Sonstige Dokumente

Fact Sheet

(Informationsblatt)

Checkliste Übergabe Pedelec

(Zustandsdokumentation)

Checkliste Fahrzeugübergabe e-CULT

Allgemeine Daten

Fahrzeug

Name Adresse Vertreten durch

ÜbergeberIn

Name Adresse

EmpfängerIn

Datum Uhrzeit Ort

Übergabe:

Zubehör

Bei Übergabe vorhanden: a) Schlüssel Fahrzeug  ja  nein b) Schlüssel Akku  ja  nein c) Schlüssel Zusatzschloss  ja  nein d) Zusatzschloss  ja  nein e) Akku  ja  nein f) Ladegerät  ja  nein g) Helm  ja  nein h) Luftpumpe  ja  nein i) Sonstiges ______Anmerkung:

Seite 1 von 2

Zustand des Fahrzeugs

Bei Übergabe schadenfrei: a) Rahmen  ja  nein b) Lackierung  ja  nein c) Beklebung  ja  nein d) Felgen  ja  nein e) Reifen  ja  nein f) Licht  ja  nein g) Akku  ja  nein h) Zusatzschloss  ja  nein i) Sonstiges ______

Beschädigte Stelle nummerieren und beschreiben: Links Rechts

Schadensbeschreibung/Anmerkung:

Kosten für etwaige Beschädigungen und/oder Verluste des Zubehörs werden vom Nutzer übernommen. Es gelten die Bedingungen der unterzeichneten Nutzungsvereinbarung.

Unterschrift ÜbergeberIn Unterschrift ÜbernehmerIn

Seite 2 von 2

Checkliste Übergabe E-Roller

(Zustandsdokumentation)

Checkliste Fahrzeugübergabe e-CULT

Allgemeine Daten

Fahrzeug E-Roller Nova Amtliches Kennzeichen G-

Name Adresse Vertreten durch ÜbergeberIn

Name Adresse Vertreten durch EmpfängerIn

Datum Uhrzeit Ort Übergabe:

Km Aktueller

Kilometerstand:

Zubehör

Bei Übergabe vorhanden: a) Schlüssel  ja  nein b) Akku  ja  nein c) Ladegerät  ja  nein d) Zulassung  ja  nein e) Verbandskasten  ja  nein f) Helm  ja  nein g) Serviceheft-Bedienungsanleitung  ja  nein h) Sonstiges ______Anmerkung:

Seite 1 von 2

Zustand des Fahrzeugs

Bei Übergabe schadenfrei: a) Lackierung  ja  nein b) Beklebung  ja  nein c) Felgen  ja  nein d) Reifen  ja  nein e) Licht  ja  nein f) Ladekomponenten  ja  nein g) Sonstiges ______

Beschädigte Stelle nummerieren und beschreiben: Links Rechts Vorne Hinten

Schadensbeschreibung/Anmerkung:

Kosten für etwaige Beschädigungen und/oder Verluste des Zubehörs werden vom Nutzer übernommen. Es gelten die Bedingungen der unterzeichneten Nutzungsvereinbarung.

Unterschrift ÜbergeberIn Unterschrift ÜbernehmerIn

Seite 2 von 2

Präsentation Workshop

E-Mobilität Ablauf

• Kurzes Feedback zu e-CULT • Was ist E-Mobilität? • Mehrspurige E-Fahrzeuge • Einspurige E-Fahrzeuge Feedback zu e-CULT

Selfies & Fotos

Kurze Videos Texte

an: [email protected] Was ist E-Mobilität? • E-Mobilität ist die Fortbewegung mit einem Verkehrsmittel, das mit elektrischer Energie angetrieben wird. • Erste E-Autos bereits Ende 19. Jahrhundert

o Auto o (Straßen-)Bahn o Busse o Pedelec o Scooter o Segway o Etc.

