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AN ASSESSMENT OF THE ROLE OF INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY ON HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT IN IKA NORTH-EAST LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA, DELTA STATE, NIGERIA 2008 - 2014

BY IGWE, HUBERT O. PG/MSc/14/69764

DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND LOCAL GOVERNMENT, FACULTY OF THE SOCIAL SCIENCES, UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA

DECEMBER, 2015 i

TITLE PAGE

An Assessment of the Role of Information and Communication Technology on Human Resource Development in Ika North-East Local Government Area, Delta State, Nigeria 2008 - 2014

A Research Work Submitted to the Department of Public Administration and Local Government, Faculty of the Social Sciences, University of Nigeria, Nsukka

By

Igwe, Hubert O. PG/M.Sc/14/69764

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Award of Master of Science (M.Sc) Degree in Public Administration and Local Government with Specialization in (Human Resource Management) ii

APPROVAL PAGE

This project topic has been approved for the Department of Public Administration and Local Government, Faculty of the Social Sciences, University of Nigeria, Nsukka.

BY

…………………………….. …………………………. Dr. (Mrs) M.A.O. Obi Prof. C. N. Oguonu Project Supervisor Head of Department

………………………… Prof. H. C. Achunike Dean Faculty of Social Sciences

…………………………… External Examiner iii

CERTIFICATION

This is to certify that I, Igwe, Hubert Okonji with Registration Number PG/M.Sc/14/69764 has written this work and the work is original and that it has not been published elsewhere in part or as a whole.

------IGWE, HUBERT O. PG/M.Sc/14/69764

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DEDICATION

This Work is wholly dedicated to God Almighty whose tender grace and mercy saw me through in the course of this work and in the University of Nigeria, Nsukka.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The accomplishment of this work would have been a mirage without the contributions, motivation, guidance and assistance of people whose names are too numerous to be mentioned here but to whom I am very grateful. I would like to appreciate the Almighty God whose love, grace, mercy and favour have brought me this far in life. I owe Him my life and my all.

I am sincerely grateful to Dr. (Mrs) M. A. O. Obi, my Project Supervisor, for her professional help, advice and approachability. Her guidance and tutorship I will never forget. I would not also fail to express my profound gratitude to my Lecturers in the Department of PALG: Professors F.C. Okoli, R.C. Onah, Fab Onah, C.N. Oguonu, C. Ofuebe, Drs. (Mrs) S. U. Agu, A. O. Onyishi, B. A. Amujiri, O.M. Ikeanyibe, C.U. Agalamanyi, E. Izueke, C. Ugwu, S.C. Ugwu and Mr. Okey Emeh.

My elder brothers: Rev. Emmanuel Igwe (Senior Pastor, Restoration Hour Ministry, Lagos), Pastor Johnson Igwe (DG, DPI, PH), Engr. Vin Diolu (Senior Pastor, Shekinah Assembly Int’l), Mr. Christopher Igwe, Engr. Festus Igwe, Engr. Victor Igwe, Christian Igwe, Blessing Sunny (nee Igwe), and the entire family of Peter Igwe, Igbodo, Ika-North-East LGA of Delta State, I appreciated you all for your moral and financial support.

I would also like to express my gratitude to the entire members of Shekinah Assembly Int’l Churches among whom are Prof. Sam Onuigbo and family, Mr. & Mrs. Law Agwunobi, Mr. & Mrs. Greg Nwanaga, Mr. & Mrs. Tony Ezea and other members too numerous to mention for their prayers and encouragement. Not forgetting all the pastors of various branches of the Church – Mercy Diolu (Mummy), UNN, Emeka Ezuka (Nnewi), Tim Maduka (Enugu Town), Barr. John Udegbunam (Asaba), Israel Enuekwe (Port-Harcourt), Emeka Iroha (Ebonyi), Dr. Chukwuemeka Nwachukwu PCJ (Lagos), Chibueze Dike (UNEC), Engr. Patrick Akpan (South-Africa) and a host of others.

To my friends and those who made my work easier – Austin Attama (Bishop), Pst. Joel Okoh (Onukokome), Stanley Mbah (DG Frizotech), Obinna (Obyno Resource) I say thank you, I am indebted to my brother, academic adviser and Pastor Favour Anthony Okolie for his guidance and assistance. God bless you sir.

Finally, I say thank you to all who made this work a reality including the respondents, typists and authors whose work were consulted. I express my unreserved gratitude to you all out there. I love you all.

Igwe, Hubert O. PG/MSc/14/69764

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ABSTRACT

The focus of this study was on the role played by information and communication technology on the social, cultural and economic lives of the people and its impact in areas of public concern such as education, political, cultural and environmental management. Policy aspect of electronic media was also assessed, for example concerning government plans of action on “government business”, improvement in the lives of Nigerians in general and Ika North-East citizenry in particular. To accomplish this task, the researcher adopted the descriptive survey research design. The simple random, stratified and cluster sampling techniques of the probability sampling were used. The research adopted Diffusion of Innovations theoretical framework for explanation, and three hypotheses were stated and tested in this research. Both primary and secondary data were used, and the data were presented in tables and analyzed with simple percentage and Chi-square. The research findings revealed that information and communication technologies were not efficiently adopted in Ika North East Local Government Area of Delta State and Nigeria in general as a tool for human resource development, therefore the researcher recommends that the government should put in place wherewithal that would make ICT resources available to the people in order to enhance development.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS TITLE PAGE ...... i APPROVAL PAGE ...... ii CERTIFICATION ...... iii DEDICATION ...... iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ...... v ABSTRACT ...... vi TABLE OF CONTENTS ...... vii CHAPTER ONE: Introduction ...... 1 1.1 Background to the Study ...... 1 1.2 Statement of the Problem ...... 4 1.3 Objective of the Study ...... 6 1.4 Significance of the Study...... 6 1.5 Scope and Limitation of the Study ...... 7 2.1 Literature Review ...... 9 2.1.1 The Concept of Information and Communication Technology ...... 9 2.1.2 ICT Policies in Nigeria ...... 13

2.1.2.1 Nigeria National Information Technology Policy 2000 ...... 13

2.1.2.2 The Nigerian ICT Vision 20:2020 ...... 14

2.1.2.3 Nigeria National ICT Policy 2012 ...... 14

2.1.3 The Impact of Information and Communication Technology on Human Resource Development ...... 15 2.1.4 Information and Communication Technology for Development (ICT4D) Process in African Countries ...... 19 2.1.5 ICT for Development through Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) ...... 23 2.1.6 Factors Limiting the Use of ICTs in Nigeria ...... 33 2.1.7 The Origin of Human Resource Development in Nigeria ...... 38 2.1.8 Methods of Human Resource Development ...... 39 2.1.9 Importance of Human Resource Development ...... 42 2.1.10 Problems of Human Resource Development in Nigeria ...... 44 2.1.11 Steps in Human Resource Development...... 44 2.1.12 The Impact of ICT on Human Resource Development in Nigeria ...... 47 viii

2.1.13 Gap in the Existing Literature ...... 48 2.2 Theoretical Framework ...... 48 2.2.1 Application of the theory to the study ...... 51 2.3 Hypotheses ...... 54 2.4 Operationalization of the Key Concepts ...... 55 2.5 Research Procedure ...... 57 2.5.1 Research Design ...... 57 2.5.2 Method of Data Collection ...... 58 2.5.3 Population of the Study ...... 58 2.5.4 Sample and Sampling Technique...... 58 2.5.5 Tests of Validity and Reliability of Research Instruments ...... 58 2.5.6 Method of Data Analysis and Presentation ...... 59 3.1 Brief Background Information on Ika North-East Local Government ...... 60 3.4 Traditional Politics of Ika North-East LGA ...... 63 3.5 Culture of Ika North-East LGA ...... 64 3.6 Geography and Demography of Ika North-East LGA ...... 65 3.7 Language Spoken by Ika North-East LGA ...... 66 3.8 Socio-Political Structure of Ika North-East LGA ...... 67 3.9 Administrative Structure of Ika North-East LGA ...... 67 3.10 Population Distribution of Ika North-East Local Government ...... 68 3.11 Organizational Structure of Ika North-East Local Government ...... 69 CHAPTER FOUR: DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS ...... 73 4.1 Presentation of Personal Data of the Respondents ...... 73 CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION ...... 102 5.1 Summary ...... 102 5.3 Recommendations ...... 104 5.2 Conclusion ...... 105 BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 106 APPENDIX ...... 113

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CHAPTER ONE: Introduction

1.1 Background to the Study

The growth of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in Nigeria today constitutes major course for concern as it effect socio-economic activities and development.

The changes owed to revolution of information and communication technology and its consequent expansion affects significantly the labour market which is growing continuously.

This revolution has made information and communication technology to be very important to organizations, state, civil society and the reason why corporate survival is enhanced by information technology revolution (Anderson, and Arrow, 1988).

These changes diversify the information and communication technology enterprise, occupation areas and affect the professional profit. This gradual development of information and communication technology had led to improvement of corporate businesses in the developing countries like Nigeria. The ever increasing challenges of information and communication technology are met by trained and development of requisite skills (Ogunna,

2004). That is to say that there is link between human resource development and ICT since the introduction of new technology directly affect workforce. The more skill or technological prowess a staff acquires, the more employable the staff becomes since the skilled worker have more propensity for greater productivity and consequently increase in the wages of the worker. Public authorities and policy makers should take into account the need to increase and improve workers’ training and education as a means of taking advantage of possible benefits which will foster the creation of fertile environment for acquisition of skills and competences.

As the world is drifting towards the era where there is prevalence of information and communication technology, Nigeria as a nation would not be left out from this trend and as such has tried in many ways to adapt to the modern technological superhighway. Most

1 2 corporate organizations had easily focused only on the changes in technology at the expense of human resources which is paramount.

To build a sustainable life support system, a system in which current needs are satisfied without diminishing the chances of future generations, requires “enlightened institutions” with social, economic, and political agendas that enhance human and environmental development. Powerful political and power-based influence on human potential require recognition and discussion to (a) remove constraints to sustainable development of human resources, (b) enhance the development of global systems that support sustainable human resource development and, (c) build socially and politically-responsive individuals and organizations. The impact of information and communication technology and government role in developing human resources is paramount to the study and political influence on organizations and human development within the organizations (Castells, 2009).

Information and Communications Technologies (ICTs) cuts across a variety of technologies including: computer, microelectronics and related technologies including microchip and microprocessor-based technologies; multimedia and other information processing technologies and systems; telecommunications technologies and infrastructure

(fixed line, wireless, satellite based and mobile infrastructure); broadcasting networks and technologies including radio and TV networks; production-based technologies including those used in computer-integrated manufacturing and production systems and operations, robotics technologies, biotechnology-related equipments and communication network technologies and infrastructure (including local and wide area communications and computer networks for voice, data and video) (Heek, 2006; Izueke, 2010:116).

The most important of all the resources for development is the ‘human’ resource.

According to Onah (2004:3), human resource is recognized as the most important resource required for production of goods and services and the key to rapid socio-economic development as well as service delivery. He saw human resource as including “all the experiences, skills, judgement, abilities, knowledge, contacts, risk-taking, and wisdom of individuals and associates with an organization. Without an adequate skilled and well- 3 motivated workforces operating within a sound human resource programme, development is not possible. A manager whether in the private or public sector that underrates the critical role and underplays the importance of people in goal achievement, can neither be effective nor efficient.” Therefore, human factor is indispensable resource in management.

Onah (2014:3), further elucidates that “the efficiency with which an organization can perform will depend, to a large extent, on how its human resources can be managed and utilized. Human resources easily recognized as the most important of all the resources required for the production of goods and services are the key to rapid socio-economic development and efficient service delivery.”

Human resource therefore refers to people; people possess knowledge, skills and capabilities that could be productive. Organizational success depends largely on people.

Thus, an organization must of necessity attract the right kind of human beings, retain and maintain them in the right frame of mind to give their best efforts towards achieving the organizational activities. Human resource management therefore, is a set of organizational activities directed to attracting, developing and maintaining an effective workforce (Onah,

2014). Without training and development of requisite manpower to man the information technologies, there will be mismatch and goal attainment will be a mirage since the changes in technology would not make for increased productivity, but rather affect corporate goals

(Onodugo, 2000:168).

Development on the other hand is a process of increasing real per capita income and engineering substantial positive transformation in the various sectors of the economy (Ake,

2001). Development represents advancement, a change that yields tremendous improvement in the overall living standard of the greater number of people in a given society. Development is the harnessing of human and material resources available to the society for the benefit of all members of the society. It leads to the fulfillment of societal ideas considered relevant to the needs and aspirations of the society. Development could be equally defined as the totality of the processes that aim at eradicating poverty in terms of physical and non-physical needs, 4 enhancing the quality of life of the citizenry beyond mere sustainable, which implies human dignity and liberty (Egonmwan & Ibodje, 2001).

According to Ojukwu and Georgiadou (2005) ICT is a veritable tool for human resource development which cut across infrastructural, technological, education, healthcare delivery, commerce, governance and economic sectors. The Nigerian government in general and Ika North-East Local Government in particular has made concerted efforts to facilitate speedy information transmission, high level decision-making, reduced cost in resources and organizational management and as well opened opportunities for information sharing among individuals, integrated in the process of state administration, leading to concept of e- government, training and retraining of staff in the areas of ICT, provision of computers and other ICT resources in offices and introduction of ICT curriculum and training resources in schools and colleges.

This study therefore assessed the synergy between human resource development and the role of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in Ika North-East Local

Government Area of Delta State in particularly and how all these efforts have affected the lives of the citizens of the local government area. The research seeks to find out how much information and communication technologies have been adopted by the people of Ika North

East Local Government Area of Delta State and Nigeria in general as a tool for human resource development, and the efforts of the government and individuals to adopt ICT technology to enhance development.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

The world is becoming a global village, courtesy of the emergence of information and communication technology that has miniature the world into a concise form where information and data is shared on a common ground. Nigeria, tagged a developing country is trying to be integrated into the league of developed nations of the world both in infrastructure and technological advancement. This she tries to achieve in various prodigious and monumental approaches adduced to attain this great feat. These approaches include vision 5

20:2020, Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), ICT4D, National ICT Policy and other development plans. Efforts are being made to advance the country in every sphere to conform to the world technological standard. The nation can only achieve this through aligning her different sectors to adapt to the use of information and communication technology.

Despite all the efforts put forward by the federal government to make the use of ICT play its role in development and enhancement of the living standard of the people, there exist a yawning gap between the vision and the actualization, between the use of Information and

Communication Technology and the development of human resources. The existence of this gap is exacerbated by the inability of the government to invest financial and human resources to enhancing this emerging technology by making the benefits trickle down to the rural areas to advance development. On the other hand, the people of Ika North-East Local Government who are predominantly peasant farmers and traders have not fully embraced this modern information and communication technology which would have positively enhanced their productivity and efficiency. These have therefore widened the gap in the availability and applicability of ICT resources and thereby impinge on ICT playing the roles to produce the desired developmental result. To assist the researcher therefore to appraise the roles of ICT on human resource development in the study area, the following research questions was produced as guideline:

1. How has ICT contributed to the development of human resources in Ika North-East

Local Government Area of Delta State?

2. What are the challenges inherent in the role of ICT in Human Resource Development

in Ika North-East Local Government Area of Delta State?

3. What strategy could be employed for improved ICT utilization for better human

resource development in Ika North-East Local Government Area of Delta State?

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1.3 Objective of the Study The main objective of the research work is to examine the role of information and communication technology on human resource development in Ika North East Local

Government of Delta State.

The specific study objectives are:

1. to identify the ways ICT has contributed to the development of human resources

in Ika North-East Local Government Area of Delta State;

2. – find out the challenges inherent in the role of ICT in Human Resource

Development in Ika North-East Local Government Area of Delta State and

3. to explore the strategies that could be employed for improved ICT utilization for

better human resource development in Ika North-East Local Government Area of

Delta State.

1.4 Significance of the Study

This study has both theoretical and empirical significance. Theoretically, the findings are hoped to benefit other researchers in such a way that the knowledge gotten from the work will no doubt, make research activities less time consuming leading to effective and efficient publication in this particular area of discipline – human resource development. Secondly, it will equally provide other researchers with relevant data and useful information on literature that is available in the area of ICT and its roles on human resource development in Ika North-

East Local Government Area of Delta State and any where else in Nigeria.

Empirically, the findings of the study will be useful to public policy makers in guiding them towards embarking on strategic policy which will enhance human development through information technology. The findings may also lead to policy formulation on software development to meet the local content on human resource development especially during training 7

and skill acquisition. The findings of the study will provide relevant information on job creation

and reduction of unemployment as youths will be gainfully employed to engage in the use of

computer and other information resources. The findings will also provide information on the

negative impact of lack of adequate ICT resources on the youth which results to unemployment

and underutilization of human resources in development and its consequences on national

development. The findings will also provide the justification for demand for more funding of the

local government in other to meet up with development at the grassroots.

This study will contribute immensely to the growth of the local government.

Interestingly, it will create a synergy between the government and the people because of the

services that would be rendered by well trained human resource managers through efficiency

and effectiveness of service delivery. Those that will benefit from this study are the local

government staff and the general populace and the clients of the local government. Other

expected beneficiaries of the study include business organizations since ICT combines

information knowledge, processes, and technology to provide a foundation for driving

efficiencies and fuelling innovation. It is the key to organizations of all sizes to connect,

collaborate by drawing technological resources from the World Wide Web wealth of

resources in order to compete more effectively and favourably. The study will also be useful

for academic purposes; it will serve as a data bank to those who will carry out related studies

in the future by providing the basis for further studies.

1.5 Scope and Limitation of the Study

This study assesses the role of information and communication technology (ICT) on

human resource development in Ika North-East Local Government Area of Delta State,

Nigeria. To achieve this great feat, the various towns in the local government areas form the

bases of this study. 8

Nevertheless, various challenges were encountered in the course of this research work since according to the law of motion, every action has equal and opposite reaction, which implies that every reform has forces that would impinge on it to forestall its actualization.

The challenges encountered by the researcher in the course of this research exercise include the inability of the researcher to understand the various dialects due to the dialectical variance in Delta State which compelled the researcher to employ the assistance of interpreters who bridged the communication gap. The above situation impinged on the time, speed and successes of the research since information that could be gotten through in- depth personal contact with the respondents was abridged and distorted through the service of interpreters.

