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Thesis This Thesis Must Be Used in Accordance with the Provisions of the Copyright Act 1968 COPYRIGHT AND USE OF THIS THESIS This thesis must be used in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright Act 1968. Reproduction of material protected by copyright may be an infringement of copyright and copyright owners may be entitled to take legal action against persons who infringe their copyright. Section 51 (2) of the Copyright Act permits an authorized officer of a university library or archives to provide a copy (by communication or otherwise) of an unpublished thesis kept in the library or archives, to a person who satisfies the authorized officer that he or she requires the reproduction for the purposes of research or study. The Copyright Act grants the creator of a work a number of moral rights, specifically the right of attribution, the right against false attribution and the right of integrity. You may infringe the author’s moral rights if you: - fail to acknowledge the author of this thesis if you quote sections from the work - attribute this thesis to another author - subject this thesis to derogatory treatment which may prejudice the author’s reputation For further information contact the University’s Copyright Service. sydney.edu.au/copyright Water, Water Everywhere…? Examining Approaches to Rural Water Scarcity in Mindanao Trina Isorena A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Faculty of Science University of Sydney 2016 Acknowledgements This thesis would not have come together were not for a number of people who have contributed their time, expertise and encouragement all throughout this PhD journey. First and foremost is my main supervisor, Dr. Robert Fisher who provided excellent guidance and encouragement in shaping this thesis. His constant support and enthusiasm has guided me throughout this intricate process of thesis writing. My greatest gratitude to you Bob for guiding me with much patience, understanding and best care any supervisee could have. Thank you Bob for spending extra time in making the final edits. I also would like to thank my associate supervisor Philip Hirsch for his invaluable comments in the formation of this thesis. Thank you Phil for enjoining me to participate in the Mekong related activities of the School, exposing me to natural resource management in the rest of Southeast Asia. I also would like thank Estelle Dryland for her hard work in editing my chapters promptly. I am grateful to John Connell who offered his time to double-check my bibliography and for general support and encouragement in the final stages of the thesis preparation. Instrumental in making my PhD journey happen is the Australia Awards Scholarship program, whose generous funding assistance, not only provided me support for my studies and living in Sydney but also provided a much needed break with my family back in the Philippines. The Geosciences PRSS funding support also assisted with my much needed field work funding. The main elements of this thesis, the data may have not come together if not for the invaluable assistance in the field from the different offices of the Province of Agusan del Sur, the municipal local governments of Loreto, Prosperidad and San Luis and the offices of the environment and natural resources office and the protected area office of Agusan Marsh. My heartfelt thanks go to the individuals and families in my field sites who shared their homes, views and insights about living and living with less water. ii Important in any of intellectual work are the nurturing presence of friends and family. To my Madsen family who have made PhD study a less isolating experience: Albert, Chetan, Danny, Hiswaty, Jess, Lada, Leo, Mark, Olivia, Oulavanh, Rotha, Sopheak, Tegan, Toey, Tubtim, Yayoi, Wora and most especially to Zoe and Peejay. To my Geography family in UP especially to Yany who have lent me her time and comments during our thesis talk sessions. Thanks Ony, Hazel and Joy for the constant encouragement when I was on the verge of giving up. The company of friends in Sydney was important in keeping the work-life balance. My close friends Alex, Atif, Forough, Hye, Michelle and Tyok, were the best camping, bushwalking, running, food tripping companions. Heartfelt thanks to my Filipino friends, Allen, Jude and Wushi who were just a phone call away, when the craving for Filipino comfort food and company was badly needed. Much appreciation goes to Martin, my flatmate who shared his wonderful home, food and his Netflix to his writing-weary flatmate. Without the constant support of my dear family I would not have the courage to complete this journey. To Mama who nurtures me from a distance and always had my favourite meal prepared, whenever I am come home from Sydney. To Tata you may not be with us right now, but I am sure you are proud that I made it. To my sisters Maxilin and Alvie who stand in as proxy mothers to my big and small monsters. Who have been very generous of their time and support to my family while I was away and ensuring I get the latest videos of my kids doing the darndest things. To my funny brother who makes our skype conversations sometimes undecipherable and enjoyable. To Kate and my pamangkin Iko and Ika who keeps my kids the needed peer company. To our Manila household girls Edith, Joy, JP and Thez for ensuring the family is well taken cared of. Lastly and most especially I thank and dedicate this work to my Nunu, Babachoo and Goygoy – Efren, Ilaya and Layag thank you for allowing me to be away extended periods to pursue my PhD. Thank you for the love, understanding, and patience and for being there with me throughout this long journey. iii Abstract This research addresses two themes: water scarcity and water resource management in the Philippines. Since 2004 the Philippines had been involved in the meeting the country’s Millennium Development Goal’s safe water target. Significant improvements have been achieved in access to drinking water in the rural areas, increasing coverage from 73 per cent to 91 per cent in 2012. Despite this achievement, there are still approximately 4.5 million rural residents in the country without access to safe water. I use the persistence of waterlessness in rural Philippines as a lens to examine the problems of the standardized approach to rural water provision in the Philippines. The core research question informing the research is: how do the conceptualisations of water scarcity by the households and the institutions that are tasked to manage it influence water access? I use ethnographic methodologies combined with mapping techniques to examine the experiences of rural villagers in three different case study sites that were identified as water scarce/waterless in the Province of Agusan del Sur in Mindanao in the Southern Philippines. These three villages characterize three landscapes (uplands, lowlands and wetlands) that face distinctive types of water scarcity issues. The empirical exploration of people’s experiences gives rise to questions how a basic service such as domestic water supply is provisioned by the state. In this regard, the communities’ practices of accessing and using water, government practices of providing water in the villages and the biophysical conditions of the area are points of interest. The case studies reveal that standardized approach to water scarcity, which assumes the communities’ water problems relate to lack of investment and infrastructure and mostly focusing on engineering solutions to provide groundwater, fails to address the concerns of the local people who perceived water scarcity in different ways than the government agencies. In some cases it does not work because it is not technically possible due to the site’s geology and hydrology, in others it does not address the problem of inadequacy of water for domestic needs of the community, or in some its salinity is unacceptable for the community. The study demonstrates the importance of examining the specific context of situations where water access is an issue. It also shows the value of ethnographic methodology in such research. iv Acronyms BAWASA Barangay Water Association BHW Barangay Health Workers CAWST Center for Affordable Water and Sanitation Technology CBMS Community Based Monitoring System CHDF Civilian Home Defense Force DENR Department of Environment and Natural Resources Office(r) DILG Department of Interior and Local Government DOH Department of Health IWRM Integrated Water Resource Management KBA Key Biodioversity Area LGC Local Government Code LGU Local Government Unit LWUA Local Water Utilities Administration MDG Millennium Development Goals MENRO Municipal Environment and Natural Resources Office(r) MHO Municipal Health Office MWSS Metropolitan Waterworks and Sewerage System NIPAS National Integrated Protected Areas System NPA New People’s Army NWRB National Water Resource Board PAMB Protected Area Management Bureau PASu Protected Area Superintendent PENRO Provincial Environment and Natural Resources Office(r) PHO Provincial Health Office PLGU Provincial Local Government Unit PPDO Provincial Planning and Development Office RBCO River Basin Coordinating Office RWDC Rural Waterworks Development Corporation UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund WATSAN Water and Sanitation WHO World Health Organisation v Table of Contents Statement of Originality ...................................................................................................................................... i Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................................................
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