Antriebssysteme

Quelle: Fraunhofer Institut

• E-Autos können über unterschiedliche Antriebssysteme verfügen Paralleler Hybrid

• Elektromotor unterstützt Fahrantrieb (Leistungsaddition) • Downsizing möglich • Laden über Rekuperation • Elektrische Fortbewegung teils möglich • Mild Hybrid • Full Hybrid

Prius (Quelle: Toyota) Plug-in Hybrid

• Elektromotor unterstützt Fahrantrieb (Leistungsaddition) • Laden primär über externe Stromzufuhr

• Elektrische Fortbewegung auf Kurzstrecken (bis zu 50 km)

(Quelle: Audi) (Quelle:

tron

-

XC90 (Quelle: Volvo)(Quelle:XC90

A3 A3 e

C 350 (Quelle: Daimler)350 C (Quelle: i8 (Quelle: BMW Group) BMW i8 (Quelle: Serieller Hybrid

• Elektromotor ist Hauptantrieb • Laden primär über externe Stromzufuhr • Verbrennungsmotor erzeugt elektrische Energie zur Reichweitenverlängerung (REX) • Reichweite (BMW i3): • rein elektrisch: 170 km • gesamt: 300 km

BMW i3 REX (Quelle: BMW Group) Batterieelektrisches Fahrzeug

• Elektromotor ist einziger Antrieb • Laden primär über externe Stromzufuhr • Batteriekapazität: rd. 20 kWh • Verbrauch: 15 kWh / 100 km • Ladezyklen: 3.000-5.000 (geschätzt) • Reichweite: • rd. 200 km • abhängig von Verbrauchern

i3 (Quelle: BMW Group) e-Golf (Quelle: Volkswagen) Model S (Quelle: Tesla Motors) G3 (Quelle: Goupil) Brennstoffzellen-Fahrzeug

• Fortbewegung durch Verbrennung eines Wasser- Sauerstoff-Gemisches • Energierückgewinnung durch Rekuperation

• „Konventionelles“ Tanken (H2: 3-5 Minuten) • Rudimentäre Infrastruktur • Wenig Fahrzeugmodelle • Reichweite: 800 km

Toyota Mirai (Quelle: Toyota) Hyundai ix35 Fuel Cell (Quelle: Hyundai) Klimarelevanz

• Klimawandel stellt die Welt vor neue Herausforderungen • Temperaturanstieg von 2°C hätte dramatische Folgen • UN Klimakonferenz 2015: Dekarbonisierung

• Verkehr als zentraler Verursacher von CO2-Emissionen (rd. 22 Mio. t) • Weiterhin stark zunehmende THG-Emissionen • THG-Emissionen über den Zielen der Klimastrategie Klimarelevanz

• E-Fahrzeuge verfügen über günstigere Ökobilanz als konventionelle Fahrzeuge

• Großes CO2-Einsparungspotenzial durch Elektrifizierung des Verkehrssektors Energieeffizienz

E-Auto ICE

• E-Fahrzeuge: wenig Verluste, daher hohe Effizienz • Nur rund 25 % der Energie werden in Bewegungsenergie umgewandelt Sonstige Vorteile

Verbrauch 15 kWh je 100 km = 1,5 Liter Diesel bzw. 1,7 Liter Benzin

Erneuerbare Substitution fossiler Energieträger durch Energie regenerative Energiequellen

Keine wartungs- und verschleißintensiven Teile Wartung (Getriebe, Kupplung, Abgasanlage etc.)

Lokale Kein Feinstaub, CO, NO und SO Emissionen x 2

Fahrspaß Beschleunigung, Lautlosigkeit Laden von Elektrofahrzeugen

Verriegelung des Fahrzeug mit NutzerInnen- bzw. Steckers und Ladestation Fahrzeug- Aktivierung der verbinden authentifizierung Wegfahrsperre

Freischaltung des Übertragung der Sicherheitstest Ladevorgangs und Messwerte und durch Ladestation Steuerung der Ladespannung Abrechnung

Freigabe des Abziehen und Steckers und Verstauen des Fahrzeugs Ladekabels Übersicht Ladesysteme Ladebetriebsarten • Mode 1 – Keine Ladesteuerung Quelle: www.mobilityhouse.com

