Ecological and Socio-Economic Assessments of Selected Sites of the Puttalam Lagoon Area

An Exercise to Select Pilot Sites for the BMZ Coastal Ecosystem Restoration Project

June, 2008

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION ...... 1 Selecting a coastal stretch for restoration interventions ...... 2 Puttalam to Gangewadiya coastal stretch - the Project Area ...... 2 Physical aspects, Hydrology and Climate of the Puttalam Lagoon...... 3 Objective of the Assessment...... 4

METHODOLOGY ...... 5 Reconnaissance survey to select pilot sites in Project area ...... 5 Socio-economic methodology ...... 5 Ecosystem services...... 6 Ecological restoration interventions – potential for success ...... 6 Ecosystems - disturbance levels and major threats ...... 7 Diversity of Flora ...... 7 Diversity of Fauna ...... 7 Institutional status of the potential sites...... 8

RESULTS ...... 10 Ecosystem services...... 10 Flora ...... 10 Fauna ...... 11 Socio economic profile of the project area ...... 12 Key resource management issues in Puttalam Lagoon ...... 12 Study sites ...... 13 ECOLOGICAL AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC PROFILES OF THE 15 SAMPLING SITES ...... 14

RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 44

REFERENCES ...... 45

ANNEX I: STRUCTURE OF THE MILLENNIUM ECOSYSTEM ASSESSMENT...... 47 ANNEX II(A): SITE SPECIFIC RANKING TABLE OF ECOSYSTEM SERVICES ...... 48 ANNEX II(B): SITE SPECIFIC RANKING TABLE OF DIRECT AND INDIRECT DIVERS OF CHANGE ...... 50 ANNEX III: CHECKLIST OF FLORA OF THE PROJECT AREA ...... 52 ANNEX IV: CHECKLISTS OF FAUNAL SPECIES OF THE PROJECT AREA ...... 56 ANNEX V: INFORMATION COLLECTION TEMPLATES ...... 62 ANNEX V: REPORT ON ASSESSMENT OF THE STATUS OF INSTITUTIONS AND INSTITUTIONAL MECHANISMS IN SELECTED VILLAGES BORDERING THE PUTTAM LAGOON ...... 64

INTRODUCTION

The BMZ Project proposes to facilitate coastal ecosystem rehabilitation and conservation activities, in critically degraded and threatened ecosystems, in tsunami-affected countries of the Indian Ocean. It intends to work in pilot sites, in two of the six focal countries of the Mangroves for the Future Initiative (India, Indonesia, Maldives, Seychelles, Sri Lanka, and Thailand), which were among the nations worst affected by the December 26 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami. These countries have extensive coastal zones, which are rich in biodiversity and contain ecosystems that are severely threatened and degraded due to the tsunami as well as long-term threats and pressures. A high proportion of their human population lives in coastal areas, depends heavily on coastal resources for their livelihoods and economic activities, and is vulnerable to the effects of environmental degradation and natural disasters.

The project plans to undertake concrete investments in ecosystem rehabilitation measures, to renovate and thereby restore the biodiversity of specific ecosystems, which have been severely damaged and degraded, and to provide ecological services. It aims to develop and implement activities that are based on a sound understanding of ecological and socio-economic conditions and needs, and which employ participatory approaches to planning, implementation and monitoring. The project intends to foster better dialogue and communication between coastal stakeholders at the local level, and actively engage different sectors and groups to work together and design and undertake coastal ecosystem rehabilitation and conservation, and to strengthen the management of these restored ecosystems to offset future threats and pressures.

The project aims to focus on at least one coastal stretch in each country that was badly affected by the tsunami or human-induced activities, and has been defined, at the national level, as being vulnerable and threatened, in socio-economic and ecological terms. Within these coastal stretches, priority sites will be determined based on a scientific assessment of ecosystem status and degradation, ecological suitability of sites, social and ecological vulnerability, and economic and financial feasibility of alternative investment options. Based on these findings, coastal ecosystem rehabilitation and conservation measures will be initiated in at least one pilot site in each country. It is envisaged that pilot sites will together cover a range of representative coastal ecosystems, defined herein to include mangroves and other coastal forests and wetlands, estuaries, lagoons, sandy beaches, sand dunes, coral reefs and sea grass communities.

Coastal ecosystem rehabilitation and conservation plans will be developed on the ground, using participatory approaches, as part of broader integrated land use plans in the areas concerned. The plans are to be implemented via direct partnerships between civil society, government and the private sector. The project will facilitate the establishment and operation of these multi-stakeholder partnerships and provide technical support. Strengthening local capacity, dialogue and joint action between different sectors and groups is seen as being the key to the long-term sustainability of coastal ecosystem conservation, and to the removal of long-term threats to coastal ecosystems and livelihoods. At the same time, the project will support specific measures to build the sustainability of conservation, by identifying and piloting mechanisms for local benefit-sharing and financing that will provide direct incentives for conservation, and thus enable the partnerships and their joint actions to be maintained over the long-term.

To these ends, the long-term goal of the project is to conserve and restore coastal ecosystems as key assets, which support human well-being and security in the Indian Ocean Region. Its immediate purpose is to rehabilitate and conserve degraded and threatened coastal ecosystems in tsunami-

1 affected countries of the Indian Ocean, using ecologically and socio-economically sound methods. This will be achieved through a series of concrete outputs and activities, as described below:

1. Coastal ecosystems that require rehabilitation and conservation as a priority are identified, based on ecological and socio-economic importance, suitability and needs 2. Coastal ecosystem rehabilitation and conservation measures are undertaken in pilot sites, using ecologically and socio-economically sound approaches 3. The long-term sustainability of coastal ecosystem rehabilitation in pilot sites is strengthened through local benefit-sharing and financing mechanisms 4. The project is managed and operati ng successfully.

Selecting a Coastal Stretch for Restoration Interventions

IUCN selected three coastal stretches as potential sites for BMZ project restoration interventions. They are Chilaw to Kalpitiya and Puttalam to Gangewadiya stretches on the northwestern coast, and the Rekwa to Godawaya stretch on the southern coast of Sri Lanka. The Rekwa to Godawaya coastal stretch was severely affected by tsunami; Chilaw to Kalpitiya and the Puttalam to Gangewadiya stretches to a lesser degree. IUCN compiled comprehensive sets of secondary data on major habitat types, their biodiversity and threat level, and past investments for ecological restorations for these three coastal stretches. This data, organized to facilitate comparisons was presented to the IUCN’s Technical Advisory Committee (TAC) appointed to oversee IUCN’s coastal sector projects for a final decision on the coastal stretch to be restored under the BMZ project. Considering the number of ecological intervention investments made in the past and the threat level to the coastal habitats, TAC unanimously endorsed the Puttalam-Gangewadiya stretch as the BMZ project site.

Puttalam to Gangewadiya Coastal Stretch - the Project Area

Puttalam lagoon is located 070 55’ - 080 20’ North and 790 43’- 790 56’ East near the township of Puttalam in Puttalam district of North Western Province of Sri Lanka. The area is served by three Divisional Secretariats: Kalpitiya, Puttalam and Vanathavilluwa. The BMZ project area extends from Gangewadiya (in Kala Oya estuary) in the north to Palavi in the south, along the eastern boundary of the Puttalam lagoon and Dutch bay, and from Palavi up to Kalpitiya. There are eight islands in the lagoon, with Battalangunduwa being the largest.

Puttalam lagoon, with a water surface area about 32,750 ha, is the largest lagoon (estuary) in Sri Lanka. Located in the North-West Dry Zone, this area harbours Kala oya estuary (one of Sri Lanka’s largest mangrove habitats), Mee oya estuary, Dutch Bay and Portugal Bay. Kalpitiya area still has large extents of mangrove vegetation while islands such as Ippantivu, Sinna Arichchalachchile, Periya Arichchal and Erumathivu are also surrounded by mangrove communities. These low islands located in Puttalam lagoon and Dutch bay have evolved due to sediment and sand transport under the influence of currents, tides and winds. Rare mangrove species such as Sychpora hydropyhlaceae and Sianometra iripa have been recorded from this area. Tidal flats, sea grass beds, sand dunes, coral reefs and maritime grasslands are other coastal ecosystems found in the Puttalam lagoon area.

Natural terrestrial ecosystems of the Puttalam lagoon area include dry monsoon forest and dry thorny scrublands, while human-influenced terrestrial land use include coconut/banana/cashew cultivations, home gardens, and some plantation forests. A vast extent of dry monsoon forest occurs in the Vanathavilluwa area. Dominant tree species include Manikara hexandra, Drypetes sepiaria and Chloroxylon sweitenia. Natural wetland ecosystems in the Puttalam lagoon area include rivers, streams, villus, mangroves, sea grass beds, coral reefs, salt marshes, lagoons and seashore

2 vegetation. Man-influenced wetlands include rice fields, irrigation canals, salt pans and shrimp ponds (ADB-RETA, 2003).

Mangroves, seagrass beds as well as other coastal ecosystems provide vital services for human well- being. They support livelihoods, protect inland communities from extreme weather conditions, regulate local climate and are of cultural and spiritual value for the inhabitants. As in many other mangrove habitats in the dry coastal zones in Sri Lanka, Rhizophora mucronata and Avicennia marina are the dominant species of Puttalam lagoon and Dutch bay mangroves. Avicinnia marina is a common species in Puttalam lagoon and Rizophora mucronata dominates the waterfront areas of the riverine mangroves of Kala Oya. A total of 14 true mangrove plant species and 29 species of mangrove-associated species have been reported from Puttalam lagoon and Dutch bay (ADB – RETA, 2003). Among them is Scyphiphora hydrophyllaceae, a very rare species recorded in a few mangrove habitats in Puttalam lagoon area.

Although Puttalam lagoon and surrounding ecosystems provide invaluable goods and services to the surrounding communities, these ecosystems have been degraded during the last few decades due to several anthropogenic activities. Prawn farms, expansion of salt pans, unsustainable fishing practices, expansion of settlement and other infrastructures and excessive use of agrochemicals are the major causes for the environmental degradation of the area.

A large number of people have been involved in lagoon and marine fishery activities and fishing is the major livelihood of most people in the Puttalam lagoon area. Kalpitiya is the main fishery harbour whilst Gangewadiya, Serakkuliya, Pubudugama, Anakuttiya, Puttalam, Soththupitiya, Kurinngampitiya, Kandakuliya, Nillaur, Dutch bay, Palliyawatta and Battalangunduwa are the other landing sites in the area. A wide variety of fishing methods are used including gillnets, trammel nets, push nets, traps (Ja-kotu), and pulling nets. The most common fishing gear in the area are the gillnets and trammel nets.

Physical Aspects, Hydrology and Climate of the Puttalam Lagoon

Although widely referred to as a lagoon, the Puttalam lagoon is technically a barrier-built estuary. (Dayaratne et al 1997). The northern end of Puttalam lagoon opens to the sea. Its southern end is connected to the northern end of Mundal lake by the Dutch canal, which carries brackish water. The entire Puttalam lagoon system is very shallow, with depths of no more than 1-2 m, except in the deep channels within the Puttalam lagoon, where depths of 4-5 m have been recorded (Dayaratne et al 1997). The water is of normal oceanic salinity in the north, whilst high evaporation makes it generally hypersaline in the south. Three river basins, Mee Oya, Kala Oya and the very small Moongil Ara discharge into the Puttalam lagoon. Their catchment areas are: Kala Oya 2772 sq km, Mee Oya 1516 sq km and Moongil ara 44 sq km. Kala Oya discharges the highest quantity of water (587 Cu M x 106) followed by Mee Oya (387 Cu M x 106) and Moongil ara (587 Cu M x 106). Two ground water basins, Vanathaviluwa and Madurankuliya are also located close to the Puttalam lagoon system (Dayaratne et al 1997).

Mean annual rainfall ranges from 1000-1500 mm in the southern part to 750-1000 mm in the northern part of the lagoon area. The main rainy seasons are October to November and April to May. Meteorological Department records over the last 100 years show that this area experiences lengthy droughts ranging from 120 to 200 days. High variability of rainfall seriously affects cropping patterns and animal husbandry (National Atlas, 1988).

3 Objective of the Assessment

Assessment of the 15 potential sites was carried out to select few sites for ecological restoration interventions. The main objective of the current assessment of the selected sites is to gather baseline information on ecological, ecosystem services and socio-economic status to identify three to four pilot sites for ecological restoration interventions. Baseline information can also be used to assess the ecological and socio-economic impact after the restoration interventions.

4 METHODOLOGY

Reconnaissance Survey to Select Pilot Sites in Project Area

A five-day reconnaissance survey was carried out to identify potential sites for coastal restoration and to evaluate the current status around the Puttalam lagoon area. The reconnaissance survey focused on the entire Puttalam lagoon area. Fifteen (15) sites were selected for detailed sampling to identify three or four priority sites for ecosystem restoration interventions. Major habitat types and biodiversity of each site was recorded by direct observations. Value of ecosystem services provided by each natural habitat was determined by the approximate extent of the habitat and its quality. Site sampling was conducted to determine the ecosystem services provided by the coastal ecosystems.

Socio-Economic Methodology

Five day reconnaissance survey was conducted and selected 15 sites critically important for ecosystems and livelihoods were selected for detail studies based on visual observations and judgements of the research team. Baseline information was gathered in the detailed survey. Information on direct and indirect drivers causing changes in the ecosystems were collected using key informant discussions and group meetings and the sites ranked by the research team. The following causes were assessed in order to rank and select sites for project interventions:

Direct drivers of change Causes

Conversion of land to prawn farms, conversion of land to salt pans, Change of land use conversion to settlements, conversion to roads and other infrastructure

(current and potential)

Harvesting ecosystem products for consumption and Increased demand for food, destruction of mangroves for fuel wood its impact

Livelihood dependence and Use of destructive fishing practices - nylon nets, push nets, cage nets, impacts - destructive fishing, increase in number of fishermen, increase in number of fishing gear, directed over harvesting take of low value species, directed take of high value species, by -catch

Livelihood dependence and Intensive agricultural practices in the area, potential agrochemical water impacts - chemical pollution, pollution, pollution due to prawn culture sand mining

Human security - Internally Pressures on fisheries due to IDPs, conversion of land for settlements, Displaced People (IDPs) and destruction of mangroves for fuel wood impacts

Indirect drivers of Causes change Current population, growth of population, increase of fishing Population growth population Introduction of prawn industry, Increased economic returns from salt Shifting market industry and clearance of mangroves, urbanization and resulting destructions

Economic freedom and Availability of alternative income generating activities, dependency on ecosystem impacts ecosystem resources

Community organizations, community groups and their relationships, Social capital Level of awareness on ecosystem and human well-being, Attitude towards ecosystem conservation

Socio economic information was gathered using the following methods:

1. Visiting field sites in coastal areas of Kalpitiya, Vanathavillu and Puttalam Divisional Secretariat Divisions and observing the socio-economic and environmental status and issues. 2. Meeting key informants and community members in each site and gathering information on the current status of the community and the environment, and past trends. 3. Visiting government organizations and non-governmental organizations and collecting secondary data on the present demographic and socio-economic status of the communities

Ecosystem Services

Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA) principles were applied in determining the ecosystem services provided in each site. Although, provisioning, regulating, cultural and supporting services derived from the natural ecosystems were measured in accordance with MEA principles, the methodology was adapted to local conditions. A ranking system was also developed to identify the high potential sites for interventions. Ecosystem services in each site were ranked from zero to five, with zero being none and five being the highest level (Please see Annex II for detail ranking values). Direct and indirect causes of change of the natural systems were also considered in ranking the sites. (The template used in collecting relevant information is in Annex V). A zero to five (0-5) ranking system was used with zero being no change and five being the highest level of change.