Furthermore, some respondents, especially local government staff and some community leaders were reluctant to divulge relevant information, owing to wrong perception that the information they release could be used against them. Others felt that their superior officers would have access to their answers which may pose threat to their work. While others felt that it is a waste of their precious time and energy.

Owing to the current economic situation of the country, some of the respondents who are predominantly unpaid local government workers, poor rural dwellers and students always request for “motivation” in form of financial inducement before assisting the researcher. In addition to that is the emerging problem of fuel price that has skyrocketed the price of transportation, thereby creating a great hinge to transportation.

Some of the respondents for this research were the rural dwellers, who are largely illiterate, the researcher faced the problem of their inability to read, understand and respond to the questions in the questionnaire and other necessary questions.

However, the researcher, through his doggedness and commitment to the task summoned courage to contain all the constraints and to conduct a valid and reliable research. 9

CHAPTER TWO: Literature Review and Research Methodology

2.1 Literature Review The review of the related literatures will be carried out under the following

subheadings:

• The concept of Information and Communication Technology (ICT)

• The various ICT Policies of Nigeria

• Achieving ICT through Millennium Development Goal (MDG)

• ICT for Development Policy (ICT4D) in some African Countries

• The Origin of Human Resource Development in Nigeria

• Methods of Human Resource Development

• Importance of Human Resource Development

• Problems of Human Resource Development in Nigeria

• Steps in Human Resource Development

• Impact of ICT on Human Resource Development in Nigeria

2.1.1 The Concept of Information and Communication Technology While governments, enterprises, and civil actors around the world are attempting to realize the benefits of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) for economic, social, and political development, scholars are still struggling to come up with a coherent conceptual framework that embraces all relevant aspects of this multidisciplinary endeavor.

Despite the lack of a consensus on how the transition toward so-called ‘Information

Societies’ is understood, most countries (developed and developing) have begun to set up proactive policy agendas to face the challenges of converting the digital divide into a digital opportunity (Hilbert, 2009).

According to Hilbert (2009), there is no doubt that the handling of information to support all types of activities in the economy, workplaces and homes are increasingly

9 10 becoming a major factor in most countries. ICTs are dramatically changing our way of life.

Information, knowledge and technology are increasingly becoming the key drivers for socio- economic development world-wide. A nation’s capability and ability to accelerate its socio- economic development process and gain competitive advantage depends very much on the extent to which it can develop, use and sell, information, knowledge and technology in one form or another.

There is now a consensus that in what is increasingly becoming a highly competitive information-driven world economy, development without ICTs is not possible. These technologies are serving as key enabler of development in key sectors of the economy. The deployment and exploitation of ICTs can impact on the development of sectors like: the public sector, agricultural sector, services and industrial sectors and as well as other social sectors like: education, tourism, entertainment and health (Dzidonu, 2002).

The development and exploitation of ICTs in key sectors of the economy of African countries can, in general, support and drive the socio-economic development of these countries and in particular assist them towards the realization of the various Millennium

Development Goal (MDG) targets in the areas of: employment generation and poverty eradication; promotion of education at various levels of the educational system; and the provision of health services among others.

During the last few decades, new information and communication technologies

(ICTs) have changed the world we live in profoundly. First and foremost in the Global North, computerized systems have increased the efficiency of both the private and public sector. The internet has given people access to a world far beyond their countries’ borders, while the various applications of mobile phones have invaded all spheres of our life (Hilbert, 2010).

These are only a few examples of how in this research, ICTs mainly include computerized 11 systems, the internet and mobile telephony with sub-branches as e-governance, e-education, e-library, e-health, e-commerce, e-culture, e-finance, etc.

Digitalization has altered the economy, public administration and private activities.

Essentially, western development institutions have understood ICTs as powerful tools capable of changing the world for the better (Avgerou 2003; Nag 2011). However, despite this widespread optimism, it has also been acknowledged, that the so called “Information

Superhighway” has not yet reached all of the world’s rural and poor areas (United Nations,

2013; World Bank, 2014; International Telecommunication Union, 2014). Therefore bridging the digital divide has been an important issue on the agenda of international development institutions since the mid-to-late 1990s (Warschauer 2003, p.11). Since up until now a large part of the world’s population has not been able to actively partake in the digital global community, many scholars argue that so far ICT for development (ICT4D) has not been an unmitigated success (Heek, 2006).

Information and Communications Technologies (ICTs) cuts across a variety of technologies including: computer, microelectronics and related technologies including microchip and microprocessor-based technologies; multimedia and other information processing technologies and systems; telecommunications technologies and infrastructure

(fixed line, wireless, satellite based and mobile infrastructure); and communication network technologies and infrastructures (including local and wide area communications and computer networks for voice, data and video).

Other technologies that forms part of ICTs include: broadcasting networks and technologies including radio and TV networks; production-based technologies including those used in computer-integrated manufacturing and production systems and operations, robotics technologies, biotechnology-related equipments and systems; and the Internet as a globally-based delivery platform – incorporating elements of computers, telecommunications, 12 communications technologies and networks and other multimedia development and delivery technologies to form an integrated multimedia transmission and communication delivery infrastructure and platform with a global reach (ITU, 2000).

Fig. 1: The Role of ICTs in the Development Sectors of the Economy

Source: Dzidonu (2010)

Pelgrum and Law (2003) state that near the end of the 1980s, the term 'computers' was replaced by 'IT' (information technology) signifying a shift of focus from computing technology to the capacity to store and retrieve information. This was followed by the introduction of the term 'ICT' (information and communication technology) around 1992, when e-mail started to become available to the general public.

Reports have shown that ICTs cover Internet service provision, telecommunications equipment and services, information technology equipment and services, media and broadcasting, libraries and documentation centers, commercial information providers, network-based information services, and other related information and communication activities. According to another definition, ICTs are embedded in networks and services that affect the local and global accumulation and flows of public and private knowledge (Adeya,

2002). Moreover, Adeya (2002) mentions a more simplified definition describing ICTs as an

'electronic means of capturing, processing, storing and disseminating information'. 13

2.1.2 ICT Policies in Nigeria

2.1.2.1 Nigeria National Information Technology Policy 2000 Nigeria in 2000 developed its national information technology (IT) policy, with the vision to make Nigeria an IT capable country in Africa and a key player in using IT as the engine for sustainable development and global competitiveness. The Government in its policy document recognizes IT as a strategic imperative for national development and has resolved to provide considerable national resources, both financial and otherwise for the realization of the National.

The Vision Statement

The Nigerian IT Policy Framework (FRN, 2001) targeted a number of strategic areas for implementation, the key ones are: Human Resource Development; Infrastructure

Development; Governance; Research and Development (R&D); Health; Agriculture; Urban and Rural Development; Trade and Commerce; Fiscal Measures; Government and Private

Sector Partnerships; Arts, Culture & Tourism; National Security and Law Enforcement;

Legislation; IT Popularization and Awareness.

Some of the specific strategies targeted for implementation include:

• Establishing a coordinated program for the development of a National, State and

Local information infrastructure backbone

• Increasing the telephone line penetration rate by expanding the existing Telecom

network and providing new networks by employing modern technologies in order

to minimize the cost of expansion

• Encouraging further deregulating of the Telecom industry with a view to

providing affordable, competitively priced Internet connectivity for a larger

community of users

• Restructuring the educational system at all levels with a view to developing

relevant IT curricula for the primary, secondary and tertiary institutions in order to 14

respond effectively to the challenges and imagined impact of the information age

and in particular the allocation of IT development fund to education.

• Developing government/private sector R&D partnerships through equitable

facilities sharing and by the establishment of pilot schemes in software and

hardware development within/outside designated IT Parks.

• Bringing Government to the doorsteps of the people by creating virtual forums

and facilities to strengthen accessibility to government information and facilitating

interaction between the governed and Government leading to transparency,

accountability and strengthening of democracy.

2.1.2.2 The Nigerian ICT Vision 20:2020 The long term strategic vision for the ICT sector was elaborated in the National Plan titled “Nigeria Vision 20:2020.” According to the document:

The increasing globalization driven by ICT makes it imperative for Nigeria as an emerging market to irreversibly consider the application and promotion of ICT strategy to facilitate its rapid growth and development. This will involve the development of a vibrant ICT sector to drive and expand the national production frontiers in agriculture, manufacturing and service sectors. It would also require the application of the new knowledge to drive other sectors: governance, entertainments, public services, media sector, tourism, etc.

The vision further acknowledged that: In respect of knowledge and digital divide, the situation remains worrisome. This is in terms of knowledge generation, penetration of ICT, access to and usage of internet and telephone penetration (fixed and mobile) and physical infrastructure. The knowledge and digital cuts across geographical, gender and cultural dimensions. It exists among the 36 states of the federation plus the Federal Capital Territory, the 774 Local Governments, rural and urban areas, men and women, rich and poor, young old able bodied and disabled, illiterate and educated (FRN, 2009).

2.1.2.3 Nigeria National ICT Policy 2012 The National ICT Policy (2012) was developed in support of the development goals of Nigeria’s Vision 20:2020. The vision is to make Nigeria a knowledge-based and globally 15 competitive society and the mission statement is “To fully integrate information and communication technologies into the socio-economic development and transformation of

Nigeria into a knowledge based economy.”

The main objective of the National ICT Policy is to create a conducive environment for the rapid expansion of ICT networks and services that are accessible to all at reasonable costs and for the transformation of Nigeria into a knowledge-based economy

2.1.3 The Impact of Information and Communication Technology on Human Resource Development There is mounting evidence that ICTs can be used to facilitate various aspects of the socio-economic development process in both developing and developed countries. For example, research work based on a number of case studies suggests that ICTs can serve as a key resource essential for achieving broad-based Millennium Development Goals (MDGs).

The principal lesson being that although use of the technology is not a goal in itself, it can be used as an enabler of developmental goals and that for ICTs to have impact on development; its introduction should be fully integrated into the process of organizational and societal change and driven by real needs for economic, social and institutional development

(Dzidonu, 2001).

According to Dzidonu (2001), some of the areas where the deployment and utilization of ICTs can have a significant impact on the developmental process of nations include:

Administration and Service Delivery within the Public Sector – The deployment and exploitation of ICTs to facilitate government administration and service delivery has the potential for: improving administrative efficiency and service delivery; enhancing and improving government responsiveness to citizens; reducing administrative, operational and transaction costs of governments administrative activities, service delivery functions and operations through the reduction of operating inefficiencies, redundant spending and unnecessary excessive paperwork; assisting in the transformation of government into a 16 citizen-centered government and improving productivity within the government machinery and institutions. The cumulative impact of all these on the overall developmental process of a given nation can be significant.

Production Activities and Operations – There is no industrial process which cannot be programmed using computers. ICTs can be used to support the: scheduling of various production processes; design of products, simulating products under various conditions; actual production process using computer-aided and programmable machines & robot systems; the warehousing, distribution and delivery of the products etc. ICTs have been successfully deployed and exploited to improve productivity in all types of industrial and production set-ups and has contributed immensely to enabling a number of industrial countries to gain competitive advantage in ranges of product areas on the global market.

Agriculture Operations to Improve Productivity – Various types of agricultural activities and operations including the production, processing, packaging and marketing of agriculture products as well as agriculture-research and extension activities of all kinds can be supported by the deployment and exploitation of ICTs. These technologies are being deployed to modernize agricultural operations, systems and processes and as well improve agriculture productivity and yield in a number of countries

Development of the Private Sector Especially the Service Sector – The private sector, – the engine of growth in most countries can be facilitated by the deployment and exploitation of

ICTs in a number of areas. The services sector especially, the banking and financial services subsectors are to a large extent ICT-driven in most developed and developing countries. Also the rapid growth in the ICT sector and industry in a number of countries is having a major impact on the development of the private sector in these countries.

Other areas where the deployment and exploitation of ICTs have been making substantial developmental impact include areas like: 17

Rural Development – ICTs can play a major role in the extension of services to the rural populations. Services like health, education, social services and various types of government services can be made available to rural peoples through the deployment and exploitation of various types of ICTs. ICT is being used in India to enhance rural development programs and improve the delivery of public services through computerization schemes – suggesting that the potential impact of ICT on development can be enormous, particularly in terms of improved health, hygiene, nutrition and education

Support Trade and Commerce – ICTs have been used to achieve global competitiveness in the area of trade in a number of countries. E-commerce a major growth area forecast to be a multibillion dollar industry is an ICT-driven industry. Information and communication technologies have also made major developmental impact in area like:

Education and Training – ICTs are making it possible to improve access to limited educational resources to a larger population. It is now possible through the use of ICTs to provide high quality education at an affordable cost to a wider population.

Good Governance – The use of ICTs to facilitate electronic government and governance has been contributing to the process of good governance and the strengthening of democratic institutions thus facilitating universal participation in the democratic and governance process.

Governments world-wide have recognized the key role that ICTs can play in facilitating development and bringing government closer to the people. A number of countries in both the developed and developing world have been putting in place and implementing e- government and governance strategies and programmes targeted at exploiting the potentials of ICTs to facilitate government administration and service delivery as well as the governing process through good governance (NITSP, 1999).

Poverty Alleviation and Wealth Creation: There is increasing evidence that access to ICTs can have a direct impact on raising living standards and improving the quality of life of the 18 poor. The indirect impact on poverty alleviation, through growth and productivity, has long been recognized.

ICTs as agents of Wealth Creation and Rapid Economic Growth: There is no doubt that countries that are making major progress in the area of wealth creation are those in the fore- front of developing, deploying and exploiting ICTs within their economy and society.

Research in the USA has concluded that the production and use of ICTs have contributed half or more of the acceleration in U.S. productivity growth in the second half of the 1990s. The successful experience of East Asian countries has lent support to an ‘ICT-led development’ thesis – implying that poor countries can adopt ‘leapfrogging’ strategies. According to the

National Information Technology Strategy Plan (NITSP) (1999), ICTs present a ‘window of opportunity’ for developing countries to progress from a situation of ‘zero’ or ‘limited’ technology to widespread adoption of ‘sophisticated’ technologies, without going through the stages of technological adaptation and learning experienced in developed countries. In Costa

Rica, according to United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (UNECA) (1996), ICTs accounts for 38 percent of exports and contributed to a major increase in gross national income – and in India, software exports have been increasing by over 50 percent per annum since the early 1990s and it has been estimated that by 2010, there will be 2.2 million additional jobs created, and FDI will rise to US$5 billion and that software will account for

7.5 percent of India's gross domestic product.

A number of African countries as part of the African Information Society Initiative

(AISI) of the UN Economic Commission of Africa (UNECA), have over the past decade embarked on the development and the implementation of their ICT for Development (ICT4D) policies and plans (UNECA, 1996).

According to Dzidonu (2006), the majority of African countries unlike countries in other regions of the world, were late-comers to the “ICT-for-development” scene. Although a 19 number of these countries have in the 1980’s put in place programmes and initiatives targeted at information technology (IT) deployment within their respective civil and public services, it was not until after the launch of the AISI initiative in 1996 and in particular after the African

Development Forum (ADF) meeting in 1999 organized by UNECA that most of the African countries began looking at the broader issue of facilitating their socio-economic development process through the deployment and exploitation of ICTs.

For most of the African countries, their ICT4D policies and implementation plans were targeted at a number of focus areas or pillars; the key ones are: human resource development; e-education (ICTs-in-education), e-health, e-agriculture, e-government, e- commerce, private sector development, legal and regulatory framework development; ICT infrastructure development, deployment of ICTs in the communities, facilitating poverty reduction; and as well as on the development of the ICT sector.

2.1.4 Information and Communication Technology for Development (ICT4D) Process in African Countries

A number of the African countries adopted strategic focus in the development of their respective ICT4D policies. This approach is based on the argument that for most underdeveloped African countries, there is the need to use ICTs as a broad-base enabler of their socio-economic development process as well as putting in place policies and programmes to develop their ICT sector and industry.

African countries including Ghana, Rwanda, Nigeria, Malawi, Gambia, Ethiopia,

Zambia among many others directed their respective ICT4D policies at both the development of their ICT sector (including the ICT industry and services sub-sector) and as well as focusing on using ICTs as an enabler of broad-base development focusing on other sectors of the economy (World Bank, 2011). 20

Kenya has the potent mix of multiple fiber optic cables connecting to aggressive internet service providers (ISPs) and mobile operators operating in a relatively open and transparent regulatory environment with strong government support for telecommunications competition.

Ghana has a similar enabling environment in a somewhat smaller population and consequently smaller market size. Ghana was among the first countries in Africa to introduce the Internet into its ICT market. However, the market has not experienced the dynamism that would lead to massive deployment of Internet services in the country. As at December 2009, the regulator had licenced 176 Internet service providers (ISPs), but only 30 were operational.

Similarly, 176 Data VSAT operators have been granted licence, but only 60 are in operation.

In case of Public/Corporate Data Operators, 103 companies were issued with licences, but only 25 had commenced business. Though the large numbers of unutilised licence epitomizes regulatory laxity, it also illustrates how liberal the market is in the country.

Some of the main ISPs are Vodafone Broadband4u, Teledata ICT, UCom, African

Online, Internet Ghana and Zipnet. It is difficult to determine the size of the Internet market due to the unwillingness of the ISPs to share data on their subscriptions. The available data indicates that Vodafone Broadband4U is the market leader with almost 23,800 subscribers in

2009. Teledata ICT had 2,000 subscribers and Ucom had 635.16. However, estimation put

Internet subscribers below one million (Southwood, 2010).

The government of Ghana has made some progress in improving access and use of

ICT facilities in the country as a way of achieving a knowledge economy as well as facilitating the socio-economic development of the country. More importantly, the favourable market entry conditions have contributed immensely towards the growth of the sector, especially the mobile sub-sector. This was epitomised by the positive score for market entry conditions in the country. The competitive pressures in the mobile market have created a 21 dynamic market with considerable consumer welfare gains. This has to be sustained to ensure that the positive results affect other segment of the market (i.e. effectiveness in anti- competitive and tariff regulation, among others). However, much remains to be done to achieve this status.

Uganda VSAT school-based Telecentre project uses earth-satellite VSAT technology to connect schools and communities to internet to access knowledge, educational resources to break isolation and thus foster development opportunities that could not use dial-up or spread spectrum to access internet services. The project combines educational programmes with

Information Technology tools to educate the children of the rural poor in computer-based technologies. A network of 15 sites in isolated areas has been developed.