– Schuko / CEE • Mode 2 – ICCB

–

Schuko / CEE www.nrgkick.com Quelle:

• Mode 3 – Spezielle Ladestationen – Typ 2 • Mode 4 www.mennekes.de Quelle: – Spezielle Ladestationen – DC – CCS / CHAdeMO / Tesla SC Quelle: www.mobilityhouse.com Ladestationen • Wallbox • Ladesäule • (Schnell)Lade – 3,7 – 22 kW – 3,7 – 22 kW säule – Kompakt – Wetterfest – AC/DC – Wand- – Freistehend – 22 – 170 kW montage – öffentlich

Quelle: BMW Group Ladeleistung & -zeit

Energieform Berechnung Einphasenwechselstrom Ladeleistung (3,7 kW) = Phasen (1) * Spannung (230 V) * Stromstärke (16 A)

Dreiphasen-wechselstrom Ladeleistung (22 kW) = Phasen (3) * Spannung (230 V) * Stromstärke (32 A) (Sternschaltung) Dreiphasen-wechselstrom Ladeleistung (22 kW) = Wurzel (3) * Spannung (400 V) * Stromstärke (32 A) (Dreieckschaltung)

Berechnung Ladezeit Ladezeit (1,5 h) = Batteriekapazität (22 kWh) / Ladeleistung (22 kW) + 0,5

Zulassungen in Österreich

2015 Fahrzeugart absolut Anteil in %

Personenkraftwagen 4.748.108 72,5

davon

Elektro 5.032 0,1

Hybrid 15.862 0,3

Wasserstoff 6 0,0

Quelle: Statistik Austria

• E-Fahrzeuge in Österreich noch in der Minderheit • Jedoch stark wachsende Nachfrage nach E-Fahrzeugen • Künftige Entwicklung abhängig von Maßnahmenpaket (business as usual VS additional measures) Zulassungen in Österreich

2015 Fahrzeugart absolut Anteil in %

Personenkraftwagen 4.748.108 72,5

davon

Elektro 5.032 0,1

Hybrid 15.862 0,3

Wasserstoff 6 0,0

Quelle: Statistik Austria

• E-Fahrzeuge in Österreich noch in der Minderheit • Jedoch stark wachsende Nachfrage nach E-Fahrzeugen • Künftige Entwicklung abhängig von Maßnahmenpaket (business as usual VS additional measures) Zulassungen weltweit

• Hohe Förderungen für E-Fahrzeuge in Norwegen • Norwegen möchte ab 2025 Benzin- und Dieselfahrzeuge verbieten Elektrofahrrad vs. Pedelec • Pedelec, E-Bike und Elektrofahrrad oft synonym verwendet • Elektrofahrrad bzw. E-Bike: Antrieb mit Drehgriff, d.h. kein Treten notwendig

• Pedelec: Unterstützung des eigenen Tretens

Quelle: Norbert Haller Norbert Quelle: Pedelecs • Lt. StVO ist ein Pedelec … – ein Fahrrad mit zusätzlichem elektrischem Antrieb – einer max. Leistung von 600 Watt und – einer max. Bauartgeschwindigkeit von 25 km/h • weder Typengenehmigung noch Fahrzeuganmeldung notwendig • Vorschriften der Fahrradverordnung gelten Bestandteile • Motor bzw. Antriebskonzept • Traktionsbatterie • Motorsteuerung

Quelle: www.elektrobike-online.com Motor • meist Permanentmagnet-erregte Gleichstrommotoren in Verwendung – d.h. eine rotierende elektrische Maschine, die mit Gleichstrom betrieben wird oder Gleichstrom erzeugt

Quelle: Wikipedia: Autor Honina Antriebskonzept - Nabenmotor

Nabenmotor • arbeiten an der Radnabe (vorne od. hinten) • Vorteile: – Rekuperation möglich – Wartungsarm – Leicht umzurüsten – Effizient bei flachen Strecken • Nachteile: – Höheres Gewicht – Bei Vorderantrieb: Rutschgefahr auf nasser od. sandiger Fahrbahn – Bei Hinterantrieb: schwerfällig

