2012 1) 5 8 12 5 8 12 5 8 12 5 8 12 12 FIN SWE NOR DEN N= 45 24 31 63 72 55 115 98 77 66 194 117 14 Female 60 79 97 59 56 44 57 65 73 53 46 36 57 19 −8 8 −9 <22 years 44 75 65 45 27 31 42 57 49 15 29 39 7 11 −7 4 12 22-25 years 38 17 23 32 52 42 48 32 38 49 55 47 50 −8 5 −5 −1 >25 years 18 8 13 23 21 27 10 11 13 35 16 14 43 −3 2 2 −11 Father master degree 22 12 20 21 25 17 42 26 27 39 24 17 15 −1 −2 −8 −11 Father or mother 7 4 6 0 7 4 6 7 5 5 4 3 7 journalist −1 2 −1 −1 Previous paid journ 31 30 61 12 16 18 36 43 26 27 13 17 14 experience 15 3 −5 −5 Want to become a 22 17 26 28 38 29 33 36 35 66 32 30 29 journalist1) 2 1 1 −18 Would prefer to work in the following type of publication (first choice) Natio. TV, Film or TV prod. 6 5 17 23 11 16 21 36 39 24 23 24 54 6 −4 9 0 National newspaper2) 56 38 33 23 38 24 37 28 20 63 49 41 8 −12 1 −9 −11 National radio 3 10 0 0 19 20 15 12 17 2 5 16 0 −2 10 1 7 Regional / local newspaper 14 14 13 7 5 8 13 7 4 2 5 5 15 −1 1 −5 2 Magazine 3 5 30 36 20 27 9 11 14 0 8 5 8 14 −5 3 3 PR/Trade mag/Spec. press 17 24 7 4 3 0 2 4 4 6 7 7 8 −5 −2 1 1 Local/regional radio/TV 0 0 0 0 2 2 2 1 1 2 2 2 8 0 1 −1 0 Would “very much” like to work with the following themes 3) Society and politics 22 45 40 24 53 47 52 34 35 58 41 46 36 9 12 −9 −6 Culture 58 45 50 43 39 39 49 57 40 40 35 22 36 −4 −2 −5 −9 Entertainment 8 14 7 20 33 35 31 21 25 16 18 8 50 −1 8 −3 −4 Sport 0 14 3 24 26 24 25 23 21 34 25 25 57 2 0 −2 −5 Crime 11 9 7 11 18 20 25 21 15 24 11 8 29 −2 5 −5 −8 Consumer 6 9 10 7 8 12 4 9 7 26 7 3 29 2 3 2 −12 Emergencies 8 9 3 7 9 18 14 16 7 18 4 1 29 −3 6 −4 −9 “Very important” personal quality for a journalist Curiosity 51 60 73 57 75 80 87 89 90 86 66 52 50 11 12 2 −17 Be through 60 70 60 57 56 59 79 77 71 49 49 46 79 0 1 −4 −2 A mastery of 66 85 67 40 61 47 84 67 72 53 60 49 86 language 1 4 −6 −2 Knowledge of 83 55 77 38 58 59 81 62 66 37 46 53 64 society −3 11 −8 8 A sense of justice 71 45 50 42 41 39 50 60 51 27 26 25 57 −11 −2 1 −1 Be creative 46 30 33 42 67 57 42 38 44 22 29 14 57 −7 8 1 −4 Have broad life 26 25 33 21 9 10 14 14 7 4 4 2 43 4 experience −6 −4 −1 “Very important” to learn in journalism school critique of sources 77 83 77 73 80 87 89 89 89 79 68 77 79 0 7 0 −1

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FIN SWE NOR DAN ICE AVERAGE % CHANGE 2005-2012 1) 5 8 12 5 8 12 5 8 12 5 8 12 12 FIN SWE NOR DEN interview techn. 39 57 61 87 87 85 71 78 78 82 81 85 86 11 −1 4 2 journ. genres 68 91 81 66 85 74 62 62 70 44 66 46 93 7 4 4 1 language/grammar 55 70 71 37 49 38 69 68 58 56 51 46 93 8 1 −6 −5 press ethics 43 70 65 10 10 64 63 76 70 58 39 31 71 11 27 4 −14 creative writing 43 52 19 52 73 51 41 39 41 61 44 20 50 −12 −1 0 −21 Social science 32 26 29 31 23 32 31 37 39 53 33 23 21 −2 1 4 −15 Net journalism 11 43 - 15 38 - 25 35 - 8 27 - - “Very strong” treaths to free journalism v47utleier 15 13 18 12 18 19 21 20 23 10 12 10 7 2 3 1 0 v47stateier 22 18 5 10 14 8 16 29 9 18 18 6 3 −9 5 −4 −6 v47partieier 37 49 41 23 29 33 39 50 34 44 43 37 38 2 1 −3 −4 v47krysseier 48 39 43 35 59 43 33 38 41 26 19 21 41 −3 20 4 −3 v47publbeh~l 26 18 11 10 17 14 9 18 16 10 20 19 7 −8 5 4 5 v47reklame~s 30 16 11 12 18 18 15 27 18 10 17 20 10 −10 3 2 5 v47jouselv~r 33 39 34 23 35 43 24 29 29 15 23 21 28 1 2 3 3 v47litenku~f 22 42 27 21 26 27 25 36 28 15 22 19 21 3 2 2 2 v47hovedst~s 33 27 27 15 22 30 16 21 24 33 16 19 28 −3 −1 4 −7 v47jageifl~k 22 15 16 15 25 23 27 43 33 21 23 18 28 −3 6 3 −2 v47kildejo~p 15 9 16 6 5 8 16 10 9 10 13 16 0 1 −2 −4 3 v47svaketikk 44 31 27 21 18 17 3 8 8 8 7 8 10 −9 −1 3 0 v47arbtempo 30 48 61 19 34 31 22 46 33 8 41 35 24 16 9 6 14 v47kravavk~e 67 36 52 27 42 46 47 51 42 23 30 31 28 −8 6 −3 4 Notes: 1) “How sure are you that you want to work as a journalist in the future?” (% “completely sure”). 2) “Newsagent” is missing from the table. 3) From selection of themes.