Gambia like most African Countries has a lot to do with regards to its Information and

Communication Technology Sector. The nation as a whole has made great strides to embrace the use and spread of ICT. Thanks to the UNDP Internet Initiative for Africa (IIA) for introducing ICT culture. However, like in most developing countries, limited finances, lack of IT personnel and inadequate planning pose serious problems and serve as major constraints to the sustenance of effective IT systems in the country. Through numerous projects (of International and National nature) institutions and state departments have been able to procure and set up computer labs. But over the years, lack of maintenance due to various issues most often related directly or indirectly to financial constraints has prevented the country from sustaining these projects. The Gambia already has an extremely impressive telecommunication infrastructure. Access to Telephones is wide spread and extends to the rural areas. Alongside the National Telecommunications operator; GAMTEL, numerous private owned Telecenters also exist. In any case the National Telecommunications operator is the primary ISP and the country's gateway is a satellite system from the GAMTEL Satellite 22

Station in Abuko, The Gambia to Teleglobe in Canada. All other ISPS make use of this gateway to provide services to their users.

However, even with the impressive telecommunication infrastructure within the country the widespread use of computers and the Internet still remains a problem. There is a high level of computer illiteracy and even though the desire to extend Internet services to rural areas exists, other numerous problems exist including the lack of or inconsistent power supply (electricity) as well as high costs of setting up such systems. Because of the restrictions within the country, the use of satellite technology has not been adopted. Thus, though the nation still has far to go, it cannot but be mentioned that they have made considerable progress. It appears to be a recognized fact that the nation needs to not only incorporate ICT into its national policy but there is a need for the public and private institutions (especially the educational institutions) to develop strategic IT plans.

The use of ICTs to facilitate the development of the key sectors of the economy other than the ICT sector constitutes the main effort of most African countries directed at using

ICTs to among other things address a number of developmental goals like the MDGs. Nigeria is the largest market but doesn’t quite have the same level of openness and transparency, though it is working hard to compete with Ghana and Kenya.

The rationale behind adopting the dual approach is that: it is acknowledged that, the spill-over or catalytic effect of developing only the ICT sector of the economy will not be enough to accelerate the socio-economic development of these countries. It is envisaged that the simultaneous focus of developing the ICT sector and industry while at the same time using ICTs to drive other sectors of the economy can accelerate the development of these countries faster and spread the social impact much faster than a single focus on the development of the ICT sector. In other words the argument being put forward is that: the 23 chances of making progress towards the achievement of the MDGs through the use of ICTs is much greater with the dual focus approach than will be case with the single focus approach.

On the whole, although the majority of the African countries did not directly address within their ICT4D policies, the question of the use of ICTs to achieve the MDGs, a number of them identified within their policy document focus areas or pillars that have relevance to the achievement of the MDGs. For example, a number of the ICT4D policies reviewed above listed some of the developmental goals being targeted through the use of ICTs as: poverty reduction and eradication, provision of health services including primary health care; promotion of education including primary education, economic development, universal access to technological resources and services; promotion of gender equality; environmental protection among others.

The assumption is that efforts being made by African countries within their respective

ICT4D processes to facilitate their socio-economic development through ICTs could impact on the achievement of a number of the MDGs.

2.1.5 ICT for Development through Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)

According to United Nation (2009) report on ICT for development through the

Millennium, Development Goals (MDGs), the possible impact of the use of ICTs on progress towards the achievement of the MDGs in a selected number of African countries were highlighted. This research purpose concentrates on the following group of MDGs:

Goal 1: Eradicate Extreme Poverty and Hunger

Promotion of Economic Growth: The deployment of ICTs to support the development of various sectors of the economy is having impact on economic growth directly through the growth of the ICT sector and indirectly through its enabling impact on other sectors of the economy. 24

Such an ICT-induced growth can positively impact on poverty reduction efforts in both poor rural and urban communities. For example, the growth of the mobile communications sector in a number of African countries in recent years has created avenues for poverty reduction through the creation of jobs for the youth in both the urban and rural areas (UNDP, 2009).

Employment and Job Creation: The use of ICTs within the economy of African countries is contributing to employment generation in a number of sectors of the economy. This in in-turn is having impact on poverty alleviation efforts directed at poor rural and urban areas. Growth in the ICT sector for example is generating employment in that sector, e.g. growth in the mobile communications sector has generated job opportunities at national and community levels – ICT enabled growth in other sectors like agriculture and other industrial sectors are also contributing to employment generation which are benefiting among others those from poor households.

The poverty eradication aspects resulting indirectly from the creation of job and employment opportunities arising from the deployment of ICTs in the economy are worth noting. Households benefiting from the employment opportunities created by ICTs are able to make choices that could alleviate their poverty condition. The contribution of ICTs to economic growth in rural areas indirectly creating jobs in traditional sectors, such as farming and fishing can also be cited as a possible link to the use of ICTs to achieve the MDG like: eradicate extreme poverty and hunger (UNDP, 2009).

The Creation of Jobs through ICT-Enabled Growth

The explosion of the mobile industry in African countries have contributed to the creation of jobs as per the numerous mobile service booths and communications dotted on pavements and every street corner in most cities, towns and in fact in villages. Also the expansion of the telecommunications sector, the explosion of Internet related services in the 25 last couple of years, did make some contribution to employment and job creation especially in the service sector. Given that in most African countries, every small neighborhood of about

20 households have on average 3 to 5 communication centers each employing about 2 people, it is reasonable to conclude that these centers alone have contributed in no small way to employment and job creation in the economy in the last couple of years since they started operations. There are other related ICT based small, micro and medium enterprises (SMMEs) business entities like Web publishing set-ups, computer service providers, one-man street pavement mobile phone service providers, Internet café service providers, FM and community radio stations, mobile phone services providers and so on who have equally contributed to job creation in the community all over the country in the last couple of years

(UNDP, 2009).

Timely and Improved Access to Information Communication and Knowledge Products and Resources

The use of ICTs can facilitate access to timely information to trigger rapid responses by relevant government agencies and other bodies to combat hunger. In a way, access to timely information by Government agencies can impact on poverty eradication and on combating hunger. Furthermore ICTs have been used during humanitarian emergencies in

African countries as a critical tool for monitoring and managing the procurement, storage and distribution of essential food to combat hunger and malnutrition during these emergencies.

For example, emergency teams during the Darfur crisis in the Sudan; the emergencies created by the war in Somalia and the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), and the flood that recently hit a number of countries in the West African region all made use of ICT resources and tools to assist them in their work and by so doing improve the effective management of the crisis at hand (Ineke and Anne, 2009:35).

ICTs are also being used in a number of African countries to support and facilitate poverty monitoring, mapping and assessments through the use of geographic information 26 systems (GISs) to facilitate timely and informed decision making to either prevent or minimize the impact of poverty or hunger among vulnerable groups or communities poor

(Dzidoni, 2010).

Prevention of Food Insecurity: A number of African countries are using ICTs to support their food security efforts through its deployment to support the development and the modernization of the agriculture sector to facilitate: the empowerment of rural farmers; rationalization of supply chains; improvement in agriculture productivity; facilitating research and development in the agriculture; promotion of information sharing on agricultural farm extension technologies, market prices, weather information, etc. These efforts can invariably impact on poverty alleviation and combating hunger (World Bank, 2001).

Also a number of African countries through the support of the Food and Agriculture

Organization (FAO) of the United Nations have for some years been deploying ICT-enabled food security and early warning systems. These systems have been used by these countries to provide accurate and timely information regarding areas of food surplus and shortages to facilitate informed food security decision making process that can lead to averting the incidence of hunger – a phenomenon of food insecurity (FAO, 2003).

Promotion of Governance: The use of ICTs can promote and facilitate community-based decision making (governance) by either reducing or eliminating social, economic and geographical barriers to effective community-based interaction communication and access to information. For example, the use of ICTs to facilitate access to information is enabling the poor to actively participate extensively in decision making processes that could impact on their lives including those that may improve their economic status and by so doing elevate them from poverty and hunger.

Also ICTs are being used in some African countries as part of their ICT4D process to support and facilitate the deployment of e-government systems that could improve 27 government service delivery and information provision activities targeted at poverty alleviation. Furthermore ICTs are being be used by some African governments to strengthen their internal information flows, accountability and transparency, and procurement of goods and services that could positively contribute to poverty alleviation (Cordella, 2007).

Promoting and Facilitating ICT-driven Private Sector Development: The deployment and exploitation of ICTs can facilitate the development of both the ICT private sector and other subsectors of the private sector (including, agriculture, health, education, industry and commerce etc). An ICT-enabled private sector can contribute to addressing the problem of poverty and hunger in a number or areas including:

Generating jobs and employment given the right environment that will facilitate its development – The bulk of job creation in a number of African countries is taking place in the private sector in general and in particular in the small and medium enterprise (SME) sub- sector of the economy.

Provision of education and training services – In most African countries, the private sector has for years been active in pre-university level education and of recent been involved in tertiary level education

Provision of health services – The health delivery sector in a number of African countries has for years have private sector involvement. Private clinics, pharmacies and other health centers can been found in most neighborhoods and localities in most African countries.

Mission hospitals are also a common feature of the health delivery sector in most developing countries Investment in and provide social services – The private sector in a number of

African countries do provide social services and benefits to their own workers as well as to the public in the form of donations to schools, hospitals, orphanages etc (Ineke and Anne,

2009:38). 28

Contribution to income distribution and redistribution – The private sector companies and organizations do contribute to income distribution and redistribution through the salaries and bonuses they pay to their low-income workers and as well as through the educational, scholarship schemes, health insurance schemes that some of them extend to their workers families and dependants.

Contribution to poverty alleviation – The bulk of rural employment is agricultural-based; agriculture is mainly a private sector activity in most African countries. The vast majority of micro and small enterprises are in the private sector and these provide employment to the majority of the working population. Income from these avenues goes to pay for school fees, hospital expenditure, living expenses, food and others – all contributing to poverty alleviation.

Goal 2: Achieve Universal Primary Education Through ICT

The use of ICTs to facilitate educational delivery at all level of the educational system has been one of the popular applications of ICTs in a number of countries including those of

Africa.

Achieving universal primary education has for some years been a priority educational policy area and goal in a number of these African countries – and some of them have explore ways that ICTs can be use to enable them make progress towards this goal. We examine below two broad areas of initiatives which a number of the African countries are engage in as a way of facilitating among other things the achievement of this MDG (UNICEF, 2010).

Access to Education and Training Resources: A number of African countries including

Rwanda, Ghana, Ethiopia, Nigeria, South Africa, Algeria, Tunisia and many others are implementing various forms of e-education programs and initiatives using ICTs to improve and widen access to educational resources in a number of ways including: improved access to learning materials and resources, widening of access to education through e-learning etc. A 29 number of these initiatives are contributing to promoting universal primary education in a number of these countries (Ineke and Anne, 2009:39).

Also a number of these countries are deploying ICTs to improve the effectiveness and efficiency of delivery of education at all level of the educational system especially at primary and secondary education level.

Taking the case of Rwanda as an illustration of the rapid rate at which African countries are adopting ICTs to facilitate educational delivery in their schools, it is reported in

Dzidonu (2005) that in 2000, just one school in the country had a computer. Six years later over half of primary and secondary schools have been equipped with hardware, over 2,000 teachers have received ICT training, and all public schools are expected to be connected. The figure for 2005 shows that out of the 400 secondary schools that have been fully equipped with ICT in the country, 39 of them have wireless internet access.

These efforts being taken by Rwanda as is the case in a number of African countries may in the long-run improve and widen access to primary and secondary education which could translate into enabling these countries in making progress towards achieving the targets set for the MDG to Achieve Universal Primary Education.

Widening Access to Education and Reducing Physical and Social Barriers to Education:

Some African countries are using ICTs to create new avenues of access to schooling for the underserved communities and vulnerable groups. A number of these countries, including:

Egypt, South Africa, Kenya, Tanzania, Ethiopia and Ghana are also deploying ICTs to provide innovative educational delivery mechanisms and systems to support the provision of education, especially distance education and non-formal education (Ineke and Anne,

2009:48).

For example, Ethiopia through its SchoolNet project has equipped over 200 of its schools with computers and set up computer laboratories with connection to the Internet in a 30 number of them to facilitate access to educational resources and learning materials. The deployment and the use of ICT-based educational delivery and support technologies and resources to complement the traditional mode of education as step towards reducing physical, geographical and social barriers to education can also be identified as one area in which these countries are using these technologies to support education delivery at various level of the educational system.

On the whole, these efforts directed at the use of ICTs to promote and support education in African countries have the potential to have a positive impact on the achievement MDG goal of universal primary education in these countries.

Goal 4, 5 and 6: Access to Primary Healthcare through ICT

The use of ICTs to promote and facilitate the delivery of healthcare services has been recognized by a number of African countries. A number of these countries have put in place as part of their ICT development process, ICTs-in-Health (or e-health) policies and strategies to drive their efforts in this area. Some of these countries include: Ghana, South Africa,

Gambia, Nigeria, Egypt, Tunisia, Rwanda among others (UNDP, 2009).

A number of the e-health efforts in these African countries are targeted at facilitating improved access to health care facilities and services to poor rural and remote communities and as well as to those living in poor urban communities. Some of these countries have implemented a number of pilot and demonstrative e-health and telemedicine systems aimed at improving and widening access to health services and facilities for their citizens. A number of these initiatives have demonstrated the use of ICTs to extend to reach of the limited health services to underserved communities in rural and urban areas in these countries. 31

Another area of applications of ICTs within the health sector in Nigeria relates to the use of these technologies to widen access to health education and awareness targeting the poor and the economically vulnerable groups within the society.

These efforts can impact on health education and awareness creation efforts targeted at combating for example HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases and as well as on improving maternal health and reducing child mortality rate in these countries.

For example, South Africa which is one of the leading countries in Africa deploying e-health solutions to support health care service delivery to the public at large has implemented a number of e-health initiatives including: an Electronic Health Records system; e-Health

Smart Card system; Cellphone for HIV", involving the use of cell phones for mass messaging on issues relating to HIV; Electronic TB Register; a pilot Telemedicine project among others.

Goal 7: Ensure Environmental Sustainability through ICT

The close link between environmental sustainability and socio-economic development has made it necessary for Nigeria to consider and explore the use of ICTs to address the environmental sustainability issues within the context of their ICT process and policy (FRN,

2012).

Environmental sustainability relates to a pattern of resource use that aims to meet human needs while preserving the environment so that these needs can be met not only in the present, but also for future generations. The term put simply as a development that “meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.” (FRN, 2012)

Sustainable socio-economic growth relates to finding the right balance, ensuring we can continue to improve the quality of life of all citizens without harming our environment.

The issue of the use of ICTs to address environmental protection and sustainability problem within the context of what is being described as e-environment: 32

According to International Telecommunications Union, e-environment is (a) the use and promotion of ICTs as an instrument for environmental protection and the sustainable use of natural resources; (b) the initiation of actions and implementation of projects and programmes for sustainable production and consumption and the environmentally safe disposal and recycling of discarded hardware and components used in ICTs, and; (c) the establishment of monitoring systems, using ICTs, to forecast and monitor the impact of natural and man-made disasters, particularly in developing countries, LDCs and small economies (ITU, 2008).

The report identified a number of ways that ICTs can be used to address the management of the environment and these include the use of ICTs to:

• help observe, describe, record and understand the environment (for environmental

research for comparative analysis), including tools to manipulate and visualize

environmental information;

• share information and data as well as processing power: data warehouses, clearing

houses and data/information servers; environmental networks and grids, etc.;

• facilitate and help coordinate environmental decision-making and management,

including environmental early warning, risk assessment, mitigation and management,

etc.;

• help reduce and/or mitigate the environmental impact of human activity; and

• facilitate learning about the environment.

The illustration above, reproduced from International Telecommunication Union (ITU, 2008) identifies six ICT application categories and the related to the related management practices as tools for dealing with environmental issues, particularly from a developing country perspective. 33

The impacts of ICTs on the environment according to Houghton (2009), can be direct

(i.e. the impacts of ICTs themselves, such as energy consumption and e-waste), indirect (i.e. the impacts of ICT applications, such as intelligent transport systems, buildings and smart grids) or third-order and rebound (i.e. the impacts enabled by the direct or indirect use of

ICTs, such as greater use of more energy efficient transport.

The environment is a large complex system (World Bank, 2003) – its management and protection can contribute to improving human health conditions, sustaining agricultural and other primary production, and reducing risks of disastrous floods as well as wildfires, mudslides and other natural disasters. It is argued that the effects of ICTs on sustaining the environment are multidimensional – the key areas were identified as: the use of ICTs as a tool for raising awareness and for knowledge sharing: the deployment of ICTs for supporting environmental monitory and associated resource management and risk mitigation; the use of

ICT products and services as a way of promoting and encouraging environmental sustainability activities (e.g. promoting reduction in resource use and energy saving activities), within other sectors of the economy like agriculture, commercial and the industrial sectors; promoting and facilitating effective communication between stakeholders

(governments, local and international NGOs, international agencies and people) engaged in environmental protection and sustainability issues, advocacy.

2.1.6 Factors Limiting the Use of ICTs in Nigeria During the last few decades, new information and communication technologies

(ICTs) have changed the world we live in profoundly. First and foremost the computerized systems have increased the efficiency of both the private and public sectors globally. The internet has given people access to a world far beyond their countries’ borders, while the various applications of mobile phones have invaded all spheres of our life. ICTs mainly include computerized systems, the internet and mobile telephony (Leye 2007; Unwin 2008). 34

It is pertinent to examine some of the factors that have limited the deployment and exploitations of ICTs in Nigeria. For each of the cases considered, effort is made to consider ways of making specific recommendations in exploring the way forward.

Poor policy implementation

Various governments in Nigeria have made concerted efforts to adopt ICT for development but not much has been achieved due to poor implementation of these policies.

Good projects put forward by the federal and state governments have ended on the drawing board without achieving the desired results. This is primarily due to lack of ability to carryout these programmes.

Lack of continuity of programmes

The incessant change of government in Nigeria has left many well planned projects unimplemented. This is due to lack of continuity. New administrations always like to initiate new project in order to make name and too to patronize their party faithfuls by way of awarding contract. This has had negative impact as it often left the old contracts unattained to or abandoned.