Quelle: BionX Antriebskonzept - Tretlagermotor

Tretlagermotor (= Mittelmotor) • arbeitet zwischen zwei Achsen (Mitte) • Vorteile: – Dynamische Fahrweise möglich – Einfacher Reifentausch – Effiziente Kraftübertragung – Effiziente Bergfahrten • Nachteile: – Wenig Bodenfreiheit – Höherer Verschleiß der

Fahrradkette Quelle: www.haibike.de – Keine Rekuperationsfunktion

Traktionsbatterie • = der Energiespeicher zum Antrieb der Elektrofahrzeuge • zum Laden meist entnehmbares Akkupack • Ladezeiten: je nach Typ und Ladetechnik zwischen 1 und 16 h (typisch sind 2 bis 9 h) • verschiedene Akku-Positionen • Reichweite: je nach Akkutyp und gewählter Unterstützung zwischen 25 und 100 km Motorsteuerung • Die Steuerung hat drei Aufgaben: – Betrieb des Motors – Antriebshilfe für den/die Fahrer/in – Einhaltung der gesetzlichen Vorgaben

Quelle: www.bosch-ebike.com Kontakt

Energieregion Weiz-Gleisdorf GmbH Franz-Pichler-Straße 32 8160 Weiz

Mobil: +43 (0) 664 / 88 44 73 73 Fax: +43 (0) 3172 / 603 4069 Email: [email protected]

Homepage: www.energieregion.at

Fragebogen Jugend- mobilität

(Vorlage)

Dein persönliches Mobilitätsprofil

Du beschreibst deine persönliche Mobilitätssituation und wir suchen nach Lösungen:

Welche Wege legst du mit den Verkehrsmitteln zurück? Wie bewertest du die einzelnen Verkehrsmittel? Welche Rolle spielt E­Mobilität für dich? Wie sieht die Mobilität der Zukunft aus?

Wir wollen genau das wissen und brauchen dafür deine Hilfe (15 Minuten)!

Als Dankeschön werden unter allen TeilnehmerInnen, die die Umfrage vollständig ausgefüllt haben, jeweils 7 x 2 Eintrittskarten für das Schwimmbad Weiz und das Wellenbad Gleisdorf verlost. Viel Glück!

Diese Studie wird von der Energieregion Weiz­Gleisdorf in Zusammenarbeit mit der Universität Graz durchgeführt.

Selbstverständlich werden alle deine Angaben vertraulich behandelt und in anonymisierter Form ausgewertet.

Diese Umfrage enthält 40 Fragen.

Wege und Verkehrsmittelwahl

[]Für meinen Schulweg / Arbeitsweg nutze ich üblicherweise folgende Verkehrsmittel ... Falls du mehrere Verkehrsmittel benutzt, gib bitte alle an (auch kurze Wege zu Fuß) *

Bitte wählen Sie alle zutreffenden Antworten aus:

Auto: FahrerIn Auto: MitfahrerIn Moped / Motorrad Fahrrad

Bus Zug Ich gehe zu Fuß Mehrmals die Mehrmals im

[]Die Entfernung v(oFnas tm) teäginlicehm WWoohcnheo (r1t­ 4zxu) r ScMhounlaet (/1­ 3Lxe)hrbetrSieltbe niesrt in etwa N..i.e *

Bitte wählen Sie nur eine der folgenden Antworten aus:

unter 5 km über 5 bis 10 km über 10 bis 20 km über 20 bis 30 km über 30 bis 40 km über 40 bis 50 km über 50 km

[]Wie oft nützt du folgende Verkehrsmittel für deine Freizeitaktivitäten (z.B. Freunde treffen, Kino, etc.)? *

Bitte wählen Sie die zutreffende Antwort für jeden Punkt aus: Mehrmals die Mehrmals im

