Thai NGO & Governmental Roles
Human Security and Thai NGO & Governmental Roles
By
Jane J. Simmons
Background glued together by the Treaty of Versailles following World War I, have The end of the Cold War marked come into being through internal the beginning of a new international conflict that eventually brought about world order. Among the changes was foreign intervention. the shift from a bi-polar world of a capitalist West and a communist East to With the fall of the USSR, a world in which the United States is capitalism spread throughout the world the sole superpower. With the collapse and globalisation and interdependency of the Soviet Union, new states rapidly became the new buzzwords. emerged. For example, the glue that had Globalisation made possible the long held Yugoslavia together was its uncovering and potential development fear of the Soviet Union evoking the of new ‘growth areas’. Among these Brezhnev Doctrine should internal strife growth areas is the Greater Mekong become untenable in the eyes of the Sub-region (GMS), a part of which lies Soviets. Consequently, with the in Thailand. This growth area, like the disintegration of the USSR, new states EU, hopes to encourage economic co- within Yugoslavia, a nation that was operation and aims to reduce trade and
The author has a Honors Degree in Journalism from Southern Illinois University, USA. She continued her Graduate Study at the University of Leeds, where she specialized in Asian Pacific Studies Ms Simmons is bilingual in English and Thai fluent in Japanese and Mandarin
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regulatory barriers in search of a issue will be discussed. Although competitive edge. It desires to attract Thailand may have achieved stable and domestic and foreign investment and to rapid economic growth over the past promote exports for the mutual benefit three decades, human security problems of the areas and countries involved abound, as most of the created wealth is (East Asia Economic Unit 1995). concentrated in the Bangkok Metropolitan Region (BMR). The concept of human security Moreover, income inequality between emerged in response to global tragedies the urban and rural areas has been and social upheavals, along with the worsening with many if not most rise of globalisation, economic co- people living in the rural areas still operation and growth areas. Recent “lacking basic amenities such as toilet threats of globally organised terrorism facilities, piped water, and electricity” add to the current problems faced by (Girling 1996: 72). In addition to the international community. Although poverty in the rural areas, AIDS is these may not be new problems, prevalent especially in the North and modern communication and Northeastern provinces. Insurgencies transportation have effectively still occur along the Thai- Burmese interconnected the world in ways that border. Compared to other GMS were unimaginable just a century ago. countries, Thailand has a vibrant civil Today, a problem in one country can society with active NGOs, but it was and often does spill over into a only after the Cold War that they neighbouring country and may affect an became more active on issues entire region or even the entire concerning the environment and international community. Countries face poverty alleviation. situations in which even internal and inter-country disputes may now bring Since human security is a relatively about outside intervention. During and new concept, put forth by the United before the Cold War, these disputes Nations for the first time in its United were almost the sole concern of the Nations Development Report in 1994, governmental authority of that there are currently relatively few particular country. Human security calls studies on the topic. One major for international co-operation and difficulty appears to be the lack of a involvement of non-state actors such as precise definition for the term. international organisations and non- Although most scholars agree that governmental organisations (NGOs) in human security is the concern for the dealing with these problems. welfare of human beings, it encompasses a broad range of interests In this paper, human security issues such as education, poverty and in Thailand and how NGO-government healthcare. The scope and vagueness of relations bear on the human security the term presents a difficult challenge in
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trying to develop a workable definition. measuring scheme using various When scholars do try to study human economic concepts (see article under security, the focus tends to be on issues the section ‘Measuring Human associated with Africa, and more Security’ for details). recently, with Afghanistan and Central Asia. East Asian countries other than Although the concept remains the new ASEAN countries (Cambodia, unclear and difficult to measure, the Laos, Vietnam and Myanmar) have author aims to address the questions: received less attention from the can the Thai government really co- international community concerning operate with the NGOs to ensure human human security mainly because they security in Thailand? And, can the Thai have achieved substantial economic NGOs really perform effectively in growth and development in a relatively present day Thailand? To do so, current short span of time. World bank data definitions of human security will be indicates that GDP growth rate given. Some recent developments of averaged at 5.3% and the proportion of civil society and NGO activities in the people living in extreme poverty region will be explored and the dropped from 29% to 23% for the relationship between the Thai State and period of the year 1990 to 1999 in the NGOs will be addressed in terms of East Asia and Pacific region (World problems and challenges in order to Bank 2002). The financial crisis that assess their developments in the region. struck in 1997 resulted in negative growth rates and political turmoil in Perhaps the most difficult problem some East Asian countries. faced while writing this paper was securing reliable information. The Thai The vagueness of the human NGOs, for example, do not put much, if security concept also makes it difficult any, concrete data on its inter-net web for researchers to assess or measure its pages and certainly no financial or effectiveness in policy implementation. budgetary data. Speaking to staff Some scholars such as Gary King and personnel was almost useless. Standard Christopher Murray attempted to deal Thai non-answers and promises to give with poverty as a major challenge for information were given and of course human security in their article, they were never forthcoming. Foreign “Rethinking Human Security”, based NGOs often include budgetary upon their justification that “because information on their web pages. A security is based on the risk of severe friend who is employed as professional deprivation, it depends heavily on the staff at a major embassy was asked concept of poverty.” (King and Murray about NGOs in Thailand. That person 2001: 593) To assess policies regarding had no specific information, but human security in fighting poverty, mentioned that when asking about King and Murray proposed a detailed NGOs among staff who should know
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only found out that it was a hot topic. A economic, health, food, environmental, report was conducted on NGOs and personal, community, and political. their leadership, organisation, UNDP Report 1994: 24-5). It is operations, effectiveness but that report interesting to note that the UNDP report was classified and not open to the did not specifically include religious public. intolerance and persecution as a human security threat despite the fact that religion plays a major role in the lives Definitions of Human Security of many people and religious clashes are a major problem in many parts of The definition of human security as the world. given in the 1994 United Nations Development Report stated in its report Economic conditions are stressed that human security is intrinsically as a foundation of human security in the linked with human development, UNDP report that states: “all people though they are not identical. Human should have the opportunity to meet development is defined as “a process of their most essential needs and to earn widening the range of people’s choices. their own living.” (UNDP Report 1994: Human security means that people can 24) Poverty, of course, is well exercise these choices safely and freely represented in the economic security – and that they can be relatively