The nature of the programmes

The majority of the ICT projects and initiatives in Nigeria are typically of small scale pilot nature and not directly targeted at achieving overall developmental policy goals and priorities of these countries and for that matter not specifically directed towards the achievement of development.

In fact, a number of these projects are often not primarily aimed at impacting on the overall socio-economic development process of the country but rather on demonstrating the potential of ICTs to facilitate the delivery of community-based services in area like: health

(telemedicine, health information systems projects); education (schoolNets, computers in school projects): public information provision and the provision of communication services 35

(communication centers, multi-purpose community-based tele-centers etc). A number of these projects are donor-driven or funded and in some cases not sustainable beyond the pilot phase. A number of them are often not scalable and hence their overall impacts on the socioeconomic development process and for that matter on the achievement of development are minimal.

A good example of such programme is the World Bank sponsored ACCESS Nigeria

Programme 2012 which is an ICT skills development project for selected graduate students from Nigeria universities. This programme was done in the four geo-political zones of the country. The World Bank’s aim is the assessment of core competencies for employability in the service and ICT sectors by assisting the recipients use the knowledge bank to become competent and compete in the current world of globalization. As part of the programme, the

ACCESS Nigeria is mandated to implement an internationally benchmark ICT service foundation skills assessment and certification program in Nigeria. The success story remained that the programme ended as a pilot project that did not go further to improve on the employability of the participants or enhancing appreciably ICT usage in the country

(World Bank, 2012).

The Time-Lag for ICT Initiatives to Impact on Socio-Economic Development

Research evidence suggests that a significant time lag is necessary for the ICT development, deployment and exploitation within the society and economy to have a significant impact on the developmental process. In other words the time-lag for ICT development efforts to have an appreciable impact on the socio-economic development of a given country is much longer than have been originally envisaged. This time lag could span a number of years and may take two or more decades.

According to Freeman (1998), a significant time-lag is necessary for the benefits of

ICT initiatives and programmes to accrue – possibly spanning many years or decades. The 36 diffusion of ICTs it was pointed out: must achieve a ‘critical mass’ in terms of coverage, organizational adaptation and ‘learning by doing’ before widespread productivity gains become observable.

According to Pigato (2001), although India invested heavily in its ICT sector – achieving an average growth rate in ICT-related investment of 22% per annum between 1984 and 1990, it took over a decade for it to begin to see the benefits of such high levels of technological investment in terms of increasing productivity and the creation of new

‘information-based’ industries and services.

Taking the case of Ireland, which in the late 1970s began its drive to develop a globally competitive ICT sector, targeting the export market by attracting major international computer companies to set-up their European headquarters and production base in Ireland, the country only began to see the results of these efforts from the mid 1990s onwards. In other words, it took Ireland (a reasonably developed country in the 1970s) close to two decades to become an ‘ICT development’ success story, registering high economic growth rate across all key sectors of the economy including above the ICT sector (Pigato, 2001).

The implication is that irrespective of the strategic focus of a given nation’s ‘ICT development policies and programmes, it will take much longer than often anticipated for these policies and programmes to begin to have a significant impact on the socioeconomic development process of the country and for that matter on the achievement of the development. The Nigerian local government system is at the early stages of the deployment of ICTs to facilitate their development process and as such the level of the diffusion of ICTs within their economies and societies are yet to reach the ‘critical mass’ level required for experiencing socio-economic gains.

The anticipation is that:

it could take close to two decades or more before the relevant ICT for development policies and plans being implemented by these African 37

countries will begin to make any appreciable impact on the socio- economic development landscape of African countries and as such on the achievement of development. In other words, major and significant improvements in the economy of African countries (comparable to what countries like Ireland, India, Singapore and others are currently achieving) is not likely within 10 to 15 years (Freeman, 1998).

For example, the development of the local ICT industry and a value-added services sector as part of the process of transforming the economy into a predominately information and knowledge-based economy will take some time and their eventual appreciable impact on economic growth, employment generation and poverty eradication and on key indicators like the gross national income per capita will take a much longer time.

The prediction is that: even with the right ICT policies and plans and taking the necessary steps to address the key critical success factors and conditions required for their successful implementation, it will take most African countries close to 20 years or more for these efforts to register significant results in socio-economic development terms. In other words although Nigeria have made some progress towards the achievement of development through the implementation of ICTs, significant impact on development that can be attributed to ICTs will take some time to register even with the right ICT development policies and plans.

Poor funding and administrative bottleneck

Other factors, which are found to contribute to limiting the scalability of these rural

ICT initiatives include limited funding for implementation of the projects and bureaucratic bottlenecks and inefficiency. For these initiatives to make appreciable impact on the achievement of development, specific attentions will need to be given to addressing issue relating to: (i) local and community-level involvement and ownership of these initiatives for them to survive after the project initiators or backers have left the scene; (ii) the mobilization of the necessary financial and other resources required to implement the projects beyond the 38 pilot stage and (iii) addressing administrative and other bottlenecks that could pose a problem for the implementation of these projects.

Inability of ICT to be generally accepted by the society

For ICT to have a significant impact on the overall developmental process, its diffusion within the economy and society must reach a critical mass level.

According to research findings documented in Hanna and Arnold (1995):

the diffusion of ICT within the society and economy must achieve a ‘critical mass’ level in terms of coverage, institutional adaptation and ‘learning by doing’ before widespread developmental gains become achievable and observable within the society and economy at large.

In Nigeria as one of the developing countries, studies have highlighted that an

‘enabling environment for successful ICT diffusion is presently lacking. Areas of deficiency include local IT supply industries, domestic demand/user involvement, and technical and managerial capabilities.

In effect the level of diffusion of ICTs in the country is far less than the threshold that is required before appreciable developmental gains are achievable from the deployment and exploitation of these technologies. Areas of deficiency include the ‘less-than-mature’ nature of local ICT industry partly due to under-investment in the industry; the mis-match between domestic demand and supply; lack of critical mass of technical and managerial capabilities to develop, manage and support the implementation and exploitation of these technologies, and the limited spread of the deployment and exploitation of ICTs within the economy and society to generate enough critical mass of economic activities that could impact on the overall developmental process.

2.1.7 The Origin of Human Resource Development in Nigeria

Human resource development in Nigeria is as old as the origin of the first man in the country from where other developmental efforts emanated. The pottery, gold smiting, bronze, 39 iron works, carvings, dying, hyde and skin and other traditional architectural designs attest to the ancient technologies that capitalized the ancient human resource development. However, modern human resource development can be traced to the missionaries who colonized Africa and also educated their adherents to fulfill the churches mission task. Thus, the human resource produced from the education offered were mainly evangelical teachers, as the curriculum comprised mainly of reading, writing and arithmetic (Fafunwa, 1974, Obasi,

2002). According to him, the education offered was geared towards making the beneficiaries able to participate in church services, reading of bible and in the routine performance of their religious duties. The human resource produced were then those who filled lower posts in their missions, as indigenous auxiliaries were less expensive than expatriates. There was on common curriculum among the missions each mission followed its own devices based solely on the religious inclination of the church. The basic curriculum in all the schools consisted principally of the four Rs (reading, writing, arithmetic and religion). This trend continued until 1882 when there was state intervention in education, which led to different ordinances in education (1882, 1887 ordinances).

Further, development continued to evolve through many commissions, The National

Policy on Education in Nigeria of 1977 (revised later in 1981) introduced the 6-3-3-4 system of education which gave a new impetus to human resource development.

2.1.8 Methods of Human Resource Development

Omodia (2009) outlined the following method for human resource development in organization:

1) Orientation: This method of human resource development could be said to be an integral

part of the recruitment exercise, in that once an employee has been found appointable, it

is expected that such an employee need to be positively oriented in line with the

versioned aspiration of the organization for effective discharge of function. 40

Ezeani (2005) sees orientation as a short course or programme of items aimed at assisting new recruit to adjust to the organization and to provide them with background information. Typical course include talks and films about the organization’s structure and facilities, and the provision of literature containing regulations and useful information.

2) On the job method of development: This method is basically different from the

orientation method while orientation is at the point of entry into the organization or a new

assignment; on the job method is a process through which knowledge and experience are

acquired over a period of time either formally or informally. This process involved the

following:

a) Coaching: This is a method of on the job training and development in which a young

employee is attached to a senior employee with the purpose of acquiring knowledge

and experience needed for the performance of tasks (Yalokwu, 2000).

b) Job Rotation: This method either involves the movement of an employee from one

official assignment or department to the other in order for the employee to be

acquainted with the different aspects of the work process or through job enlargement.

That is given additional responsibility to an employee who has been uplifted as a

result of the acquisition of additional skill or knowledge.

c) In House of Training: This involves a formal method of on the job training in which

skills and knowledge are acquired by employees through internal organized seminars

and workshops geared toward updating the workers with new techniques or skills

associated with the performance of their job (Lawal 2006).

d) In Service Training: This method involves training outside the organization or work

place in higher institution of learning or vocational centres under the sponsorship of

the organization and the worker. 41

e) Committee/Work Group Method: This method entails human resource

development through the involvement of employees in meetings, committees and

work group discussion geared towards injecting inputs in form of decision making as

regard solving organizational problem. This method is quite indispensable, especially

in aspect of training employee for managerial functions or heading organizational

units.

(3) Work Group Method: This method entails human resource development through the involvement of employees in meetings, committees and work group discussion geared towards injecting inputs in form of decision making as regard solving organizational problem. This method is quite indispensable, especially in aspect of training employee for managerial functions or heading organizational units.

(4) Vestibule Training Method: This is a method of manpower development through the acquisition of skills in a related working environment (Nongo, 2005). Under this method, the trainee practices his skills with identical equipment that he uses or he is expected to use in his actual place of work. This method is most suitable for sensitive operations where maximal perfection is expected. The purpose is therefore to enable perfection at work place.

(5) Apprenticeship Method: This method of manpower development involves the acquisition of skills through extensive practice for over a period of time by trainee. This type of manpower development device could either be formal or informal. In the informal environment the trainer is attached to the trainer, and he/she is expected to pay for an agreed period of apprenticeship. In the formal environment on the other hand, an employee of an organization could be placed under apprenticeship in the organization with pay. 42

2.1.9 Importance of Human Resource Development Human Resource is the most Important and vital Factor of Economic Development or it can be said that humans are the agents of development. Some of the importance of human resource or human capital are:

1) Country develops if the Human Resource is developed

To enhance economic development the state constructs roads, buildings bridges, dams, power houses, hospitals, etc. to run these units doctors, engineers, scientist, teachers, are required. So if the state invests in a human resource it pays dividend in response.

2) Increase in Productivity

The batter education, improved skills, and provision of healthy atmosphere will result in proper and most efficient use of resources (non-natural & natural) which will result in increase in economic production.

3) Eradication of Social and Economic backwardness

Human Resource development has an ample effect on the backwardness economy and society. The provision of education will increase literacy which will produce skilled Human

Resource. Similarly provision of health facilities will result in healthy Human Resource which will contribute to the national economic development.

4) Entrepreneurship Increase

Education, clean environment, good health, investment on the human resource, will all have its positive effects. Job opportunities would be created in the country. And even business environment will flourish in the state which creates many job opportunities.

5) Social Revolution

Because of Human Resource development the socio economic life of the peoples of a country changes drastically. Over all look changes thinking phenomena changes, progressive thoughts are endorsed in to the minds of peoples.

43

6) Economic Development

The relevance of manpower development in Nigeria could be situated vis-à-vis economic development. This is because manpower development captures the actual meaning of development in that it is people centre (World Bank 1991; Grawboski and Shields 1996).

In addition, it involves the building of capacity and harnessing the State’s human resource which constitute a sine-qua-non for development.

The above advantage was vividly conceptualized by Harbison (1973) when he stated that: Human resources constitute the ultimate basis for wealth of nations, capital and natural resources are passive factors of production; human beings are the active agents who accumulate capital, exploit natural resources, build social, economic and political organisations, and carry forward national development. Clearly a country which is unable to develop the skills and knowledge of its people and to utilize them effectively in the national economy will be unable to develop anything else.

7) Political Stability

There is no doubt that a country which fails to adequately develop her manpower would be doing so at the expense of her socio-economic and political stability, Omodia

(2004) stressed the dysfunctional use of the nation’s human resource among the youths in propelling political instability when he stated that:

…there have been situations in which the Nigerian youth especially, those of poor family background were used as tools for disrupting the political democratic system through rigging, thuggery and ethnic conflicts. These factors of rigging, thuggery in addition to economic mismanagement, personal ambition or selfishness among others, were the factors that terminated the First and Second Republic Thus, manpower development could help the youths in the development of self and in improving the quality of their political participation. 44

2.1.10 Problems of Human Resource Development in Nigeria a. Colonial Experience: There have been several arguments regarding the distortions in manpower development of national growth in Nigeria as a result of colonialism which was fashioned towards economic exploitation (Ekpo 1989; Ake 2001; Dauda 2003). It could be recalled that the advent of colonialism led to the integration of the Nigerian economy into the

World Capitalist System thereby placing minimum premium on labour when compared to other factors of production. This poor performance of indigenous labour by the colonial government no doubt has persisted in the post-colonial Nigerian State. As a result, this problem account for the lack of adequate attention given to labour as a critical part of the production process in Nigeria. b. Poor Political Leadership: Closely related to the problem of colonial experience as a problem of manpower development in Nigeria is poor political leadership which is further deepening the problem of manpower development in Nigeria. This factor has manifested itself in poor funding of education over the years (Baikie 2002), disparity or class in manpower development between children of the rich and the poor (Omodia 2006). c. Poor Manpower Planning: This problem is associated with the poor data base that is needed for manpower planning in Nigeria both in the rural and urban centres. This problem no doubt constitutes a major hindrance on effective manpower development in Nigeria

(Baikie 2002; Oku 2003).

2.1.11 Steps in Human Resource Development. In order to help individual acquire skills that will enable him to function effectively in the development process and to achieve organizational objectives that will lead to sustainable development, a number of steps has to be taken (Amoke, 2010). Such steps include:

Provision of quality and functional education: the era of rote learning is gone, giving way to functional, activity-driven and skills acquisition education. 45

Formal education comes through the establishment of schools, colleges and other institutions which have the expertise in imparting knowledge, skills and attitudes in order to change behaviour to achieve planned objectives. Such institutions, if properly equipped and staffed, will go a long way into developing the potentials and capabilities of the individuals and make them functional members of the society.

Hence, Ndubuisi (1992:199) noted that: education is the development of the cognitive affective and psychomotor abilities of an individual to enable him function effectively and happily in the society. The individual has to be helped to maximize his mental, emotional and physical capabilities which will be beneficial to him and the society to which he belongs.

Provision of Employment Opportunities: there is need for the provision of employment opportunities for the teeming unemployed youths in Nigeria.

Nigeria universities and other tertiary institutions have continued to produce graduates from all fields annually whose future is very bleak as a result of unemployment. Gainful employment provides the opportunities for the graduates and non-graduates alike to develop their skills and capabilities thereby becoming functional members of the society. Ndubuisi

(1992:199), also noted that lack of employment results in our youths engaging in political violence, political thuggery, hired assassins, armed robbery, kidnapping and advanced fee fund otherwise known as 419. Gainful employment will curb these vices, because indulging in these vices is a waste of human resources.

Provision of Entrepreneurship is another giant stride in human resources development. Medium-Scale Enterprises (MSEs) are entrepreneurial activities which are at the heart of employment generation and poverty eradication in any given economy. For instance, Allah (1999) cited in Osuala (2004:67) identified the 46 following contributions of medium scale enterprises to economic growth and poverty eradication:

• Job creation, especially through self employment, as well as when the

enterprise owner begins to employ others.

• Provision of services, eg. Catering, repairs, transportation.

• Provision of products, such as garments, food products, handicraft etc.

• Linkages with large firms through sub-contracting.

• Provision of incomes that are generated, much of provides resources for poor

and disadvantaged families.

• Equitable growth across regions and between men and women.

• Mobilization of savings and financial resources for productive enterprises

activities.

• The start of a development path toward larger enterprises.

Government should, therefore, aid the individuals in establishing such medium-scale enterprises through loans, grants or subventions. This is a concrete step towards human resources development. Provision of adequate training: Human beings, who work in organizations need adequate and constant on- the-job training in order to improve acquired skills and adapt to the changing environment. Ezeani (2006:338) asserts that “the human resources of an organization play a central role in its success or failure. To ensure optimum performance on the side of the employees, they must be provided with opportunities for constant training”. It is therefore important that employees be trained to improve their job knowledge skills and future performance.

Citing Flippo (1980:181), Ezeani posits that “No one is a perfect fit at the time of 47 hiring; some training and education must be applied”. Onah (2003:130) corroborates this assertion by saying that “any organization that has no plans for training and development of its staff is less than dynamic, for 1earning in a continuous process and acquired skills get obsolete when the environment changes”. In this era of information and communication technology (ICT), training in form of seminars, workshops and/or conferences will go a long way in equipping the employees with new knowledge and skills to adapt to the constantly changing environment (Amoke, 2010).

The establishment of the Industrial Training Fund (I.T.F) is an attempt on the part of the Federal Government to ensure that there is adequate trained human resources in the country (Amoke, 2010). According to Odike (1999:52):

sums of money provided from time to time by the Federal Government, and contributions made by every employer, having a maximum of twenty-five persons in his employment, at the rate of one percent of the annual payroll, are to be paid into the fund. The fund is to utilized to promote and encourage an acquisition of skills in industry or commerce with a view of generating a pool of indigenous manpower sufficient to meet the needs of the national economy.

2.1.12 The Impact of ICT on Human Resource Development in Nigeria According to Smith (2005), the ability to enhance human resources through

Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) can only come about through an understanding of the causal linkages between the application of ICT and particular outcomes.

For example, just knowing that there is a relationship between ICT and employee empowerment is not enough. We need to know why and how the relationship works.

However, understanding these links is as contentious as it is important. The current state of ICT for development research has come up against philosophical impasses that limit constructive and critical research. To move past these limitations, a healthy re-examination of their underlying ontological assumptions is in order. 48

In recent times, the development of human resource has been the focus of everyone concerned with the development of the nation. This is for the fact that the growth of tangible capital stock of a nation depends to a considerable degree on human resource development.

Without adequate investment in developing the human resource which is the process of increasing knowledge, skills and the capacities of the people of the country, the possibility of growth of that nation might be minimal. However, education has been an instrument toward the development of human resource in Nigeria. The educational sector plays a prominent role in increasing and enlarging the knowledge, skills and capabilities of the people.

