Figure 114.-Aerial view of sugar arwnd a sugar house showing the cmvin symptoms of decline rang ing from early fall mlorath to crown dieback to tree death.

, .a".- . .-. -..r-.. -. ..-- ...- -..- ... ".-. -r-. crown near the tips of the branches. r yum 1 #".-#)I a,pIII+mUIU ", ,,,+.~u-n,- ,I,, w include leaves that are &I. sparse, and offcolor. foliage is produced on tissues of sprout origin following stresses such as defoliation the previous year.

energy is used in these pmcesses. These energy shifts also seem to enhance the invasion of mots and root collars by the shoestring fungus, Arminaria.

The simple sugars are exceptbmlly goad energy sources fw Armillaria and their abundance stimulates the fungus to gmw rapidly between the bad( and wood and girdle roots and lower stems. The drastic chsngss in the energy balance of the tree bmught abut by defoliation also can reduce the quality and quantity of sugar available for making syrup.

Studies of a forest maple decline trimed by defoliators revealed that damage was greatest in pure, open sugar maple stands (features of most sugarbushes). Because sun-Wng defoliators are favored by such stands, direct mn- tml of these usually is warranted when their popula- tions reach levels that will result in heavy defoliation of sugarbush trees. Periodic hawests of large trees will leave many large stump that are good energy sources for Armillaria. a &ation that places residual trees in jeopardy shwld they become messed. Armillaria pmbably will be less of a threat in sugarbushes, whose open character can be achieved when trees are yaung. Small stumps degrade Figure 118.-Early fall doration is an indication that trees rapidly and soon become unsuitable sources of energy for are under stress. this fungus. CONCLUSION

The goal in managing a sugarbush is to produce as much 1. Learn as much as possible about your sugarirrsh as a highquality sap as possible over a sustained period. This is bbbgkal communily done by providing trees with the best possible growing con- ditions and protecting them from as many stresses as 2. Conduct operatnos to ensure adequate numbers, possible. disbfbutbn,and growth of qu* cry trees.

Integrated pest (problems) management (IPM) is a sound 3. Understand the wnsegvlences d creating a pure stand approach to the overall "health management" of a sugar- of sugar maple. bush. In a buly infegrat6d approach, evefy wnfempfated activity is weghed carefully to assess possible short- and 4. Avoid woundng ro& and stems, and compacting soil. -term consequences. 5. Give trees time to recuperate horn stress events. Early recognition of pests, an understanding of their pdential effects, and a knowledge of how and when to deal with 6. Ensure that tapping is done properly. F& carefully them are essential to good health management. Also, many guidelkres on the number of taps to use for hees of dif- sugarbush problems result directly or indirectly from human fefwt diameter and on how to place them. activity. Every disturbawe, including those resulting from forest management, has significant consequences. Diurb- 7. Do not use par-aformahfehyde. ances affect trees and other forest organisms either beneficially or adversely. 8. Remove all spciits soon ahsap fbw stops.

As the intensity of management increases, so do pest pro- 9. Watch for the oculmof insect and disease pests. blems. Some general "rules" or guidelines are: 10. Leam who the local experts are and wntact them before woMems become wrsohrabk,.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

We gratefully acknowledge the following for their thoughtful (USDA Forest Service) and Dr. Les Carlson (Fwestry Canada). reviews of the manuscript: Arch Jones, Macdonald College The authors also wish to acknowledge the early leadership of McGill University, Ste. Anne de Wlevue; Fred Laing, of the late Dr. Peter Rennie (Forestry Canada) as Canadian University of , Burlington; Ralph Nyland, State Co-Chair of the Joint Management Team. University Cdlege of Environmental Science and Forestw, Syracuse, ; Peter Rennie. Forestry Canada, NAMP research in the United States is supported in part by Ottawa; Marcien Roberge, Forestry Canada, Ste. Foy; Lew funds provided by the Northeastern Forest Experiment Station, Staats. Comell University, Lake Placid, New York; and Brent Eastern Hardwoods Research Cooperative, within the joint Teillon, Vemt Department of Forests, Parks and Recrea- USDA Forest SewiceUS. Environmental Protection Agency tion, Waterbury. We also thank the many people bXh from Forest Response Program. The Forest Response Program is within and outside our respective institutions who generously part of the National Acid PrecipitationAssessment Program. contributed illustrations. Phdos wntributed by outside instiiu- This report has not been subject to EPA or Forest Service tions are acknowledged on the captions that acmmpany policy review and should not be construed to represent the them. policies of either Agency.