category of human security. Poverty can confident that the opportunities they obviously prevent ordinary citizens have today are not totally lost from having access to food (food tomorrow.” (UNDP Report 1994: 23). security), health services (health This is an obscure definition at best. security), and sanitation (environmental security). It also lies at the heart of Four characteristics were used to forced child labour and prostitution describe human security: 1) human (personal security). For this reason, security is a universal concern; 2) the many of the international organisations components of human security are such as the World Bank and the United interdependent; 3) human security is Nations aim to make poverty alleviation easier to ensure through early and eradication one of their primary prevention than later intervention; 4) objectives. human security is people-centred (UNDP Report 1994: 22-3). From The Human Security Network, these characteristics, one could infer founded in 1999 by Canada and that human security affects the Norway, two strong proponents of livelihood of people and that it requires human security, stated that humans co-operation from the international must be free from threats to their rights community. The report outlines seven and safety in order to be secure. “It categories of threats to human security: does not offer a single definition of
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human security but proposes to bring a jumbled coalition of ‘middle power’ more diversified perspective to security states, development agencies, and interests. Human security is about NGOs …” It is precisely because the recognising the importance of the concept is broad and ambiguous that security needs of the people all perspectives and objectives of the [concomitant] with those of states, coalition members are included (Paris minimising risks and taking preventive 2001: 88). measures to reduce human vulnerabilities, and taking remedial The definition given by Professor action when preventive measures fail.” Thomas that human security requires (Human Security Network) both qualitative and quantitative aspects will be used. The quantitative aspects According to Caroline Thomas, include the ability to afford basic Professor of Global Politics at the necessities identified as food, shelter, University of Southampton, “human education and health care (Thomas security describes a condition of 2000: 6). This list, of course, includes existence in which basic material needs what the Thais call Pajjai-see or the are met, and in which human dignity, four necessities of life: food, shelter, including meaningful participation in clothing and medicine (health care). the life of the community can be The qualitative aspects refer to the realised. Such human security is “…achievement of human dignity indivisible; it cannot be pursued by or which incorporates personal autonomy, for one group at the expense of control over one’s life and unhindered another.” (Thomas 2000: 6) Professor participation in the life of the Thomas’ definition has the advantage community…” (Thomas 2000: 6). In of being succinct as long as “basic short, the author defines human security material needs are identified. as the ability of the people to acquire and retain the basic necessities of life Though there have been many and to live life free from degradation attempts to define the concept, there has and dehumanisation. yet to be a precise definition of it. Current definitions are quite numerous and all too inclusive. This makes it Nature of NGOs difficult for policy-makers to come to grips with it and prioritise their The World Bank defines concerns. Is education more important NGOs as organisations that are not part than healthcare? Is education a basic of a government and do not work for a need? Despite the ambiguity of what profit. The Commission for Human constitutes human security, Roland Security stated that “…non-state actors Paris pointed out that the concept are particularly well suited to served as “…glue that holds together a engendering human security in the new
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world context.” (CHS) State actors public needs through acting as a normally function and manage policies conduit for public opinion and and issues at the national level with the local experience; objective of benefiting citizens overall as a group. This implies that certain 4) operational collaboration with groups will be overlooked and lose out. official bodies; If human security, in principle, deals with people at the individual level, then 5) influencing local development it seems that it should not be in left in policies of national and the hands of the public sector. The international institutions including NGOs have always campaigned for decentralisation and municipal issues previously neglected or given reforms; and short shrift by the state such as protection of human rights, poverty 6) helping government and donors alleviation and clean environment – fashion a more effective issues that human security encompasses development strategy through (Acharya and Acharya 2000). strengthening institutions, staff Therefore, it would seem reasonable to training and improving assume that increased attention to management capacity (Clark human security issues could best be 1997: 44-5) addressed by the NGOs. Before we move on, a few words The NGO could play a critical role concerning the Thai Government’s in spurring the development of human elected officials and the ‘civil service’ security in rural Thailand. Clark are in order. describes the ways NGOs could influence mainstream development as follows: Nature of the Thai Government
1) encouraging official aid agencies Thailand is a democracy and the and government ministries to people elect the government, but the adopt successful approaches civil servants or kha-ratchakarn (the developed within the voluntary servants of the crown) for the most part sector; see themselves as ‘masters of the people’ and certainly not as civil 2) educating and sensitising the servants as the concept exists in the public as to their rights and W est. Thai Governments come and go entitlements under state but the civil service just goes on. These programmes; bureaucrats include the provincial government officials including non- 3) attuning official programmes to elected governors. They deal with the
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local people through “local powers”. adversely affected by state-sponsored The bureaucracy or civil service is the projects, they sometimes hesitate to key to long-term policy implementation protest. To understand why ordinary because, unlike the frequently changing Thai are incapable of or unwilling to coalition governments, the bureaucrats stand up to authority, one must normally hold on to their positions for understand Thai culture. “Wealth, long periods of time. Thus, these power, seniority, rank, and ‘being the bureaucrats are the ones providing boss’” play a very important part in the continuity to social programmes. lives of the Thai (Mulder 1994: 46). It is ingrained in the Thai culture that one When a government seeks to fears (kreng-klua) and respects (kao- address issues such as poverty rop) authoritative and powerful people alleviation and environmental because “…to the Thai, authority and degradation, the state will normally find power are natural and reflect the moral that its macro-instruments are and ethical excellence of the inadequate for the task (Clark 1997: holder…the traditional organisation of 43). In the case of Thailand, policies Thai society was built on lines of concerning rural development are often command.” (Simmons 1997: 19) neglected because of bias in policy prioritisation. Industrial activities and Thai also tend to avoid urban development are favoured over confrontation, often choosing to ignore agricultural activities and rural the problem and hoping that it would development (Girling 1996: 71). automatically disappear. Buddhism, the During its years of rapid growth, dominant religion in Thailand lies at the industrialisation was seen as the key to root for this type behaviour. Buddhism development and the government made is a religion that emphasises self- that its priority – hence the extended discipline. Non-confrontational tactics gap in development and income of two are equated with self-discipline. areas of today. Therefore, in failed Keeping cool and avoiding loss of face states, and to a large extent in Thailand, (karn-sia-na) and/or offending the other the NGOs are sometimes the only party are admired attributes. Therefore, actors available to speak up for and strong leadership is necessary to protect vulnerable groups. mobilise the Thai masses and NGOs may at times be able to provide It is precisely because of perceived leadership. According to Suchit governmental inadequacy and bias in Bunbongkarn, “the main objective of policy-making that NGOs emerged as the NGOs is to reduce the power and important actors in Thai civil society. authority of government agencies and Thai NGOs often represent unheard to give more power to the community.” voices of the people, usually powerless (Suchit 1996: 100) peasants. When people are directly and