2.1.13 Gap in the Existing Literature The study has unveiled some important literatures that have some degree of relevance to the impact of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) on Human Resource

Development. These literatures have concentrated mainly on the assessment of the impact of

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) on Human Resource Development in selected African countries, including Nigeria but none went into details to assess the impact on the various local government areas in Nigeria, including Ika North-East Local

Government Area of Delta State, Nigeria. The study therefore intends to cover this gap by examining in details with a view to bringing to the fore the impact of ICT on human resources development in Nigerian localities and Ika North-East Local Government Area in particular. This is in line with the Millennium Development Goals and ICT4D to bring the benefits of ICT development to the grassroots.

2.2 Theoretical Framework

This research adopts Diffusion of Innovation Theory. Diffusion of Innovation (DOI) theory, developed by E.M. Rogers in 1962, is one of the oldest social science theories. It originated in communication to explain how, over time, an idea or product gains momentum 49 and diffuses (or spreads) through a specific population or social system. The end result of this diffusion is that people, as part of a social system, adopt a new idea, behavior, or product.

Adoption means that a person does something differently than what they had previously (i.e., purchase or use a new product, acquire and perform a new behavior, etc.). The key to adoption is that the person must perceive the idea, behavior, or product as new or innovative.

It is through this that diffusion is possible.

Adoption of a new idea, behaviour, or product (i.e., "innovation") does not happen simultaneously in a social system; rather it is a process whereby some people are more apt to adopt the innovation than others. Researchers have found that people who adopt an innovation early have different characteristics than people who adopt an innovation later.

When promoting an innovation to a target population, it is important to understand the characteristics of the target population that will help or hinder adoption of the innovation.

There are five established adopter categories, and while the majority of the general population tends to fall in the middle categories, it is still necessary to understand the characteristics of the target population. When promoting an innovation, there are different strategies used to appeal to the different adopter categories.

1. Innovators - These are people who want to be the first to try the innovation. They are

venturesome and interested in new ideas. These people are very willing to take risks,

and are often the first to develop new ideas. Very little, if anything, needs to be done

to appeal to this population.

2. Early Adopters - These are people who represent opinion leaders. They enjoy

leadership roles, and embrace change opportunities. They are already aware of the

need to change and so are very comfortable adopting new ideas. Strategies to appeal

to this population include how-to manuals and information sheets on implementation.

They do not need information to convince them to change. 50

3. Early Majority - These people are rarely leaders, but they do adopt new ideas before

the average person. That said, they typically need to see evidence that the innovation

works before they are willing to adopt it. Strategies to appeal to this population

include success stories and evidence of the innovation's effectiveness.

4. Late Majority - These people are skeptical of change, and will only adopt an

innovation after it has been tried by the majority. Strategies to appeal to this

population include information on how many other people have tried the innovation

and have adopted it successfully.

5. Laggards - These people are bound by tradition and very conservative. They are very

skeptical of change and are the hardest group to bring on board. Strategies to appeal to

this population include statistics, fear appeals, and pressure from people in the other

adopter groups.

The stages through which a person adopts an innovation, and whereby diffusion is accomplished, include awareness of the need for an innovation, decision to adopt (or reject) the innovation, initial use of the innovation to test it, and continued use of the innovation.

There are five main factors that influence adoption of an innovation, and each of these factors is at play to a different extent in the five adopter categories.

1. Relative Advantage - The degree to which an innovation is seen as better than the

idea, program, or product it replaces.

2. Compatibility - How consistent the innovation is with the values, experiences, and

needs of the potential adopters.

3. Complexity - How difficult the innovation is to understand and/or use.

4. Triability - The extent to which the innovation can be tested or experimented with

before a commitment to adopt is made.

5. Observability - The extent to which the innovation provides tangible results. 51

There are many innovations that are valuable for the masses, yet to date have resisted diffusion. For example, we still use the QWERTY keyboard despite the development of another keyboard that allows much faster typing for the average user. Also, there are many social ideals that a large number of people are very interested in spreading. In particular situations, such as our own relatively heterophilous nation, there is a reasonable chance that, given concerted effort, support for these valuable technology and ideas may be pushed to the point of its relevant.

2.2.1 Application of the theory to the study

The diffusion of innovation theory has been used successfully in many fields including communication, agriculture, public health, criminal justice, social work, and marketing. As communication networks become denser through technological advance, the diffusion process is happening faster and faster, so understanding and utilizing diffusion of innovation theory can aid strategy aimed at quickly inducing system-wide change.

Communication is the process by which participants create and share information with one another in order to reach a mutual understanding. A communication channel is the means by which messages get from one individual to another. Mass media channels are more effective in creating knowledge of innovations, whereas interpersonal channels are more effective in forming and changing attitudes toward a new idea, and thus in influencing the decision to adopt or reject a new idea. Most individuals evaluate an innovation, not on the basis of scientific research by experts, but through the subjective evaluations of near-peers who have adopted the innovation.

Information and communication is an ongoing process that has gone through different metamorphosis and stages. The rate at which ICT diffuses into the main stream of the society and the acceptability by the citizens for social and economic development is dependent on many factors, which include an overall development strategy. Factors such as political 52 stability, macroeconomic governance, transparency and accountability of national and local administrations, the rule of law, physical infrastructure and basic literacy is seen as yardstick for evaluation.

The argument being put forward is that although it has been established that with the right ICT for development policies, Nigeria can facilitate their development process, and hence make progress towards the achievement of development, deployment and exploitation of ICTs within the economy and society, this could only be achieved provided some critical success factors and conditions are addressed. In other words, ICTs per se cannot have an appreciable impact on the developmental process and hence on the achievement of development unless their deployment and exploitation within the society and economy are backed by addressing a number of critical success factors and conditions.

According to World Bank (2010), the critical success factors can be classified under the following broad headings:

Enabling Environmental Critical Success Factors

• Good Governance and Rule of Law

• Functioning Democracy and Democratic Institutions

• Prevailing peace, national unity and national security

• Sustainable un-interrupted Political Stability

• Sub-regional Stability and Peace

• Stable Economic Policy Environment

• Sound Socio-Economic Development Policy and Priorities Setting Framework

• Stable Economic Investment Climate

Leadership and Championship Critical Success Factors

• Top-level political leadership commitment and championship for the ICT policy and

plan implementation process

• A core group of dedicated senior level decision makers and professional within the

public and private sector committed to providing leadership and championship to 53

facilitate and support the ICT policy and plan implementation process within their

respective organizations, institutions and business establishments and entities

Organizational and Institutional Level Critical Success Factors

• Required and necessary changes in relevant organizational and institutional structures,

processes, and procedures conducive for the effective implementation of the ICT

initiatives

• Changes in unproductive attitudes to work, duty and service that could hinder the

effective deployment and exploitation of ICTs to improve organizational efficiency,

productivity, activities, operations and service delivery

• Motivated, discipline and adequately remunerated work force committed to work and

bringing about the necessary organizational changes conducive for the effective

deployment and exploitation of ICTs within their organizations and institutions.

Facilitating Environment Critical Success Factors

• Well-educated and informed society

• Modernized and efficient civil and public service

• Financial and technological resource availability

• Human resource availability in key skill areas

• Disciplined, motivated and patriotic citizens led by inspired, dedicated committed and

uncorrupt political, economic and social leadership.

It is pertinent here to state that for the innovation of ICTs to have its diffusion, deployment and the exploitation within the economy and mainstream of the society to facilitate the achievements of development process in the countries and within the economy, these specific critical success factors has to be put in place. Nigeria should; as part of their efforts to achieve development through innovation of ICT, take steps to allow ICT to diffuse into the mainstream of the society which will eventually ensure progress towards achieving these developmental goals.

The gain of this diffusion of innovation is that people, as part of a social system, adopt this new idea, behavior and technology in order to do something differently than what they 54 had previously done in order to achieve development which is the trend that most developed nations adopted. For ICTs to diffuse and impact on the development of the country, efforts need to be made in terms of policies and special initiatives aimed at ensuring and enhancing the possible distributive effects of the developmental impacts of these technologies. ‘less- than-mature’ nature of local ICT industry partly due to under-investment in the industry; the mis-match between domestic demand and supply; lack of critical mass of technical and managerial capabilities to develop, manage and support the implementation and exploitation of these technologies, and the limited spread of the deployment and exploitation of ICTs within the economy and society to generate enough critical mass of economic activities that could impact on the overall developmental process and on the achievement of the development, local ICT supply industries, domestic demand/user involvement, and technical and managerial capabilities enabling environment for successful ICT diffusion’ is presently lacking in Nigeria.

Therefore, for Nigeria to achieve the desired diffusion of ICT for development they should adopt:

(i) local and community-level involvement and ownership of these initiatives

(ii) the mobilization of the necessary financial and other resources required to implement the projects and

(iii) addressing administrative and other bottlenecks that could pose a problem for the implementation of ICT projects.

2.3 Hypotheses

The following hypotheses have been formulated to guide the study and shall be tested at 0.05 level of Significance:

• ICT has not contributed to the development of human resources in Ika North-East

Local Government Area of Delta State. 55

• Poor policy implementation is the hindrance to the role of ICT on human resource

development in Ika North-East Local Government Area of Delta State.

• The strategies employed for improvement of ICT utilization has not made

significant difference on human resource development in Ika North-East Local

Government Area of Delta State?

2.4 Operationalization of the Key Concepts Information and Communication Technology (ICT): Information and Communication

Technology (ICT) is a complex systematic process which involves, mechanized devices that can transmit, amplify, distribute, record, analyse and produce stimulus materials involved in all aspect of human and management of an organization with a feedback.

Information and communications technologies (ICTs) cuts across a variety of technologies including: computer, microelectronics and related technologies including microchip and microprocessor-based technologies; multimedia and other information processing technologies and systems; telecommunications technologies and infrastructure

(fixed line, wireless, satellite based and mobile infrastructure); and communication network technologies and infrastructure (including local and wide area communications and computer networks for voice, data and video).

Other technologies that forms part of ICTs include: broadcasting networks and technologies including radio and TV networks; production-based technologies including those used in computer-integrated manufacturing and production systems and operations, robotics technologies, biotechnology-related equipments and systems; and the Internet as a globally-based delivery platform – incorporating elements of computers, telecommunications, communications technologies and networks and other multimedia development and delivery technologies to form an integrated multimedia transmission and communication delivery infrastructure and platform with a global reach. 56

Human Resources: According to Advanced Learners Dictionary of Current English, manpower resources refer to the “number of men available for military service, industrial needs, etc”. Onah (2010:162), quoting Barney (1995:50), opined that human resources include all the experience, skills, judgment, abilities, knowledge, contacts, risk-taking and wisdom of individual and associates within an organization. He further noted that human resources, easily recognized as the most important of the resources required for the production of goods and services, are the key to rapid socio-economic development and efficient service delivery.

Development: Development is defined as the process of economic and social transformation that is based on the complex, cultural, environmental factors and their interactions (The

American Heritage Dictionary, 2013). It is the process of growing or causing something to grow. Development is a major societal change, not just change in particular economic magnitude such as per capita income or rate of employment; it involves a complex of maturely related economic, social, cultural and political changes (Balkkie, 2002). The word development connotes too many things following its usage by so many disciplines. But in this restricted application, development is the ability of a people within a given area to manage the local natural resources within their local environment effectively to induce positive changes that would enhance the quality of their lives and their economic well being.

Local Government: Local government as seen by scholars as a political authority set up by a nation or state as a subordinate authority for the purpose of dispersing or decentralizing political power. Local government as defined here is a system of administration under local communities that are organized to maintain law and order, provide some limited range of social amenities and encourage cooperation and participation of inhabitants towards the improvement of their conditions of living. 57

2.5 Research Procedure The research directly observe some communities and individuals in the local government in assessing the rate of human resources development in the area through effective application of ICT and how their lives has been enhanced since the introduction of ICT.

2.5.1 Research Design

This research work centered on the role of information and communication technology

(ICT) on human resources development Ika North-East Local Government Area of Delta

State. Therefore, the research design adopted for this study is descriptive research design.

Ifidon and Ifidon (2007), see descriptive survey as “a research method that describes the current situation with a subject.” It involves collecting data in order to answer questions concerning conditions or relationships that exist, practices that prevail, points of view, or attitudes that are held, processes that are going on, effects that are being felt or trends that are developing. Such a study determines and reports the way things are. A descriptive study entails the systematic collection and presentation of data to give a clear picture of a particular situation. Descriptive research design is fact-finding in nature. It focuses on selective dimensions of a phenomenon and measures them in a systematic and precise manner. In descriptive research design, the researcher is involved in ex post study, that is, the researcher reports only what has happened or is happening without control over the variables.

The design of this study is ex-post facto design. Nworgu (2007) considers Ex-post facto design as the appropriate design when a study is seeking to link some already existing phenomenon or observation to some variable(s) as causative agents. The existing phenomenon in this study is ICT while human resources development which is the independent variable is the causative agent. 58

2.5.2 Method of Data Collection The researcher collected data through two main sources. They are the primary and secondary sources. The primary source is the use of questionnaires and interviews. The secondary sources include: Books, Journals; Government publications and internet materials.

Research questionnaire carefully selected were given to respondents and in order to avoid delay and also ensure high percentage return of questionnaire, they were distributed by hand and collected immediately after respondents duly completed them.

2.5.3 Population of the Study The population of the study consisted of all adult individuals of the local government area. There are about 23,670 adults in these communities. This is made up of 11,410 males and 12,260 females. These communities used for the study include: Umunede, Ekwuoma,

Akumazi, Igbodo, Otolokpo, Uteokpu, Owerre-Olubor, Owa-Oyibo, Owa-Alero, Udumuesa,

Mbiri and Uteogbeje.

2.5.4 Sample and Sampling Technique The sample consisted of 120 respondents sampled from 120 families out of the total population of 23,670 of all adult individuals, 10 respondents were randomly selected and questionnaire administered to from each of the 12 communities in the local government area.

The sampling of 120 is in accordance with Anaekwe and Unigwe (2007). They are of the opinion that “it is statistically accepted that sample size of 30 and above is large while less than 30 is considered small”, reason being that as the sample grows larger, the critical t– or f– value decreases and then begins to approximate the values associated with normal distribution curves.

2.5.5 Tests of Validity and Reliability of Research Instruments The instrument was subjected to face-validation by the research supervisor in the

Department of Public Administration and Local Government Studies, Faculty of Social 59

Sciences, University of Nigeria, Nsukka. The researcher requested the validator to examine the clarity of expressions and language appropriateness of the instrument in relation to the study. The corrections and modifications was made at the end are used for the study.

2.5.6 Method of Data Analysis and Presentation Before processing the responses, the completed questionnaires were edited for completeness and consistency. A content analysis and descriptive analysis was employed.

The content analysis was used to analyze the respondent’s views on the role of ICT on

Human resource development in Ika North-East LGA of Delta State. However, data was grouped into frequency distribution to indicate numbers of occurrences in terms of frequency. Also, tables, pie charts and chi-square were employed to present the raw data for the purpose of clarity and comprehension. Furthermore, the research used chi-square analysis to test the research hypotheses and determine the results. The value of the chi-square is computed using the formulae:

2  O − E  X2 = ∑   E  Where X2 = Chi-Square

O = Observed Data

E = Expected Data

DF = Degree of Freedom

The degree of freedom is calculated using the formula df = (N-1)

The researcher assumed a 5% level of significance in testing the hypothesis

Decision Rule: The decision rule is to reject hypothesis if chi-square calculated is greater than the critical value in the table and accepts hypothesis if the calculated chi-square is less than the critical value in the table. 60

CHAPTER THREE: Background Information on Study Area

3.1 Brief Background Information on Ika North-East Local Government The Ika People

Ika communities mostly comprise the following: Agbor, Abavo, Umunede, Mbiri,

Orogodo, Otolokpo, Igbodo, Ute-Okpu, Ute-Ugbeje, Idumuesah, Akumazi, Owa, Ekpon (Edo

State), Igbanke (Edo State), Inyelen (Edo State). The Ika people are specifically located in the

North-West of Delta State but some like Igbanke, Inyelen and Ekpon are presently located in

Edo State. Other Ika communities found in Edo State are Owanikeke, Owa-Riuzo Idu and

Igbogili (Isichei, 1983).

The Ika descents are Igbo-speaking group with some Bini influence. Though they speak Igbo (perhaps the reason they are referred to as Delta Igbos in some quarters), their original language is Ika; hence the claims that the people are of Igbo origin have been disputed. According to one account, the people of Ika were affiliated to the Kingdom of Nri and may have been founded by settlers from there; the Nze na Ozo titles exist among them as well as other Nri cultural connections (Kerr, 1937).

The History of Ika people can hardly be treated independently (North and South

LGAs) or in isolation of Agbor. This is true because it is Agbor that other communities can in one way or the other trace their root. The history like those of other African ancient kingdoms, empires and peoples, is based largely on oral tradition. Various oral accounts on the origin of Agbor and Ika people exist but the most credible being that “Ogunagbon” and his followers, who founded Agbor, came from Benin and first settled in “Ominije”, presently located in today’s Agbor-Nta.

Following what can best be described as personal crisis between two princes in Benin and subsequent settlement of this dispute as agreed to by the chiefs and elders of Benin

60 61 determined by casting of lot, led to one of the princes settling in what became known as

“Agbon” (Unoma, 2000).

Agbon, like other Anioma towns and communities, was later anglicized by the British who found it difficult to pronounce as “Agbor” the present name of the town. Agbon (Agbor) in Benin means “Earth or “Land”. This alteration in pronunciation was not limited to Agbon; other Anioma communities also had a fair share. For instance, Igbuzo was anglicized as

“Ibusa,” Ahaba (Asaba,) Ogwanshi-Ukwu (Ogwashi-Uku), Isei-Ukwu (Issele-Uku), Isei-

Mkpitime (Issele-Mkpitime), Okpam (Okpanam) and Umuede (Umunede). Notice also that in some cases the name remains the same but the spelling may change as in the case of Onicha

(Onitsha) of Anambra state, another Anioma city.