(Fast) täglich Woche (1­4x) Monat (1­3x) Seltener Nie Auto: FahrerIn Auto: MitfahrerIn Moped / Motorrad Fahrrad Bus Zug Ich gehe zu Fuß

[]Welches Verkehrsmittel nutzt du am häufigsten? *

Bitte wählen Sie nur eine der folgenden Antworten aus:

Auto: FahrerIn Auto: MitfahrerIn Moped / Motorrad Fahrrad Bus Zug Stimme voll Stimme eher Stimme eher Stimme gar

und ganz zu zu nicht zu nicht zu Weiß nicht Bewertung der Verkehrsmittel

[]Ein Auto zu benutzen ist ... *

Beantworten Sie diese Frage nur, wenn folgende Bedingungen erfüllt sind: Antwort war 'Auto: FahrerIn' oder 'Auto: MitfahrerIn' bei Frage '4 [A4]' (Welches Verkehrsmittel nutzt du am häufigsten?)

Bitte wählen Sie die zutreffende Antwort für jeden Punkt aus: Stimme voll Stimme eher Stimme eher Stimme gar

und ganz zu zu nicht zu nicht zu Weiß nicht ... bequem ... schnell ... einfach ... günstig ... umweltfreundlich ... unabhängig ... sicher ... gut für die Gesundheit / Fitness ... entspannend ... lustig ... cool

[]Ein Moped / Motorrad zu benutzen ist ... *

Beantworten Sie diese Frage nur, wenn folgende Bedingungen erfüllt sind: Antwort war 'Moped / Motorrad' bei Frage '4 [A4]' (Welches Verkehrsmittel nutzt du am häufigsten?)

Bitte wählen Sie die zutreffende Antwort für jeden Punkt aus: Stimme voll Stimme eher Stimme eher Stimme gar

und ganz zu zu nicht zu nicht zu Weiß nicht … bequem … schnell … einfach … günstig … umweltfreundlich … unabhängig … sicher … gut für die Gesundheit / Fitness … entspannend … lustig … cool Stimme voll Stimme eher Stimme eher Stimme gar

[]Öffentliche Verkeuhnrds gmaniztt zeul zu benuztuzen ist ... *nicht zu nicht zu Weiß nicht

Beantworten Sie diese Frage nur, wenn folgende Bedingungen erfüllt sind: Antwort war 'Bus' oder 'Zug' bei Frage '4 [A4]' (Welches Verkehrsmittel nutzt du am häufigsten?)

Bitte wählen Sie die zutreffende Antwort für jeden Punkt aus: Stimme voll Stimme eher Stimme eher Stimme gar

und ganz zu zu nicht zu nicht zu Weiß nicht … bequem … schnell … einfach … günstig … umweltfreundlich … unabhängig … sicher … gut für die Gesundheit / Fitness … entspannend … lustig … cool

[]Ein Fahrrad zu benutzen ist ... *

Beantworten Sie diese Frage nur, wenn folgende Bedingungen erfüllt sind: Antwort war 'Fahrrad' bei Frage '4 [A4]' (Welches Verkehrsmittel nutzt du am häufigsten?)

Bitte wählen Sie die zutreffende Antwort für jeden Punkt aus: Stimme voll Stimme eher Stimme eher Stimme gar

und ganz zu zu nicht zu nicht zu Weiß nicht … bequem … schnell … einfach … günstig … umweltfreundlich … unabhängig … sicher … gut für die Gesundheit / Fitness … entspannend … lustig … cool Stimme voll Stimme eher Stimme eher Stimme gar

[]Ein E­Fahrrad zu ubnedn guantz eznu ist ... zu nicht zu nicht zu Weiß nicht Bitte bewerte die Aussagen auch dann, wenn du noch nie ein E­Fahrrad benutzt hast *

Bitte wählen Sie die zutreffende Antwort für jeden Punkt aus: Stimme voll Stimme eher Stimme eher Stimme gar

und ganz zu zu nicht zu nicht zu Weiß nicht … bequem … schnell … einfach … günstig … umweltfreundlich … unabhängig … sicher … gut für die Gesundheit / Fitness … entspannend … lustig … cool