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Need for NGO-Government Naturally, it depends on the kind of Relationships government in place where this “alternative approach” is to be Accordingly, the relationship enforced. Professor Thomas did make between NGOs and states is often it a point to remind readers that the strained. States sometimes perceive ‘alternative approach’ will work only if NGOs as a threat to their political the state has a well-developed power and even to national security mechanism for encouraging partici- itself. Conversely, NGOs remain pation within its political structure. She suspicious of the government’s motives also did not totally dismiss the role and and intentions (Clark 1997: 47). Both significance of NGOs and civil society. sides may have some valid reasons to (Thomas 2000: 124) Her points are hold these views since there are many well taken, but Thailand does not have and varied situations that lend credence a government that has a well-developed to these beliefs. Regardless, to mechanism for encouraging partici- maximise the benefit of the people and pation among the masses. for social agendas to work, co-operation between the public and the non-profit Even in a democracy, government- sectors is needed. According to John led social policies are not always Clark, an environment of co-operation efficient and effective. There are rather than competition and a healthy certain things that are simply beyond relationship between the public sector the reach and scope of the public sector. and the non-profit sector is most Though the government may express conducive to effective policy poverty alleviation or rural implementations of human develop- development as major objectives, such ment (Clark 1997: 44). Professor projects, in order to be effectively Thomas, however, proposed an implemented, require a grassroots ‘alternative approach’ to the current approach. Even if they wanted to, neoliberal approach to development. In Governments usually do not have the this approach, the ultimate goal is resources, manpower or framework to ‘participatory local democracy’ where deal with these projects at that level. the people can exert control over their Moreover, government projects often own lives. This can be achieved require unnecessary overhead costs through politics, rather than market or (Adelman 2002). Red tape and corrupt civil society, because “national government officials and bureaucrats governments are mandated to represent are common enough to render many citizens, they are accountable to citizens public sector projects ineffective. To and they are responsible for the human the contrary, NGOs were founded and security of citizens.” (Thomas 2000: operate on humanistic principles that 123) work best at the grassroots level.
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However, NGOs face many difficulties tertiary value in Western cultures. Not and challenges that also impede their surprisingly, frankness is a primary activities and effectiveness. In short, value in the West but a secondary value both the public sector and the non-profit in the East (Ronen 1986: 36). Since sector are often ineffective, but each has frankness would almost certainly bring its own sphere of operation in which it about confrontation, most Thai would can act more effectively than the other. go to great lengths to avoid it. Thai Often, real effectiveness calls for politicians are the exception and do collaboration and co-operation between confront those of other political parties the state and the NGOs, but this does on a regular basis. The Thai general not mean that collaboration and co- public accepts this because the operation will actually take place. politicians are “big” people. Face-to- face communications between the In fact, NGOs and the Thai NGOs and the bureaucrats will almost government have begun to work always lead to a cosy or antagonistic together witness the participation in the situation depending on the personalities promulgation of the eighth and ninth of those involved. national development plans. That said, there is the ever-present problem of These shortcomings may seem to corruption should the relationship doom NGOs and place them at a severe become too cosy. Should the NGOs disadvantage when trying to work with rely too much on the government, government officials and working whether for funding or other incentives, toward their organisational objectives. NGOs risk giving up some of their But, by and large in Thailand, the autonomy and thereby lose credibility converse is also true as the government by having to overly compromise their is notoriously poor at co-ordination, positions in order to keep their activities lacks good management and qualified in line with the government’s agenda. staff and holds negative attitudes On the other hand, if the NGOs toward the NGOs. Actually, when maintain their distance, a lack of NGOs are small and one issue oriented communication may result along with co-ordination and the top down, an uncoordinated effort in trying to hierarchical situation is of much less achieve similar goals. Generally, the importance in running a successful Thai are very verbally oriented and operation face-to-face communication is the . norm. Even in verbal communications problems abound due to cultural Barriers to NGO-Government factors. According to the value Relationships classification analysis prepared by Sitaram and Cogdell, peace is a primary Any Government that is serious value in Eastern cultures whereas it is a about improving the human security of
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its people should realise that NGOs can actively promoting development in play an important role. It should be in infrastructure, energy, transport, and the best interest of the Thai government tourism. For example, the Oxfam to attempt to establish good work Community Aid Abroad reported in its relationships with the non- newsletter that representatives from the governmental organisations. NGOs, for ADB, NGOs and the Mekong Basin their part, need to realise their community attended a conference in weaknesses and should also try to build June 2000. The Thai environmental a co-operative links with the State in NGO, TERRA (Towards Ecological order to enhance their performance and Recovery and Regional Alliance), better influence governmental policy headed by Witoon Permpongsacharoen decisions. However, there are some questioned the Bank’s role in the barriers to the building of a healthy region. The NGOs and the community NGO-State relationship that should be members argued that ADB-funded considered as they attempt to projects impose stringent conditions on collaborate. These barriers, according loans made to the Thai government for to Clark, include policy environment, infrastructure projects. One recent loan government factors, NGO factors and required privatisation of water, an donor factors (Clark 1997: 49-52) It economic measure which Witoon and appears that Clark really didn’t address other NGO members believed would a key factor: the NGO-Government- hurt small-scale farmers. The Thai Business (NGB) relationships. In a government claimed that subsidies for democracy that has a capitalistic the community’s use of water results in economic system this triad cannot be the distortion of the free market. The overlooked. In Thailand, one might say NGOs countered with the argument that that the Government already has a cosy large corporations receive subsidies relationship with business since many from the government. The community previous and the current Prime was also upset in that they were Ministers and Cabinet Ministers have excluded from the decision-making included a number of wealthy process of projects that directly affect businessmen. their livelihood. The NGOs in the GMS are presently in opposition to the 1. Policy Environment: An government’s water privatisation law environment of tensions and (Lowe 2000). mistrust because the NGOs and government come into direct 2. Government Factors: Factors that conflict with each other. include the level of commitment from the government to participat- In the GMS provinces, the Thai ory development and co-operation government, with the assistance of the with NGOs Asian Development Bank (ADB), is