According to Simpson (1936:6), by 8,000 BC, early Agbor had already begun to evolve from the ashes of the wandering and individualistic lifestyle that was in vogue in prehistoric times. It was later in this state that Ominije emerged as the first Agbor settlement founded by the original inhabitants with Orhue as its Headquarters. Ominije later became known as Agbon and was anglicised and called Agbor by the colonial masters that found their way to the area much later. Ancient Ominije covered the area which now envelopes the present day quarters of Agbor-Nta, (still an Agbor suburb) and Oki, Ewuru, Aliagwu, and

Amalia-the conglomerate that form part of the present town of Otorvbaiye and Idumuwogo settlements in Orhionwon LGA of Edo State. Other communities that make up Ika both north and south trace their descent to marriage of different cultures and towns both from the Igbo,

Aniocha or Edo.

From this brief history of Agbor, which is the progenitor of Ika people, we can now consider Ika North-East Local Government Area as an offshoot of the Ika people.

62

The Ika North-East Local Government Area

The local government is sub-divided into fourteen (14) wards for political/electoral convenience. Each of these clans operates as a separate and independent entity under its own traditional ruler. They are well known for their farming prowess producing yam, cassava, melon, maize, tomatoes, pepper, plantain, banana, cocoyam, and other fruit trees and vegetables.

3.2 The Dynamics of ICT in Human Resource Development in Ika North-East Local Government of Delta State, 2008 – 2014

The Ika North East Local Government area is not completely left out in the changing technological advancement of today’s world. There are investments into the modern ICT in different parts of the local government. In the local government headquarters at Owa-Oyibo, some of the offices are equipped with computer systems that use modem for internet services.

These offices include that of the accountant, the auditor, the human resource manager, the secretary and other offices. These make the work in the offices easier and faster.

The Niger Delta Development Project (NDDP) in 2012 built an ICT training centre in

Owa-Oyibo. This project is meant to enhance ICT skill acquisition in the local government.

Other places that ICT training centres are include Umunede built by the natives of the town in Diaspora. It is a joint venture of the town union and the citizens living abroad to bring to their citizens the technology that is seen in other parts of the world and make them adopt modernity.

Pockets of computer business centres are seen in every nook and cranny in the local government. Some of these centres train people in the use of computer and internet services.

Mobile Phone and its mobile applications (android) are in use by various individuals throughout the local government and this has revolutionalised communication and hence living standards (Eneh, 2015). 63

Despite all these achievements, there is a yearning gap between the roles played by ICT so far to the actualization of the development to human resource. These can be seen in the area of lack of ICT in sub-branches as e-governance, e-education, e-library, e-health, e- commerce, e-culture, e-finance and other areas where ICT is expected to play positive roles.

3.3 The Economy of Ika North-East LGA

The people of Ika have traditionally relied on farming for their food and commerce.

This may have been occasioned by the fact that Ika is naturally endowed with balanced ecosystem: fertile soil, buoyant evergreen vegetation and streams; healthy sunshine, maximum rainfall and gentle coastal winds. Living in a naturally conditioned agro- environment, Ika can boast of surplus food all year round. In their markets, the sights of locally produced food items such as yam, cassava, banana, plantain, fruits and vegetables, etc., are commonplace. However, due to urban drift and nonchalant attitude of the youth and able-bodied men towards agriculture in recent times, one cannot say that the full agricultural potential of the area is being tapped nowadays.

3.4 Traditional Politics of Ika North-East LGA

Ika, like most other African settings, is a patriarchal monarchy, and has had series of rulers since inception. The traditional ruler of Agbor is known as Eze or Obi. The current Obi of Agbor is Benjamin Ikechukwu, Keagborekuzi I who goes by Dein, the title of his ruling dynasty, instead of the Obi or Eze. Dein is an Igbo word traditionally used to address older men as a mark of respect. Dein is the dialectal variant of “De” and “Deede” used in other

Igbo areas. In Agbor and in many other Igbo communities, the word “Dein” evolved to become a revered title for the oldest man in the community, and by implication, a title meaning the leader of the community. In many areas of Igboland, Umude or Umudei or

Umudein means the lineage that produces the King, that is, the descendants of the King

(Melekwe, 2001). 64

According to Isichei (1976), Ogele (an immigrant who came and settled in the area) was the pioneer patriarch of the earliest native inhabitants of Agbor (then Ominije). Tradition has it that his wife being Ika, is the one the conglomerate of clans, including Agbor, owe the current language they speak. Ika’s four children, namely Eken, Orie, Afor, and Nkwor were immortalised as the names of the four market days which form the native week. The journey to establishing the Ogele Dynasty which is regarded as the first dynasty of rulers of Agbor and lasted between 8000BC and 1260 AD, actually started in about late summer of 701 BC.

The last Ogele was Ogele XIV (Okwakpor; 1059-1239). The end of the Ogeles’ reign ushered in the reign of Regents. With the passing on of the last regent, Ebogie, the regency period came to an end and monarchy returned, but this time with the kingly title of Dein, beginning with Ebonka as the first Dein of Agbor. That is how the Dein dynasty which is on till date began in 1260 AD (Isichei, 1976). Other communities that form the Ika people vary slightly in the kingship and political configuration and tradition.

3.5 Culture of Ika North-East LGA

The indigenous Ika descents have a very rich cultural heritage. The various festivals observed by the people provide an opportunity to showcase the various aspects of the people’s culture. Some of these festivals, such as Igbose, which was instituted by Dein

Ebonka in 1270 AD to mark God’s appearance to him in Ozanogogo, are unique to the people of that area (Melekwe, 2001).

Festivals which are celebrated by the entire people of Ika are Igue, Iwaji (New Yam

Festival), and the Osiezi. Igue and Iwagi are celebrated annually while Osiezi is celebrated every three years. 65

Igue Festival

Ika people are farming community where elaborate preparations are made to mark the beginning of a new farming season. These preparations culminate in the celebration of one of the most important festivals – the Igue. The event is marked with food and drinks and special cultural display. It is sometimes used to ward off enemies as well as reconcile differences.

The people carry designed palm stick to hit on the ground and chant songs against the enemies. At the end of the festival, they throw all the palm sticks to the common burial ground called ‘ikpekpe’ (evil forest), signifying that they have buried their enemies (Unoma,

2004).

New Yam Festival (Iwa ji) in Ika North-East LGA

Like many other cultures, especially in South-east Nigeria, yam (ji) is regarded as the king of all crops. New Yam Festival is celebrated at the beginning of the harvest season annually. The purpose is to thank God and the spirits of their ancestors for a good harvest throughout the year. It is always a time of goodwill and friendship as people celebrate together, cook and eat together.

Marriage

The people of Ika are mostly farmers and are known for both monogamous and polygamous family system. They have numerous children to help them in the farm work. It is unacceptable by tradition for one to marry from the same kindred. One cannot marry from the same lineage unless a traditional practice called “separation of relationship” is being carried out.

3.6 Geography and Demography of Ika North-East LGA

Geographically, the Ika speaking people are found in the north west of Delta State.

They share borders linguistically in the west with the Edo speakers, in the north with the

Ishan speakers, in the East with the Aniocha language speakers and in the south with the 66

Ukwuani speakers. Specifically, Ika people occupy Ika North East and Ika South Local

Government Areas of Delta State and a land area of about 117.45 square kilometres. Ika is located in Delta North, otherwise referred to as Anioma. Both Agbor and Abavo clans constitute the Ika South LGA; the rest, nine clans and a metropolis (Orogodo or Boji Boji), make up the Ika North-East LGA. On the world map, Ika is located within Latitude 6.25’ N and Longitude 6.19’ E at an altitude of approximately 147m.

Since the 2006 population census did not stipulate the official figure for ethnic groups, the total population figure of the Ika North-East people remains officially unknown or mere estimate.

3.7 Language Spoken by Ika North-East LGA

According to Williamson (1968), the dialect of Ika people is Igboid. This according to him is because it has no noticeable difference from the general Igbo language spoken within the Anioma area only weak phonological and lexical difference separates it from the variety of dialects spoken within the Anioma confine. In actual fact, Ika dialect is a mixture of Igbo and Bini which evidently suggests that it is the influence of proximity with the

Aniocha/Oshimili and Edo groups. This is also reflective in the names that the people bear.

The whole of Ika communities speak Ika dialect while Igbodo and Ekwuoma (at the fringe of

Aniocha) speaks dual Ika and Enuani dialects. We will arrive at the postulation that Ika people speak Ika, a branch of Igbo language (Williams, 1968).

The history of the name “Ika” shows that the term “Ika” has not always been particularized to the present Ika area and its people but has been generally used to loosely accommodate the entire people once referred to as “Western Ibos” by the British colonialists but now Anioma by natives (Forde and Jones, 1967). With time however, the name “Ika” became limited to the present Ika areas of Ika North East and Ika South and their people including Igbanke, Inyelen and Ekpon (now in Edo State) and the people’s dialect. What is 67 said here is that although, we refer to this present group of people as Ika today, original documents of the early European missionaries once viewed the general Anioma people as

“Ika”. These missionary writers later added the suffix “Ibo” to the name to make it sound

“Ika-Ibo”. However, the reason for the retention or limiting of the name to the group already described above is unclear to historians. Only deep researches will ascertain it in due course.

Be that as it may, the people of Ika have always maintained their independence of Bini or any other ethnic group in the country (Williams, 1968).

3.8 Socio-Political Structure of Ika North-East LGA

Prior to the penetration of the British into Nigeria, every region has its own way of political system, be it the North, East and West. In short, the socio-political structure of Ika

North-East LGA could as well be seen as the structure of the typical Delta State LGA political organization (Unoma, 2004).

Generally, socio-political structure of Ika North-East Local Government could as well be seen as the structure of the most Igbo speaking societies. Although, presently, Ika North-

East local government has been structured in such a way that both the federal and state government have the final say regarding it’s functions as stipulated in the constitution of the

Federal Republic of Nigeria (Unoma, 2004).

3.9 Administrative Structure of Ika North-East LGA

Under the administrative setting, the chairman of local government is the chief executive as well as the Accounting Officer of the local government. However, his role as the accounting officer excluded signing vouchers and cheques. As an accounting officer of the local government, the chairman is expected to perform the following functions:

All instructions relating to expenditure of public funds by the Accounting officer shall be in writing. 68

Account to the public accounting committee for every amount of money voted for each department and shall be pecuniary liable.

Shall render annual reports of his local government in order to ensure accountability and enforce the performance ethic.

Shall be bound by the provisions of any other rules, regulations, guidelines and law governing the role and functions of a Chief Executive and Accounting Officer

(Section 1.10, Financial Memoranda 1991).

Under Political Structure in local government, come the councilors who are representatives of various political wards within the local government. They are those that make the law in local council (area). They could be seen as the legislature. In the house, they have the speaker, deputy speaker, clerk etc. that are elected within the Assembly. The speaker of the house is the leader of the house and he or she presides whenever the house is in meeting. Also, Ika North-East Local Government has an approximate population of 1028 thousand workers as at December, 2014. The Local Government is made up of six departments or sections which are:

Finance Department, Education/Social Welfare Department, Personnel Management,

Agric/Vet. Department, Works Department and Health Department.

3.10 Population Distribution of Ika North-East Local Government

According to the Federal Office of Statistics, figures from the 2006 National Census, the population of Ika North-East LGA was 183,657 thousand with number of male at 89, 241 and female at 94, 416 at a growth rate of 2.83% (NPC, 2006).

Age Distribution of Population in the Rural

In Ika North-East Local Government, most of the working population (78%) is self employed, (53% in rural area and 25% in urban areas). Agriculture accounts for 75% of the 18% 69 total workforce and 68% in rural areas. The proportions of women in agriculture at 54% are higher than that of men (46%). Trade is the next most important activity (25% of females and

14% of males), followed by services (8% of females and 14% of males) and education and health workers (5% of both males and females). Thus, the local government employs about 2-

3% of the working-age population while State and Federal Government employs about 5%.

Source: Adapted from Unoma (2007) in “Demographic Studies of Ika North East Local

Governments”

3.11 Organizational Structure of Ika North-East Local Government

According to Okoli (2000), the structure of the Local Government Councils in Nigeria was as provided for in Decree No. 15 of 1989 as amended especially by Decree 41 of 1991.

The structure of the Local Government Council is made up of the Executive and the

Legislative arms.

The Executive Organ of Local Government Council

According to the Guidelines for implementation of the Local Government 1976

(Basic Constitutional Provisions) Amendments Decree 1991, the Executive Organ of the

Local Government Council was made up of:

- the Executive Chairman, - the Vice-Chairman, - Supervisory Councilors’, and; - The Secretary to the Local Government

Functions of the Executive Organ

The functions of the Executive Organ include the following:-

(a) Determining the general direction of the policies of the local government council;

(b) Co-coordinating the activities of the local government council, and

(c) Generally discharging the executive functions of the local government council. 70

- The Legislative Organ of the Local Government Councils:

The Decree as amended by the Guidelines, also provided for the legislative organ of the government in section 17. The legislature was made up of:

- Part-time local government councilors,

- Leader of the council, elected by the councilors from among the majority party in the

council: and

- The council clerk.

Functions of the Legislative Organ of the Local Government Council

The functions of the legislative organ of the local government council include:

(a) law making, debating and passing local government legislation;

(b) debating, approving and possibly amending local government annual budget, subject

to the chairman’s veto, which could be overridden by a two – third majority of the

council votes;

(c) vetoing and monitoring the implementation of projects and programmes in the local

government annual budget;

(d) examining and debating monthly statements of income and expenditure rendered to it

by the Executive organ of the local government;

(e) impeaching the local government chairman who committed an impeachable offence in

accordance with the constitution of the federal republic of Nigeria;

(f) advising , consulting and liaising with the local government chairman as the head of

the executive organ of the local government; and

(g) Performing such other functions as may be assigned to it, form time, by the house of

assembly of the state in which it is situated (Okoli, 2000; Ezeani 2004).

71

Functions of Ika North-East Local Government

The functions of Ika North-East Local Government are examined in the two sub- headings below.

Constitutional Provisions on the Functions of Local Government

Local government all over the world has been assigned some functions under the law.

For instance, section 7 of the 1999 constitution of Nigeria provides that:

The functions to be conferred by law upon local

government councils shall include those spelt out in

the fourth schedule of this constitution.

The functions of local government are therefore grouped into exclusive and concurrent functions as spelt in the fourth schedule of the 1999 constitution of the Federal

Republic of Nigeria viz:

Residual Functions of Local Government:

(a) The consideration and the making of recommendations to a state’s commission on

economic planning or any similar body on:

- The economic development of the state particularly in so far as the area of authority

of the councils and of the state are affected;

- Proposal made by the said commission or body;

(b) Collection of rates, radio and television licenses;

(c) Establishment, maintenance and regulation of slaughter houses, markets, motor parks and

public conveniences;

(d) Establishment and maintenance of cemeteries, burial grounds and homes for the

destitute and infirm licensing of bicycles, trucks (other than mechanically propelled

trucks, canoes, wheel barrows and carts). 72

(e) Construction and maintenance of roads, streets; street lightings, drains and other

public highways, parks, gardens, open spaces, or such public facilities as may be

prescribed from time to time by the House of Assembly of the state;

(f) Naming of roads and streets and numbering of houses;

(g) Provision and maintenance of public conveniences, sewage and refuse disposal;

(h) Registration of all birth, death and marriages;

(i) Assessment of privately owned houses or tenements for the purpose of levying such

rates as may be prescribed by the House of Assembly of a state; and

(j) Control and regulation of:

- Outdoor advertising and hoarding

- Movement and keeping of pets of all description;

- Shops and kiosks;

- Restaurants, bakeries and other places for sale of food to the public.

Concurrent Functions of Local Government

The function of a local government council shall include participation of such council in the government of a state as respect the following matters:-

(a) The provision and maintenance of primary, adult and vocational educational;

(b) The development of agriculture and natural resources, other than the exploitation of

minerals; and

(c) The provision and maintenance of primary healthcare services and such other

functions as may be conferred on a local government council by the House of

Assembly of the state.

Source: (Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, 1999). 73

CHAPTER FOUR: DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS This chapter focused on presentation and analysis of data collected from the field work. The study also assessed the research hypotheses to ascertain their consistency or correlations with the research findings. However, it is pertinent to state that of the total of 150 questionnaires administered by the researcher, that only 120 questionnaires were answered and returned successfully. The analysis in this study therefore focused on the 120 questionnaires completely and correctly answered by the respondents. It is also important to restate again that the samples cut across the major communities in Ika North-East Local

Government Area of Delta State.

4.1 Presentation of Personal Data of the Respondents Table One: Target Population in the Communities Communities in the LGA Target respondents Sample 1 Igbodo 10 10 2 Umunede 10 10 3 Owa-Oyibo 10 10 4 Otolokpo 10 10 5 Akwumazi 10 10 6 Owerre-Olubor 10 10 7 Ute-Okpu 10 10 8 Idumuesah, 10 10 9 Owa-Alero 10 10 10 Ekwuoma 10 10 11 Ute-Ogbeje 10 10 12 Mbiri 10 10 Total 120 120 Source: Field Work Data, 2015

The table showed the targeted respondents of the communities that make up Ika

North-East LGA namely: Igbodo, Umunede, Owa-Oyibo, Otolokpo, Akwumazi, Owerre-

Olubor, Ute-Okpu, Idumuesah, Owa-Alero, Ekwuoma, Ute-Ogbeje and Mbiri. These

73 74 communities are primarily the target in the assessment of the role of ICT in and human resource development in Nigeria.

Table Two: Gender Distribution of the Respondents

Local Govt. Area Male Female Total

Gender distribution 50 70 120

Gender Percentage Gender (%) 41.7% Gender (58.3%) 100%

Source: Field Work Data, 2015

The table above showed that in the gender distribution of the respondents, 50 (41.7%) out of the 120 respondents are male while 70 (58.3%) are female.

Table Three: Age Distribution of the Respondents

Age Category No of Respondents Percentage (%)

18-30 21 17.5

31-40 30 25.0

41-50 26 21.7

51 and above 43 33.3

Total 120 100

Source: Field Work Data, 2015

The data we got above shows that 16% of the respondents are within the range of 18-

30, 45.5% are in 31-40 age brackets while 22.3% are in 41-50 age groups, the remaining

16.1% are in 51 and above age group.

75

Table Four: Educational Qualification of the Respondents

Category Respondent Percentage (%) Primary/Secondary 52 43.3

NCE/OND 37 30.8

HND/BSC 26 21.7

PHD 5 4.1

Total 120 100 Source: Field Work Data, 2015

From the above table, 52 respondents or (43.3%) were primary/secondary school certificate holders, 37 respondents or (30.8%) were NCE/OND holders, 26 respondents or

(21.7%) indicated they possess B.Sc/HND degrees while, 5 respondents or (4.1%) indicated they were Ph.D holders.

