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The Comfort Women in Northern East Asia As Represented by Plays

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The Comfort Women in Northern East Asia As Represented by Plays The Comfort Women in Northern East Asia As Represented by Plays, Rallies, and Exhibits Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University By Yi-Ping Wu, M.A. Graduate Program in Theatre The Ohio State University 2019 Dissertation Committee: Stratos E. Constantinidis, Adviser Jennifer Suchland Lynn Itagaki Beth Kattelman Copyrighted by Yi-Ping Wu 2019 Abstract This dissertation examines why and how the wartime experiences of the comfort women were used by politicians and playwrights in postwar years to buttress the nationalist agendas of the victimized nations, namely China, Taiwan, and Korea. The dissertation shows how the personal stories of the victimized women became public memories, public speeches and theatrical performances when they were introduced to the national narratives in China, Japan, Taiwan and South Korea. The wartime ideology (and its rhetoric), which helped the Japanese to justify why they exploited the bodies of these women is contrasted to the peacetime ideology (and is rhetoric) that helped the Chinese, Taiwanese, and Koreans to transfer the stigma from the victims to the perpetrators and to demand reparations in postwar years. The focus of this dissertation project is on the process by which national politics and gender politics in the postwar era re-humanized these women and turned their private stories into a public discourse through theatrical performances, political rallies, and museum exhibits. ii Dedication To my parents, Mei-Lian Yang and Jin-Ling Wu with great respect and lots of love iii Acknowledgments I want to thank my dissertation committee (Stratos E. Constantinidis, Jennifer Suchland, Lynn Itagaki, and Beth Kattelman) for their generous support and patience from 2014 to 2019. I also want to thank the Director of the Women’s Active Museum on War and Peace in Tokyo, Japan; the staff members of the AMA Museum in Taipei, Taiwan, Professor Zhi-Liang Su at the Chinese Comfort Women History Museum in Shanghai, and Mr. Guang-Jian Liu, researcher at the Nanjing Museum of the Site of Liji Lane Comfort Station in Nanjing, China, and Mrs. Sun-Shil Kim, director of the War & Women’s Human Rights Museum in Seoul, South Korea. My research trips for this dissertation were supported with funds from the Alumni Grants for Graduate Research and Scholarship of The Ohio State University. iv Vita 2006……………………………B.A. History, National Chengchi University 2011…………………………….M.A. Theatre, National Taiwan University 2014 to present…………………Graduate Teaching Associate, Department of Theatre, The Ohio State University Major Field: Theatre Minor Field: Women’s, Gender and Sexuality Studies v Table of Contents Abstract…………………………………………………………………………..ii Dedication………………………………………………………………………..iii Acknowledgments………………………………………………………………..iv Vita………………………………………………………………………………..v List of Figures ……………………………………………………………………vii Chapter One. Introduction……………………………………………………...…1 Chapter Two: Conflicting narratives about the Comfort Women in Japan………19 Chapter Three: Political performances about Comfort Women in Taiwan………45 Chapter Four: Theatrical performances about the Comfort Women in Korea……70 Chapter Five: Exhibits and plays about the Comfort Women in China…………..94 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………….122 Bibliography……………………………………………………………………..127 vi List of Figures Figure 1. Pak Young Sim’s room (Room No. 19, second floor) in the Kinsui House renamed the Museum of the Liji Lane Comfort Station, Nanjing, China, 2018…..23 Figure 2. Yokoi Kazuko in the role of Pak Young Sim in Watanabe Yoshiharu’s play, The Eye Holds the Truth (2009) on tour, San Francisco, California, 2009………..25 Figure 3. Yasukuni Jinja (Yasukuni Shrine), Tokyo, Japan………………………..34 Figure 4. Nippon Ling (Japanese Zero) Yushukan Museum, 1st floor, 1st zone, Tokyo, Japan, 2018………………………………………………………………………...40 Figure 5. The human torpedo Kaiten, Yushukan Museum, 1st floor, 1st zone, Tokyo, Japan, 2018………………………………………………………………………...41 Figure 6. The entrance of the Ama Museum, Taipei, Taiwan, 2018……………….50 Figure 7. Nu Wan’s painting, Full Body Map, Ama Museum, Taipei, Taiwan, 2018.51 Figure 8. The “mental lamps” project on the second floor of the Ama Museum, Taipei, Taiwan, 2018………………………………………………………………………..53 Figure 9. Yoshinori Kobayashi, On Taiwan (Mandarin translation) Taiwan, 2001…63 Figure 10. Student protesting the “Minor” Modification are handcuffed by the police outside the Ministry of Education in Taipei, Taiwan, on July 17, 2015…………….65 Figure 11. Lin Kuan-Hua protesting against the “Minor” Modification in front of the Ministry of Education, Taipei, Taiwan, July 22, 2015………………………………66 Figure 