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As already noted the Thai governor claimed that the villagers’ government has shown it to be more method of farming destroys the committed to human security and rural environment and encroaches into land development and has become more co- not belonging to them. Provincial operative with NGOs than it was prior authorities and the villagers finally to 1997. However, there are several reached an agreement, but the troops major barriers to a healthy government- never left and the villagers claimed that NGO relationship: corruption, nepotism the governor remained uncooperative and the Thai bureaucracy. In Thailand, (Bangkok Post 1996). Other incidents there are groups of local elite such as of bureaucratic boorish behaviour the gam-nan and the nai-umpur (village toward the disadvantaged are and district officers), large landowners, commonplace and are reported in the commodity dealers and others, who, press and even shown on National T.V. through “community participation”, co- As often happens, when government operate with government agents by officials or police officers et al ill and serving as middlemen between even illegal behaviour catches the bureaucratic provincial officials and attention of the major media and the local villagers. The local elite grows situation is about to reach the boiling rich and powerful as they accumulate point they are invariably transferred to wealth through illegal means and direct another part of the country. or indirect government patronage (Girling 1996: 74). The money is then 3. NGO Factors: When NGOs refuse used to establish relationships with to co-operate with the government strategic superiors and these “local out of mistrust or contempt, they powers” normally end up in local risk being isolated. politics (Girling 1996: 75) There are laws and legal policies Cases abound that illustrate abuses that should facilitate co-operation of power and authority by bureaucrats. among government agencies and One example, the governor of the NGOs. For example, the Enhancement northern province of Khampaeng Phet and Conservation of National was accused of harassing the Hmong Environment Quality Act (ECNEQA- villagers, a hilltribe ethnic minority in 1992) provides a legal basis and gives Thailand. According to the villagers policy guidelines to enhance interaction and NGO representatives, Governor between government agencies and Siva Saengmanee had abused his NGOs. The Act allows the public the authority by sending in 73 military and right of access to information and border patrol police to stop the villagers participation in certain environmental from farming. The villagers asserted issues with local authorities by that three elderly women had died from establishing volunteers to assist fright relating to the incident. The government agents, and by giving the
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opportunity for NGOs to register as relationship. Each side tends to NGOs with MOSTE (Riska 1999). continue to view the other negatively. A recent example of this strain was These laws and regulations may reported in the Bangkok Post when sound impressive, but how they are some 300 NGO members gathered in implemented into the day to day front of the government house for a 2- interactions between the actors is day rally called to protest the another thing. Social Scientist Adul government’s decision of permitting the Wichiencharoen call Thai “bad Law- use of force against opponents of state abiders.” Mr Wichiencharoen wrote: projects. Prime Minister Thaksin “They (Thai) never take rules Shinawatra, one of Thailand’s richest regulations or law seriously either as businessmen, refused to meet NGO law enforcer or law abider...Violation members and criticised the NGOs for of law and order is so frequent that staging a rally to gain media publicity sometimes Thai people take it as part of to “…show the outside world they were life.” (Simmons 1997: 19) doing something” in order to acquire funding (Supawadee 2002). Statements In addition, there are official and of this nature give credence to those unofficial organisations that co-ordinate who believe that the government does the interaction between NGOs and the not see the real value of NGO activities. Thai government. These include The National Council of Social Welfare, 4. Donor Factors: Factors that lead the established in 1960, and the NGO-Co- government into thinking that ordinating Committee on Rural recipients of external donors are Development that was set up in the foreign agents, causing some 1980s. Some ministries have created governments to fear that they are NGO liaison offices to include and being excluded from the decision- work on NGO matters; however, since making process. local governments are not legally required to co-operate with NGOs, co- This was particularly true of operative efforts are voluntary (Riska Thailand in the late 1970s and early 1999). Not being a legal requirement 1980s when the NGO movement took just about insures that not much will be off with strong support from foreign accomplished especially in those areas donors of whom the Thai government under the auspices of old line, was suspicious. The availability of traditional government civil service foreign funds in the early years lessened bureaucrats. the need for Thai NGOs to seek local funding (Juree 2001). At that time, Despite some signs of co-operation “many government agencies were between the Thai government and concerned that liberal non-profit NGOs, there remains a strain on the organisations were being penetrated by
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foreign funders. Labour movements people both within and outside the and advocacy activities were viewed as government because their activities are being initiated and financially often in direct conflict with businesses supported from outside Thailand having and government agencies. Of course, externally developed agendas. This led one could argue that NGOs should have to tightened rules and regulations.” a kind of adversarial relationship with (Riska 1999) businesses and government agencies. The public, many of whom hold Unfortunately, International NGOs orthodox views of development, has and some foreign donors started pulling problems in understanding these ‘noisy’ out of Thailand when the Thai economy activities fostered by NGOs because grew to levels to which they believed they do not understand the work of were sufficient for NGOs to be able to NGOs and thinks that these activities become self-supporting. Even before interfere with national development the1997 economic collapse a slowdown (Wasant 1998). Of course, some global in NGO growth was underway. The NGOs may well have political agendas international NGOs and donors have of their own that have nothing to do yet to return in any significant numbers. with serving the interest of the Thai A major problem of many NGOs is, in people. As long as these negative fact, the lack of funding. This lack of perceptions persist, many of the NGOs funding presents a major obstacle to will have a difficult time raising funds NGO participation in activities relating from the public. to human security. If Thai NGOs could solve their funding problem then they 2) The numbers and location of could become a more powerful force middle-class Thai are also a factor in for enhancing human security in the fund-raising problem. Middle-class Thailand. Thai are educated and tend to care for and support many social causes and programmes that NGOs advocate. They Obstacles to Fund-raising for Thai have the capacity to differentiate NGOs between the NGOs and not fall prey to blanket charges. However, the Thai 1) There exists a negative perception middle-class is small as compared to of NGOs among the public. Many Thai the general population and there are have accepted the idea that NGOs are numerous NGOs seeking funding “agents of foreigners whose aim is to assistance. The interest groups that are undermine Thai society and the Thai to be served by the NGOs cannot afford way of life.” (Juree: 2001) An article in to contribute money to their the Bangkok Post described NGOs programmes. Moreover, the majority engaged in rural development and of the Thai middle-class resides in the natural conservation as annoying some BMR.