Table Five: Number of children per respondent

Number of Children

Parental Category Frequency Percentage (%)

0-3 25 25.0

4-7 79 65.8

8 and above 16 13.3

Total 120 100 Source: Field Work Data, 2015

The above data shows that majority of our respondents are parents of 4-7 children a category of 65.8% while 25.0% are parent of 0-3 children, parent of 8 and above are only

13.3% of our respondents.

76

Research Question 1: Information and Communication Technology (ICT) has played significant role on Human Resource Development in Ika North-East Local Government Area since 2008 – 2014.

SD, 27, 8%

D, 78, 22%

SA, 150, 41%

U, 0, 0%

A, 105, 29%

Source: Field Work Data, 2015

Where SA – Strongly Agreed A – Agreed U – Undecided D – Disagreed SD – Strongly Disagreed The Fig. 4.1 above examines the respondents’ assessment of the roles played by ICT to human resource development in Ika north-east LGA of Delta State. It revealed that 50

o respondents (150 or 41%) strongly agreed that ICT has played significant role in human resource development in Ika North-East LGA while 35 respondents (105o or 29%) agreed. On the other hand, 26 respondents (78o or 22%) disagreed that information and communication technology has played significant role in enhancing human resources development in the area while 9 respondents or (27o or 8%) strongly disagreed that agreed that information and 77 communication technology has played significant role in enhancing human resources development in the area.

Mobile phone and internet has revolutionized communication in Nigeria. Prior to the era of this technology in Nigeria, people use to send their messages through letter writing and oral means. This may take many days before delivery and sometimes, the information would have expired or further still, harm would have been incurred in the time lag for the information to be delivered and response received. The era of information and communication technology has played significant role in ameliorating these challenges and mitigating suffering accruing to that, thereby enhancing human resources development in the area and Nigeria in general.

Research Question 2: Many jobs have been created by the Local Government in the Area of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in Ika North-East LGA since 2008.

SA, 15, 4%

A, 45, 13%

U, 0, 0%

SD, 162, 45%

D, 138, 38%

Source: Field Work Data, 2015

From the table above, the respondents refuted the statement that jobs have been created by the Local Government in the Area of Information and Communication Technology 78

(ICT) in Ika North-East Local Government since 2008. From the table, 5 respondents (15o) strongly agreed while, 15 respondents (45o) agreed with the view that many jobs have been created by the Local Government in the Area of Information and Communication Technology

(ICT) in Ika North-East since 2008 which affected human resource development in Ika

North-East Local Government. On the other hand, some respondents expressed different views. The chart revealed that 46 respondents (138o) disagreed while, 54 respondents (162o or ) strongly disagreed with the view that many jobs have been created by the Local

Government in the Area in the area of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in

Ika North-East since 2008. Some of these respondents revealed that creation of employment opportunities will enhance service delivery and human resource development in the study area but that the local government as an entity has not contributed so much in that direction.

Research Question 3: Making ICT resources available in the rural areas will attract development in Ika North-East LGA.

SD, 18, 5% D, 21, 6%

U, 12, 3%

SA, 180, 50%

A, 129, 36%

Source: Field Work Data, 2015 The presentation above revealed that majority of the respondents subscribed to the view that making ICT resources available in the rural areas will attract development in Ika 79

North-East Local Government Area. Analysis revealed that 60 respondents or (180o) strongly agreed while 43 respondents or (129o) agreed with the view that ICT resources availability in the rural areas will attract development in Nigeria, and Ika North-East Local Government

Area in particular. From their views, availability of information and communication technology will help reposition communication and bring the people to limelight. On the other hand, 4 respondents (12o) were undecided, 7 respondents or (21o) disagreed while 6 respondents or (18o) strongly disagreed with the view that making ICT resources available in the rural areas will attract development in Ika North-East LGA. The views of those that said otherwise bother on their illogical argument that ICT will not build factories or good roads in the local government area but others believed that ICT can generate employment opportunities and better living standard in the area.

Research Question 4: Availability of ICT resources in Ika North-East LGA will discourage rural-urban migration in the area.

Fig 4.4 Making ICT resources available will discourage rural-urban migration

SD, 6, 2% D, 9, 3% U, 0, 0%

A, 153, 43% SA, 192, 52%

Source: Field Work Data, 2015 80

Figure 4.4 above assessed the respondents’ view on the whether availability of ICT resources in Ika North-East LGA will discourage rural-urban migration in the area which affect human resource development in Ika Local Government Area. Evidently, many of the respondents accepted that view as indicated in the chart above. From the bar chart above, 64 respondents or (192o) strongly agreed while 51 respondents or (153o) agreed with the view that availability of ICT resources in Ika North-East LGA will discourage rural-urban migration in the area of human resource development in Ika North-East Local Government Area. On the other hand, only 3 respondents (9o) indicated disagreed on the options and 2 (6o) strongly disagreed”. However, from the findings, the respondent gathered that due to the location of the local government headquarter, there is problems of making development available in other areas that were hitherto threading the path of development. Most of the funds available to the local government for development is channeled to upgrading the standard of the local government headquarter in detriment or exclusion of the other areas. This is perhaps what encouraged the few respondents’ that had negative view that availability of ICT resources in Ika North-East LGA will discourage rural-urban migration in the area. Research Question 5: The living standard of the people has been greatly enhanced since the introduction of ICT infrastructures to Ika North-East LGA.

Fig. 4.5: If the standard of living of the people has been enhanced since introduction of ICT

SA, 15, 4%

A, 75, 21%

SD, 141, 39%

U, 0, 0%

D, 129, 36% Source: Field Work Data, 2015 81

From figure 4.5 above examined the respondents’ assessment on whether the living standard of the people has been greatly enhanced since the introduction of ICT infrastructures to Ika North-East LGA. From the table above, 5 respondents (15o) strongly agreed while 25 respondents or (75o) agreed to the view that the living standard of the people has been greatly enhanced since the introduction of ICT infrastructures to Ika North-East LGA. Conversely,

43 respondents or (129o) disagreed to the view that the living standard of the people has been greatly enhanced since the introduction of ICT while the remaining 47 respondents or (141o) strongly disagreed. This response can be justified from the fact that the government has not done so much in the area of enhancing the living standard of the people of Ika North-East

LGA through ICT.

Research Question 6: The people are not cooperating with the government in making ICT readily available in Ika North-East LGA.

Fig 4:6: Response to the peoples’ cooperation with the government on ICT

SD, 24, 7%

D, 36, 10% SA, 105, 29%

U, 24, 7%

A, 171, 47% Source: Field Work Data, 2015 82

The chart above examined whether the people do co-operate with the government to the enhancement of ICT resources in Ika North-East LGA. From the analysis, 35 respondents or

(105o) strongly agreed while, 57 respondents or (171o) agreed that the people do co-operate with the government to the enhancement of ICT resources in Ika North-East LGA. On the other hand, 8 of the respondents (24o) indicated the option of “undecided”, 12 respondents

(36o) indicated “disagreed” while 8 (24o) “strongly disagreed” as represented by the chart.

From the geographical and demographic structure of the local government, it is difficult for information to circulate within the local government due to the fact that the local government headquarters is in the most remote and least developed area of the local government and as such, majority of the people don’t have idea of what transpire within the local government. Resources allotted to the local government are used to upgrade the headquarters to match with other areas in terms of development. It is difficult for resources meant to develop the local government to reach other areas that are more developed than the headquarters.

Research Question 7: More employment opportunities will be created if ICT resources are made available in Ika North-East LGA

Fig 4.7: Assessing if ICT can create more job opportunities in the study area

SD, 30, 8%

SA, 114, 32%

D, 75, 21%

U, 0, 0%

A, 141, 39%

Source: Field Work Data, 2015 83

Chart 4.7 examines whether more employment opportunities will be created if ICT resources are made available in Ika North-East LGA. From the data presentation, 38 respondents or (114o) strongly agreed while, 47 respondents or (141o) agreed with the view that these resources are powered by human being who should be sourced within the locality.

On the other hand, 25 respondents or (75o) disagreed while 10 respondents or (30o) strongly disagreed with the view that the people are content with their farming business and cannot shift to ICT that have little or no bearing with their traditional business.

Research Question 8: Non-availability of foreign or federal government assistance to ICT development in Ika North East LGA hampers the growth of ICT in the area? Fig 4:8 Assessment of foreign and federal government aid to ICT D, 18, 5% SD, 0, 0% U, 12, 3%

SA, 174, 49%

A, 156, 43%

Source: Field Work Data, 2015

The above illustration showed that 58 respondents or (174o) of the respondents strongly agreed that lack of assistance from federal government or foreign agencies hamper the progress of their ICT usage, while 52 respondents or (156o) of the respondents agreed that lack of assistance hamper the progress of their ICT usage, 4 respondents or (12o) were undecided that lack of assistance hamper the progress of their ICT usage, 6 respondents or

(18o) disagreed while no respondents or (0o) strongly disagreed to the question. From the 84 information gathered, it is evident that the federal government or the foreign donors has not made any concerted effort to enhance development through ICT in the study area.

Research Question 9: The teaching of ICT in public schools will enhance development in education and hence human resource development in Ika North-East LGA

Fig 4:9 If teaching of ICT in public schools will enhance academic development

D, 24, 7% SD, 6, 2% U, 0, 0%

A, 90, 25%

SA, 240, 66%

Source: Field Work Data, 2015

The chart above explains that 80 respondents or (240o) strongly agreed while 30 respondents or (90o) agreed the view that teaching of ICT in public schools will enhance academic development. On other hand, 8 respondents or (24o) disagreed while 2 respondents or (6o) strongly disagreed to the supposition that teaching of ICT in public schools will enhance academic development.

85

Research Question 10: The Ika North-East local government is not doing enough to promote

ICT.

Fig 4:10 Assessment of the efforts of the LGA in promoting ICT

SD, 6, 2% D, 18, 5% U, 18, 5%

A, 93, 26%

SA, 225, 62%

Source: Field Work Data, 2015

The data above shows that 75 respondents or (225o) strongly agreed while 31 respondents or (93o) agreed to the view that Ika North-East local government is not doing enough to promote ICT in the area, 6 (18o) were undecided that the LGA is not doing enough. On the contrary, 6 respondents or (18o) disagreed while 2 respondents or (6o) strongly disagreed with the view that Ika North-East local government is not doing enough to promote ICT in the area. The local government is not focused on making ICT resources available to the people.

Even the staff and offices of the local government still use manual typewriters instead of computer for their operations.

86

Research Question 11: Some spirited individuals have contributed to ICT development in Ika North-East LGA.

Fig. 4.11 Private Public Partnership in ICT development

SA, 45, 13% SD, 75, 21%

A, 63, 18%

U, 30, 8%

D, 147, 40%

Source: Field Work, 2015.

The data above shows that 15 respondents or (45o) strongly agreed while 21 respondents or (63o) agreed to the view that some individuals have contributed to ICT development in Ika North-East LGA, 10 respondents (30o) were undecided claiming that they don’t know anyone that has contributed. On the contrary, 49 respondents or (147o) disagreed while 25 respondents or (75o) strongly disagreed with the view that some individuals have contributed to ICT development in Ika North-East LGA. 87

Research Question 12: Community efforts has contributed to ICT development in Ika North-East LGA

Fig 4.12: Assessment of community contribution to ICT development

SD, 9, 3% D, 27, 8%

U, 6, 2%

A, 93, 25%

SA, 225, 62%

Source: Field Work, 2015.

The data above shows that 75 respondents or (225o) strongly agreed while 31 respondents or (93o) agreed to the view that Community efforts has contributed to ICT development in Ika North-East LGA, 2 respondents (6o) were undecided. On the contrary, 3 respondents or (27o) disagreed while 3 respondents or (9o) strongly disagreed with the view that Community efforts has contributed to ICT development in Ika North-East LGA. The view of the majority that subscribe to the assertion that Community efforts has contributed to

ICT development in Ika North-East LGA is based on the fact that some of the communities built cyber café and computer centres to train their citizens on the use of ICT. In places like

Umunede, Igbodo and Akwumazi, the natives that live outside the town built computer centres and libraries to augment the government lapses.

88

Research Question 13: There is no relationship between the use of ICT and development. Fig. 4.13: Assessment of the relationship between ICT and development

SA, 6, 2% A, 9, 3% U, 3, 1%

D, 147, 41% SD, 195, 53%

Source: Field Work, 2015.

The data above shows that 2 respondents or (6o) strongly agreed while 3 respondents or (9o) agreed to the proposition that there is no relationship between the use of ICT and development, 0 respondents (0%) was undecided. On the contrary, 49 respondents or (147o) disagreed while 65 respondents or (195o) strongly disagreed with the notion that there is no relationship between ICT and human resource development in Ika North-East LGA. 89

Research Question 14: Areas ICT Affected Human Resource Development in Ika North- East Local Government Area.

Classification of Areas of ICT Effects on human resource No. of responses development in study area

Ø Human development

Moral boosting 15 (12.5% or 45o)

Ease of use of information 17 (14.2% or 51o)

Data keeping and managing 17 (14.2% or 51o)

Ø Economic Effects

Income generation and banking operations 10 (8.3% or 30o)

Business opportunities 13 (11.7% or 39o)

Encouragement of commercial activities 14 (11.7% or 42o)

Ø Agricultural Effects

Boosting of food production through better information on 21 (17.5% or 63o) availability of incentives and improved methods

Marketing of products through more effective communication 13 (10.8 or 39o) with customers

The table above showed the percentage of the respondents who indicated on the question asked by the researcher on the areas ICT affected human resource development in

Ika North-East local government area 2008 – 2014. The respondents identified that during period in question, ICT recorded moral boosting with 15 respondents (12.5%), ease with use of information and data keeping and managing with 17 (14.2%) respondents respectively, income generation and banking operations with 10 respondents (8.3%), business opportunities activities with 13 respondents (10.8%), encouragement of commercial activities 90 with 14 respondents (11.7%), and boosting of food production through better information on availability of incentives and improved methods with 21 respondents or (17.5%) and better marketing of products through more effective communication with customers 13 (10.8%).

Hypotheses Test

The data already presented will be used in testing the three hypotheses of the research on the bases of which they would be affirmed or rejected as provided by our data. In testing the validity of our research hypotheses, chi-square test will be used. We shall reject the hypotheses if chi-square calculated figure is greater than the critical value in the chi-square table, while the hypotheses will be rejected if the calculated value is less than the tabulated value.

Restatement of Research Hypotheses

• ICT has not contributed to the development of human resources in Ika North-East

Local Government Area of Delta State.

• Poor policy implementation is the hindrance to the role of ICT on human resource

development in Ika North-East Local Government Area of Delta State.

• The strategies employed for improvement of ICT utilization has no relationship with

human resource development in Ika North-East Local Government Area of Delta

State.

91

ICT has not contributed to the development of human resources in Ika North-East Local Government Area of Delta State. Categories of Respondents SA A U SD D Total

Public/Civil Servants 12 11 0 2 1 26 Farmers/Agriculturists/Traders 19 23 0 2 2 46 Students/Youths 21 22 0 3 2 48 Total 52 56 0 7 5 120 Source: Field Work Data, 2015

Where, SA = Strongly Agrees

A = Agree

D = Disagree

SA = Strongly Disagree

U = Undecided

The hypothesis shall be tested at 0.05 level of significance in order to determine its correlation with our research findings. 92

Computation of expected (e) e1 52 x 26 = 11.27 120 e2 56 x 26 = 12.13 120 e3 0 x 26 = 0 120 e4 7 x 26 = 1.52 120 e5 5 x 26 = 1.08 120 e6 52 x 46 = 20 120 e7 56 x 46 = 21.47 120 e8 0 x 46 = 0 120 e9 7 x 46 = 2.68 120 e10 5 x 46 = 1.92 120 e11 52 x 48 = 20.8 120 e12 56 x 48 = 22.8 120 e13 0 x 48 = 0 120 e14 7 x 48 = 2.8 120 e15 5 x 48 = 2 120 93

Table for Computation of Chi-Square

O E O – E (O – E)2 (O -E )2 E 12 11.27 0.73 0.53 0.047

11 12.13 -1.13 1.28 0.105

0 0 0 0 0

2 1.52 0.48 0.23 0.152

1 1.08 -0.08 0.166 0.154

19 19.93 -0.93 0.865 0.043

23 21.47 1.53 2.34 0.11

0 0 0 0 0

2 2.68 -0.68 0.46 0.173

2 1.92 0.08 0.0064 0.0033

21 20.8 0.02 0.04 0.003

22 22.4 -0.4 0.16 0.002

0 0 0 0 0

3 2.8 0.2 0.04 0.014

2 2 0 0 0

(x2) chi- square calculated 0.8063 0.8063

Source: Field Work Data, 2015

Obtained the x2 table value using the degree of freedom and level of significance given at 0.05 and df (r – I) (c – I). From our table of observed responses the degree of freedom is (3 – 1) (5 – 1) (i.e. 2 x 4 = 8).

As stated earlier, the level of significance is 0.05 and with the degree of freedom (df) at 8, the researcher now refer to the table of sampling distribution chi-square for 8 df at 0.05 level of significance. The critical chi-square value for 8 df and 0.05 level of significance is

15.507. 94

Decision Rule: Reject, hypothesis if chi-square calculated is > (greater than) chi-square X2 critical value and do not reject if otherwise.

Conclusion: With close examination of the inference from the table analysis, it was observed that there are effective recommendations made towards addressing the issue of information and communication technology so as to make it available to the local government in order to positively encourage human resource development in Ika North-East Local Government Area of Delta State. Although, judging from the chi-square data analysis, the tabulated value of chi-square (15.507) is greater than the calculated value (0.8063) which showed that these recommendations are still not sufficient towards creating an enabling environment to foster

ICT usage for affective human resource development in Nigeria, hence we accept the hypothesis.

The policies adopted by the government on ICT creates problem on human resource development in Ika North-East Local Government Area of Delta State. Categories of Respondents SA A U D SD Total

Public/Civil Servants 1 3 1 12 7 24

Farmers/Agriculturists/Traders 3 10 2 22 5 42

Students/Youths 6 11 0 20 17 54

Total 10 24 3 54 29 120

Source: Field Work Data, 2015

Where SA = Strongly Agree

A = Agree

U = Undecided

D = Disagree

SD = Strongly Disagree 95

The hypothesis shall be tested at 0.05 level of significance in order to determine its correlation with the research findings.