The authors also wish to acknowledge the support of the NAMP research in Canada is supported by funds provided North American Suaar Mwle Decline Proiect (NAMP), in by Forestry Canada and by cooperating Provinces. particular, the ~oint~ana~ement~eam, Dr. Mix Mc~idden SELECTED REFERENCES

GENERAL Hepting, G. H. 1971. Diseases of forest and shade trees of the United States. Agric. Handb. 386. Washington, Coons, C. F. 1987. Sugar bush management for maple DC: US. Department of Agriculture. 658 p. syrup produm. (Rev. ed.). Toronto, ON: Ministry of Natural Resources. Forest Resources Branch. 48 p. Houston, D. R. 19%. Sapstreak of sugar maple; how serious is it? Maple Syrup Digest. 25: 24-27. Morselli, M. F.; Whalen, M. L. 1987. Maple research puM- cations list. Burlington, VT: Vermont Agricultural Experi- Houston, D. R. 1986. Insects and diseases of northern ment Station and Cooperative Extension Service; Publ. hardwood ecosystems. In: Proceedings of the con- Q-227. ference on the northern hardwood resouces: management and potential: 1986 August 1820; Houghton MI. University of -Extension. 1986. Integrated pest Houghton, MI: Technolcgical University: management symposium for notthem forests: the pro- 109138. ceedings. 1986 March 24-27; Madison, WI. Madison, WI: University of Wisin, Cooperative Extension Service. Johnson, W. T.; Lyon, H. H. 1988. Insects that feed on 333 P. trees and shrubs. 2nd ed. Ithaca. NY: Cornell University Press. U.S. Department of Agriculture. Forest Service. 1982. Sugar maple research: sap production, processing, and Martineau, R. 1984. Insects harmful to forert trees. For. marketing of maple syrup. Gen. Tech. Rep. NE-72. Tech. Rep. 32. Ottawa, ON: Multiscience Publishers Ltd. Broomall. PA: US. Department of Agricutlure, Forest Ser- and Canadian Fwestry Service. 261 p. vice, Northeastern Forest Experiment Station. 109 p. Martineau, R. 1985. Insects nuisibles des forets de ABIOTIC DISTURBANCES I'est du Canada. Rapp. Tech. for. 32F. Ottawa, ON: Edi- tions Marcel Broquet Inc. el Service Canadien des Forets. Erdmann, G. G.; Metzger, F. T.; Oberg, R. R. 1979. Mac* 283 P. nutrient deficiency symptoms in seedlings of four nor- them hardwoods. Gen. Tech. Rep. NC-53. St. Paul, MN: Shigo. A. L. 1977. Compartmentalization of decay in US. Department of Agriculture, Forest Se~ce,Noltf, trees. Agric. Inf. Bull. No. 405. Washington. DC: U.S. Central Forest Experiment Station. 36 p. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 73 p.

Skelly, J. M. (and others), eds. 1987. Diagnosing injury Shigo. A.L. 1979. Tree decay: an expanded concept. to eastern forest trees. Atlanta, GA: US. Department of Agric. Inf. Bull. No. 419. Washington, DC: US. Depart. Agriculture, Forest Service, University Park, PA: The men1 of Agriculture. Forest Service. 73 p. Stale University, College of Agriculture. 122 p. Sinclair. W. A.; Lyon, H. H.; Johnson. W. T. 1987. Diseases Of trees and shrubs. Ithaca, NY: Comstock Publishers BIOTIC DISTURBANCES Association: 574.