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readily available from non-Thai NGO, 3) Therefore, theNGO activities they but not from any of the Thai NGOs. support are most likely to be activities During this research, many attempts for that serve needs in the BMR and not interviews with Thai NGOs were made those in rural areas or in the GMS. This without much success. As Keith Ross, makes it difficult for NGOs operating in a management consultant who once was the rural areas where the needs may be an executive for a Thai NGO said, greater, but donors are almost non- “NGOs, or any organisation in Thailand existent. for that matter, are not happy about releasing accurate information to 4) Cultural factors also serve as a outsiders. They are all paranoid about deterrent to fund-raising. The concept giving their competitors any help.” It of philanthropy in Thailand is quite would seem that NGOs should different from that of the West. welcome a chance to have their say and Buddhism does stress karn-tam-boon the opportunity to enhance their (merit-making or alms-giving) as one reputation in the eyes of the public. way to be reborn into a better and more comfortable life. One might suppose One avenue of fund raising still that this fact would help NGOs in their in its infancy is simply that NGO’s fund-raising, but this is not the case. A go into business, according to the Thai Buddhist believes that he or she Asia Foundation “…many of non- makes the most merit by donating governmental organizations are money to Wats, or Buddhist temples, conducting income generating activities rather than donating money to charities …Some have joint ventures with or NGOs. They also offer small gifts of private companies…Many private money in a one on one situation -- as to companies have joined hands to provide beggars and street urchins. The wealthy assistance such as free consulting and Thai in addition to making donations to training and some provide financial Wats and governments schools and the support. Nongovernmental organiza- like also donate money to the royal tions will also play a key role in charities. They often do this to gain face bridging the business groups with the with the public and in hope of earning communities.” (Asia Foundation, 1998) titles and other honours bestowed by the royal family. Human Security Situation and Civil 5) NGOs lack public relations skills. Society in Thailand NGOs strive to gain a positive reputation yet they are hesitant to give Numerous military coups and out information or even to answer direct constitutions mark Thai politics. Since questions. Exploring Internet sites we the 1932 coup ended the absolute can find NGO budget information monarchy, up until 1998, there have
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been nine successful military coups and following the coup, a number of NGOs nine abortive ones, 16 constitutions, 30 joined a labour federation and formed revisions to various constitutions and the Campaign for Popular Democracy 87 general elections. (Dixon 1998: (CPD) whose main task was to speak 258). Based on the foregoing, one against the new constitution that was might think that Thailand is a mecca of being drafted by the military (Callahan instability 161). In addition, Poll Watch was established by the CPD in 1992 to The real stability of Thailand is due monitor elections and report fraud. to its constitutional monarch -- King When the unelected General Suchinda Bhumibol Adulyadej and to the state initially took office, Poll Watch within a state -- the Thai civil service or acted through the CPD to organise bureaucracy. As the world’s longest peaceful pro-democracy demonstrations ruling monarch, His Majesty has been throughout the country (Callahan : 161- on the throne for over 50 years and is 2). This event demonstrated that NGOs beloved and revered by the Thai can be in certain circumstances, masses. Operating behind the scenes effective in organising and co- during chaotic periods, King Bhumibol ordinating their efforts for a common has been a key stabilising force. cause and marked the beginning of a vibrant civil society in Thailand. Thailand’s most recent military coup was staged in February 1991. In Another turning point in the 1992, General Suchinda Kraprayoon development of a civil society in took office. This incident resulted in Thailand occurred during the 1997 mass demonstrations led for the first financial crisis. Due to its severity and time by the Thai middle-class. The the effect the crisis had on other East 1992 pro-democracy demonstration was Asian countries, the Thai constitution not the first time that people took was revised, once again, that same year umbrage with military involvement in to accommodate changes brought about political life to the streets. A student led by the crisis. This constitution is said to demonstration in 1976 was just as be the most human-centred constitution bloody but they succeeded in ending the yet proffered. More specifically, as military government of Field Marshall unwanted by-products, “the crisis Thanom Kittikachorn, The 1992 dramatically increased the incidence of demonstrations also marked the first poverty, undermined the gains made time that NGOs took an active part in during decades of development, caused opposition to a coup. It was His widespread political instability, and Majesty that offered opposing parties a aggravated economic competition and TV broadcast face saving solution that interstate tensions over refugees and effectively ended the coup without illegal migration.” (Acharya and added bloodshed. Immediately Acharya 2000) Moreover, the crisis
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brought into focus the complexity plan. Thus, the Plan was more focused created by globalisation and world on the problems of disadvantaged integration and demonstrated that people (TDRI: 8). The financial crisis Thailand had lost some of its ability to of 1997 forced the government to make control its own destiny. This loss of choices. Rightly or wrongly, it chose to control has caused many to rethink and divert resources from rural and human question its desire to pursue further development to what they considered integration into the global community. more immediate financial problems The crisis resulted in the loss of many (TDRI: 8). jobs and reduced incomes of others and thus pushed many people back below According to Acharya, the crisis the poverty line. This tragic economic further served as a catalyst for added reversal led policy makers to place interest in human security. Besides the more importance on communities, obvious outcome of a surge in political social capital, and grass-root unrest and loss of jobs and income, the organisations while allowing a higher crisis “underscored the crucial need for degree of stakeholders’ participation social safety nets for the poor, and autonomy than before (TDRI: 10). something ignored in the heady days of Since many Thai NGOs had opposed growth.” (Acharya and Acharya 2000) globalisation, these groups benefited In short, the financial crisis threatened and their image was enhanced in the the economic security of people in eyes of the public. Thailand. In respect to human security, Thailand took a positive step by Hence, the stage was theoretically joining the Human Security Network, set for a more active civil society. thus becoming the only Southeast Thai NGOs began to gain clout Asian nation in the organisation. in influencing national policy Subsequently, they incorporated development. At the State level, a elements of human security in its Ninth human-centred approach to policies was National Development Plan (2002 – first introduced in the Thai Eighth 2006). National Development Plan (1997 – 2001), but much of the emphasis was The Chuan Leekpai administration still placed on infrastructure develop- (1992-1995) also advocated govern- ment (Dixon 1998: 247). Prior to the mental co-operation with NGOs. These financial collapse, the Thai economy efforts, according to the 1998 Asia had decades of sustained growth. The Foundation country report, included: Eighth Plan was also significant in that for the first time, thousands of • The appointment of a minister representatives from NGOs along with attached to the Prime Minister’s other community leaders were included Office, creating a channel for and involved with the drafting of the information exchange and
