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SDSU Template, Version 11.1 THE INVENTION OF THE TRANSJORDANIAN-SYRIAN BORDER: 1915-1932 _______________ A Thesis Presented to the Faculty of San Diego State University _______________ In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Master of Arts in History _______________ by Daniel Moneef Kakish Fall 2013 iii Copyright © 2013 by Daniel Moneef Kakish All Rights Reserved iv ABSTRACT OF THE THESIS The Invention of the Transjordanian-Syrian Border: 1915-1932 by Daniel Moneef Kakish Master of Arts in History San Diego State University, 2013 The purpose of this thesis will be to better understand the process in which the Transjordanian-Syrian border was created. This thesis argues that the Imperial Powers decided to impose this border based on a number a reasons, some indirectly related to the future states that would be Syria and Jordan. Also, I argue that the Sykes-Picot Agreement became moot and the final agreements had more to do with direct and indirect imperial relations with the Arabs. Had the Sykes-Picot Agreement remained the official agreement, the imperialist division of the Levant would not have existed in regard to direct French military control of Syria and the separation of Transjordan from it. Therefore, this thesis examines not only the agreements by the Imperialists but also the way in which the Arabs themselves, along with the imperial powers did not abide by it, but was only a framework used in the creation of the borders of the modern states of the Fertile Crescent. In relation to books directly and indirectly corresponding to this topic, primary sources such as The Fitroy Somerset Collection 1919-1921, The Deliberations of the Council of Four (March 24-June 28, 1919), Documents on British Foreign Policy 1919-1939, The Memoirs of King Abdullah I (1950) of Transjordan as translated by Philip Graves, T.E. Lawrence’s Seven Pillars of Wisdom (1935). Secondary sources such as George Antonius’ The Arab Awakening (1965), Ma’an Abu Nowar’s The History of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan (1989), David Fromkin’s A Peace to End All Peace (1990), and Eliezer Tauber’s The Formation of Modern Syria and Iraq (1995) as well as others have been of great help during the search for answers to the questions of why and how Sykes and Picot agreed and how the agreement was put into practice by the governments of Great Britain and France. This presentation will highlight several examples of political borders immediately before the implementation of the Imperial mandates as well as different interpretations of what borders were constituted by the mandates. The first example that will be used to show the lack of official recognition of the Sykes-Picot line will be the borders that constituted the limits of “Syria” in late 1918 to early 1919. The Euphrates town of Raqqa was to be Syria’s frontier town on its eastern border with Iraq as this was the case during the period of Ottoman administration. This was contrary to the Sykes-Picot Agreement which would have given all of northern Mesopotamia to the future French Mandate of Syria. This gives some leverage to my argument that the Sykes-Picot Agreement was not as authoritative as commonly perceived. Syria’s status at that time was a monarchy under Faisal I while Iraq was under British authority. Being on the border, Northwestern Mesopotamians obviously preferred to join an Arab-controlled state under Faisal, rather than what seemed to them to be the British Colony of Iraq. Therefore after many diplomatic and military efforts, the British agreed to attach that portion of Mesopotamia to Faisal’s Syria. Ironically, Faisal became king v of Iraq after being ousted of Syria by the French while Northwestern Mesopotamia remained attached to French Syria, coincidentally in accordance with the Sykes-Picot Agreement. The second example will be the southern border of the Levant, separating it from the Arabian Peninsula. The southern border of Transjordan with Saudi Arabia as it currently exists was created during the Saudi Conquest of the Hashemite Kingdom of the Hejaz in 1925. The northernmost districts of the Kingdom of Hejaz included current Jordanian cities as far north as Shawbak. During the Saudi conquest of the Hejaz, the northern districts as far south as Aqaba were transferred to the government of Transjordan by Abdullah I’s older brother, Ali, who was the King of Hejaz at that time. The Saudi government did not formally recognize this transfer until 1965, claiming that the transferred areas are naturally part of the Hejaz. This was also excluded from imperialist designations and finalized almost exclusively between the Arabs themselves (the British played an advising role). vi TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................. iv LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................................ vii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ..................................................................................................... viii CHAPTER 1 THE SETTING FOR IMPERIALIST AMBITIONS IN OTTOMAN ASIA ................1 2 THE ANGLO-ARAB TERRITORIAL AGREEMENT .............................................13 3 IMPERIALIST TERRITORIAL ALLOCATIONS ....................................................25 4 THE PROCESS OF ESTABLISHING THE TRANSJORDANIAN-SYRIAN BORDER .....................................................................................................................39 BIBLIOGRAPHY ....................................................................................................................53 vii LIST OF FIGURES PAGE Figure 1. League of Nations Mandates, 1920. ...........................................................................2 Figure 2. The Ottoman Levant. ..................................................................................................4 Figure 3. Hawran and Jebel Druze.. ...........................................................................................6 Figure 4. Territorial agreements of the Hussein-McMahon correspondence of 1915- 1916..............................................................................................................................19 Figure 5. The Sykes-Picot Agreement of 1916.. ......................................................................31 Figure 6. The Hashemite Kingdom of Syria. ...........................................................................35 Figure 7. The line dividing Transjordan and Syria. .................................................................43 Figure 8. Territorial adjustments of the Convention Line of 1920. .........................................48 viii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to gratefully acknowledge the invaluable assistance of the professors on my thesis committee: Dr. Lawrence Baron, Dr. Farid Mahdavi, and Dr. Farid Abdel-Nour. Each contributed uniquely, whether by pointing me to specific, helpful sources and/or helping me to improve my writing in general. They were all detailed and careful in their feedback, helping me write this thesis to the best of my ability. I want to thank Dr. Baron for his consistent promptness in sending me thorough feedback of my work, referring me to helpful sources, and for his suggestion to focus the topic of my thesis to the Transjordanian-Syrian border specifically instead of all the borders of the newly created states of what was Ottoman Asia. Also, I would like to give special thanks to Dr. Mahdavi who has abundantly and patiently offered support, guidance, and encouragement, not just in this thesis but also throughout my academic career. I want to thank Dr. Abdel-Nour who pushed to make this thesis the best that it could be both in writing style and in content matter. I also want to thank Dr. Edward Beasley for taking the time to tell me about the National Register of Archives and Dr. Elizabeth Pollard for all of her feedback during my time in her Seminar class. May God bless each one in his/her life endeavors. I truly appreciate all of their help. I also want to thank my family, specifically my parents, who supported me unconditionally and helped to motivate me to achieve this goal and for their constant prayers. 1 CHAPTER 1 THE SETTING FOR IMPERIALIST AMBITIONS IN OTTOMAN ASIA The first quarter of the 20th Century saw the beginning and end of the First World War as well as the fall of the German, Russian, Austro-Hungarian, and Ottoman empires. The latter in particular is the most significant case for this project because the northwestern portion of Ottoman Asia was carved out into four states in the Levant, as seen in Figure 1. More precisely, the emphasis of this thesis will be on the creation of the boundary separating modern Syria and Jordan. The peace settlement established arbitrary borders and designated British and French temporary mandates and protectorates over the territories that are today’s Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Israel, the Palestinian Territories, and Iraq. The positions adopted at the time by Arab political and community leaders in these territories were often in response to the presence of British, French and other foreign interests in the region. This thesis will focus on the reasons behind the creation of the Jordanian-Syrian border as a result of negotiations that took place between European powers as well as input that was provided by some of the Arabs living in the region. The leading personalities dealing with the division of the Levant in this process were mostly
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