Allen, D. C. 1987. Insects, declines and general health US. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 1985. of northern hardwoods: issues relevant to good forest Insects of eastern forests. Misc. Publ. No. 1426. management. In: Nyland, Ralph D., ed. Managing nor- Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture. Forest thern hardwoods: a silvicultural symposium; 1986 June Service. 608 p. 2325; Syracuse, NY. Fac. of For. Mi. Publ. No. 13 (ESF 87002): SAF Publ. No. 87-03. Syracuse, NY: State DIEBACKS AND DECLINES College of New York: 252-285. Giese, R. L.; Houston, D. R.; Benjamin, D. M.; Kuntz. J.E.; Benoit, P.; Lachance, D. 1982. Insects, maladies, vertebres Kapler, J. E.; Skilling, D. D. 1964. Studies of maple nuisibles. Erablierge Agdex. 30016M). Conseil des pro. blight. Res. Bull. 250. Madison, WI: University of Wiscon- ductions vegetalesdu Quebec. Ministry Agriculture sin. 126 p. Pecheries et Alimentation du Quebec. 13 p. Houston, D. R. 1981. Stresstriggered tree diseases: Waiters, R. S.: Shigo. A. L. 1978. Tapholes in sugar Ute diebacks and declines. NE-INF-4181. Broomall, PA: maples: what happens in the tree. Gen. Tech. Rep. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, North- NE-47. Upper Darby. PA: U. S. Department of Agriculture. eastern Forest Experiment Station. 36 p. Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment Station. 12 p. Houston, D. R. 1986. Recognizing and managing diebacks1 declines. In: Integrated pest management symposium for Wargo, P. M. 1977. Wound closure in sugar maples: northern forests: the proceedings. 1986 March 24-27; adverse effects of defoliation. Canadian Journal of Madison. WI. Madison, WI: University of W'isin, Forest Research. 7: 410414. Cooperative Extension Service: 153166. SUGARBUSH STRUCTURE AND Wargo, P. M. 1975. Estimating starch content in roots of DEVELOPMENT deciduous trees-a visual technique. Res. Pap. NE-313. Upper Darby, PA: U.S. Department of Agricuiture, Forest Lancaster, K. F., Walters, R. S.; Laing, F. M.; Foulds, R. T. Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment Station. 9 p. 1974. A sihriwttural guide for developing a sugarbush. Res. Pap. NE-286. Upper Darby, PA: US. Department of Wargo, P. M. 1978. Judging vigor of deciduous hardwoods. Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Experi- Agric. Inf. Bull. 416. Washingtm, DC: U.S. Department of ment Station. 11 p. Agriculture, Forest Service. 15 p. Ministere des Ressources Naturelles, Nouveau-Bwnswick, Wargo, P. M.; Houston, D. R. 1974. Infection of defoliated 1984. Guide pour I'edaircie des erablieres 1985. Ser- sugar maple trees by Annillaria melles. Phytopathology. vice de consultation forestiere. Fredericton, NB: Ministere 64: 617822. des Resources Naturelles, Nouveau-Brunswick. 15 p.

TAPPING Morrow, R. E. 1976. Sugar bush management. Inf. Bull. 110. Ithaca, NY: New York State College of Agriculture Jones, C. H. 1967. The maple rule of eighty-six (Dec. and Life Sciences, Cornell University. 19 p. 1946). National Maple Syrup Digest. 6: 1819. New Brunswick Ministry of Natural Resources & Energy. Mawin, J. W.; Morselli, M. F.; Laing, F. M. 1967. A 1988. A guide to sugar bush thinning 1988. Frederic- correlation between sugar concentration and volume ton, NB: New Brunswick Ministry of Natural Resources 8 yields on sugar maple: an l5year study. Forest Energy. 15 p. Science. 13: m1. Robitaille, L.; Roberg, M.; manger, M. 1977. Selection et Shigo, A. L.; Laing, F. M. 1970. Some effects of eclaircie des erabtes. Erabliere Agdex 300125. Conseil paraformaldehyde on wood sumunding tapholes in des productions vegetales du Quebec. Ministere sugar maple trees. Res. Pap. NE-161. Upper Darby. PA: Agricuiture Pecheries et Alimentation du Quebec. 13 p. U.S. Department of Agricuiture, Forest Service, Nor- theastern Forest Experiment Station. 11 p. Vezina, P. E.; Roberg, M. R. 1981. Comment amenager nor fo-. Quebec. PQ: Presses de I'Universite Laval. Walters, R. S.; Shigo, A. L. 1978. Discoloration and decay 273 p. associated with paraformaldehyde-treated tapholes in sugar maple. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 8: 5460. APPENDIX