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recommendations between the developing country, Thailand’s most government and the non-profit immediate policy goal is to eradicate sector. poverty and ensure quality living for the people.” It stresses that it advocates • Income generating projects in human security on the basis of freedom rural areas that would allow the from fear and wants in accordance to local communities to be involved the UN’s definition of the concept. in decision-making and enjoy Furthermore, “human security is ownership. “Non-governmental comprehensive in nature and organisations will play a intertwined with human rights and significant role in bridging the human development. Human rights, government and private sectors human development and human with local communities, and security are mutually reinforcing provide support to strengthen factors.” (MFA Foreign Policy many development functions of Statement) community organisations.” On January 21-22, 2002, an • The establishment of the intersessional meeting of the Human Community Organisation Security Network was held in Bangkok, Development Institute to oversee Thailand. The meeting’s theme was funds and activities of community centred on the issue of HIV/AIDS as a groups. human security threat in the Greater Mekong Sub-region (GMS). • Increased support from international institutions such as the Asian Development Bank and Importance of GMS multinational donors that are trying to develop good relations The GMS is a region that with the non-profit sector in comprises Cambodia, Lao People's Thailand. (Thailand Country Democratic Republic, Myanmar, Report 1998) Thailand, Vietnam, and Yunnan Province of the People's Republic of Thus, it seems that NGOs are China with a total population of about gaining influence in Thailand. Not 240 million. In 1992, the six countries only are the NGOs becoming more in the region entered into a programme active in Thailand, the government is of sub-regional economic co-operation demonstrating that it wants to co- with the assistance and support of operate with NGOs in improving the ADB. The region is rich in natural lives of those living in under-developed resources and is a growth area with a rural areas. As put forth by the huge potential for development. “The Ministry of Foreign Affairs, “… as a programme has contributed to the
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development of infrastructure to enable factors. According to Than, the push the development and sharing of the factors “include the collapse of the resource base, and promote the freer Soviet Union and the Council for flow of goods and people in the Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA), subregion.” (ADB) fear of protectionism, the US embargo and competition for foreign direct The Northern and North Eastern investment (FDI).” The pull factors are provinces of Thailand are located “geographical proximities, existence of within the GMS. Currently, Thailand’s old trade routes, historical links, wealth is principally concentrated in the cultural and ethnic ties, language BMR. As mentioned, most affinities, [the] thawing of political development money has heretofore tensions as a result of the end of the been spent within the BMR, thus Cold War [and] economic reforms…” leaving the GMS provinces (Than 1997: 43). underdeveloped. Although uneven development and concentration of Since the GMS is now deemed wealth in the capital cities is crucial to development in Thailand, it is characteristic of many developing and understandable that the Thai less developed countries, according to government considers problems in the Dixon, “Bangkok is almost certainly the GMS as national issues. At present, most primate city in the world, and the there are several factors that are national pattern of urbanisation the preventing human security from most uneven.” (Dixon 1998: 190) developing more fully in the GMS. According to UNDP sources, in 1999, Those involved must take these factors the poverty rate in Bangkok was 0.2% into consideration when planning social whereas the rate in the Northeast, policies in the GMS. These factors and Thailand’s poorest region, was 30.8% potential problem areas include: (UNDP). 1) Co-operation among the The GMS is a region ripe for governments of the GMS. The economic development. The 4,200 km GMS is a huge region, comprised Mekong River is teeming with fish, of six states having varying levels while along its banks wildlife and of development and different vegetation exist in abundance. Most political systems. These Political countries in the region are also just systems with different ideologies opening their borders to trade and are normally approach human looking to exploit the region’s security issues from different resources and to lure foreign perspectives and priorities. Less investment. Mya Than identified two developed governments may motivating factors for the GMS prioritise tangible aspects of development plan: pull factors and push development such as
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constructions of roads and bridges of understanding of and support over those of human development for its activities. NGOs are not and security. always perceived to be agents of progressive change, but are 2) Policy of non-interference. This considered a nuisance and even as policy is embedded in the a deterrence to development. agreement among ASEAN Many Thais hold the orthodox members—five of the six GMS view that industrialisation is key nations are members of ASEAN. to development and belittle NGO This policy requires ASEAN activities and efforts. countries not to interfere with or intervene in each other’s internal 5) Lack of funding for affairs and not to criticise or developmental projects. Lack of support any opposition group. support from the public means However, if development and lack of funding. The International human security in the region NGOs and external financial require close collaboration, non- support pulled out or were greatly interference policies might serve reduced in Thailand during its as a barrier to communications boom years and they have not and may prevent things from returned. External funding of getting done. NGOs can be a two edged sword. One edge is positive in that NGOs 3) Corruption of government not being able to raise adequate officials and local elites. Though funds from internal Thai sources many NGOs have been can continue to operate and aid in established to counter this the human security process. The problem, corruption remains other edge, has a negative systemic and prevalent in connotation in that it reinforces Thailand. Embezzling of funds the view that NGOs are agents of and abuses of power and authority foreign powers and should not be by officials and local elites supported by Thais. undermine efforts to improve the lot of the people and their human 6) Poor management, organisation security situations. and co-ordination. NGOs are usually small in size with 4) Persistent negative attitudes and committed but inexperienced staff misconceptions of many NGOs in members and leaders with poor Thailand remain. Misconceptions managerial skills. Competent by the government and the public leadership is lacking, in part, concerning NGOs along with because funding is a problem. cultural impairments lead to a lack Staff members with demonstrated
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managerial skills are often lured security. Botswana was a real African into the private sector by promises success story that saw its once heady of better salary and a chance for economic and social successes in mobility that usually means a job human security evaporate due to the in Bangkok. ravages of AIDS. Its growth rate as measured by per capita income, 7) State interference in the roles to educational levels, and life expectancy be played by the NGOs. There is has all but been destroyed. (Thurow still a tendency to rely on the state 2002) for most of the developmental projects in Southeast Asia, Thailand and the other GMS primarily because that is the way countries must learn from Botswana’s it has always been done and local and others’ mistakes. They need to NGO operations are still in their tackle this pervasive social and infancy in the region. If human economic problem head on. It is not security is to be ensured, NGOs only the morally right thing to do, but need to be allowed to operate an economic necessity as well. more freely because they have the potential to be more effective and efficient than the State at working Examples of Successful Thai NGOs at the grassroots level. Some NGOs have been successful Many problems in the GMS are in both mission success and with related to human security issues. The their fund-raising activities. This is majority of the people in the region live especially true for prestigious non- on minimal subsistence. Poor living profit making religious schools who use conditions and lack of work lead many tuition, fees and “tea money” to raise young people to migrate to the Bangkok needed funds. Some funds are then area, thus adding to its problem of redirected toward programs that benefit overpopulation. The Mekong region society and the disadvantaged. They itself is rife with cross-border have grown in terms of size and trafficking in drugs and forced scope of their activities. To mention prostitution of women and children. two other successful NGOs: the Poverty, lack of education and lack of Thai Environment and Community access to health services and facilities Development Association (TECDA), contribute to the prevalence of AIDS in and the Duang Prateep Foundation the region. (DPF). Among the successful religious schools are: The Brothers of St. Gabriel Botswana is a case in point that Foundation and a number of Catholic dramatically illustrates the effect that an girls schools such as Mater Dei and St. AIDS epidemic can have on human Joseph’s. Khun-ying (Lady) Chodchoi