Ecological Restoration Interventions – Potential for Success

This study also assessed the potential for successfully implementing the following ecological restoration interventions at each site. 1. Mangrove restoration 2. Designation as a sensitive area 3. Community awareness programs 4. Development of alternative livelihoods 5. Rehabilitation of degraded mangroves 6. Conversion of abandoned prawn farms to natural vegetation 7. Empowering of marginalized communities 8. Law enforcement against destructive fishing practices

6 9. Strengthening of existing protected area system 10. Developing ecotourism activities 11. Establishment of study sites as an outdoor laboratory 12. Strengthening of local institutions for management of natural resources 13. Enhancing awareness of local decision makers 14. Depth restoration to maintain fishery habitats 15. Boundary marking to prevent loss of basin area

The potential for successful implementation of the above interventions was determined using the following criteria:

. Ground realities that could hinder the successful implementation of ecosystem interventions. . Community perception of the benefits they could derive from the ecosystem restorations. . Capacity and the motivation of the surrounding community for the restoration initiative.

Ecosystems - Disturbance Levels and Major Threats

Status of disturbances and the major threats to the natural ecosystems were documented during the current site survey exercise. The extent of the natural ecosystem remaining (as a percent) and its condition was assessed in determining the disturbance level. Over exploitation and unsustainable natural resource use by human activities was also considered in determining the disturbance level.

Diversity of Flora

The major habitat and vegetation types in the project area were identified through a literature survey. Several sites, representing the major habitat and vegetation types, were noted for detailed study during the reconnaissance survey.

Species/population (higher plants) parameters of diverse vegetation types were studied using standard scientific techniques, appropriately modified to suit field conditions. Vegetation dominated by woody flora was sampled in 5 m x 50 m transects and where small herbaceous types were dominant was sampled in 2.5 m x 10 m transects. Species dominancy of each habitat was also recorded.

The documentation of fauna and flora sampling was done simultaneously. GPS technology was used to precisely locate the flora sampling sites. Specimens of flora species that could not be identified in the field were referred to the national herbarium collection.

Diversity of Fauna

Previous faunal sightings in the area were ascertained by a literature survey. A preliminary field survey was carried out to select sampling points and appropriate sampling techniques.

Field sampling of faunal species, except freshwater fishes, was done simultaneously with the floral sampling in transects. Night samplings were not carried out due to the prevailing unsafe security situation in the area. Specific sampling methods used for different faunal groups are recorded in Table 1.

7 Table 1: Sampling techniques used to document fauna in the BMZ Project Area

Group Sampling method

Fishes Cast nets (1 cm gill size) and drag nets (1 mm gill size)

Herpetofauna (Amphibians and 100 m x 10 m belt transects Reptiles)

Birds 100 m x 50 m line transects (direct observations & calls)

Mammals Belt transects, direct and indirect observations

Butterflies 100 m x 10 m belt transects

Invertebrates such as crabs were recorded in random field observations. The identification and nomenclature of species were based on the latest field guides and taxonomic publications summarized in Table 2.

Table 2: Field guides and taxonomic publications used for the identification and nomenclature of species

Group Source

Dassanayake, M. D. and Fosberg, F. R. (eds.) (1980 - 1991); Flora Dassanayake, M. D., Fosberg, F. R. and Clayton, W. D. (eds.) (1994 - 1995) Dassanayake, M. D. and Clayton, W. D. (eds.) (1996 - 1999).

Fishes Pethiyagoda, R. (2006), Pethiyagoda, R. (1991), Jayaram (1999)

Herpetofauna De Silva, P.H.D.H (1980), Das, I. and De Silva, A. (2005), De Silva A. (2006), (Amphibians & Dutta, S.K. and Manamendra-Arachchi, K.N. (1996) Reptiles) Manamendra-Arachchi, K. and Pethiyagoda, R. (2006)

Birds Harrison & Worfolk (1999), Kotagama, (2006)

Mammals Phillips, (1980), Kotagama (2005), Weerakoon and Goonatilake (2006)

Butterflies D’Abrera (1998), Woodhouse, (1950), Perera and Bambaradeniya (2006)

Institutional Status of the Potential Sites

Institutional capacity is one of the major components required for the successful implementation of community based ecological restoration activities. Therefore the institutional status at each site was assessed using the following criteria to determine the strength of the community and their support for the project.

. Availability of community based organizations (CBOs) . Leadership of the community based organizations . Commitment to support the environmental restoration project

8 . Participation of women . Present security status of the site

Regular, formal and informal, meetings and group discussions with community members were conducted to determine the institutional status of the potential sites. Strength of the leadership was determined by assessing the success of the past activities conducted by the CBOs and the enforcement abilities of the leadership. Government and non-government agencies in the Puttalam area were consulted to verify the institutional capacity assessments made at community meetings and discussions.

9 RESULTS

Ecosystem Services

A summary of the results of biodiversity, ranking values of ecosystem services and socio–economic status is shown in Figure 1; the detailed results are in Annex II. Of the 15 sites assessed, Gangewadiya, Serakkuliya, Thirikkapallama, Pubudugama and Kurunnampitiya have the highest values for ecosystem services. These five areas have large extents of mangrove habitats which accounts for their high values for ecosystems services. Mampuriya North and Mampuriya South have the lowest values for ecosystem services.

In the ranking for human-induced direct drivers of ecosystem change, Eththala, Soththupitiya, Sewwanthivu, and Serakkuliya received the highest values. In the ranking of indirect drivers of change Eththale, Soththupitiya, Serakkuliya and Kurinnmpitiya had the highest values.

70 66

60 60 60 58 55 54 53 50 43 40 40 34 33 32 30 30 28

21 21 20 20 17 15 17 18 15.5 15 15 16 14.5 12.5 12 14 13 11 11 11 11 10.5 10 10.5 9 11 10 10 7 9 6 5 4

Palaviya Eththale ThilAdiya Serakkuliya Mullipuram Pubudugama Soththupitiya Alaththakanniya Thirikkapallama Gangewadiya KurunghnapitiyaMampuriyaSouth Mampuriya North Kandakuliya - Kudawa Anakuttiya & Sewwantivu Ecosystem Services Direct Drivers of Change Indirect Drivers of Change

Figure 1: Summary of ranking values for ecosystem services, and direct and indirect drivers of change in the 15 sampling sites

Flora

The seven major coastal habitat types were found in the project area during the current survey, namely mangroves, tidal flats, sea grass beds, inter tidal mud flats, sand dunes, sandy beaches, and coastal scrub jungles. Coconut plantations and home gardens were the man-made habitats found in the area.

Total of 125 plant species belonging to 46 families were recorded from the project area (See Annex III for checklist of plants). The recording of Scyphiphora hydrophyllacea and Cynometra iripa in the mangrove habitats of Puttalam Lagoon was significant as these species have been categorized as Critically Endangered species (IUCN Sri Lanka and MoNER, 2007). Twenty four (24) exotic species and nine invasive alien species were also recorded in the 15 sites sampled.

Rhizophora mucronata is the most dominant mangrove species of the mangrove community along the shores in the project area while Avicennia marina and Lumnitzera racemosa are the most dominant species in the back mangroves. Suaeda maritima, Salicornia brachiata and Suaeda vermiculata are the most dominant species recorded in the tidal flat habitats.

Fauna

A total of 150 species of vertebrates belonging to 83 families were recorded from the various habitat types and vegetation types within the project area. Two endemic species and two nationally threatened species were among them. Very few endemic species were recorded, as the coastal ecosystems of Sri Lanka do not harbour much endemi c biodiversity.

Butterflies are the only invertebrate group that was sampled in this field survey. Forty (40) species belonging to five families were recorded. Among them was the Critically endangered, Bright Babul Blue (Azanus ubaldus), the only threatened butterfly species recorded. No endemic butterfly species were recorded.

Thirty two (32) fish species from 25 families were recorded. The fish species included marine fish species eg. Spottail needlefish (Strongular strongular), Bleeker's smoothbelly sardinella (Amblygaster clupeoides); brackish water forms eg. Moony species (Monodactylus sp.), Spotted Scat (Scatopgagus argus), Catadromous species Level finned eel (Anguilla bicolor), and alien invasive species eg. Tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus).

Although no amphibian species were recorded during the current survey, there may be a few species of amphibians within the sampling sites. The survey being conducted during the peak dry season when amphibians are not active, and lack of night sampling due to security reasons account for this nil record.

Twenty two (22) species of reptiles belonging to 11 families, including one nationally threatened species, were recorded from the project area. The nationally threatened reptile species recorded was the Blotch bow finger gecko (Geckoella yakhuna ).

Seventy one (71) species of birds belonging to 33 families were recorded in the BMZ project area. The field survey has completed during the non-migratory season and consequently no migratory birds were recorded in the present survey. No endemic or threatened bird species were recorded.

A total of 25 mammal species, from 14 families were recorded from the study area. Among them two are endemic, namely, the Toque monkey (Macaca sinica), and Mouse deer (Moschiola meminna). Otter (Lutra lutra) is the only nationally threatened mammal species recorded during the field sampling.

11 Table 3: Summary of the species composition of vertebrate fauna found in the BMZ project area

Group Families Species Endemic Threatened Fish 25 32 0 0 Amphibians 0 0 0 0 Reptiles 11 22 0 1 Birds 33 71 0 0 Mammals 14 25 2 1 Total 83 150 2 2

Socio Economic Profile of the Project Area

The Puttalam district is located in the dry and intermediate agro-ecological regions. It covers approximately 3,013 sq km and has a population of 705,342. Puttlam Lagoon, an important ecosystem in the district, sustains a large proportion of the population in the area. The total land area of the three Divisional Secretariat Divisions (Puttalam: 182.1 sq km, Vanathavilluwa: 710 sq km and Kalpitiya: 90.3 sq km) bordering the lagoon, is about 982.4 sq km and has a population of about 167,746. The basic livelihood options of the people are agriculture and fisheries. About 1,809 acres in Puttalam and Vanathavilluwa DSDs are under paddy cultivation. The extent under coconut cultivation in all three DS Divisions, amount to about 20,754 acres. Natural coastal vegetation covers much of the land and there are large extents of prawn farms and saltpans. Puttalam Lagoon is one of the main sources of fish in the country. However, as evident from Table 4, fish supply from the area has been decreasing since year 2000.

Table 4: Fish supply data from 1998 to 2002, in metric tons.

Fisheries District 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 Chilaw 10,100 10,900 25,650 23.960 19,900 Puttalam 27,310 27,930 29,730 28,030 23,560 [Source: Ministry of Fisheries and Ocean Resources]

Key Resource Management Issues in Puttalam Lagoon

. Despite the beneficial services derived from mangrove habitats, a vast amount of mangrove habitat surrounding the Puttalam Lagoon area has been destroyed for commercial purposes, especially for conversion to prawn farms. It is estimated that around 3,385 ha of mangrove cover along the shores of Puttalam Lagoon, Dutch Bay and Portugal Bay complex, has been destroyed, from 1981 to 1992, reducing the mangrove cover in the Puttalam Lagoon to around 993 ha (Amarasinghe and Perera, 1995).

. Over the years, with the increase in the resident population and influx of refugees from the conflict areas, pressure on the lagoon has increased. There are about 15,480 displaced families, accommodated in 141 locations in Puttalam District (Welfare Centre Rehabilitation Revalidation Report, 2006, UNHCR and Ministry of Resettlement), and this has exerted tremendous pressure on the natural resources. The displaced people earned their livelihood mostly as hired labour in agriculture and fishing. Many also took to fishing and increased the pressure on the dwindling fish resources. Fish resources are being exploited at near or above

12 threshold levels disrupting traditional fishing, and giving rise to social unrest among IDPs and the traditional inhabitants. As revealed in the survey, this resource conflict can burst into a social conflict between the communities, unless the respective authorities take appropriate action. Kalpitiya is among the poorest ten DS Divisions in the country, and poverty among people in the area has been further aggravated by this problem.

. Due to high economic returns from prawn farming, a vast amount of mangrove habitat surrounding the Puttalam Lagoon area has been destroyed for conversion to commercial prawn farms. The absence of well-defined property rights and the open access nature of the resource, leads to swift destruction of habitat. As the productivity of established prawn farms decline they are relocated in newly cleared sites to achieve higher productivity. At present a large number of prawn farms, along the coastal line of Kalpitiya and Puttalam areas, are virtually abandoned due to low productivity causing a huge external cost to the environment. While the remaining mangroves are under threat of conversion, turning these unproductive prawn farms into productive, sustainable units presents a great challenge for resource management.

. Salt production is another economically attractive industry in the area. Conducive climatic conditions, and a low input and skill requirement for this industry attracts less-skilled people to operate small-scale saltpans and get a seasonal income. Due to the open access nature of state lands and lack of effective enforcement of property rights, people clear the rich coastal vegetation and convert these lands to community operated small and medium scale salt pans. Without clear policy directions on enforcing regulations and/or lack of awareness, the local authorities have granted permission for such activities. This is the upcoming threat to the natural vegetation in the coastal areas.

Study Sites

Fifteen (15) sites, around the Puttalam Lagoon were studied in order to prioritise and select sites for ecological restoration interventions under the BMZ Project. They are as follows: 1. Serakkuliya 2. Alaththakanniya 3. Thirikkapallama 4. Pubudugama 5. Anakuttiya & Sewwanthiu (Mee Oya Estuary) 6. Mullipuram (North of Puttalam saltern) 7. Thiladiya 8. Palaviya 9. Mampuriya South 10. Mampuriya North 11. Eththale 12. Soththupitiya 13. Kurinngampitiya 14. Kandakuliya Kudawa 15. Gangewadiya

Map 1 - Map of Puttaam Lagoon indicating the 15 sampling sites.

ECOLOGICAL AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC PROFILES OF THE 15 SAMPLING SITES

SITE NO.1: SERAKKULIYA

The Serakkuliya site is located in Vanathavilluwa DSD, in the Puttalam district. Major coastal habitat types of the Serakkuliya area were mangroves, tidal flats and scrublands. Sandy beaches, grasslands, coconut plantations and home gardens are the other habitat types of the area. Lagoon and marine fishing is the main income source of the Serakkuliya community. Gill nets, long line fishing, cast nets, line and hooks, and push nets are the major fishing gear they use.

Serakkuliya area has a fairly healthy and diverse mangrove community. Rhizophora mucronata is dominant in land bordering water while Avicinia marina is dominant inland. Serakkuliya scored the highest value for ecosystem services as this site has a considerable extent of healthy mangroves. The mangrove vegetation and the sea grass beds in the area are good breeding and feeding grounds for the fish resources in the lagoon.

Biodiversity of Serakkuliya Twelve plant species were recorded from the Serakkuliya site whose coastal ecosystem is comprised mainly of mangrove forests. Six mangrove species were recorded, Avicennia marina being the most dominant.

Twenty nine species of fauna were recorded in the Serakkuliya site: 5 butterfly species, 7 reptile species, 14 bird species, and 3 mammal species. No amphibian species were recorded since night

14 sampling was not carried out due to the prevailing security situation. Site-specific sampling of fish species was not carried out.

Map 2 - Map of the Serakkuliya site.

Disturbance level and major threats to the natural habitats Disturbance to the mangrove habitat of Serakkuliya, by its community, is low, due to their dependence on the mangrove for fish resources and their awareness of its role. However, villagers claim that development projects, such as salt production and construction of hotels have been proposed in the area. Since the villagers of Serakkuliya offer strong resistance to land conversion activities, no major development activities have been implemented, as yet.