FIELD TESTING FOR SAP Using a sugar refractometer (Fig. 3) is the easiest way to SWEETNESS test sap for sweetness. The method is fast, and the instru- ment is relatively easy to use, and requires only one drop of sap per reading. It is easily calibrated in relation to air Testing for sap sweetness is the second step in croptree temperature. After each reading it should be cleaned with selecton. As a first step, select dominant or codominant distilled water and dried with a clean cloth. maples with good stem and crown forms, and that are free of defects. This is best done in the summer when trees are To obtain sap from the trees, use an awl or a small nail to in leaf. Then mark the crop trees with paint or vinyl ribbons. punch a hde through the barlc and into the wocd. Keep the The painted numbers can be used to help keep sweetness wound small. Then firmly insell a hypodermic needle or a records for each tree. toothpick. Soon, sap droplets should appear at the end of the sloping needle or toothpick. Let 10 to 20 drops fall The percentage of sugar in maple sap varies considerably before catching one on the refractometer and taking a during each day, from day to day, and during the tapping reading. Thii helps to make the results more uniform be- season, so measurements of sweetness between trees or tween trees. Testing will be more easily done on a day with groups of trees should be made at short intervals, for good sap flow. Do not test on rainy or windy days. It may be example, a 2hour period. Note that measurements taken at easier to work with a hypodermic needle, but it must be any time are only relative values. A tree's sap may read 5 washed after each reading. Toothpicks are simply discarded. percent in the morning and 2.5 percent in the afternoon. Even so, the sweetest trees among a group of trees always will rank the same.