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Sophonpanich, leads the TECDA and industry. Therefore there does not Prateep Ungsongtham Hata heads the appear to be any effort spent on getting DPD. These NGOs present interesting business and industry to ‘clean up their examples of how different NGOs can act.’ One of TECDA’s campaigns, succeed in fund-raising through the Magic Eyes Ambassador, was different methods. By most measures, sponsored by a business company – all these NGOs have been successful in Lion Co.Ltd. Some may suspect that the serving their target groups. business community may actually be using the NGO to enhance their TECDA (http://www.magiceyes. reputation and concern for pollution or.th) was founded by Chodchoi issues. In any case, cleaning up Sophonpanich, the daughter of one of pollution no matter where it is found is Thailand’s great business leaders and very important especially in Bangkok founder of Bangkok Bank the deceased, where pollution is a top health concern. Chin Sophonpanich. Chodchoi founded The TECDA’s success relies on close TECDA in 1984 using her own relationships and connections with local personal wealth and funds solicited business leaders. Khunying Chodchoi’s from business people. The NGO is best approach to the business community is known for its Magic Eyes Campaign, a key element in building successful that aims to instil in the public a sense coalitions in that she is working with, of ecological responsibility through not against, the business community education and to: promote and with the public at large. environmental conservation, human waste pollution control (trash disposal), Prateep Ungsongtham, who was and tree planting. Her campaigns and born and raised in the Klong Teouy activities seem to be targeted only at the Slum in Bangkok, founded the Duang general public and not at major business Prateep Foundation (DPF) in 1978. She and industry polluters. Considering the gained recognition and support from the donors to this NGO, and the extended people when she negotiated with the ties of the Sophonpanich family to slum landowner to keep her many facets of business and industry it neighbourhood from being evicted. She should not come as a surprise why caught the attention of various raising funds from business leaders embassies in Thailand who went to her probably is not a major problem. It may aid with donations and moral support. also help explain why industrial pollution and polluters have not been After she won the prestigious major targets in the various campaigns Magsaysay award for Public Service in conducted by the NGO. The NGO’s 1978, she used the prize money to web site indicates that there are no establish her Foundation and started out campaigns directed toward eliminating by building schools for slum children. or controlling pollution caused by She went on to become the first Asian
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citizen to win the Rockefeller award for The prestigious Catholic schools Outstanding Contribution to Mankind. include, among others, the Brothers of Her reputation soared and even a grand St. Gabriel Foundation. The Foundation daughter of Chin Sophonpanich served also operates thirteen primary and as a volunteer in her day care centre secondary schools. Funding has been relatively easy since they collect tuition Because of her international and fees from the middle and upper reputation, it was possible for the DPF class families. Assumption University, to acquire foreign funding. Members of the only tertiary educational institution the German Embassy were very early of the Brothers of St. Gabriel supporters of her activities. Her fund Foundation pours the surpluses raising has been aided simply because generated back into expanding its the NGO deals primarily with children capacity and infrastructure. It alone also in poverty. The NGO has begun to spent more than US $2 million last year expand into the rural areas and new on aid to students from the less affluent activities are being added including families. campaigns for AIDS control and women’s rights. The DPF web site is The other St. Gabriel Foundation written in four different languages: schools probably do as much or more to English, Japanese, German and Thai, help in the human security arena since whereas the TECDA web site is in Thai they have been in existence for a long only. period of time and new investment in buildings and infrastructure is The DPF has succeeded because it significantly less since the schools have has had a charismatic leader, a rare reached maturity. Some of their primary person who rose from poverty without and secondary schools are located forgetting her roots. Thai from all walks outside BMR and a lot of their attention of life have come to recognise what a is given to children. In addition, the unique person she is and today she University working with other NGOs serves as an elected member of the Thai such as the United Board for Christian Senate. This political position gives her Higher Education in Asia and the Open added clout and creditability when Society Foundation and others working with the Thai bureaucrats. including the Thai Government have Thus, we learn that the DPF’s recipe for given scholarship assistance to others success was charismatic leadership that from outside Thailand many from GMS led to the garnering the support of the countries. foreign community in Thailand. International recognition followed From the NGOs discussed a Thai along with the concurrent respect of heads all. They all have different Thai from all classes. methods for raising the bulk of their funds. All three have connections to
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the political world of Thailand and at importance of putting emphasis on least TECDA and AU have strong links individuals rather than on generalised to the business community. These and, often, obtuse problems can help NGOs have been successful and the the government focus on constructing DPF and AU have experienced great national plans that develop and protect growth rates using different approaches its citizens’ well being and livelihood. to raising money. It appears that Thailand has taken positive steps by instituting the concept Summary and Conclusions of human security into its major policies and it has involved NGOs in To recap, NGOs operating in many of its developmental activities. Thailand currently have a somewhat However, considering the values Thai favourable policy environment. place on presentation and gaining However, tensions between the ‘face’, along with the lack of respect for government and NGOs persist because laws, whether or not such co-operation both sides hold negative views of each is real and effective remains to be seen. other and, not surprisingly, a different Thailand is a democracy, but there are set of priorities. NGOs sometimes come many limitations to what the Thai State into opposition to the government on a can do to ensure human security. The number of issues and priorities, but Thai bureaucracy and systemic such is the nature and design of NGOs corruption complicate the process. The and politics as the Thai parliament is government, as well as many of the certainly not a monolith but a NGOs, lacks co-ordination and conglomerate loosely held together by qualified and competent staff. The warring parties and individuals. The government officials have top-down pouring in of foreign funds to NGOs attitudes that complicate has all but ceased due to the belief of communications because government previous contributors that the Thai ministries need to co-ordinate and economy is big enough to support itself. communicate horizontally. In contrast, Cultural factors make raising of fund NGOs may over-rely on their leaders, from internal sources difficult but new but because their organisations are approaches to fund raising such as small and their activities are usually establishing some local business focused and specific, top-down enterprises often with the help of the communications does not present a business community has potential. major problem with co-ordination. Therefore, the Thai government is not Human security lacks a precise yet developed enough to single- definition, which makes it difficult for handedly manage social policies. definitive policies and policy implementation. However, the