Socio economic condition Population of Serakkuliya site is about 1,335, in 315 households. Almost all are directly or indirectly dependent upon fishing activities (lagoon and off shore). Fishing communities are poor as they receive low prices for their fish produce. The income of about 186 households is less than Rs. 2,000 per month. High valued species such as large-sized crabs are found in the area. However, villagers are exploited by fish vendors as they lack bargaining power without access to marketing facilities and formal credit.

Direct drivers of change The area is liable for conversion to prawn farms and other development options. Efforts have been made to acquire the land for tourism activities. Land encroachments have been temporarily stopped.

Indirect drivers of change The community uses the less destructive methods for fishing. However, more pressure could be exerted on the fish resources from migratory fishermen and IDPs. Poverty within the community is a further source of pressure on fish resources.

15 Potential interventions Empowering the community to safeguard the mangrove resources, improving fishing activities, providing alternative livelihoods and marketing facilities can be identified as potential socio-economic interventions to improve the living standards of the community, and to get their support for conservation of natural habitats in Serakkuliya.

Previous Interventions Ecological restoration interventions have not been carried out previously at this site.

Institutional capacity A community based organization with good leadership is functioning well at Serakkuliya, but the community did not show any commitment to the habitat restoration project. There was good participation by women in community group discussions and consultative meetings. Lack of motivation and commitment for conservation activities may due to availability of jobs in the area as hired labour.

Tidal flats and Mangrove habitat of the Serakkuliya area Lagoon fishing in Serakkuliya area

SITE NO. 2: ALATHTHAKANNIYA

The Alaththakanniya site is located Vanathavilluwa DSD in Puttalam district. Major habitat types of the Alaththakanniya site are mangroves, tidal flats and coastal scrublands. Sandy beaches, grasslands and coconut plantations are the other habitat types of the area. The community members have converted mangroves and saltpan habitats in the northern part of the Alaththakanniya area to saltpans. Although the salt production operation is on a small household scale, considerable damage has already been caused to the natural coastal habitats.

Map 3: Land use map of the Alaththakanniya.

16 Biodiversity of Alaththakanniya Thirteen plant species were recorded from the Alaththakanniya site where the mangrove habitat is the main coastal ecosystem. Four mangrove species were recorded in this site with Avicennia marina being the most dominant species. A rare and critically endangered mangrove species Scyphiphora hydrophyllacea, and Xylocarpus granatum species were also recorded in the mangrove habitat in this site.

Nineteen species of fauna were recorded during the survey: 6 butterfly species, 11 bird species, and 2 mammal species. No amphibian and reptiles species were recorded since night sampling was not carried out due to the prevailing security situation. Site–specific sampling of fish species was not carried out.

Disturbance level Generally the disturbance to the natural habitat of Alaththakanniya is moderate, although some parts of the area have already been cleared for salterns. Expansion of household scale salt production by the community members is threatening the remaining coastal habitats of the Alaththakanniya site.

Socio economic conditions The population is about 2,582 in 512 households. About 45 IDP families have settled in the area. It is a poor community; about 251 households receive an income of less than Rs. 2000 per month. Main livelihood is fishing (about 200 families) and most others are daily paid labourers.

Direct drivers of change Coastal vegetation (including mangroves) is being cleared and the land converted to community- based salt production. Low inputs and skills, and high economic returns compared to fishing and other livelihoods are the incentives for entering the salt business. Mangroves are the source for household fuel wood needs.

Indirect drivers of change Poverty among communities, low returns from fishing and lack of livelihood options for IDPs could exert more pressure on fish resources and the land resources for establishing salt pans.

Potential interventions Raising awareness and training of decision makers (local and provincial authorities) as well as community members of Alaththakanniya, empowering local communities, rehabilitation of degraded coastal vegetation are the potential interventions to motivate the community to utilize natural resource in a sustainable manner.

Previous interventions Ecological restoration interventions have not been carried out previously at this site.

Institutional capacity A community based organization with good leadership is functioning well at Alaththakanniya. However, the community did not show any commitment to the habitat restoration project as environmental conservation is a new concept to the community. Women did not participate in the community group discussions and consultative meetings. As the majority of the community is Muslim, women participation will be minimal in any project in this site.

Sandy beach of Alaththakanniya with back mangroves Cast netting at Lagoon in Alaththakanniya

SITE NO. 3: THIRIKKAPALLAMA

The Thirikkapallama site is located in the Vanathavilluwa DS division in the Puttalam district. Major habitat types of the area were mangroves, tidal flats and coastal mudflats. Coconut plantations and prawn farms were the man-made habitats. Healthy sea grass beds were found close to the lagoon margin. Part of the Tirikkapallama area has been declared a protected area by the Forest Department. Rhizophora mucronata is dominant in land bordering the water and Avicennia marina is dominant in inland areas.

Map 4 - Map of the Thirikkapallama area indicating major habitat types.

Biodiversity of Thirikkapallama Nineteen plant species were recorded from the Thirikkapallama site, where the mangrove habitat is the main coastal ecosystem. Five mangrove species were recorded with Avicennia marina and Rhizophora mucronata being the most dominant species. A rare and critically endangered mangrove species Scyphiphora hydrophyllacea was also recorded.

Thirty species of fauna were recorded during the survey: 2 butterfly species, 17 bird species, 5 reptile species and 6 species of mammals. No amphibian species were recorded since night sampling was not carried out due to the prevailing security situation. Site-specific sampling of fish species was not carried out.

Disturbance level Disturbance to the natural habitats in this site is at a high level due to expansion of prawn farms. Although part of the Thirikkapallama area was declared as a protected area by the Forest Department, the expansion of prawn farms is threatening the remaining coastal habitats. Use of drag nets for fishing in the shallow lagoon area is likely to degrade the sea grass habitats.

Socio economic condition Population of Thirikkapallama is about 1,100 in 265 households. A very high poverty level was recorded in this community. About 186 households receive an income of less than Rs. 2,000 per month. The community is mainly dependent on agriculture and fishing, with about 65 households directly depend on fishing.

Direct drivers of change Prawn farming has been mainly responsible for destruction of the natural vegetation. Lagoon pollution is likely due to prawn farming. Encroachment of state lands for prawn farming is a huge problem. In addition to prawn farms, lands are being converted for agriculture.

Indirect drivers of change Fishing communities and the local communities are marginalized. Prawn farming does not bring any economic return to local communities. Poverty among communities, low returns to fishing and limited livelihood options could create more pressure on fish resources. Poor people practice chena cultivation in the scrub jungles and the resulting soil erosion is a threat to the natural mangrove cover.

Potential interventions Empowering local communities and providing alternative livelihoods, raising awareness and training local level decision makers, effective enforcement of regulations to limit land conversion and encroachment of state land, introduction of alternative sustainable uses of abandoned prawn farms (eg: cage/pond milk fish) are the potential interventions.

Previous interventions The Forest Department declaration of a part of the mangrove habitat as a protected area, is the only conservation intervention in this site, so far. Although part of the site is a protected area, no proper management and law enforcement activities were observed.

Institutional capacity A community-based organization is functioning well and very effectively at Thirikkapallama. Community members showed high enthusiasm and commitment for any habitat restoration project in their area. It appears that the leadership of the community-based organization is very effective. Participation of women in group discussions and community meetings is very good indicating there will be good participation by women in habitat restoration interventions. As no other development projects have been initiated in this site, community participation can be used effectively on habitat restoration in Thirikkapallama.

Mud flats and the mangroves in the Thirikkapallama site Chena (shifting) cultivation in the scrub jungles of Thirikkapallama

A rare Mangrove species Schiphiphora hydrophylaceae from Thirikkapallama

SITE NO. 4: PUBUDUGAMA

The Pubudugama site is located in the Vanathavilluwa DS division in the Puttalam district, and is adjacent to the Mee Oya estuary. It harbours one of the largest and most diverse mangrove habitats. Coastal scrub forest is also an important habitat type in this site. The Forest Department has declared the southern part of the Pubudugama site as a protected area. Prawn farming is carried out in the area, on moderate scale. A fishing camp is located in the northern part of the area and traditional fishing methods such as Ja-Kotu is practiced here. Natural habitats in the Pubudugama area are in a healthy state as the community is well aware of the services provided by healthy ecosystems.

Biodiversity of Pubudugama Thirteen plant species were recorded from the Pubudugama site. Mangrove habitat is the main coastal ecosystem. Four mangrove species were recorded in Pubudugama with Avicennia marina and Rhizophora mucronata being the most dominant species.

Forty four fauna species were recorded during the survey: seven butterfly species, 27 bird species, five reptile species and five mammal species. No amphibian species were recorded since night sampling was not carried out due to the prevailing security situation. Site-specific sampling of fish species was not carried out.

Map 5 - Land use map of the Pubudugama site.

Disturbance level Prawn farming has caused a moderate level of disturbance to the natural habitats. There are considerable extents of healthy mangroves and other coastal habitats in Pubudugama in spite of the on -going expansion in prawn farming.

Socio economic conditions The population is about 1,377 in 407 households. According to official data, the poverty level is comparable to other locations. People are mainly dependent on fishing and agriculture. About 70 people are directly involved in fishing. The monthly income of 240 households is less than Rs. 2,000 each. Compared to other communities, the fishing community is better empowered (a well functioning CBO is mobilized for natural resources conservation by the Forest Depart ment) to manage the natural resources and has the bargaining power to get a good price for their fish produce.

Direct drivers of change Conversion of mangroves and tidal flats into prawn farms is the main direct driver of change in this site. Lagoon pollution has occurred due to extensive prawn farming. However, the fishing communities are better organised (Fisheries Cooperative Society) and enforce their own resource management regulations (destruction of the mangrove ecosystem is considered an offence by the cooperative society and the fishermen who cut or destroy the mangroves are fined). It was observed that they have a communal right to their fishing areas, although not legally defined. They have defined their own fishing territories and regulate the entry of outside fishermen into their territory. This is a good example of community based resource management.

Indirect drivers of change The system can be breached due to any blind approach to the community (development and political drivers etc) unless the care is being taken not to upset the community with their own defined values and systems.

Potential socio economic interventions Pubudugama could be a learning experience for others on community led resource management in the lagoon. There is also an opportunity here to test the efficacy of legal rights versus empowerment of local communities to manage resources, or joint resource management by the community and state

21 agencies. Introduction of alternative sustainable uses of abandoned prawn farms is another potential intervention.

Previous interventions Although there are sign boards to indicate this is a protected area under the Forest Department, no management or law enforcement activities to conserve the natural habitats were observed.

Institutional capacity There is a functioning community based organization, with a very effective leadership, at Pubudugama. Leadership of the community based organization has been very effective especially to protect the natural environment of the area. It appears that this community is very well organized with high community member participation to discuss their issues. However, the community did not show any commitment for the habitat restoration project as two projects are on-going at present in this site. World Vision has funded a water and sanitation project and the Forest Department has initiated a mangrove restoration project in Pubudugama. Hence, the community was not interested and did not show any interest in the proposed habitat restoration activities in Pubudugama area.

SITE NO. 5: ANAKUTTIYA & SEWWANTHIU

The Anakuttiya & Sewwanthiu site is located in the Vanathavilluwa DS division in Puttalam district and is situated in the Mee-oya Delta. Mee-oya estuary is a very important site in the Puttalam Lagoon wetland system as it is the major freshwater inflow to the lagoon. Maintenance of healthy natural systems in this site is very vital to maintain the brackish water quality of the lagoon. Mee-oya estuary is dominated by mangroves, followed by tidal flats. Rhizophora mucronata, Bruguiera sp., Aviecinnia marina were the most dominant mangrove species. Sewwanthiu village is on the southern border of Mee-oya estuary. This area harbours a rich mangrove community with some rare and critically endangered species such as Sianometra iripa. A considerable extent of healthy mangrove communities are found in this site in spite of expansion in salt production and prawn farming.

Map 6 - Map of the Anakuttiya & Sewwanthiu area indicating major habitat types.

Biodiversity of Anakuttiya & Sewwanthiu Thirteen plant species were recorded from the Anakuttiya & Sewwanthiu site where the mangrove habitat is the main coastal ecosystem. Six mangrove species were recorded with Avicennia marina and Rhizophora mucronata being the most dominant species. A rare and critically endangered mangrove species Scyphiphor hydrophyllacea was also recorded.

22 Sixty two species of fauna were recorded during the survey: 7 butterfly species, 40 bird species, 5 reptile species and 10 mammal species. No amphibian species were recorded since night sampling was not carried out due to the prevailing security situation. Site-specific sampling of fish species was not carried out.

Disturbance level The expansion of prawn farming has caused a high level of disturbance to the natural habitats in this site.

Socio economic conditions About 3,165 people, in 633 households, live in this area. About half the households receive a monthly income less than Rs. 1,500. Main livelihoods are fishing and agriculture with about 599 directly involved in fishing. Local people are very poor and marginalized.

Direct drivers of change Being situated in the estuary, the ecosystem quality is very important for upstream and downstream ecosystem regulation and livelihoods. High economic incentives have led, to the destruction of mangroves and riverine vegetation to establish a large-scale prawn industry. Further encroachments and expansion of prawn farms could reduce the vegetation cover and affect the ecosystem of the estuary. The water bodies (river, canals and the lagoon) are polluted due to the operation of large- scale prawn farms. According to fishermen the fish resources are diminishing.

Indirect drivers of change Fishing is affected as a consequence of ecosystem degradation. The prawn farms impede the fishing communities’ access to their fishing grounds. Fishing communities and the local communities are marginalized and do not receive any economic return from the prawn farms. The poverty among communities, low returns from fishing and limited livelihood options could create more pressure on fish resources.

Potential interventions Empowering of local communities, providing of alternative livelihoods, raising awareness and training of local level decision makers, effective enforcement of regulations to limit land conversion and encroachment of state land, introduction of alternative sustainable uses of abandoned prawn farms (eg: cage/pond milk fish) are the potential interventions.

Previous Interventions Ecological restoration interventions have not been carried out previously in this site.

Institutional capacity There is no community based organization operating in Anakuttiya & Sewwanthiu. Community members are geographically scattered over the area and are not organized to discuss their issues. Some families are moving out of Anakuttiya and relocating as the socio-economic conditions are not favourable. Hence, the community was not interested and did not show any commitment to the proposed habitat restoration activities in Anakuttiya & Sewwanthiu area.

Puttalam lagoon margin of the Manalthive area with Ja-kotu Mangroves and Mud flats of the Manalthivu area and mangroves

SITE NO. 6: MULLIPURAM ( NORTH OF PUTTALAM SALTERN)

Mullipuram site is located close to the northern boundary of Puttalam town. Southern part of the Mullipuram area is densely populated due to its close proximity to the Puttalam town. Hence, extensive clearance of mangroves was observed near the human settlements. Eastern part of this site consists of permanent salterns owned by the Salt Corporation. Western part of the site, close to the Puttalam lagoon, has seasonal salterns operated by the community during the dry season. Newly cleared mangroves in the northern part of the area and abandoned salterns were also observed in this site during the current site survey. Original mangrove habitats had been extensively cleared for prawn farm expansion in this site.

Map 8 - Map of the Mullipuram (Saltern) area indicating major habitat types.

24 Biodiversity of Mullipuram Twenty plant species were recorded from the Mullipuram site where the mangrove habitat is the main coastal ecosystem. Two mangrove species were recorded; Avicennia marina is the most dominant species.

Twenty seven fauna species were recorded during the survey; 1 butterfly species, 23 bird species, 2 reptile and 1 mammal species. No amphibian species were recorded since night sampling was not carried out due to the prevailing security situation. Site–specific sampling of fish species was not carried out.

Disturbance level Extensive prawn farming, salterns and human settlements have caused a high level of disturbance to the natural habitats in this site.