[]Einen E­Roller zu benutzen ist ... Bitte bewerte die Aussagen auch dann, wenn du noch nie einen R­Roller benutzt hast *

Bitte wählen Sie die zutreffende Antwort für jeden Punkt aus: Stimme voll Stimme eher Stimme eher Stimme gar

und ganz zu zu nicht zu nicht zu Weiß nicht … bequem … schnell … einfach … günstig … umweltfreundlich … unabhängig … sicher … gut für die Gesundheit / Fitness … entspannend … lustig … cool Eher nicht Gar nicht

[]Wie wichtig sind Sdeihrr fwoiclghteignde EEihgeer wniscchhtigaften bweic dhteigr Wahl dewiicnhetirg VerkehWrseimß niticthetl? *

Bitte wählen Sie die zutreffende Antwort für jeden Punkt aus: Eher nicht Gar nicht

Sehr wichtig Eher wichtig wichtig wichtig Weiß nicht Bequemlichkeit Schnelligkeit Kosten Einfachheit Umweltfreundlichkeit Unabhängigkeit Sicherheit Gesundheit / Fitness Entspannung Spaß Coolness Stimme voll Stimme eher Stimme eher Stimme gar Ganz sicher Eher schon Eher nicht Sicher nicht Weiß nicht und ganz zu zu nicht zu nicht zu Weiß nicht E­Mobilität

[]Könntest du dir vorstellen ... *

Bitte wählen Sie die zutreffende Antwort für jeden Punkt aus: Ganz sicher Eher schon Eher nicht Sicher nicht Weiß nicht ... ein E­Fahrrad für deinen üblichen Schulweg / Arbeitsweg zu nutzen? ... einen E­Roller für deinen üblichen Schulweg / Arbeitsweg zu nutzen? ... ein E­Fahrrad für deine üblichen Freizeitwege zu nutzen? ... einen E­Roller für deine üblichen Freizeitwege zu nutzen?

[]Ein E­Fahrrad bzw. E­Roller ... *

Bitte wählen Sie die zutreffende Antwort für jeden Punkt aus: Stimme voll Stimme eher Stimme eher Stimme gar

und ganz zu zu nicht zu nicht zu Weiß nicht ... macht nicht viel Lärm ... ist günstig in der Anschaffung ... ist günstig im Betrieb ... hat genügend Reichweite ... ist einfach zum Aufladen ... hat eine akzeptable Ladedauer Stimme voll Stimme eher Stimme eher Stimme gar

[]Wie bewertest duu nfdo lgganezn zdue Aussagzeun? * nicht zu nicht zu Weiß nicht

Bitte wählen Sie die zutreffende Antwort für jeden Punkt aus: Stimme voll Stimme eher Stimme eher Stimme gar

und ganz zu zu nicht zu nicht zu Weiß nicht Die meisten Menschen die mir wichtig sind, denken ich sollte in Zukunft ein E­Fahrrad oder einen E­Roller benutzen. Die meisten Menschen die mir wichtig sind, benutzen bereits bzw. wollen in Zukunft selbst ein E­Fahrrad oder einen E­Roller benutzen. Stimme voll Stimme eher Stimme eher Stimme gar

und ganz zu zu nicht zu nicht zu Weiß nicht Maßnahmen

[]Inwieweit würden diese Maßnahmen deine Mobilitätssituation verbessern? *

Bitte wählen Sie die zutreffende Antwort für jeden Punkt aus: Stimme voll Stimme eher Stimme eher Stimme gar

und ganz zu zu nicht zu nicht zu Weiß nicht E­Autos die zur gemeinschaftlichen Nutzung zur Verfügung gestellt werden E­Fahrräder oder E­ Roller die zur gemeinschaftlichen Nutzung zur Verfügung gestellt werden Online­Plattform für private Fahrgemeinschaften Informationen über Vor­ und Nachteile aller Verkehrsmittel Eine höhere Anzahl an öffentlichen Ladestationen für E­ Autos Eine höhere Anzahl an öffentlichen Ladestationen für E­ Fahrräder oder E­ Roller

[]Gibt es noch andere Maßnahmen die deine Mobilitätssituation verbessern würden? Bitte eintragen, wenn du möchtest

Bitte geben Sie Ihre Antwort hier ein: e­CULT Projekt

[]

Hast du im e­CULT Projekt als TesterIn von E­Fahrzeugen teilgenommen bzw. nimmst du gerade teil?