12. Students protesting against the “Minor” Modification after the suicide of Lin Kuan-Hua, August 2, 2015……………………………………………………...67 vii Figure 13. Luke Woods (Michey Theis) in Hansol Jung, Among the Dead, directed by Ralph B. Pena, performed at HERE Arts Center in New York by the Ma-Yi Theater Company, 2016…………………………………………………………………….71 Figure 14. Ana Woods (Julienne Hanzelka Kim) and Comfort Woman No. 4 (Diana Oh) in Hansol Jung, Among the Dead, directed by Ralph B. Pena, performed at HERE Arts Center in New York by the Ma-Yi Theater Company, 2016………………………72 Figure 15. Wednesday Demonstration in front of the Japanese Embassy on June 26, 2018, Seoul, South Korea………………………………………………………….82 Figure 16. The Wall on The Left Side of The Gravel Road Women’s Active Museum, Seoul, Korea……………………………………………………………………….88 Figure 17. Exhibit in The Basement War & Women’s Human Rights Museum, Seoul, Korea, 2018………………………………………………………………………..89 Figure 18. Statue of two Comfort Women, backyard of the Women’s & Human Rights Museum, Seoul, Korea, 2018……………………………………………………..90 Figure 19. Sarah (Ding Chen) in Sarah (presented by Nanjing University of the Arts, performed at the Nanjing Culture & Art Center, December 12, Nanjing, China) ..95 Figure 20. Comfort Woman No. 18 in Li-Quan Wang’s Comfort Station presented by the Jinling Institute of Technology at the Liji Lane Comfort Station, July 5, 2017..100 Figure 21. “Endless Flow of Tears” in the Nanjing Museum of the Site of Liji Lane Comfort Station, Nanjing, China, 2018……………………………………………109 Figure 22. Display of “Tears of Silence” in the Liji Lane Comfort Station, Nanjing Museum, Nanjing, China 2018…………………………………………………….111 viii Chapter One: Introduction A) The socio-historical context of the project Following the Meiji Restoration (1868-1889), which consolidated the pre- industrial feudal political system in Japan under Emperor Meiji’s rule (1867-1912), Japan emerged as an industrial imperial power on the world stage. The central goal of the Meiji Restoration was to strengthen Japan and other East Asian countries against the control of Western colonial powers. The Japanese plan for a Greater East Asian Commonwealth resulted in Imperial Japan colonizing several countries in East Asia through military force. The human and material resources of these countries were placed under the control of the Japanese Empire and were exploited to serve Japanese expansion. Among the human resources exploited by the Japanese were the so-called “comfort women” who were used to satisfy the psychosexual needs of the Japanese soldiers. According to Tian Tian Zheng, a small number of these women were 1 volunteers, but most of them were forced to serve in the Japanese military brothels where they became sex slaves and performed like “sex machines” (44). The Japanese misnomer for a military brothel was “comfort station” (iango). Comfort stations were established in all of the countries that were occupied by Japan. The exact number of comfort stations and the exact time that each of them was set up is difficult to determine because most of the military records were destroyed when Japan surrendered in 1945. It is clear from the relatively few surviving documents that the first Japanese military brothels for the exclusive use of troops and officers were set up by the Japanese Navy in Shanghai, China, in 1932 during the so-called “Shanghai Incident” (Tanaka 8). However, it is also clear that, under the command of General Okamura Yasuji, who was Deputy Chief of Staff of the Shanghai Expeditionary Army, the Japanese Army established its own comfort stations in Shanghai also in 1932. The Japanese high command gave two reasons for setting up “comfort stations” in the occupied countries: a) to prevent venereal diseases from spreading among the Japanese soldiers, and b) to prevent Japanese soldiers from raping women in the occupied countries. Following the 1937 massacre at Nanjing where the Japanese Army mass murdered Chinese civilians and mass raped Chinese women during the Second Sino-Japanese War, the Japanese high command rapidly increased the number of the Japanese comfort stations in China. In order to keep the rape count as low as possible 2 in the occupied countries, the officers of the Imperial Japanese Army in Central China were ordered to establish comfort stations. The existing systems of institutionalized prostitution in China and the other occupied East Asian countries made women available to male clients – both soldiers and civilians – who could afford to pay for their services (Zatlin 26.) However, the system of the comfort stations was, historically speaking, a relatively “new institution” because it derived from the dynamics of capitalism, militarism, and a different sexual culture, according to Sarah Soh (115). These distinctions are articulated by Sung Chung
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