Previous interventions Ecological restoration interventions have not been carried out previously in this site.

Institutional capacity There is no community based organization operating in Mullipuram. Mullipuram is not a fishing community and the members are not well organized to discuss their issues. The level of education of the community is rather low and environmental conservation is a new concept to them. Most of the community members are working in the salterns as labourers and they are not interested in participating in any habitat restoration activity.

Mangrove destruction to establish prawn farms in Mullipuram Land preparation for the salterns in Mullipuram

SITE NO. 7: THILADIYA

Thiladiya site is situated in a densely populated area close to the Puttalam Township. Large extents of the original coastal ecosystems have already been cleared for salterns, prawn farms and human settlements. The long stretch of inter tidal mud flats in the site is a very important habitat for wading birds. The village situated along the eastern border of the lagoon, has a fairly good cover of vegetation with rich mangroves and mud flats. Tidal flats and the coastal scrub forests are the other main natural habitats in this site.

Map 9 - Map of the Thiladiya area indicating major habitat types.

Biodiversity of Thiladiya Only four plant species were recorded from the Thiladiya site where much of the natural habitats have been severely degraded. Mangrove habitat and tidal mud flats are the main coastal ecosystems in Thiladiya. Only one mangrove species, Avicennia marina, was recorded in this site.

Twenty four fauna species were recorded during the survey: 1 butterfly species, 16 bird species, 2 reptile species, and 5 mammal species. No amphibian were recorded since night sampling was not carried out due to the prevailing security situation. Site-specific sampling of fish species was not carried out.

Disturbance level Extensive prawn farming, salterns and human settlements have caused a high level of disturbance to the natural habitats in this site.

Socio economic conditions There are about 215 households in this site, of which 181 depend on lagoon fishing for their livelihood. As per official records, the monthly income of about 135 families is below Rs. 1,000. Poverty level in the communities is significantly high. A community owned small-scale salt industry in the area provides a seasonal income to the villagers.

Direct drivers of change Changes of land use are present due to the expansion of saltpans in Thiladiya site. Established of community owned small-scale salt industry is common in this site.

Fishing practices are non-destructive and non-exploitative at present. Fishing communities value the ecosystems highly and are generally well aware of the linkages to their livelihood. No destructive fishing gear are used. However, the on-going selective harvesting of high valued crabs (large sized) could lead to over exploitation.

26 Indirect drivers of change The pressure from IDPs on the resources is minimal due to policy and institutional interventions on resource management. People are well aware of ecosystem and livelihood linkages and this could be a site to pilot test decentralised resource management.

Potential interventions Potential interventions in Thiladiya are promotion of eco-tourism and decentralised resource management by assigning greater responsibility to the community

Previous Interventions Ecological restoration interventions have not been carried out previously in this site.

Institutional capacity There is no community based organization at Thiladiya site, and community members are not organized to discuss their issues. Environmental conservation is a new concept to this community due to their educational level being rather low. Most of the community members are working in the salterns as labourers. They did not show any commitment to or interest in any habitat restoration activities in Thiladiya area.

Mangrove habitats along the canal

Abandoned salterns in Thiladiya Operational salterns in Thiladiya

SITE NO. 8: PALAVIYA

Palaviya is situated along the southern boundary of the Puttalam lagoon system. The Dutch canal originates in this site and extends to Mundal Lake, which is to the south of Puttalam lagoon. Large extents of inter-tidal mud flats extend up to Thiladiya area in the east and Mampuriya area in the west. These mud-flat habitats are very important feeding grounds for migratory wading birds. Mangrove habitats bordering the Dutch canal are in good condition but the inland mangrove habitats have been destroyed by many human-induced activities.

Map 10 – Map of the Palaviya area showing major habitat types.

Biodiversity of Palaviya Seven plant species were recorded from the Palaviya site where mangrove habitats are the main coastal ecosystem. Two mangrove species Avicennia marina and Rhizophora mucronata were recorded in the Dutch canal mangrove habitat of Palaviya. The largest tidal mud flat, in the 15 sites sampled, was found in Palaviya.

28 Ten fauna species were recorded during the survey: 2 butterfly species, 5 bird species, 2 reptile species, and 1 mammal species. No amphibian were recorded since night sampling was not carried out due to the prevailing security situation. Site-specific sampling of fish species was not carried out.

Disturbance level Extensive prawn farming and salterns have caused a high level of disturbance to the natural habitats in this site. Much of the original natural habitats have been destroyed by human activities..

Socio economic conditions There is a population of about 3,149 in 674 households in the Palaviya GN Division. About 237 families receive a monthly income of less than Rs. 1,500. Around 30 families depend on fishing. Other livelihood options are employment in the private and state sectors, self-employment and as daily paid workers.

Direct drivers of change There is a huge pressure on land resources for conversion to salterns and prawn farms. Lagoon pollution from prawn farms is a major issue. Destructive fishing is practiced and there is a threat of over exploitation of prawn and fish resources in the lagoon.

Indirect drivers of change The local fishing communities are marginalized. Returns from fishing are low due to declining productivity and poor marketing facilities. With high economic incentives the land resources are exploited by the salt and prawn industries.

Potential interventions Raising awareness and training local decision makers, empowering local communities, and rehabilitation of degraded land are the potential interventions.

Previous Interventions Ecological restoration interventions have not been carried out previously in this site.

Institutional capacity There is no community based organization functioning in Palaviya and community members are not organized to discuss their issues. Most of the community members are working in the salterns as labourers and they did not show any interest in or commitment to the proposed habitat restoration activities in Palaviya area.

Inter tidal mud flats in Palaviya Tidal flat plant community

SITE NO. 9 & 10: MAMPURIYA SOUTH & NORTH

Mampuriya South site is situated south-west of the Puttalam Lagoon. A large expanse of inter tidal mud flat, which is connected to the Palaviya area, is found in this area. This site also has a small patch of mangrove habitat. Much of the original natural ecosystems in this area have been cleared for prawn farms and settlements.

Map 11 - Map of the Mampuriya South site.

Biodiversity of Mampuriya South Four plant species were recorded from the Mampuriya South site. The small extent of mangrove habitat is dominated by Avicennia marina and Rhizophora mucronata, the only two mangrove species recorded. Inter tidal flat is the most dominant natural habitat of this site.

Ten fauna species were recorded during the survey: three butterfly species, five bird species, and two reptile species. No amphibian or mammal species were recorded in this site. Site-specific sampling of fish species was not carried out.

Disturbance level Extensive prawn farming and human settlements have caused a high level of disturbance to the natural habitats in this site.

Previous Interventions Ecological restoration interventions have not been carried out previously in this site.

Inter tidal flat in Mampuriya South Inter tidal mud flats in Mampuriya South

Mampuriya North

This area is situated south-west of the Puttalam Lagoon. The original mangrove habitats were highly degraded; only scatted mangrove trees were found. Coconut plantations have expanded up to lagoon edge. Inter tidal mud flat is the only natural habitat that exist in this site. Inter tidal mud flat is the only natural habitat in this site.

Map 12 - Map of the Mampuriya North site.

Biodiversity of Mampuriya North Thirty one plant species were recorded from the Mampuriya North site. Most of the original vegetation of this site has been degraded due to the heavy human development activities. Most of the plant are herbs and shrub species in open land. Tidal mud flats are the only natural habitat in this site. Only nine species of butterflies were found; no other faunal species were recorded.

31 Disturbance level Extensive prawn farming and human settlements have caused a high level of disturbance to the natural habitats in this site.

Direct drivers of change The natural vegetation has been almost completely destroyed mainly to accommodate prawn culture ponds some of which are now abandoned. Landless fish communities encroach the lagoon mouth for settlements. Intensive agriculture, heavily dependent on agrochemicals, can cause pollution in the area.

Indirect drivers of change It was observed that poverty in the area is directly linked to the heavy exploitation of lagoon resources. Poor fishing communities and IDPs have limited livelihood opportunities and engage in destructive fishing using illegal fishing methods (Kotu del, Thallu Del). Fish productivity is low due to poor ecosystem quality, unsustainable resource use and high exploitation of the fish resource.

Potential interventions Introduction of alternative productive land use for abandoned prawn farms, empowering the fishing communities, providing alternative economic and livelihood opportunities for the IDPs and resident people, enforcement of regulations for fishing in the lagoon are the potential interventions.

Previous interventions Ecological restoration interventions have not been carried out previously in this site.

Institutional capacity Although some community based organizations had been established in Mampuriya North & South area in the past, they are not functioning effectively. Community participation and commitment for conservation initiatives cannot be expected in these sites as most of the community members are fully occupied in agricultural activities in the Norochchole area.

Inter tidal mud flats in the area Coconut plantation on the Lagoon edge

32 SITE NO. 11: ETHTHALE

Eththale is situated in the Kalpitiya DS division of Puttalam district on the west of the Puttalam Lagoon. Eththale has a large extent of mangrove habitat and the rare and critically endangered Scyphiphora hydrophyllacea was recorded here. Coastal scrub vegetation has been converted to coconut plantations.

Map 13 - Land use map of the Eththale site.

Biodiversity of Eththale Nine plant species were recorded from the Eththale site, six of them being mangrove species. Avicennia marina, Rhizophora mucronata, and Rhizophora apiculata were the dominant mangrove species.

Eighteen fauna species were recorded during the survey: five butterfly species, ten bird species, one mammal species and two reptile species. No amphibian or mammal species were recorded in this site. Site–specific sampling of fish species was not carried out.

Disturbance level As no prawn farms had been established the disturbance to the natural habitats in the Eththale site was low to moderate. Much of the disturbance was by villagers cutting mangrove trees to meet their fuel wood need. Small-scale land encroachments are also taking place.

Socio economic conditions Eththale and Thiheliya are the two villages situated in the Eththale site and has a population of about 4,923 in 802 households. About 197 IDP families have settled in the area. Main livelihoods are agriculture, fishing and daily wage labour. About 113 households depend on fishing. Poverty among the people is high, especially among fishing communities. About 300 families receive a monthly income below Rs. 2,000.

33 Direct drivers of change Land bordering the lagoon has been encroached for settlements; the threat of further expansion of settlements still prevails. The IDP communities are a major hindrance to the proper management of lagoon resources. They exploit lagoon fish, especially the high valued species such as prawns, using destructive methods for short-term gains. They also destroy the mangroves to meet their fuel wood requirements.

Indirect drivers of change Local traditional fishing communities are marginalized due to destructive fishing by the non-traditional fishing communities, mostly the IDPs. IDPs have their short-term livelihood strategies and tend to exploit fish resources in an unsustainable manner. The traditional fishing communities lack political patronage compared to the IDPs who benefit from IDP assistance programmes. Declining harvests and lack of marketing opportunities (middlemen are the main beneficiaries) lead to low incomes for the traditional fishing communities. There is social unrest among local traditional fishing communities and IDPs over the use of lagoon resources. Lagoon pollution is also possible from intensive agricultural practices in the inland areas.

Potential interventions Mangrove rehabilitation, empowering traditional communities, alternative livelihoods such as environment-based tourism (eco-tourism) to reduce the pressure on local resources, and providing alternatives such as fuel wood are the potential interventions.

Previous interventions Ecological restoration interventions have not been carried out previously in this site.

Institutional capacity Although there is a community based organization in Eththale area, it is not functioning effectively. Community participation and commitment towards a conservation initiative cannot be expected as most of the community members are fully occupied in agricultural activities. As the majority of the community members are Muslims women’s participation is likely to be low.

Mangrove and Tidal flats of the Eththale area Collection of fuel wood from the Mangrove habitats by the community members

34 SITE NO. 12: SOTHTHUPITIYA

Soththupitiya is situated in the Kalpitiya DS division of Puttalam district, on the west of Puttalam Lagoon. Bordering the lagoon is a healthy stretch of mangrove where Rhizophora mucronata is the dominant species. Coconut plantations and home gardens are the other major land use types in the area. A fish landing site used by lagoon fishermen is also located in the Soththupitiya site.

Map 14 – Land use map of the Soththupitiya site.

Biodiversity of Soththupitiya Fourteen plant species were recorded from the Soththupitiya site where a long stretch of healthy mangrove habitat is the main coastal ecosystem. Seven mangrove species were recorded here with Avicennia marina and Rhizophora mucronata being the most dominant species. Critically endangered Scyphiphora hydrophyllacea and rare Xylocarpus granatum species were also recorded in the mangrove habitat.

Six fauna species were recorded during the survey: four bird species, one mammal species, and one species of reptile. No amphibian or butterfly species were recorded in this site.

Disturbance level As prawn farming was not a major enterprise the disturbance to the natural habitats in the Soththupitiya site was low. Fishing community is aware of the importance of mangroves and pay special attention to mangrove protection. However, some unsustainable fishing practices are customary in the Soththupitiya site.

Socio economic conditions The area belongs to Palakuda GN Division and has a population of about 2,750 in 430 households. About 226 of these families depend on fishing, mainly lagoon fishing. The monthly income of about 185 families is below Rs. 2,000. The poverty among fishing communities is high (more than 80%).

35 Direct drivers of change Cutting of mangroves for fuel wood has reduced the mangrove forest area. The use of agrochemicals in agriculture could lead to coastal pollution.

Indirect drivers of change Traditional fishing communities practice ecosystem-friendly fishing. However, the traditional fishing communities are marginalized, with little or no political clout and have low incomes being exploited by the middlemen. IDPs exploit lagoon resources in a destructive manner, and practice selective harvesting of high-value species such as shrimp. The sustainability of fish resources and its productivity is threatened. IDPs also exploit the mangroves for fuel wood.

Potential interventions Empowering traditional fishing communities, enforcing fishing regulations, and rehabilitation of coastal vegetation are potential interventions

Previous Interventions Ecological restoration interventions have not been carried out previously in this site.

Institutional capacity A community based organization and a women’s organization, with very effective leadership, are functioning well at Soththupitiya. CBO leadership appears to be very effective in organizing the community and ensuring high participation at meetings to discuss their common issues. Community members showed high enthusiasm for and commitment to the proposed habitat restoration project. Women’s participation in the conservation initiative is likely to be high as a well established women’s organization is active in Soththupitiya.

Mangrove community of the Soththupitiya area Fishing activities in the Soththupitiya site

SITE NO. 13: KURINNGAMPITIYA

Kurinngampitiya is situated in the Kalpitiya DS division of Puttalam district. A part of the Kurinngampitiya mangrove and the Inter tidal flat area have been declared as a protected area by the Forest Department. Avicennia marina and Rhizophora mucronata are the dominant mangrove species. Northern part of the area is extensively used for prawn cultivation. Unsustainable fishing practices, such as push nets are common practices in this area.

Map 15 - Land use map of the Kurinngampitiya site.

Biodiversity of Kurinngampitiya Six plant species were recorded from the Kurinngampitiya site where the mangrove habitat is the main coastal ecosystem. Four mangrove species were recorded with Avicennia marina and Rhizophora mucronata being the most dominant species.

Twelve fauna species were recorded during the survey: one butterfly species, eight bird species, two mammal species and one reptile species. No amphibian or mammal species were recorded in this site. Site–specific sampling of fish species was carried out.

Disturbance level Considering the entire site, as a whole, the disturbance to the natural habitats was at a moderate level. Disturbance was at a high level in the northern part of the site with extensive prawn farms, while the southern part has very healthy mangroves and mud flat habitats. Clearing of mangroves, land encroachments, and unsustainable fishing practices were observed in this site.

Socio economic conditions This site falls into two GN Divisions, Kurignnanpitiya North and Kurignnanpitiya South, and has a population of about 3,101. There are about 860 households with half of them receiving a monthly income less than Rs. 2,000. About 375 households depend on fishing and the others mainly on agriculture. About 368 families, displaced due to the internal conflict in the northern and eastern provinces, have settled in the area.