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To conclude, Can the Thai security there can be no human Government co-operate with NGOs to security. The two sectors may share ensure ‘Human Security?” If they can, similar goals regarding social policies synergistic opportunities are much more and human security, but they often likely to occur. The question is actually disagree on the means of achieving open-ended and the answer is a simple those ends. The bureaucracy and the yes and no. They can co-operate when government, through corruption and their interests coincide in the short run abuses of power and authority, or if the Thai civil service agrees to co- complicate the process. Thailand and operate in programs that will take a many other nations are replete with long period of time to implement. examples of this fact. Within this Some NGOs have a much easier time author’s own family, corrupt Thai gaining government support because of government officials have been their personal contacts within the Thai encountered and the appropriate, government and bureaucracy. Other negotiated bribe paid. That said, on rare NGOs are headed by elected occasion he ran into a bureaucrat that government officials and if their party actually walked an extra mile and is a member of the coalition in power exercised very humanistic and they may be able to get things done. pragmatic judgement to get things done. Afterwards those bureaucrats even That said, the Thai government and refused small gifts that were given from most all governments be they Eastern, the heart in recognition of exemplary Western, Northern or Southern have behaviour above and beyond the call of difficulties with NGOs. NGOs want duty. things done immediately and are often focused on specific issues. They cannot Examples presented in this paper or refuse to understand that other issues should demonstrate that there is still a may be more important to society as a great deal of animosity between the whole than theirs. A real problem is two, but that is often the norm when it simply the squeaky wheel effect and comes to NGO - Government relations often the most annoying or loudest whatever the country. Cultural voice gets attention to the detriment of impediments such as the diffidence those who have no voice at all but may towards authority along with Buddhist be the most in need of attention. The precepts inhibit the establishment of government has many interest groups good relationships between the rural vying for their limited resources poor and the bureaucrats. obviously they cannot satisfy everyone and meet all needs. For example, the Can the Thai NGOs perform Governments will always argue that effectively in present day Thailand? national security issues outrank human Again, no clear answer can be given. security issues because without national NGOs have had some successes
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organising against government abuses • NGOs must be more active and such as the 1992 pro-democracy aggressive watchdogs. Some are demonstrations. Some NGOs seem to monitoring the State’s moves to do quite well especially if they can ensure that economic growth and garner support from those they that investment in projects take represent and from other donors to into consideration the people’s support their programmes. Those who welfare. garner support often represent non- controversial groups and projects such • Increased emphasis must be spent as aid to slum children. Others, without on research of failed and some competitive advantage will have successful programmes. Mistakes difficulties if they challenge the in committed in the BMR should not groups such as powerful business or be repeated in the rural Thailand. military interests groups. All they can NGOs being focused should do manage is to organise some local more specific research. Rapid demonstrations -- to become squeaky growth without careful planning wheels --and even this can prove and foresight can be harmful to difficult unless local leaders support the welfare and human security of them with the needed manpower. The the people at large as well as for problems of management and cultural those who are supposed to benefit. inhibitions are also factors that affect efficient and effective NGO operation. • NGOs should more actively seek funding from abroad but they In any case, the NGOs can play a must be more transparent and significant role in improving the human forthcoming in providing concrete security of Thai, but how to raise funds answers that reflect reality. remains a stumbling block for many. To Initially, many NGOs were help those most in need of help, funds funded from abroad, but as must eventually be made available by Thailand reached a certain GDP the small but growing middle class. As level funding often dried up for mentioned earlier philanthropy is not in these NGOs. Potential overseas the Thai Culture. There are few, if any, donors must be made aware of Rockefeller or Bill Gates or Henry Ford Thai cultural constraints to money et al Foundations in Thailand. The few raising. A great deal of effort successful Thai Foundations do not, as needs to be directed on education a rule, fund other NGOs but use their of the public. This is no easy task limited resources within their own since Thai culture impedes organisations. strategic planning, as it is known in the West. But, the rapid strides Recommendations made in education, especially at the tertiary level, should help
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expand the middle class and make one and the same, therefore Thailand it easier to communicate and should have much less of a problem in solicit help on a wider scale. this area than many other countries • NGO’s need to explore where professional politicians dominate opportunities to establish business the political parties. ventures either their own or by bringing business groups into contact with the communities in joint ventures or in an advisory Bibliography capacity. (13/7/1996), “Kamphaeng Phet • Further NGO and human security governor accused of hounding research in Thailand should be tribe”, Bangkok Post, conducted by academics. http://scoop.bangkokpost.co.th/bk Comparative studies of the kpost/1996/july1996/bp960713/13 similarities and differences 07_news07.html between foreign operated or directed NGOs and those run by Acharya, Amitav and Acharya, Thai might prove valuable. A Arabinda (2000), “Human study on how Thai NGOs interact Security in Asia Pacific: Puzzle, with the public may also prove to Panacea or Peril?”, CANCAPS be useful in assessing the Bulletin, 27 (November) pp. 1-5 strengths and effectiveness of ‘people power’ and what the two ADB
In ending this paper the author Adelman, Carol (2002), Wall Street wishes to point out that Kofi Annan Journal, August 21, 2002 the Secretary General of the UN said at the closing of the Callahan, William A. ( ), “Challenging Johannesburg Earth Summit that, the the political order: social participation of the business community movements”, pp. 150 – 171 was necessary since they are “stakeholders.” He said, “We have to Clark, John (1997), “The State, Popular be practical…Governments and NGOs Participation and the Voluntary cannot do it on their own,” This Sector” in “NGOs, States and observation is certainly a truism Donors: Too Close for Comfort?”, especially in a capitalistic society. At Macmillan: New York present, in Thailand the elected officials and the business community are often
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