CLASSIFICATION OF INSECT AND DISEASE PESTS

Insects Linden looper (Erannis tiliaria) Maple leafblotch miner ( aceriella) EarlySeason Defoliators Maple leafroller (Sparganothesis acerivorana) Bruce spanworm (Operophtera bmmata) Maple petiole borer (Caulocampls acericaulis) Fall cankerworn1 (Alsophila pometaria) Maple trumpet skeletonizer (Epnotia aceriella) Forest tent caterpillar (Malacomma &stria) Maole webworm iTetfaloDha asmtellal Alsophila pometana (Fall cankerwoml) AC~Scha~)lbeana (~es& maple leafr&er) Malamsoma dissbia (Forest tent caterpillar) Cameraria ecerielia (Maple leafblotch miner) Opemphtera bruceata (Bruce spanworm) Caulocampus acericaulis (Maple petiole borer) Epinotia aoeriela (Maple trumpet skeletonizer) Late-Season Defoliators Erannis tiliaria (Linden looper) Greenstr~pedmapleworm (Dryocampa ~bicunda) Lymmfria dispar (Gypsy ) Maple leafcutter (Paraclemensia aceribklla) Sparganothesis acerivorana (Maple leafroller) Orangehumped mapleworm (Symmerista leucdys) Tetralopha asperatella (Maple webworm) Saddled prominent (Heferocampa gut&& Whitemarked tussock moth (maleucostigma) Other Insect Pests Dryocampa rubicunda (Greenstriped mapleworm) &hi Hetwocampa biundata Pear thrips (Taeniomrips inconsequens) Heterncampa gumLina (Saddled prominent) Taeniothrips incmsequens (Pear thrips) Orgya leema(Whttemarked tussock moth) Paraclemensia acerifdiella (Maple leafcutter) Wwd Borers Symmensta leucitys (Orangehumped mapleworm) Ambrosia beetle (Xylotennus porihrs) Pigeon tremex (Trernex columba) Other Defoliators Pitted ambrosia beetle (Corthylus punctatiss~~mus) Gypsy moth (Lymanbia &spar) Sugar maple borer (Glyoobus speciosus) Lesser maple leafrdler (Acletis chalyimana) Cu@~yIus ponctatissimus (Pitted ambrosia beetle) Glycobus speciosus (Sugar maple borer) Cankers Tremex columba (Pigeon tremex) Coral spot canker (Nectria w'nnabarina) Xybterinus polilus (Ambrosia beetle) Eutypella canker (Eutypdla parasitica) Maple canker (Fumium solani) Conspicuous Insects of Little Consequence Nectria canker (target canker) (Nectria galligena) Cottony maple scale (Pulvinaria innumerabilis) Eutypdla parasitica (Eulypella canker) Crimson erineum gall mite (Aceris reguius) Fusatium solani (Maple canker) Gouty vein midge (Dasineura communis) Nectria wnmhvina (Coral spot canker) Lecanium scale (Patthemlecanium sp.) Nectria galligena (Nectria canker, target canker) Maple bladdergall mite (Vasates quadfipedes) Steganosp~iumovatum Maple spindlegall mite (Vasates aceriscrumena) Ocellate gall midge (Acerimis od!aris) Decays Snout beetles (Plyllobius obablongus, Sciaphilus asperatus) Artst's conk fungus (Ganoderma enaturn = Fomes Acericecis ocellais (Ocellate gall midge) appranatus) Dasineura mmmunis (Gouty vein midge) Black roc4 rot (Xyhria polymorpha) Acerisregulus (Crimson erineum gall mite) Canker rot (Inoflotus glomeratus = Poryporus glomeralus) Pa!thenohxxnium sp. (Lecanium scale) Dead man's fingers (Xylaria pdvmorpha) Phyllobus oMongus (Snout beetle or weevil) Hypoxylon root and butt rot (Hypoxylon deustum = Pulvinaria innumerabilis (Cottony maple de) Ustka vulgans) Sciaphilus asperatus (Snout beetle or weevil) Mossy-top fungus (Oxypnus populinus = Fomes Vasates mriscrumena (Maple spindlegall mite) mnatus) Vasates quadrpedes (Maple Maddergall mite) Shoestring root rot (Armillma sp.) Sulfur fungus (Laetipms suIfureus = Polyporus suIfureus) Diseases Tinder conk fungus (Fomes fomentmius) Armillaria sp. (Shoastring md rot) Leaf Diseases Climacwbn septr'malis = Steccherinum septentrionale Anthracnose (Aurobasidium apoMyptum = Kabatiella Fomes fomenmus (Tinder conk fungus) apocwta) Ganoderma applanatum = Fomes applanatus (Artist's Phloeospora leaf spot (Phloeospon, aceris) conk fungus) Phyllastiaa leaf spot (PhyWosticta minima) Hypoxykm deuslum = Ustilina vu/gm.s (Hypoxylon root Tar spots (Rhytisma acerinum, R. punctatum) and bun rot) Aurobasidium apouyptum = Kabatiella apocrypta Inmotus gbmeratus = Polypmws glomeratus (Canker rot) (Anthracnose) Laetiporus suhreus = Po@vus suIfureus (Sulfur fungus) Phloeospora aceds (Phloeospora leaf spot) Oxypnus populinus = Fmes connatus (Mossy-top Phylbsticta minima (Phyllosticta leaf spot) fungus) Rhyfisma acerinum (Tar spot) Xylaria polymorpha (Black root rot, Dead man's fingers) Rhyfisma punctatum (Tar spot) Vascular Wilt Sapstreak disease (Ceratocystis coerulescens) Verticillium wilt (Verticillium ah-atrum) Ceratocysb:~mlescens (Sapstreak disease) V&ciMum albo-atnrm (Verticillium wik) Houston. David R.; Allen, Douglas C.; Lachance, Denis. 1990. Sugarbush management a guide to maintaining tree health. Gen. Tech. Rep. NE-129. Radnor, PA: US. Department of Agriiulture. Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment Sta- tion. 55 p.

Keywords: insects, diseases, sugar maple. Acer saccharurn, air pollution, tapping, maple syrup, northern hardwoods, maple decline, stand management.