Direct drivers of change Prawn farms stopped functioning temporarily when they encountered disease problems. It was a widespread problem and the prawn industry faced a serious situation. However, a few prawn farms have started to operate again and there is a threat of clearing mangrove vegetation for new prawn farms.

There is huge pressure on land resources for settlements for IDPs and others, and for urban infrastructure such as playgrounds, waste dumps etc. As revealed in discussions with the community,

37 the acquisition of a part of the mangrove area to dump municipal waste, and for a clay mining site, is being considered.

Indirect drivers of change IDPs who are not traditional fishing communities, engage in destructive fishing practices using Kotu Del, Thallu Del etc. They target high-value species such as prawn for short-term gains. Sustenance of fish productivity in the lagoon is threatened. IDPs are politically more powerful and traditional fishing communities are deprived and marginalized.

Potential interventions Potential interventions are empowering traditional fishing communities, training decision makers, in local authorities, to internalise environmental concerns in their resource use decisions.

Previous Interventions Forest Department declaration of a part of the mangroves as a protected area, is the only previous intervention to protect the natural ecosystems in Kurinngampitiya.

Institutional capacity A community based organization, with a very effective leadership, is functioning well at Kurinngampitiya. Community members showed interest in and commitment for the proposed habitat restoration project. Although community members showed interest, they are occupied with agricultural activities and other mangrove rehabilitation projects in the area. Effective awareness programs and attractive economic benefits will entice the Kurinngampitiya community to participate in ecological restoration activities. As the majority of the community members are Muslims women’s participation is likely to be low.

Avicennia marina community of Kurinngampitiya Unsustainable and Illegal fish traps in Kurinngampitiya area

SITE NO. 14: KANDAKULIYA - KUDAWA

Kandakuliya is situated in the Kalpitiya DS division in Puttalam district. This is a highly sensitive area subject to coastal natural disasters such as storms, sea level rise and tidal waves. The sand bar, which connected Kalpitiya peninsula and Uchchamuni and Dutch bay area, was breached by the 2006 Tsunami waves. Hence, Uchchamuni and Dutch Bay area was separated from the main land. Approximately, 20 to 30 m of land, including mangroves, have been washed out to sea during the past decade in Kandakuliya area. Mangroves, tidal flats and sandy beaches are the major natural habitats

38 of the Kandakuliya site. Kandakuliya is one the main fish landing sites of the area and majority of the community depend on marine fishing activities.

Map 16 - Land use map of the Kandakuliya- Kudawa site.

Biodiversity of Kandakuliya - Kudawa Six plant species were recorded from the Kandakuliya site where small mangrove communities and salt marshes are the main coastal habitats. Three mangrove species were recorded and Inter tidal flats vegetation is dominant in Kandakuliya.

Twelve fauna species were recorded during the survey in the Kandakuliya site: eight butterfly species, three bird species, and one mammal species. Site–specific sampling of fish species was not carried out.in Kandakuliya-Kudawa site.

Disturbance level Disturbances to the natural habitats in Kandakuliya site, committed by man, was at a low level. However, disturbances from natural disasters, such as high tidal waves and storms were high.

Socio economic conditions The population in this location is about 667 in 186 households. Almost all depend on fishing; mainly off shore fishing. Lagoon fishing is practiced only in the off-season..

Direct drivers of change Cutting of mangroves for fuel wood is the main anthropogenic impact on the natural vegetation. A few people are engaged in diving to collect ornamental fish. Although it is presently on a mini-scale it could expand up to destructive levels. Discussions revealed that destructive offshore fishing is practiced in the rich off shore coral reefs. Soil erosion is severe and the extent of land lost annually, through sea erosion, is considerable. The communities are highly vulnerable to natural impacts such as storms.

39 Indirect drivers of change Off shore fishing is restricted due to security concerns. Consequently, people tend to fish in the easily accessible lagoon, placing its fish resources are under great pressure.

Previous interventions Mangrove restoration, with community participation, has been attempted in Kandakuliya site. About 1- 2 hectares had been planted, but the survival rate is poor.

Institutional capacity There is a community based organization, with very effective leadership, functioning well in Kandakuliya-Kudawa area. The CBO leadership is very effective in organizing the community and ensuring high participation at meetings to discuss common issues. Strong community participation is likely as members showed high enthusiasm for and commitment to the proposed habitat restoration project. The community has some awareness on the environmental aspects and issues of the area since they conducted some conservation related programs, initiated by the Coast Conservation Department under the Coastal Resources Management Project (CRMP). High participation by women can be expected since women’s groups are proactively engaged in many activities in Kandakuliya- Kudawa area.

Sea Erosion in the Kandakuliya area Sand bar of Kandakuliya - Kudawa

SITE NO. 15: GANGEWADIYA

Gangewadiya is situated to the north-east of Puttalam lagoon, adjacent to Willpattu National Park. Mangrove forest and coastal vegetation are the major natural ecosystems in the Gangewadiya site. This mangrove habitat is one of the largest contiguous mangrove forests and has the richest mangrove vegetation, in the country. Gangewadiya village is located at the mouth of the Kala Oya estuary. Lagoon fishing is the main livelihood activity of the Gangewadiya community. Villagers of Gangewadiya are closely attached to mangrove vegetation as it provides essential ecosystem services for their primary livelihood activity.

Biodiversity of Gangewadiya Twelve plant species were recorded from the Gangewadiya site where the mangrove habitat is the main coastal ecosystem. Six mangrove species were recorded in Gangewadiya with Rhizophora mucronata being the most dominant species.

40 Ninety four fauna species were recorded during the survey in the Gangewadiya site: 16 butterfly species, 22 reptile species, 37 bird species, seven amphibian species and 12 mammal species. Site– specific sampling of fish species was not carried out.

Generally, the natural habitats in the site are healthy. This accounts for its high species diversity.

Socio economic conditions Gangewadiya is a fishing village and all, except seven people employed as village guards, depend on fishing. The village population is about 150 in 54 households. Gangewadiya village belongs to Eluwankulama GN Division where about 1,000 people are directly dependent on the fish resources in Gangewadiya. Migratory fishermen also come to this site for fishing.

All the villagers live in abject poverty without basic needs such as water, health, sanitation facilities, electricity, transport etc. People live in harmony with the ecosystem, occasionally extracting fuel wood for energy, timber for shed construction, wildlife and fish for subsistence, and plants for food and medicine. The community draws water from Kala Oya for drinking and other domestic purposes. The stretch of river close to the village has brackish saline water forcing people to traverse 2-3 km upstream to fetch drinking water. The area is subject to floods twice or thrice a year, when heavy rains cause Kala Oya to overflow its banks, adversely affecting livelihood activities, especially fishing and downstream agricultural activities such as paddy cultivation.

Direct drivers of change Direct changes affecting the ecosystem were not observed. However, several unsuccessful attempts have been made in the past to establish prawn farms close to this site; the threat still exists.

Indirect drivers of change The area has been proposed for IDP settlements, which could lead to more exploitation and destruction of mangroves. The lagoon is very shallow due to deposition of sediment flowing in with the river water. This affects fish productivity and fish harvests are diminishing.

Potential interventions Empowering the community to safeguard the mangrove resources, improving living standards and providing basic facilities such as health, education, transport etc, to the communities are the potential interventions.

Institutional capacity

There is a community based organization, with very effective leadership, functioning well in Gangewadiya. The CBO leadership is very effective in organizing the community and ensuring high participation at meetings to discuss their common issues. Strong community participation is likely as members showed high enthusiasm for and commitment to the proposed habitat restoration project. This community is well aware of the importance of the mangroves and other coastal habitats for their fishing activities. Hence, strong participation in any conservation program is to be expected. High participation by women can also be expected as they engage directly in matters concerning their fishing activities.

General threats to natural habitats in the project area

Major threats to the natural environment in Puttalam Lagoon area, identified during current survey, fall into three major categories:

41 . Habitat degradation and deterioration . Overexploitation of habitats and species . Natural hazards

Habitat degradation and deterioration

Clearance of Mangroves Extensive clearance of mangrove vegetation and other coastal habitats, to establish prawn farms and salterns, were observed in almost all the sampling sites. This is a major threat to the coastal biodiversity of the Puttalam Lagoon area. Local communities have also contributed to the destruction of mangrove vegetation, but to a lesser degree, for the construction of temporary housing, huts and for fuel wood collection. Although some communities are aware of the importance of conservation of natural resources, they are helpless to stop the commercial prawn farm and saltern developers. Livelihood of some communities in the sampling sites is totally dependent on the prawn farms and salterns, as hired labour.

Land preparation for salterns and prawn farms is a common sight in the project area

Garbage and solid waste disposal Haphazard dumping of garbage into the lagoon and its associated habitats has led to the deterioration of water quality and hence, altering the ecological integrity of the lagoon. Release of chemical laden water from commercial prawn farms also alters the water quality of the lagoon. Further study is essential to assess the damage to the lagoon ecosystems from garbage and wastewater pollution.

Proliferation of IAS Several invasive flora and fauna species were recorded during the current survey. Generally, they were restricted to isolated patches within the project area. Hinguru (Lantana camara), Kalapu Andara (Prosophis juliflora), Cactus (Opuntia dilleni) are the most aggressive invasive plant species recorded, while Thilapia (Oreocromis mossambicus) and Giant African Snail (Acatina fulica) are the most aggressive invasive fauna species recorded.

Overexploitation of habitats and species

Extensive use of push nets Extensive use of push nets to capture fish and prawns in the shallow lagoon areas were observed at many locations. This is a major threat to sea grass beds and nursery grounds of juvenile fish, as push nets degrade the sea grass bed habitats.

Collection of wild species for aquarium industry Colourful brackish water fish species such as Mono, Scat, and Sea Horses are extensively collected from the Puttalam Lagoon for the aquarium trade. Local community and the large-scale aquarium industries are involved in this activity.

Natural hazards Puttalam Lagoon including the Kalpitiya peninsula and surrounding islands, are located in a highly vulnerable coastal area of the country. Climate change including global sea rise, high tidal waves, droughts, and coastal storms are some of the natural disasters that can badly affect this coastal stretch.

43 RECOMMENDATIONS

. The criteria employed to prioritise and select sites for restoration interventions in the Puttalam Lagoon area were the ecological services provided at each site, and the scale of the direct and indirect drivers of change of the natural systems. Institutional capacity at each site was also considered as it plays a major part in successful ecological restoration activities. Taking the above factors into account, the assessment team recommends Tirikkapallama, Soththupitiya, and Eththale as the most appropriate sites for ecological restoration interventions under the BMZ project.

. An extensive campaign needs to be launched, to raise the awareness of communities around the entire Puttalam Lagoon area, on environmental conservation and the role of environment in protecting their lives and livelihoods. This should be done as early as possible as most communities do not have a good knowledge on the value of their surrounding habitats.

. A proper garbage collection and disposal system should be established to avoid haphazard dumping of garbage in the natural habitats.

. As Kala Oya and Dutch Bay harbour the largest, undisturbed mangrove habitat in Sri Lanka, this area should be declared as a sanctuary to protect its unique biodiversity. Moreover, there is a great potential to establish community based eco-tourism activities taking advantage of the scenic and biodiversity values of the Kala Oya and Dutch Bay areas.

. Community empowerment, institutional strengthening, capacity building for management and law enforcement are the timely interventions required to sustainably manage the natural resources of the Puttlam Lagoon. Traditional fishing communities need to be empowered to promote sustainable fishing practices in the lagoon.

44 References

Bates, P.J.J. and Harrison, D.L. (1997). Bats of the Indian sub continent. Harrison Zoological Museum. London.

Corbet, G.B. and Hill, J.E. 1992. Mammals of the Indomalayan Region: A Systematic Review. Oxford University Press, Oxford.

D’ Abrera, B. (1998). The Butterflies of Ceylon, Wildlife Heritage Trust, Colombo, 224pp.

Das, I. and De Silva, A. (2005). Photographic guide to the Snakes and other Reptiles of Sri Lanka. New Holland Publishers.

Dassanayake, M. D. & Fosberg, F. R. (eds.) (1980 - 2004) A revised Handbook to the Flora of Ceylon (vol 1-9 edited by Dassanayake M.D., Fosberg F.R. and Clayton W.D.; Vol. 10-15 edited by Dassanayake M.D., and Clayton W.D. ) 15 Vols. Oxford and IBH Publishing Co., New Delhi.

Dayarathne P., Linden O. and De Silva R. (1995) The Puttalam/Mundal estuaries system and associated coastal waters; A report on Environments degradation resource management issues and options for their Solutions, NARA, Colombo.

De Bruin G.H.P., Russell B.C. and Boguscha A. 1995. FAO species identification field guide for fishery purposes. The marine fishery resources of Sri Lanka. Rome, FAO. 1995.400p.,

De Silva, A (2006) Current Status of the Reptiles of Sri Lanka: Bambaradeniya, C.N.B. (eds), The Fauna of Sri Lanka: Status of Taxonomy, Research and Conservation. IUCN Sri Lanka.

De Silva, P.H.D.H (1980). Snakes Fauna of Sri Lanka, with special reference to skull, dentition and venom in snakes. The National Museums of Sri Lanka, Colombo.

District Profile - Puttlam (2004), Consortium of Humanitarian Agencies

Dutta, S.K. and Manamendra-Arachchi, K.N. (1996). The Amphibian Fauna of Sri Lanka. Wildlife Heritage Trust of Sri Lanka.

Harrison, J. and Worfolk, T. (1999). A Field Guide to the Birds of Sri Lanka, Oxford University Press Inc, New York, USA.

Household Expenditure Survey Report (2002), Department of Census and Statistics, Ministry of Interior, Sri Lanka.

IUCN Sri Lanka and Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources (2006) The 2006 Threatened list of Fauna and Flora of Sri Lanka, Colombo, Sri Lanka.

IUCN/ADB, (2003), Biodiversity in Puttalam Lagoon with special reference to poverty alleviation in coastal village of Vanathavilluwa – Sri Lanka Component, IUCN,Sri Lanka Country Office

Jayaram K.C. (1999). The Freshwater Fishes of the Indian Region. Narendra Publishing House, Delhi. 551 pp.

45 Kotagama, S. (2004). Mammals in Sri Lanka. Pictorial Pocket Guide – 3. Field Ornithology Group of Sri Lanka. Colombo.80pp.

Manamendra-Arachchi, K. and Pethiyagoda, R. (2006). Amphibians of Sri Lanka. (text in Sinhala). Wildlife Heritage Trust of Sri Lanka.

Perera W.P.N.and Bambaradeniya C.N.B. (2006)., Status of Butterfly Fauna of Sri Lanka. . In Bambartadeniya C.N.B. (eds) The fauna of Sri Lanka: Status of Taxonomy, research and conservation. IUCN Sri Lanka.

Pethiyagoda R. (1991), Freshwater Fishes of Sri Lanka. Wildlife Heritage Trust, Colombo, Sri Lanka. 362pp.

Perhiyagoda R. (2006).Conservation of Sri Lankan Freshwater Fishes, In Bambartadeniya C.N.B. (eds) The fauna of Sri Lanka: Status of Taxonomy, research and conservation. IUCN Sri Lanka.

Phillips, W.W.A. (1935). Manual of the Mammals of Ceylon. Ceylon Journal of Science, Dulau and Company, London. 371pp.

Resource profile of the Kalpitiya Divisional Secretariat Division (2006), Kalpitiya Divisional Secretariat.