Computation of Expected (e)

e1 10 x 24 = 2 120 e2 24 x 24 = 4.8 120 e3 3 x 24 = 0.6 120 e4 54 x 24 = 10.8 120 e5 29 x 24 = 5.8 120 e6 10 x 42 = 3.5 120 e7 24 x 42 = 8.4 120 e8 3 x 42 = 1.05 120 e9 54 x 42 = 18.9 120 e10 29 x 42 = 10.15 120 e11 10 x 54 = 4.5 120 e12 24 x 54 = 10.8 120 e13 3 x 54 = 1.35 120 e14 54 x 54 = 24.3 120 e15 29 x 54 = 13.05 120 96

Table for Computation of Chi-Square

O E O – E (O – E)2 (O – E)2 E 1 2 -1 1 0.5 3 4.8 -1.8 3.24 0.675 1 0.6 0.4 0.16 0.27 12 10.8 1.2 1.44 0.13 7 5.8 1.2 1.44 0.25 3 3.5 -0.5 0.25 0. 07 10 8.4 1.6 2.56 0. 31 2 1. 05 0.95 0.9 0.86 22 18.9 3.1 9.61 0.51 5 10.15 -5.15 26.52 0.51 6 4.5 1.5 2.25 0.5 11 10.8 0.2 0. 04 0.0037

0 1.35 -1.35 1.82 1.35 20 24.3 -4.3 18.49 0.76 17 13. 05 3.95 15.61 1.196 (X2) chi- square calculated X2 = 7.515

Source: Field Work Data, 2015

Obtain the x2 table value using the degree of freedom and level of significance given at 0.05 and df (r -c) (c-1). From our table of observed responses, the degree of freedom is (3 - 1) (5 –

1) = 2 x 4 =8.

As stated earlier, the level of significance is 0.05 and with the degree of freedom (df) at 8, the researcher now refer to the table of sampling distribution chi-square for 8 df at 0.05 level of significance is 15.507.

Decision Rule: Reject hypothesis if chi-square calculated is greater than chi-square X2 critical value and do not reject if otherwise. 97

Conclusion: Since chi-square calculated value (7.515) is less than chi-square critical value

(15.507) at 0.05 level of significance and 5 df, we therefore accept the hypothetical statement that policies of the government on ICT is not followed to power the human resource development in Ika North-East Local Government Area of Delta State.

The strategies employed for improvement of ICT utilization has no relationship with human resource development in Ika North-East Local Government Area of Delta State. Categories of respondents SA A U D SD Total

Public/Civil Servants 2 5 0 11 5 23

Farmers/Agriculturists/Traders 5 9 0 22 5 41

Students/Youths 5 11 0 23 17 56

Total 12 25 0 56 27 120

Source: Field Work Data, 2015

The hypothesis shall be tested at 0.05 level of significance in order determine its correlation with our research findings.

Computation of Expected (e)

e1 56 x 23 = 10.75 120 e2 34 x 23 = 6.52 120 e3 0 x 23 = 0 120 e4 19 x 23 = 3.64 120 e5 11 x 23 = 2.11 120 e6 56 x 41 = 19.13 120 e7 34 x 41 = 11.62 120 e8 0 x 41 = 0 120 98

e9 19 x 41 = 6.49 120 e10 11 x 41 = 3.76 120 e11 56 x 56 = 26.13 120 e12 34 x56 = 15.87 120 e13 0 x 56 = 0 120 e14 19 x 56 = 8.87 120 e15 11 x 56 = 5.13 120

Table for Computation of Chi-Square

O E O – E (O – E)2 (O – E)2 E 11 10.73 0.27 0/0729 0.007 7 6.52 0.48 0.23 0.035 0 0 0 0 0 4 3.64 0.36 0.13 0.036 1 2.11 -1.11 1.23 0.584 22 19.13 2.87 8.24 0.431 10 11.62 -1.62 2.62 0.226 0 0 0 0 0. 4 6.49 -2.49 6.2 0.96 5 3.76 1.24 1.54 0.41 23 26.13 -3.13 9.8 0.375 17 15.87 1.13 1.28 0.08 0 0 0 0 0 11 8.87 2.13 4.54 0.512 5 15.13 -0.13 0.02 0.006 (X2) chi- square calculated 4.65 3.662 Source: Field Work Data, 2015 99

Obtain the x2 table value using the degree of freedom and level of significance given at 0.05 and df (r-c) (c-1). From our table of observed responses, the degree of freedom is (3 - 1) (5 –

1) = 2 x 4 = 8.

As stated earlier, the level of significance is 0.05 and with the degree of freedom (df) at 8, the researcher now refer to the table of sampling distribution chi-square for 8 df at 0.05 level of significance is 15.507.

Decision Rule: Reject hypothesis if chi-square calculated is greater than chi-square x2 critical value and do not reject if otherwise.

Conclusion: Since chi-square calculated value (4.65) is less than chi–square critical value

(15.507) at 0.05 level of significance and 5 df, we therefore accept the hypothetical statement that the strategies employed for improvement of ICT utilization has no relationship with human resource development in Ika North-East Local Government Area of Delta State.

4.3 Discussion of Findings

The research revealed that there are challenges in making ICT resources available for human resource development in Nigeria and particularly in Ika-North East Local Government

Area of Delta State. These problems are exacerbated by the non-implementation of the policy of the government on ICT.

• Government policies on ICT in Nigeria are not well pursued to make it play its needed

roles to enhance human resource development in the country and Ika-North East Local

Government Area in particular;

• Incessant change of government and lack of the will power of the government to

continue the projects started by the predecessors hamper some of the government

policies of government. Each government would always want to initiate new

programmes to be tagged and identified as the initiator of such programmes in detriment 100

of the policy hitherto entered by the preceding government which makes policy

implementation suffer setback;

• The unemployment situation in Nigeria is exacerbated by inability of the country to

utilize the emerging technology of ICT to diversify the economy by creating jobs in the

Area of Information and Communication Technology (ICT);

• Insufficient ICT resources in Ika North-East Local Government Area is seen as a bane

to human resource development as this ICT is a veritable tool for development in the

modern society yet not enough of this resource is available in the study area;

• Non-exploitation of ICT resources in Ika North-East LGA encourages rural-urban

migration from the area;

• The living standard of the people has not been immensely enhanced by the

introduction of ICT infrastructures to Ika North-East LGA;

• Non-availability of foreign or federal government assistance to ICT development in

Ika North East LGA hampers the growth of ICT in the area;

• The Ika North-East local government is not doing enough to promote ICT;

• Some spirited individuals and community efforts have contributed to ICT development

in Ika North-East LGA.

The lessons that could be drawn from these findings are that although rural ICT deployment and exploitation initiatives can be successful and can have an impact on the social (health, education) and economic outcomes of rural people in Nigeria, most of the initiatives employed cannot have an appreciable impact on accelerating the socio-economic development process of rural communities and beyond.

The impact of these rural initiatives cannot therefore be taken for granted; in other words for these initiatives to make appreciable impact on the achievement of development, specific attentions will need to be given to addressing issue relating to: (i) local and 101 community-level involvement and ownership of these initiatives for them to survive after the project initiators have left the scene; (ii) the mobilization of the necessary financial and other resources required to implement the projects beyond the initiation stage and (iii) addressing administrative and other bottlenecks that could pose a problem for the implementation of these projects.

A key lesson is that initiatives aimed at the development, deployment and exploitation of ICT should as far as possible be regarded as a means to achieving the much wider developmental goals of the country. In other words, the development, deployment and exploitation of ICT in the society and economy should not be a goal in itself, but as a means towards achieving clearly define socio-economic development goals – the achievement of development.

The argument being put forward is that: for the deployment and exploitation of ICTs to make an appreciable desirable impact on the socio-economic development process and hence on the achievement of development, it will need to be integrated into the overall developmental programmes of the country. Another key lesson learnt is that: although the implementation of small scale sector and community-based ICT projects and initiatives will be essential to speed up the process of the deployment and exploitation of ICTs in the society and economy, there is a need for the countries to as far as possible integrate their implementation into the overall socio-economic development strategies and goals of the country.

102

CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION

5.1 Summary This research has attempted the examination of the role of Information and communication technology in fostering human resource development in Ika North-East Local

Government Area of Delta State 2008 – 2014. This study undertook to assess the impact of

ICT on human resource development especially as it concerns creation of employment opportunities, education, enhancement of living standard of the people, agricultural and economic standardization and discouragement of rural urban migration. However, the study also examined the emerging information and technology in Nigeria, historical review of the roles it has played in Nigeria in enhancement of the living standard of the people and how it has contributed to the developmental process of the country Nigeria. The study maintained that ICT has the capacity to revolutionalise the country from its present state to an industrialized state if well adopted.

Human resource is most important asset of any nation, therefore, any effort of the government or its collaborators to improve the human resource is an effort geared towards development and raising the standard of living and this can be fastened through the application of information and communication technology. Therefore, the major objective of carrying out this research is to undertake empirical assessment of the role of ICT on human resource development in Nigeria using Ika-North East Local Government Area of Delta State as a focal point. In more specific terms, this study achieved the following: found out the efforts made towards providing ICT resources which affects human resource development in

Ika-North East Local Government Area, examined the policies of the government on ICT to the enhancement of human resource development in Ika-North East Local Government Area, assessed the major challenges facing ICT management as it relates to human resource development in Ika-North East Local Government Area, and found out how government and

102 103 community efforts can enhance human resource development in Ika-North East Local

Government Area.

This study made use of both primary and secondary sources of data collection. The primary source of data included the questionnaire and oral interview while the secondary sources of data collection were mainly from textbooks, journals and government documents.

The study made use of the diffusion of innovation theory to give theoretical assessment of the acceptability and applicability of ICT in Nigeria. The major tenet of the diffusion of innovation theory hinges on the assumption that new and emerging innovation takes time to diffuse into the main stream of the society. The people are often skeptical to accepting new innovation and internalizing it into their lifestyle. Government policy on information and communication technology should be backed up with financial, technological and human resource to make its presence felt.

In the data analysis, the study adopted tables, pie charts and chi-square statistical methods to present and analyze the raw data gathered from the field work. In summary, the findings revealed that:

• There are challenges in making ICT resources available for human resource

development in Nigeria and particularly in Ika-North East Local Government Area of

Delta State;

• Government policies on ICT in Nigeria are not enough and not well pursued to make it

play its needed role to enhance human resources development in the country and Ika-

North East Local Government Area in particular;

• Incessant change of government and lack of the will power of the government to

continue the projects started by the predecessors hamper some of the government

policies of government. Each government would always want to initiate new

programme to be tagged and identified as the initiator of such programme in detriment 104

of the policy hitherto entered by the preceding government which makes policy

implementation suffer setback;

• The unemployment situation in Nigeria is exacerbated by inability of the country to

utilize the emerging ICT to diversify the economy by creating jobs in the Area of

Information and Communication Technology (ICT);

• Lack of development in Ika-North East Local Government is attributed to non-

availability of ICT resources in the area;

• Non-exploitation of ICT resources in Ika North-East LGA encourages rural-urban

migration from the area;

• The living standard of the people has not been immensely enhanced by the

introduction of ICT infrastructures to Ika North-East LGA;

• Non-availability of foreign or Federal Government assistance to ICT development in

Ika North East LGA hampers the growth of ICT in the area;

• The Ika North-East Local Government is not doing enough to promote ICT;

• Some spirited individuals and community efforts have contributed to ICT development

in Ika North-East LGA.

5.3 Recommendations Based on the findings of this study, the researcher observed the challenges of making

ICT available for human resource development in Nigeria, the researcher is therefore make the following recommendations:

• Government policies on ICT in Nigeria should be pursued vigorously to make it play

its needed role to enhance human resource development in the country and Ika-North

East Local Government Area in particular;

• Incessant change of government and lack of the will power of the new government to

continue the projects started by the predecessors should be discouraged. Government 105

should be seen as a continuum where projects should be allowed to role over for

continuity and sustainability rather than individual ideology;

• The government should utilize the emerging technology of ICT to diversify the

economy by creating jobs to enhance ICT sector and curb unemployment situation in

Nigeria;

• The government should invest massively on ICT to raise the living standard of the

people and curb rural-urban migration;

• Ika North East LGA should scout for foreign or federal government assistance to boost

ICT development in the area;

• Ika North-East local government should try to train the citizens and staff to the use of

computer to be ICT ready.

5.2 Conclusion From the findings in this study, the research stressed that management of ICT in

Nigeria is not effective considering our findings that the availability of ICT resources are inadequate to foster development. Also, the national ICT policy has not been vigorously pursued by the Nigerian government to power the sector for development. This as observed in the study is due to inability of the government to invest enough fund and manpower to the sector. There is lack of commitment on the part of the government to the development of ICT sector, and on the part of the people, the enforcement of ICT policies has not received massive compliance from the masses especially people living in the rural parts of the country, this as we have explained earlier contributed to the down turn of the situation in Nigeria. If the ICT sector is well funded in Nigeria and the needed manpower and technical know-how is made available, it will tackle most other developmental challenges that Nigeria is facing, thereby setting the nation on the part of industrialization and development. 106

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APPENDIX RESEARCH QUESTIONNAIRE

Department of Public Administration and Local Government, Faculty of Social, Sciences, University of Nigeria, Nsukka. Dear Respondent,

This questionnaire is part of a research topic on “The role of Information and

Communication Technology (ICT) on Human Resource Development in Ika North-East

Local Government Area 2008 – 2014 being carried out as part of the requirement for the award of the Master of Science (MSc) Degree of Public Administration and Local

Government, University of Nigeria, Nsukka.

You have been selected as a respondent because of the need to make the influence of the government felt by the people through information and communication technology and human resource development in Nigeria especially in Ika North-East Local Government

Area.

Please, answer the questions that follow honestly. All information supplied would be used in confidence and solely for academic analysis.

Thanks for the anticipated co-operation.

IGWE, HUBERT O. PG/MSc/14/69764 PALG, UNN

114

SECTION A (PERSONAL DATA)

Please provide the following information by ticking (p) in the option of your choice.

Please indicate your community/town………………………………………………

Please indicate whether you are an indigene or none indigene……………………..

3) Sex: (a) Male [ ] (b) Female [ ]

4) Age: (a) 20 – 25 years [ ] (b) 26 – 35 years [ ] (c) 36 years and above [ ]

5) Academic qualification:

(a) NCE [ ] (b) BA/B.Sc [ ] (c) MA/M.Sc [ ] (d) Others [ ]

6) Marital status: (a) Single [ ] (b) Married [ ] (c) Widowed [ ]

SECTION B: (QUESTIONNAIRE DATA FOR THE RESPONDENTS ON THE ROLE OF ICT AND HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA: EXPECIALLY IN IKA NORTH-EAST LOCAL GOVERNMENT 2008-2014.

7) Information and Communication Technology (ICT) has played a great role on Human Resource Development in Ika North-East Local Government Area 2008 – 2014. (a) Strongly Agree [ ] (b) Agree [ ] (c) Undecided [ ] (d) Disagree [ ]

(e) Strongly Disagree [ ]

8) So many jobs have been created by the Local Government in the Area of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in Ika North-East since 2008. (a) Strongly Agree [ ] (b) Agree [ ] (c) Undecided [ ] (d) Disagree [ ]

(e) Strongly Disagree [ ]

9) Making ICT resources available in the rural areas will attract development in Ika

North-East LGA.

(a) Strongly Agree [ ] (b) Agree [ ] (c) Undecided [ ] (d) Disagree [ ]

(e) Strongly Disagree [ ]

10) Availability of ICT resources in Ika North-East LGA will discourage rural-urban migration in the area. 115

(a) Strongly Agree [ ] (b) Agree [ ] (c) Undecided [ ] (d) Disagree [ ]

(e) Strongly Disagree [ ]

11) The living standard of the people will be greatly enhanced if ICT is adopted in Ika

North-East LGA

(a) Strongly Agree [ ] (b) Agree [ ] (c) Undecided [ ] (d) Disagree [ ]

(e) Strongly Disagree [ ]

12) The people are not cooperating with the government in making ICT readily available in

Ika North-East LGA

(a) Strongly Agree [ ] (b) Agree [ ] (c) Undecided [ ] (d) Disagree [ ]

(e) Strongly Disagree [ ]

13) More employment opportunities will be created if ICT resources are made available in Ika North-East LGA. (a) Strongly Agree [ ] (b) Agree [ ] (c) Undecided [ ] (d) Disagree [ ]

(e) Strongly Disagree [ ]

14) Non availability of federal government or foreign assistance to ICT development in Ika North East LGA hampers Human Resource Development the area. a) Strongly Agree [ ] (b) Agree [ ] (c) Undecided [ ] (d) Disagree [ ]

(e) Strongly Disagree [ ]

15) The teaching of ICT in public schools will enhance development in Ika North-East

LGA.

(a) Strongly Agree [ ] (b) Agree [ ] (c) Undecided [ ] (d) Disagree [ ]

(e) Strongly Disagree [ ]

16) The Ika North-East local government is not doing enough to promote ICT.

(a) Strongly Agree [ ] (b) Agree [ ] (c) Undecided [ ] (d) Disagree [ ]

(e) Strongly Disagree [ ] 116

17) Some spirited individuals have contributed to ICT infrastructural development in

Ika North-East LGA.

(a) Strongly Agree [ ] (b) Agree [ ] (c) Undecided [ ] (d) Disagree [ ]

(e) Strongly Disagree [ ]

18) Various community efforts have contributed to ICT infrastructures in Ika North-

East LGA.

(a) Strongly Agree [ ] (b) Agree [ ] (c) Undecided [ ] (d) Disagree [ ]

(e) Strongly Disagree [ ]

19) There is no relationship between the use of ICT and development.

(a) Strongly Agree [ ] (b) Agree [ ] (c) Undecided [ ] (d) Disagree [ ]

(e) Strongly Disagree [ ]

20) Please indicate the areas ICT Affected Human Resource Development in Ika

North-East Local Government Area in the space provided below. a…………………………………………………………………………… b…………………………………………………………………………… c……………………………………………………………………………. d…………………………………………………………………………… e……………………………………………………………………………