*

Bitte wählen Sie nur eine der folgenden Antworten aus:

Ja Nein

[]Welches E­Fahrzeug hast du getestet? *

Beantworten Sie diese Frage nur, wenn folgende Bedingungen erfüllt sind: Antwort war 'Ja' bei Frage '17 [A17]' ( Hast du im e­CULT Projekt als TesterIn von E­Fahrzeugen teilgenommen bzw. nimmst du gerade teil? )

Bitte wählen Sie nur eine der folgenden Antworten aus:

E­Fahrrad E­Roller E­Fahrrad und E­Roller

[]

Für welche Wege hast du das E­Fahrrad benutzt? Mehrfachantwort möglich

*

Beantworten Sie diese Frage nur, wenn folgende Bedingungen erfüllt sind: Antwort war 'E­Fahrrad' oder 'E­Fahrrad und E­Roller' bei Frage '18 [A18]' (Welches E­Fahrzeug hast du getestet?)

Bitte wählen Sie alle zutreffenden Antworten aus:

Schulweg / Arbeitsweg

Freizeitwege []Für welche Wege hast du den E­Roller benutzt? Mehrfachantwort möglich *

Beantworten Sie diese Frage nur, wenn folgende Bedingungen erfüllt sind: Antwort war 'E­Roller' oder 'E­Fahrrad und E­Roller' bei Frage '18 [A18]' (Welches E­Fahrzeug hast du getestet?)

Bitte wählen Sie alle zutreffenden Antworten aus:

Schulweg / Arbeitsweg

Freizeitwege

[]Welches Verkehrsmittel hast du durch das E­Fahrrad hauptsächlich ersetzt? Hier sind 1­2 Antworten möglich *

Beantworten Sie diese Frage nur, wenn folgende Bedingungen erfüllt sind: Antwort war 'E­Fahrrad' oder 'E­Fahrrad und E­Roller' bei Frage '18 [A18]' (Welches E­Fahrzeug hast du getestet?)

Bitte wählen Sie maximal 2 Antworten.

Bitte wählen Sie alle zutreffenden Antworten aus:

Auto: FahrerIn Auto: MitfahrerIn Moped / Motorrad Fahrrad

Bus Zug Ich habe Fußwege ersetzt

[]

Welches Verkehrsmittel hast du durch den E­Roller hauptsächlich ersetzt? Hier sind 1­2 Antworten möglich

*

Beantworten Sie diese Frage nur, wenn folgende Bedingungen erfüllt sind: Antwort war 'E­Roller' oder 'E­Fahrrad und E­Roller' bei Frage '18 [A18]' (Welches E­Fahrzeug hast du getestet?)

Bitte wählen Sie maximal 2 Antworten.

Bitte wählen Sie alle zutreffenden Antworten aus:

Auto: FahrerIn Auto: MitfahrerIn Moped / Motorrad Fahrrad

Bus Zug Ich habe Fußwege ersetzt []Wie häufig hast du das E­Fahrrad benutzt bzw. nutzt du das E­Fahrrad? *

Beantworten Sie diese Frage nur, wenn folgende Bedingungen erfüllt sind: Antwort war 'E­Fahrrad' oder 'E­Fahrrad und E­Roller' bei Frage '18 [A18]' (Welches E­Fahrzeug hast du getestet?)