Resource profile of the Vanathavilluwa Divisional Secretariat (2006), Vanathavilluwa Divisional Secretariat Somasekaran T. (Chief Editor) 1988, The National Atlas of Sri Lanka, Survey Department, Colombo, Sri Lanka.

Weerakoon, D. K. and W. L. D. P. T. S. de A. Goonatilake, W. L. D. P. T. S. (2006). Taxonomic Status of the Mammals of Sri Lanka. In Bambartadeniya C.N.B. (eds) The fauna of Sri Lanka: Status of Taxonomy, research and conservation. IUCN Sri Lanka.

Welfare Centre Rehabilitation Revalidation Report (2006), UNHCR and Ministry of Resettlement

Woodhouse L.G.O. (1950). Butterfly Fauna of Ceylon. Ceylon Govt. Press Colombo.

Wijesinghe, Y. (1994). Checklist of woody perennial plants of Sri Lanka. National Science Foundation Published by the Sri Lanka Forest Department, 1- 201.

46 ANNEX I: STRUCTURE OF THE MILLENNIUM ECOSYSTEM ASSESSMENT (http://www.millenniumassessment.org/documents/document.48.aspx.pdf)

47 ANNEX II(A): SITE SPECIFIC RANKING TABLE OF ECOSYSTEM SERVICES

Kudawa - Kandakuliya Serakkuliya Alaththakanniya Palaviya Thiladiya Kurinngampitiya MampuriyaSouth Mampuriya North Thirikkapallama Pubudugama Mullipuram Soththupitiya Eththale Anakuttiya & Sewwanhiu Gangewadiya Ecosystem Services

Provisioning Food 4 5 4 1 1 4 2 2 2 4 3 3 2 4 5 Water 2 3 3 1 2 3 1 2 1 2 4 2 2 2 3 Fiber 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 Fuel 2 2 4 1 4 3 1 1 2 2 2 1 4 4 2 Medicinal Plants 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 2 1 0 0 1 2 1 Sub Total 9 12 13 4 7 11 5 6 8 9 9 7 9 13 12 Regulatory Climate regulation 1 2 1 1 4 4 2 1 3 3 1 3 4 3 2 Erosion control 0 3 1 1 4 3 2 1 3 4 1 4 3 4 3 Water quality 3 3 1 1 3 3 2 2 3 2 2 3 3 4 3 Community Protection 0 2 2 2 3 4 2 1 3 2 1 4 4 4 3 Flood Control 0 3 1 3 4 4 3 1 4 4 2 2 4 4 3 Sub Total 4 13 6 8 18 18 11 6 16 15 7 16 18 19 14 Cultural Aesthetic value 3 4 1 3 1 2 1 1 4 3 2 1 3 2 5 Spiritual 2 3 1 2 1 2 1 1 3 3 1 3 1 2 3 Recreation/Tourism (current/potential) 3 4 1 3 1 2 1 1 4 3 2 1 2 2 5 Education and research (current/potential) 3 5 2 2 1 2 1 1 5 3 2 2 3 2 5

Sub Total 11 16 5 10 4 8 4 4 16 12 7 7 9 8 18 Supporting

48 Primary production (photosynthesis) 2 4 2 3 3 4 2 1 3 4 2 2 4 4 4 Soil formation 1 3 0 2 3 3 1 1 3 3 1 1 3 4 4 Nutrient cycling 2 4 2 3 3 4 2 1 3 3 1 2 3 4 4 Fish Breeding 2 4 1 1 2 4 1 1 4 4 2 3 3 4 5 Biodiversity Protection 2 4 3 3 3 3 2 1 5 4 1 2 4 4 5 Sub Total 9 19 8 12 14 18 8 5 18 18 7 10 17 20 22 Grand Total 33 60 32 34 43 55 28 21 58 54 30 40 53 60 66

Scale

0 - No impact 1 - Very low 2 - Low 3 - Moderate 4 - High 5 - Very high

49 ANNEX II(B): SITE SPECIFIC RANKING TABLE OF DIRECT AND INDIRECT DIVERS OF CHANGE

Indicators

Direct drivers of change - Kudawa Kandakuliya Serakkuliya Alaththakanniya Palaviya Thiladiya Kurinngampitiya MampuriyaSouth North Mampuriya Thirikkapallama Pubudugama Mullipuram Soththupitiya Eththale Anakuttiya & Sewwanthiu Gangewadiya Change of land use Conversion of land to prawn farms, conversion of land to salt pans, Conversion to settlements, conversion to 2 3 3 4 3 4 2 2 2.5 1 2 3 3 4 1 road and other infrastructure (current and potential) Harvest of ecosystem Increase demand for food, Destruction of products for consumption mangroves for fuel wood 3 3 3 0 2 3 1 1 4 1 1 4 4 2.5 2 and their impacts Livelihood dependence and Use of destructive fishing practices-nylon impacts -destructive fishing, nets, push nets, cage nets, increase in over harvesting number of fishermen, increase in fishing nuber of gears , Directed take of low value 2 3.5 2 3 2 4 5 5 3 0 5 5 4 2 3 species, directed take of high value species, by catch

Livelihoods dependence and Intensive agricultural practices in the area, impacts-chemical pollution, potential agrochemical water pollution, sand mining pollution due to prawn culture 0 4 2 0 2 3 4 4 2 1 4 5 4 4 2

Human security-IDPs and Pressures on fisheries due to IDPs, impacts Conversion of land for settlements, Destruction of mangroves for fuel wood 4 2 2 0 2 3 3 3 1.5 1 3 4 5 2 2

50 Sub total 11 15.5 12 7 11 17 15 15 13 4 15 21 20 14.5 10

Indirect drivers of Change Indicators Population growth Current population, growth of population, increase of fishing population 1 3 3 0 2 4 4 4 3 2 4 5 5 4 4

Shifting market Introduction of prawn industry, Increased economic returns from salt industry and clearance of mangroves, urbanization and 0 0.5 3.5 4 4 3 2 2 3 1 3 3 4 5 1 resulted destructions

Economic Freedom and Availability of alternative income ecosystem impacts generating activities, dependency on 0 5 3 1 2 3 4 4 2 3 4 4 4 1 4 ecosystem resources Social capital Community organizations, Community groups and theirs relationships, Level of awareness on ecosystem and human 4 4 1 1 1 4 1 1 1 4.5 5 5 5 1 1 wellbeing, Attitude towards ecosystem conservation

5 12.5 10.5 6 9 14 11 11 9 10.5 16 17 18 11 10 Sub total

Scale

0 - No impact 1 - Very low 2 - Low 3 - Moderate 4 - High 5 - Very high

51 ANNEX III: CHECKLIST OF FLORA OF THE PROJECT AREA

IUCN Family ScientificName Distribution Status Local Name 2007 Habitat Type 1 Acanthaceae Asystasia gangetica (L.) T. Anders. Indigenous Puruk(S)Peypatchotti(T) 2 Acanthaceae Justicia betonica L. Indigenous Sudu-puruk(S) Salt Marsh/Beach 3 Aizoaceae Sesuvium portulacastrum (L.)L. Indigenous Maha-sarana(S Vegetation 4 Aizoaceae Trianthema sp Indigenous Sarana(S) 5 Amaranthaceae Achyranthes aspera L. Indigenous Karaalhaba(S) 6 Amaranthaceae Aerva lanata (L.)Juss.ex Schult. Indigenous Polpala(S) 7 Annonaceae Annona glabra L.IAS Exotics Wel-atta(S) 8 Apocynaceae Carissa sp Indigenous Karamba(S) 9 Apocynaceae Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don Exotics Mini-mal(S)Madagascar Periwinkel(E) 10 Arecaceae Borassus flabellifer L. Exotics Tal(S)Panai(T)Palmyrah(E) Pol,Thambili(S)Tennai,Thengai(T)Coconut,King 11 Arecaceae Cocos nucifera L. Indigenous coconut (E) 12 Arecaceae Phoenix pusilla Gaertn. Indigenous Indi(S)Inchu(T) 13 Asclepiadaceae Calotropis gigantea (L.)R.Br. Indigenous Wara(S) 14 Asteraceae Eupatorium odoratum L.IAS Exotics Podisinnomaran(S) 15 Asteraceae Mikania cordatam (Burm.)Robinson Indigenous Gampalu(S) 16 Asteraceae Tridax procumbens L. Exotics 17 Asteraceae Wedelia trilobataIAS Exotics Kurunegal-desi(S) 18 Asteraceae Xanthium indicum KoenigIAS Exotics Uru-kossa(S) 19 Avicenniaceae Avicennia marina (Forssk.) Vierh. Indigenous Manda(S) Mangrove 20 Avicenniaceae Avicennia officinalis L. Indigenous Manda(S) Mangrove 21 Capparaceae Crateva adansonii DC. Indigenous Lunu-warana(S)Navala,avilankai(T) 22 Caricaceae Carica papaya L. Exotics Papol(S)Pappali(T)Papaya(E) 23 Casuarinaceae Casuarina equisetifolia L. Exotics Kasa(S)Chavakku(T)Bull-wood(E) 24 Chenopodiaceae Halosarcia indica (Willd.)P.G. Wilson Indigenous Kotanai(T) Salt Marsh 25 Chenopodiaceae Salicornia brachiata Roxb. Indigenous Salt Marsh 26 Chenopodiaceae Suaeda maritima (L.) Dumort. Indigenous Umiri(T) Salt Marsh

27 Chenopodiaceae Suaeda monoica Forssk.ex J.F. Gmelin Indigenous Umiri(T) Salt Marsh Suaeda vermiculata Forssk.ex J.F. 28 Chenopodiaceae Gmelin Indigenous Umiri(T) Salt Marsh 29 Clusiaceae Calophyllum inophyllum L. Indigenous Domba(S)Punnai(S) Beach Vegetation 30 Combretaceae Luminitcera racemosa Willd. Indigenous Beriya(S) Mangrove/Beach Vegetation 31 Convolvulaceae Cuscuta chinensis Lam. Exotics Aga-mula-nathi-wela(S)Dodder(E)

52 32 Convolvulaceae Ipomoea pes-caprae (L.)R.Br. Indigenous Mudu-bin-tamburu(S) Beach Vegetation 33 Convolvulaceae Ipomoea sp Indigenous 34 Cucurbitaceae Coccinia grandis (L.) J.Voigt Indigenous Kowakka(S) 35 Cyperaceae Cyperus rotundus L. Indigenous Kalanduru(S) 36 Cyperaceae Cyperus sp Indigenous 37 Cyperaceae Fimbristylis sp Indigenous Hal-pan(S) 38 Cyperaceae Flueggea leucopyrus Willd Indigenous Katu-pila(S) 39 Ebanaceae Maba buxifolia (Rottb.) Juss. Indigenous 40 Euphorbiaceae Crotom bonplandianus Baill Exotics Mal-miris(S)Kolinge(T) 41 Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia antiquorum L. Indigenous Daluk(S)Chatura kalli(T) 42 Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia hirta L. Indigenous Bu-dada-kiriya(W) 43 Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia sp Indigenous 44 Euphorbiaceae Excoecaria agallocha L. Indigenous Tala-kiriya,Tela-kiriya,Tel-kiriya(S)Tilai(T) Mangrove/Beach Vegetation 45 Euphorbiaceae Margaritaria indicus (Dalz.) Airy Shaw Indigenous Karaw (S) 46 Euphorbiaceae Mischodon zeylanicus Thw. Indigenous Tammanna(S) 47 Euphorbiaceae Phyllanthus maderaspatensis L. Indigenous Endaru(S)Chillamanakku,Chittamanakku(T)Castor 48 Euphorbiaceae Ricinus communis L. Exotics oil(E) 49 Fabaceae Acacia eburnea(L.f.)Willd. Indigenous Kukul-katu(S) 50 Fabaceae Bauhinia racemosa Lam. Indigenous Maila(S)Atti(T) Kumburu-wel(S)Punaikkalaichchi(T)Grey 51 Fabaceae Caesalpinia bonduc (L.)Roxb. Indigenous Nicker(E) 52 Fabaceae Cassia auriculata L. Indigenous Rana-wara(S)Avarai(T)Matara-tea(E) 53 Fabaceae Cassia occidentalis L. Indigenous Pani-tara(S)Ponnantakarai(T)Coffee-senna(E) 54 Fabaceae Cassia tora L. Indigenous Pethi-tora(S) 55 Fabaceae Cynometra iripa Kostel. Indigenous Opulu(S) CR 56 Fabaceae Derris scandens (Roxb.) Benth. Indigenous Kala-wel(S)Tekil(T) 57 Fabaceae Derris trifoliata Lour. Indigenous Kala-wel(S)Tekil(T) Mangrove 58 Fabaceae Desmodium triflorum (L.) DC Indigenous Undupiyaliya(S) 59 Fabaceae Dichrostachys cinerea (L.) Wight & Arn. Indigenous Andara(S) 60 Fabaceae Glricedia sepium (Jacq.) Walp. Indigenous Koona(S) 61 Fabaceae Indigofera tinctoria L. Indigenous Nil-awari(S) 62 Fabaceae Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de WitIAS Exotics Ipil-ipil(S) 63 Fabaceae Mimosa pudica L. Exotics Nidikumba(S) 64 Fabaceae Parkinsonia aculeata L.IAS Exotics 65 Fabaceae Pongamia pinnata Vent. Indigenous Karanda(S)Pungai(S) 66 Fabaceae Sesbania bispinosa (Jacq.) W.F. Wight Indigenous 67 Flagellariaceae Flagellaria indica L. Indigenous Goyi-wel(S)

53 68 Goodeniaceae Scaevola taccada (Gaertn.)Roxb. Indigenous Takkada(S) Beach Vegetation 69 Lamiaceae Leucas zeylanica (L.) R.Br. Indigenous Gata-thumba(S) 70 Lamiaceae Ocinum sp Indigenous 71 Loranthaceae Dendrophthoe falcata (L.f.) Ethingsh Indigenous Pilila(S) 72 Loranthaceae Dendrophthoe ligulata (Thw.) Tieghem Endemic VU 73 Loranthaceae Taxillus sp Indigenous 74 Lythraceae Pemphis acidula J.R. &G.Forst. Indigenous Kiri maram(S) Beach Vegetation 75 Malvaceae Abutilon indicum (L.) Sweet. Indigenous Anoda(S)Vaddattutti,Peruntulli,Peruntutti(T) 76 Malvaceae Gossypium sp Exotics Kapu(S) 77 Malvaceae Hibiscus eriocarpus DC. Indigenous Parutti(T) 78 Malvaceae Sida acuta Burm.f. Indigenous Gas-bavila(S) 79 Malvaceae Sida sp Indigenous 80 Malvaceae Thespesia populnea (L.) Sol. ex Correa. Indigenous Suriya(S)Kavarachu,Puvarachu(T)Tulip Tree(E) 81 Meliaceae Azadirachta indica A.Juss. Indigenous Kohomba(S)Vembu(T)Neem(E) 82 Meliaceae Xylocarpus geanatum Koenig Indigenous Motti-kadol(S)Kandal-anga(T) Mangrove Tinospora cordifolia 83 Menispermaceae (Willd.)Hook.f.&Thoms. Indigenous Rasa-kinda(S)Chintil(T) 84 Molluginaceae Mollugo sp Indigenous 85 Moraceae Ficus benghalensis L. Indigenous Maha-nuga(S)Arla(T)Banyan(E) Murunga(S)Murungamaram(T)Horse Radish 86 Moringaceae Moringa oleifera Lam. Exotics Tree(E) 87 Myrsinaceae Aegiceras corniculata (L.) Blanco Indigenous Heen-kadol(S)Vitlikanna(T) Mangrove 88 Myrtaceae Syzygium cumini Skeels Indigenous Madan,Maha-dan(S)Naval,Perunaval(T) 89 Nyctaginaceae Boerhavia diffusa L. Indigenous Pita-sudu-pala(S)Karichcharanai(T) 90 Nyctaginaceae Boerhavia erecta L. Indigenous 91 Pandanaceae Pandanus odoratissimus L.f. Indigenous Mudu-keiya(S)Talai(T)Screw-pine(E) Beach Vegetation 92 Passifloraceae Passiflora foetida L. Exotics Padawel(S) 93 Poaceae Imperata cylindrica (L.) Rausch.IAS Exotics Iluk(S) 94 Poaceae Panicum maximum JacqIAS Exotics Rata-tana(S) 95 Poaceae Spinifex littoreus (Burm.f.) Merr. Indigenous Maha-rawana-ravula(S)Ravanan-meesai(T) Beach Vegetation 96 Pteridaceae Acrostichum aureum L. Indigenous Karan-koku(S)Minni(S) Mangrove 97 Rhamnaceae Scutia myrtina (Burm.f.) Kurz Indigenous Tudari(T) 98 Rhamnaceae Ziziphus oenoplia (L.) Miller Indigenous Eraminiya(S) 99 Rhizophoraceae Bruguiera cylindrica (L.) Blume Indigenous Mal-kodol(S) Mangrove 100 Rhizophoraceae Ceriops tagal (Perr.) C.B.Rob Indigenous Punkanda(S)Chiru-kandal(T) Mangrove 101 Rhizophoraceae Rhizophora apiculata Blume Indigenous Rana-kadol(S)Kandal(T) Mangrove 102 Rhizophoraceae Rhizophora mucronata Poir Indigenous Maha-kadol(S)Kandal(T) Mangrove 103 Rubiaceae Catunaregam spinosa (Thunb.)Tirv.s.l. Indigenous Kukurman,Kukuruman(S)Karai(T)