Figure 8. Factors seen as “very strong” threats to independent journalism in their country, by first-year students at nine Nordic journalism schools in 2005, 2008 and 2012 (N=1324). Bertin plot. D-Roskilde 12 D-Roskilde 05 F-Jyvaskyla 08 D-Roskilde 05 F-Helsinki 05 D-Roskilde 08 D-DMJ 12 D-DMJ 12 S-MidUni 05 S-MidUni 05 D-DMJ 12 F-Helsinki 12 F-Jyvaskyla 05 N-Oslo 12 N-Volda 12 I-Akureyri 08 S-MidUni 08 F-Helsinki 05 N-Volda 08 N-Oslo 05 S-Gothenburg 08 S-Gothenburg 12 S-Gothenburg 12 N-Oslo 08 N-Volda 08 F-Jyvaskyla SourcesJournCompetence PublNeedForSimplufication AdvertisingDrivenJourn WorkTempo HuntingInPacks ForeignOwnership ProfitOrientedOwners SelfSensorship CrossOwnership LackKnowledgeOfSociety FirstCityBias PartyOwnership WeakEthics StateOwnership

- 32 - Paper NordMedia, August 8-11, Oslo 2013 F-Jyvaskyla 12 F-Jyvaskyla 08 F-Helsinki 05 D-Roskilde 12 F-Helsinki 08 N-Volda 12 N-Oslo 05 F-Jyvaskyla 05 N-Oslo 08 N-Oslo 08 D-Roskilde 05 D-DMJ 05 N-Volda 12 D-Roskilde 12 N-Volda 05 S-MidUni 08 S-Gothenburg 08 S-MidUni 12 D-DMJ 08 D-DMJ 12 S-Gothenburg 12 I-Akureyri 05 F-Helsinki 05 S-Gothenburg 12 S-MidUni 08 F-Jyvaskyla Uncertain.don.t.want

Female

X.22years

Yes..full.time

Very.much.sure

FaFMtherMaster

Yes..part.time

X.25years

Yes..unpaid

X22_25years

FatherMotherJournalist

None

Partly.sure

- 33 - Paper NordMedia, August 8-11, Oslo 2013 N-Bergen 05 N-Bergen 08 N-Bergen 08 D-Roskilde 08 N-Gimle 05 N-Gimle 12 N-Gimle 08 N-Volda 08 N-Stavanger 12 S-Gothenburg 05 N-Stavanger 12 F-Helsinki 12 D-DMJ 08 N-Oslo 12 N-Volda 05 N-Volda 12 N-Oslo 05 N-Oslo 05 S-Gothenburg 08 N-Bodo 12 N-Bodo 05 S-MidUni 08 S-Gothenburg 08 D-DMJ 12 N-Stavanger 08 S-MidUni 12 N-Bergen 05 N-Bodo 12 D-Roskilde 12 S-MidUni 05 D-Roskilde 08 F-Helsinki F-Tammerfors 08 12 I-Akureyri 05 F-Helsinki 05 D-DMJ F-Tammerfors 05 05 F-Jyvaskyla 08 F-Jyvaskyla F-Tammerfors 12 12 F-Jyvaskyla Mirror.common.opinions.in.society Tell.the.truth.regardless.of.consequences Be.a.neutral.reporter.of.events Objectively.report.news.and.facts Be.free.from.all.interests.in.society Be.a.spokesperson.for.local.opinions Explain.complicated..events Provide.recreation Educate.the.consumer Contribute.to.intercult..understanding Investigate.the.powerful.in..society Stimulate.to.new.ideas.and.thoughts Faciliate.public.debate Critisize.injustice.in.society Defend.individuals.from.injustice Influence.the.public.opinion

meir komplett Bertin plott, skal ikkje vere med i endeleg versjon)

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