54 104 Rubiaceae Hydrophylax maritima L.f. Indigenous Mudu-gata-kola(S) 105 Rubiaceae Morinda citrifolia L. Indigenous Ahu(S) 106 Rubiaceae Morinda coreia Buch.-Ham. Indigenous Ahu(S) 107 Rubiaceae Scyphiphora hydrophyllacea Gaertn. f. Indigenous CR Mangrove Tarenna asiatica (L.) Kuntze ex 108 Rubiaceae Schumann. Indigenous Tarana(S)Karanai(T) 109 Rutaceae Limonia acidissima L. Indigenous Divul(S) 110 Salvadoraceae Azima tetracantha Lam. Indigenous Ichhanku(T) 111 Salvadoraceae Salvadora persica L. Indigenous Malithan(S) 112 Sapotaceae Manilkara hexandrab (Roxb.) Dubard Indigenous Palu(S) 113 Scrophulariacaea Scoparia dulcis L. Exotics Walkottamalli(S) 114 Scrophulariaceae Bacopa monnieri (L.)Pennell Indigenous Lunu-wila(S) 115 Solanaceae Solanum trilobatum L. Indigenous Wel-tibbatu(S)Tuttuvalai(T) 116 Sonneratiaceae Sonneratia alba J. Sm. Indigenous Sudu-mal-kirala(S) Mangrove/Beach Vegetation 117 Sterculiaceae Heritiera littoralis Dryander Indigenous Atuna(S) 118 Typhaceae Typha angustifolia L.IAS Exotics Hambu pan(S)Cat-tail(E) 119 Verbenaceae Clerodendrum inerme (L.) Gaertn. Indigenous Buranda(S) Mangrove/Beach Vegetation 120 Verbenaceae Lantana camara L.IAS Exotics Hinguru(S) 121 Verbenaceae Phyla nodiflora (L.) Greene Indigenous Hiramanadatta(S) 122 Verbenaceae Premna latifolia Roxb. Indigenous Wal-midi(S)Erumaimulla(S) Mangrove/Beach Vegetation 123 Verbenaceae Stachytarpheta jamaicensis (L.) Vahl Exotics Balu-nakuta(S)Nay-uranchi(T)Berbena(E) 124 Vitaceae Cayratia trifolia (L.) Domin Indigenous Wal-rat-diya-labu(S) 125 Vitaceae Cissus quadrangularis L. Indigenous Hiressa(S)Arugani(T)

Indigenous 100 Exotics 24 Endemic 1 Total Flora Species 125 Threatened species 3

55 ANNEX IV: CHECKLISTS OF FAUNAL SPECIES OF THE PROJECT AREA

Checklist of Mammals

Family Species Common name Pteropodidae Pteropus giganteus Flying fox Cercopithecidae Macaca sinicaE Sri Lanka toque monkey Canidae Canis aureus Jackal Canis familiaris Domestic dog Felidae Felis chaus Jungle cat Felis catus Domestic cat Prionailurus rubiginosus Rusty-spotted cat Prionailurus viverrinus Fishing cat Herpestidae Herpestes brachyurus Brown mongoose Herpestes edwardsii Grey mongoose Herpestes smithii Black-tipped or Ruddy mongoose Mustelidae Lutra lutraVU Otter Bovidae Bubalus bubalis Domestic water buffalo Bos indicus Domestic hump-backed cattle Capra hircus Domestic goat Suidae Sus scrofa Wild boar Sus domesticus Domestic pig Tragulidae Moschiola meminnaE Sri Lanka mouse-deer Equidae Equus asinus Donkey Equus caballus Delft ponies Hystricidae Hystrix indica Procupine Muridae Bandicota indica Malabar bandicoot Rattus rattus Common rat Sciuridae Funambulus palmarum Palm squirrel Leporidae Lepus nigricollis Black-naped hare

Total number of Species 25 Number of Families 14 endemic 2 Threatened 1

Checklist of Birds

Family Species Name Common name Phasianidae Francolinus pondicerianus Grey Francolin Gallus domesticus Domestic fowl Pavo cristatus Indian Peafowl Picidae Dinopium benghalense Black-rumped Flameback Magalaimidae Megalaima zeylanica Brown-headed Barbet Upupidae Upupa epops Common Hoopoe Coraciidae Coracias benghalensis Indian Roller Alcedinidae Alcedo atthis Common Kingfisher Halcyon capensis Stork-billed Kingfisher Halcyon smyrnensis White-throated Kingfisher Cerylidae Ceryle rudis Pied Kingfisher Meropidae Merops orientalis Green Bee-eater Cuculidae Eudynamys scolopacea Asian Koel Phaenicophaeus viridirostris Blue-faced Malkoha Centropodidae Centropus sinensis Greater Coucal Psittacidae Psittacula eupatria Alexandrine Parakeet Psittacula krameri Rose-ringed Parakeet Apodidae Cypsiurus balasiensis Asian Palm Swift Hemiprocnidae Hemiprocne coronata Crested Treeswift Columbidae Streptopelia chinensis Spotted Dove Rallidae Amaurornis phoenicurus White-breasted Waterhen Scolopacidae Numenius phaeopus Whimbrel Tringa totanus Common Redshank Actitis hypoleucos Common Sandpiper Burhinidae Burhinus oedicnemus Eurasian Thick-knee Charadriidae Himantopus himantopus Black-winged Stilt Charadrius alexandrinus Kentish Plover Charadrius mongolus Lesser Sand Plover Vanellus indicus Red-wattled Lapwing Laridae Sterna albifrons Little Tern Chlidonias hybridus Whiskered Tern Accipitridae Haliastur indus Brahminy Kite Haliaeetus leucogaster White-bellied Sea-eagle Accipiter badius Shikra Phalacrocoracidae Phalacrocorax niger Little Cormorant Phalacrocorax fuscicollis Indian Cormorant Ardeidae Egretta garzetta Little Egret Ardea cinerea Grey Heron Ardea purpurea Purple Heron Casmerodius albus Great Egret Mesophoyx intermedia Intermediate Egret Bubulcus ibis Cattle Egret Ardeola grayii Pond Heron Butorides striatus Little green Heron Nycticorax nycticorax Black-crowned Night Heron Dupetor flavicollis Black Bittern Threskiornithidae Threskiornis melanocephalus Black-headed Ibis Platalea leucorodia Eurasian Spoonbill Corvidae Corvus splendens House Crow

57 Checklist of Birds

Family Species Name Common name Corvus macrorhynchos Large-billed Crow Oriolus xanthornus Black-hooded Oriole Dicrurus caerulescens White-bellied Drongo Aegithina tiphia Common Iora Muscicapidae Copsychus saularis Oriental Magpie Robin Saxicoloides fulicata Indian Robin Sturnidae Acridotheres tristis Common Myna Hirundinidae Hirundo daurica Red-rumped Swallow Pycnonotidae Pycnonotus cafer Red-vented Bulbul Pycnonotus luteolus White-browed Bulbul Cisticolidae Cisticola juncidis Zitting Cisticola Prinia socialis Ashy Prinia Prinia inornata Plain Prinia Zosteropidae Zosterops palpebrosus Oriental White-eye Sylviidae Orthotomus sutorius Common Tailorbird Turdoides affinis Yellow-billed Babbler Alaudidae Mirafra assamica Rufous-winged Bushlark Nectariniidae Dicaeum erythrorhynchos Pale-billed Flowerpecker Nectarina zeylonica Purple-rumped Sunbird Nectarina asiatica Purple Sunbird Nectarina lotenia Loten’s Sunbird Passeridae Anthus rufulus Paddyfield Pipit

Total number of Species 71 Number of Families 33 endemic 0 Thretened 0

Checklist of Reptiles

Family Species Common Name Bataguridae Melanochelys trijuga Parker's black turtle Cheloniidae Chelonia mydas Green turtle Lepidochelys olivacea Olive ridley sea turtle Testudinidae Geochelone elegans Indian star tortoise Trionychidae Lissemys punctata Flapshell turtle Agamidae Calotes calotes Green garden lizard Calotes versicolor Common garden lizard Sitana ponticeriana Fanthroat lizard Gekkonidae Gehyra mutilata Four-claw gecko Hemidactylus brookii Spotted housegecko Hemidactylus frenatus Common house-gecko Lepidodactylus lugubris Scaly-finger gecko Geckoella yakhuna Blotch bow finger gecko Scinsidae Lygosoma punctatus Dotted skink Mabuya carinata Common skink Varanidae Varanus bengalensis Land monitor Varanus salvator Water monitor Achrochodidae Acrochordus granulatus Wart snake Colubridae Cerberus rynchopsVU Dog-faced water snake Dendrelaphis tristis Common bronze back Ptyas mucosa Rat snake Xenochrophis piscator Checkered Keelback Hydrophidae Enhydrina schistosa Hook nose sea snake

Total number of Species 22 Number of Families 11 endemic 0 Thretened 1

Checklist of Fishes E T Status: Endemic; Nationally Threatened Family Species Common name Angullidae Anguilla bicolor Shortfin eel Aplocheilidae Aplocheilus parvus Dwarf panchax Ariidae Arius sp. Sea Catfish species Bagridae Mystus gulio Long-whiskered catfish Belonidae Strongular strongular spottail needlefish Chanidae Chanos chanos Milkfish Charangidae Caranx sexfasiatus Bigeye Travally Chiclidae Oreochromis mossambicus Tilapia Etropus suratensis Pearl Spot Clupidae Nematolosa nasus Bloch's gizzard shad Amblygaster clupeoides Bleeker's smoothbelly sardinella Engraulidae Trysa sp. Gerridae Gerrus abbreviatus Deepbody silverbiddy Gobidae Goby sp1 Goby sp2 Hemiramphidae Hemiramphus sp. Hippocamphidae Hippocamphus sp. Sea Horse sp. Leiognathidae Leiognathus equulus Common Ponyfish Gazza minuta Toothpony Lutjanidae Lutjanus argentimaculatus Mangrov red snapper Lutjanus ehrenbergii Ehrenberg's snapper Monodactylidae Monodactylus sp. Moony species Muraenidae Uropterygius marmoratus Marbled moray Oryziidae Oryzias melastigma Blue eye Scatophagidae Scatophagus argus Spotted scat Serranidae Epinephelus sp. Grouper Siganidae Siganus javus Streaked spinefoot Siganus lineatus Goldlined spinefoot Sillaginidae Sillago sihama Silver sillago Terapontidae Terapon jarbua Jarbua Terapon Terapon puta Smallscaled terapon Triacanthidae Triacanthus biaculeatus Shortnosed tripodfish

Total number of Species 32 Number of Families 25 endemic 0 Thretened 0

Checklist of Butterflies Status: E Endemic; T Threatened Family Species Common name Papilionidae Pachliopta hector Crimson Rose Pachliopta aristolochiae Common Rose Papilio domoleus Lime Butterfly Papilio polytes Common Mormon Graphium agamemnon Tailed Jay Pieridae Leptosia nina Psyche Delias eucharis Jezebel Cepora nerissa Common Gull Colotis etrida Little Orange Tip Ixias pyrene Yellow Orange Tip Appias libythea Striped Albatross Catopsilia pyranthe Mottled Emigrant Catopsilia pomona Lemon Emigrant Colotis amata Small Salmon Arab Eurema hecabe Common Grass Yellow Nympahlidae Tirumala limniace Blue Tiger Parantica aglea Glassy Tiger Danaus chrysippus Plain Tiger Danaus genutia Common Tiger Euploea core Common crow Ariadne ariadne Angled castor Junonia iphita Chocolate Soldier Junonia almana Peacock Pansy Junonia lemonias Lemon Pansy Neptis hylas Common Sailor Acraea violae Tawny Costor Ypthima ceylonica White Four-ring Elymnias hypermnestra Common Palmfly Lycaenidae Spindasis vulcanus Common Silverline Spindasis ictis Ceylon Silverline Catochrysops Forger-me-not Castalius rosimon Common Pierrot Azanus ubaldus Bright Babul BlueCR Azanus jesous African Babul Blue Zizina otis Lesser Grass Blue Freyeria trochilus Grass Jewel Euchrysops cnejus Gram Blue Chilades parrhasius Small Cupid Hesperidae Telicota colon Pale Palm Dart Suastus gremius Indian Palm Bob

Total number of Species 40 Number of Families 5 endemic 0 Thretened 1

61 ANNEX V: INFORMATION COLLECTION TEMPLATES BMZ Ecosystem Rehabilitation Project Date Site/ Stretch GPS location Vegetation Type Threats and indicators for Indirect Drivers Current status Changes During Last 30 Years monitoring Rank Demographic changes Population (T,M/F) Fisheries Agriculture Government Private sector Labour IDPs Tourism Demand Demand for shrimp ponds Under valuation Lack of alternative meterials Increasing competition for resources Poor implementing of existing ones Transport and energy demand Political instability/ conflict Inequity in wealth distribution Urbanization Unregulated agricultural development Lack of awareness Poorly planned development Lack of enforcement Breakdown of traditional practices Demand for curios and aquarium fish Lack of awareness about impacts By catch has no cost Marginalization of local people Breakdown of traditional social institutions 62

BMZ Ecosystem Rehabilitation Project Date Site/ Stretch GPS location Vegetation Type Threats and indicators for Direct Drivers Current status Changes During Last 30 Years monitoring Rank Land use changes Mangrove clearance Beach erosion and use Terrestrial Forest clearance Aquaculture ponds Crop cultivations Constructions Encroachment Other Land use changes Coral and sand mining Over fishing Destructive fishing methods Illegal fishing Invasive species Subsidies Eutrophication from land base sources Pollution Technology change increase demand for food Nutrient runoff from agriculture Sewage Use of PoPs in agriculture Directed take of low value species Directed takes for luxary markets Incidental take or by catch

63 ANNEX VI: REPORT ON ASSESSMENT OF THE STATUS OF INSTITUTIONS AND INSTITUTIONAL MECHANISMS IN SELECTED VILLAGES BORDERING THE PUTTLAM LAGOON

1. Introduction

The Project is expected to undertake a number of initiatives in selected villages bordering the Puttlam lagoon, and this report examines the current institutional status in the project area, institutional issues pertaining to successful implementation of project activities, and provides an insight into the mechanisms that are in operation together with recommendations for improving the institutional coordination in the project area.

2. The Scope and Tasks

The scope of the assessment covers the institutions operating in the entire Puttlam lagoon area. However, particular attention has been paid to the two project sites, Thirikkapallama and Eththale/Soththupitiya, which have been identified for immediate interventions by the Project.

The following specific tasks as given in the Terms of Reference of the assignment were undertaken in this assessment. 2.1 Undertake a familiarization visit to the project area and meet the relevant village level, divisional level and district level government officials, CBO and NGO officials, and communities and collect information in regard to the status of institutions and institutional mechanisms;

2.2 Make an assessment of the strengths and weaknesses of the existing institutions and institutional mechanisms in the project area in general and at Thirikkapallama and Eththale/Soththupitiya in particular.

2.3 Provide a draft report in consultation with the Team Leader for review and discussion at IUCN; the Consultant is expected to take into consideration the comments received, and finalize the report accordingly.

3. The Methodology and the Approach

Before undertaking the assignment - in particular the filed work - , the project document and other relevant material were studied and reviewed. Subsequently the BMZ Project Coordinator at the IUCN Office was met together with the Consultancy Team Leader, and further information on the Project and clarifications on the assignment were obtained. The project area was visited from 13 to 15 May 2008 to meet with the Project’s field staff as well as other stakeholders. List of stakeholders met are given in Table 1.

64 Table 1: Field-level Assessments with Stakeholders

Date Persons Met Main discussion points 13-05-2008 Mr. Kingsley Fernando, District Secretary, Puttlam District level coordination arrangements of the Project 14-05-2008 Mr. MHM Riyaldeen, Divisional Secretary, Kalpitiya Making local authority politicians aware of Mr. AMRSK Jayasinghe, Divisional Secretary, Wanathavillu the progress of the Project and addressing land issues Ms. Susima S Liyanarachchi, Grama Niladhari, 624 Coordination of activities at village level Teheliya Ms. LHDEC Amaradewa, Grama Niladhari, 626 C Thalawila South, Palakuda Mr. HMBH Mudalinayake, Grama Niladhari, 636/1 Wanathavillu Mr. AWM Minhas, Grama Niladhari, 636 Karthivu South Mr. S.K. Dahanayake, District Forest Officer, Puttlam Role of District Forest Office on the Project Mr. Sarath Chandranayake, Fisheries Inspector, Management of fishing activities in the area Wanathavillu Mr. Abdul Rahaman, Spokesman of Fishers at Tillamote Involvement of Fisher’s organizations in the Mr. Asanka Kumara and Mr.W. Gunathilake, President and Project Vice President of St. Anthony’s Fisheries Co-operative Society, Thirikkapallama Ms. M. Marian, Small Fisher Women’s Society, Eththale Facilities available for women to initiate livelihood activities 15.0802008 Mr,Neville Selastian, ADP Manager, World Vision Puttlam Development activities of World Vision in the project area Aruna Disanayake, Managing Director, Regional Resources Role of Regional Resources Development Development Authority, Pambala (NWP) Authority

4. Assessment of the Status of the Existing Institutions and Institutional Mechanisms

4.1 The Government Sector Institutions The review reveals that currently a number of government sector institutions at national, and provincial level operate in the Puttlam district and are involved in various activities related to management and development of coastal ecosystems in the Puttlam lagoon and associated areas. Table 2 gives a list of such institutions and their mandates.

65 Table 2: National and Provincial Government Sector Institutions operating in the Puttlam District with Mandate for Management and Development of Coastal Eco-systems

Institution and Level of Operation Relevant Law Mandate relating to Coastal Ecosystems National Level Institutions Forest Department (FD) - District Forest Ordinance (Chapter 451) as Conserve, protect and Forest Officer, Puttlam amended by Acts, No. 13 of 1966, 56 manage forests of 1979, 13 of 1982, 84 of 1988 and 23 of 1995 Department of Fisheries and Fisheries and Aquatic Resources Act, Manage, regulate, conserve Aquatic Resources (DFAR) - Asst. No. 2 of 1996 and develop fisheries and Director, Puttlam aquatic resources National Aquatic Resources National Aquatic Resources Research Conduct research on Research and Development and Development Agency, Act. No. 54 aquatic resources and Agency (NARA) - Regional 0f 1981 as amended by Act, No. 32 of provide information and Research Centre, Kalpitiya 1996 advisory services National Aquaculture Development National Aquaculture Development Develop and manage Authority (NAQDA) - Regional Authority of Sri Lanka Act, 53 of 1998 aquaculture Office, Battuluoya Provincial Level Institutions North-Western Provincial Ministry of 13th Amendment to the Constitution Develop fisher communities Fisheries (NWPMF), Chilaw North-Western Provincial North-Western Provincial Council Protection of environment Environmental Authority (NWPEA), Environmental Authority Statute, No. and clearance of projects Kurunegala 12 of 1990 (activities?)under the EIA process Regional Resources Development North-Western Provincial Council Development and Authority (RRDA), Pambala Regional Resources Development management of natural Authority Statute resources in the North- Western Province

The national level institutions listed above are represented in the District as district level offices (FD and DFAR), regional centres (NARA) or regional offices (NAQDA). The provincial level institutions are either solely located in the District (NWPMF, RRDA) or represented by divisional level officers (NWPEA).

In addition to the above institutions, the following district, divisional or village level officers have a significant role in all development activities in their respective areas of operation, and therefore have influence over the activities of the Project (Table 3).

66 Table 3: District, Divisional and Village Level Officers having management functions related to ecosystems in the project area

Designation of the Officer Role in Development Activities District Secretary and Government Agent, Manages the decentralized budget, coordinates Puttlam development activities of the District, enforce legal provisions delegated by various laws Divisional Secretary, Wanathavillu Implements decentralized budget proposals, coordinate development activities in the Division, enforce legal provisions delegated by various laws Divisional Secretary, Kalpitiya -do- Grama Niladhari, 636 Karthivu South Grama Niladhari, 636/1 Wanathavillu South Collects information and implement development activities at Grama Niladhari, 624 Theheliya the village level Grama Niladhari, 626 C Talawila South Palakuda

4.2 Local Authorities Villages selected for interventions under the Project, i.e., Thirikkapallama and Soththupitiya/Eththale, come under two different local bodies, i.e., Wanathavilluwa Pradesheeya Sabha and Kalpitiya Pradesheeya Sabha respectively. These local authorities have the legal power to make and implement regulations to protect the environment in the respective areas, and to collect rates and certain taxes.

4.3 NGOs There are two NGOs operating in the project area, as follows: (a) Small Fishers’ Federation, a national level NGO, with the head office located at Pambala in the Puttlam District. The Small Fishers’ Federation has organized the women in the Soththupitiya/Eththale area under societies and provided them with loans for livelihood projects. (b) World Vision, which is an INGO. It is in the process of collecting socio-economic information in the Kalpitiya and Wanathavillu areas with a view to developing a project for socio-economic development of the communities.

In implementing projects, these NGOs are required to liaise with the Divisional Secretary of the relevant Division.

4.4 Community-Based Organizations The situation in regard to the Community-based Organisations is as follows:

(a) At Tillamotte there are 34 families, which are almost totally dependent on fisheries. A fisheries cooperative society named St. Anthony’s Fisheries Cooperative Society, had been established in this village in 1986 with both Sinhalese and Muslim fishers in the area as members. However, in 1999 the members of the Muslim community have broken away from the Society and established a separate society under the name of Janahanda. At present both societies are not functioning. However, now the community is convinced that a society will benefit them, and is in the process of reorganising the Society under the old name, i.e., St. Anthony’s Fisheries Cooperative Society.

(b) A women’s society, Sulu Dheewara Kantha Samithiya (Small Fisher Women’s Society) organized by the NGO, Small Fishers’ Federation is operational at Eththale. Women in Thillamote, which is

67 the adjoining village, have also become members of this society. The Society provides micro-credit to members at a low interest rate to initiate livelihood activities.

(c) At Soththupitiya there are 110 families, around 50% of which are living on fishing. Others are engaged in agriculture. There are two fisheries societies, namely Soththupitiya Fisheries Cooperative Society and Soththupitiya Dheewara Thotupola Samithiya (Fish Landing Centre Society). However, at present neither of these organizations is functioning. At Soththupitiya there is also a women’s society - Sulu Dheewara Kantha Samithiya (Small Fisher Women’s Society) organized by the Small Fishers’ Federation providing micro credit for livelihood activities.

(d) Thirikkapallama is a village with 35 families. Majority of these families are mainly engaged in fishing in the lagoon. A few families are engaged in agriculture activities too. In the village there is an active fisheries co-operative society, called St. Anthony’s Fisheries Co-operative Society. [This should not be confused with the defunct at St. Anthony’s Fisheries Cooperative Society described at (a) above]. This Fisheries Cooperative Society has been set up in 1992. However, it had not been functional for a considerable time. In 2006 the Society had been reorganised and its management has been taken over by a group of young people. Since then the Society has been functioning with the active participation of the members, both men and women. At present there are 60 members in the society. One significant feature of the Society is that it focuses not only on fisheries activities, but also on other economic activities such as agriculture, agro-based activities, micro credit, conservation of the ecosystem, etc.

4.5 Institutional Mechanisms The District Secretary as the central government agent in the District plays the main role in coordinating the development activities and monitoring the performance of all the government agencies within the district. He chairs the District Coordinating Committee (DCC), which meets monthly and which is participated by Members of Parliament, Provincial Council Members and members of Local Authorities in the District, District Heads of Departments, Divisional Secretaries, and Regional or District Heads of other national and provincial institutions represented in the District. In addition to DCC, there are several other district coordinating committees relevant to different development sectors such as agriculture, fisheries, housing, environment and forestry. These coordinating committees also meet monthly and are chaired by the District Secretary and participated by the Divisional Secretaries and relevant District Heads of Departments and Regional or District Heads of relevant national and provincial institutions represented in the District. The DCC and other coordinating committees make a good institutional mechanism for coordination of development activities in the District.

At the divisional level coordinating functions are performed by Divisional Secretaries. The Divisional Secretary chairs the Divisional Coordinating Committee, which is participated by the members of Local Authorities and officers of all government sector agencies represented in the Division.

In approving development initiatives and releasing state lands for development activities all relevant institutions are consulted by first sending the project proposals and requesting them to send their comments, and reviewing them subsequently at a meeting chaired by the District Secretary and participated by the institutions. Most of the state lands in the District come under the Forest Department in terms of the two circulars issued by the Ministry of Forestry and Environment (No. 5/2001 dated 10-08-2001 and No. 5/2006 dated 17-05-2006). Once the projects are approved the Forest Department transfers the respective lands to the Divisional Secretary, who will lease such lands in accordance with the provisions of the State Lands Ordinance.

68 The institutional mechanism available at Thirikkapallama for making village level decisions and implementation of activities appears to be adequately strong. The Fisheries Cooperative Society in this village is well organized and it is recognized by the local political leaders as well as village level and divisional level governmental and nongovernmental agencies. The Society has already taken initiatives to enhance fish stocks in their area of the lagoon by enclosing certain areas and prohibiting fishing in such areas during certain parts of the year. However, institutional mechanisms at Thillamote and Soththupitiya area seem to be weak.

4.6 Issues on Institutional Coordination As given in Tables 2 and 3, there are a number of government sector institutions and officials involved in various activities related to development or management of the ecosystems in the project area. However, it was observed that not all the officials have adequate knowledge on the different ecosystems and their role in economic development.

Apart from the fishers at Thirikkapallama, fishers at other fishing villages including the villages identified for interventions under the Project do not appear to be well organized under CBO s. The lagoon covers an area of 32,700 ha, and the fishers are located at many different places around the lagoon. Therefore it is difficult particularly for the DFAR to implement a sound resource management programme in the lagoon. DFAR also do not have adequate staff and physical facilities to develop and implement such a programme.

There are number of fishers’ societies in the Puttlam lagoon. These societies act independently from each other without any coordination, and as a result it is difficult to develop and implement a comprehensive fishery management plan for the lagoon.

4.7 Institutional Mechanisms in Relation to the Project Already a district level coordinating committee has been set up under the chair of the District Secretary and the two relevant Divisional Secretaries, Divisional Forest Officer, District Asst. Director of Fisheries, Managing Director, RRDA, Representative of NWPEA, Head of Regional Research Centre, NARA, Regional Aquaculture Extension Officer etc. Its first meeting was held on 3rd June 2008, and at that meeting the following decisions have been taken.

1. The District Coordinating Committee to meet quarterly in regard to policy decisions needed at the district level, review proposals for investments options and grant formal approval, and monitor the progress of implementation.

2. At the Divisional Coordinating Committee meeting chaired by the relevant Divisional Secretaries this project to be discussed once in two months with a view to reviewing the progress, address constraints and making the local policy makers (members of the relevant local authorities) aware of the progress.

3. A village level project committee to be set up under the relevant Grama Niladhari with other village level officers such as Samurdhi Officer, Fisheries Inspector, Beat Forest Officer, etc. and representatives of the CBOs operating in the respective villages (Fisheries Cooperative Society, Small Fisher Women’s Society, etc.) and this committee to meet once a month address ground level issues, to obtain feedback from beneficiaries, etc.

As the project interventions are to be done in two or three villages under the purview of different Gram Niladharies, coming under two different Divisional Secretaries this arrangement appears to be quite appropriate.

69 5. Recommendations

1. With a view to increasing the efficiency of the institutional mechanisms to facilitate the implementation of project interventions with participatory approach, conduct training programmes particularly for village level officials and CBO representatives on project planning, participatory approaches in development, ecosystem conservation and rehabilitation, etc.

2. Provide awareness creation on ecosystem management to government sector officials involved in various activities related to development and management of ecosystems.

3. Request the Department of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources to develop and manage a sound resources development plan in the lagoon. This may be done by declaring the lagoon as a fisheries management area and establishing a fisheries management committee under Sections 31 and 32 of the Fisheries and Aquatic Resources Act. Subsequently the fisheries management committee may be transformed into a lagoon management authority similar to that of the Negombo Lagoon Management Authority.

IUCN, The International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources was founded in 1948 and brings together nearly 1,100 members

(States, government agencies, NGOs and affiliates) and some 10,000 scientists and experts from 181 countries in a unique worldwide partnership.

Its mission is to influence, encourage and assist societies throughout the world to conserve the integrity and diversity of nature and to ensure that any use of natural resources is equitable and ecologically sustainable. Within the framework of global conventions IUCN has helped over 75 countries to prepare and implement national conservation and biodiversity strategies. IUCN has approximately 1,000 staff, most of whom are located in its regional and country offices while some 150 work at its Headquarters in Gland, Switzerland.

In Sri Lanka, through its Country Programme the Union seeks to fulfill this mission in collaboration with its various Commission Members, National Committee Members and Partners in Sri Lanka. The Sri Lanka Country

Programme of the Union was started in 1989. In addition to the country office in Colombo, the programme has now expanded with four regional offices operating from the central, eastern and north-western parts of the country.

No. 53, Horton Place Colombo 07 Sri Lanka

Tel. +94 11 2694094 Fax + 94 11 2682470 [email protected]

www.iucnsl.org

Sri Lanka Country Office