Bitte wählen Sie nur eine der folgenden Antworten aus:

(Fast) täglich Mehrmals die Woche (1­4x) Mehrmals im Monat (1­3x) Seltener Nie

[]Wie häufig hast du den E­Roller benutzt bzw. nutzt du den E­Roller? *

Beantworten Sie diese Frage nur, wenn folgende Bedingungen erfüllt sind: Antwort war 'E­Roller' oder 'E­Fahrrad und E­Roller' bei Frage '18 [A18]' (Welches E­Fahrzeug hast du getestet?)

Bitte wählen Sie nur eine der folgenden Antworten aus:

(Fast) täglich Mehrmals die Woche (1­4x) Mehrmals im Monat (1­3x) Seltener Nie

[]Würdest du das E­Fahrrad an deine Freunde weiterempfehlen? *

Beantworten Sie diese Frage nur, wenn folgende Bedingungen erfüllt sind: Antwort war 'E­Fahrrad' oder 'E­Fahrrad und E­Roller' bei Frage '18 [A18]' (Welches E­Fahrzeug hast du getestet?)

Bitte wählen Sie nur eine der folgenden Antworten aus:

Ganz sicher Eher schon Eher nicht Sicher nicht Weiß nicht []Würdest du den E­Roller an deine Freunde weiterempfehlen? *

Beantworten Sie diese Frage nur, wenn folgende Bedingungen erfüllt sind: Antwort war 'E­Roller' oder 'E­Fahrrad und E­Roller' bei Frage '18 [A18]' (Welches E­Fahrzeug hast du getestet?)

Bitte wählen Sie nur eine der folgenden Antworten aus:

Ganz sicher Eher schon Eher nicht Sicher nicht Weiß nicht Infos zur Person

[]Ich bin ... *

Bitte wählen Sie nur eine der folgenden Antworten aus:

SchülerIn Lehrling

[]Wie alt bist du? *

Bitte wählen Sie nur eine der folgenden Antworten aus:

14 Jahre 15 Jahre 16 Jahre 17 Jahre 18 Jahre 19 Jahre 20 Jahre 21 Jahre

[]Woher kommst du? *

Bitte wählen Sie nur eine der folgenden Antworten aus:

Albersdorf­Prebuch Gleisdorf Gutenberg­Stenzengreith Hofstätten an der Raab Ludersdorf­Wilfersdorf Mitterdorf an der Raab Mortantsch Naas Puch bei Weiz St. Ruprecht an der Raab Thannhausen Weiz Andere Gemeinde []Geschlecht *

Bitte wählen Sie nur eine der folgenden Antworten aus:

Männlich Weiblich Infos zur Mobilitätssituation

[]Ich besitze ein/en ... Mehrfachantworten möglich *

Bitte wählen Sie alle zutreffenden Antworten aus:

Top­Ticket SchülerInnen­ / Lehrlingsticket Autoführerschein

Moped­ / Motorradführerschein Keine dieser Optionen

[]Hast du vor einen Autoführerschein zu machen? *

Beantworten Sie diese Frage nur, wenn folgende Bedingungen erfüllt sind: Antwort war NICHT 'Autoführerschein' bei Frage '31 [A31]' (Ich besitze ein/en ...Mehrfachantworten möglich)

Bitte wählen Sie nur eine der folgenden Antworten aus:

Ganz sicher Eher schon Eher nicht Sicher nicht Weiß nicht

[]Hast du vor einen Moped­ / Motorradführerschein zu machen? *

Beantworten Sie diese Frage nur, wenn folgende Bedingungen erfüllt sind: Antwort war NICHT 'Moped­ / Motorradführerschein' bei Frage '31 [A31]' (Ich besitze ein/en ...Mehrfachantworten möglich)

Bitte wählen Sie nur eine der folgenden Antworten aus:

Ganz sicher Eher schon Eher nicht Sicher nicht Weiß nicht []Ich besitze ein eigenes ... Mehrfachantwort möglich *

Bitte wählen Sie alle zutreffenden Antworten aus:

Auto E­Auto

Fahrrad E­Fahrrad

Moped / Motorrad E­Roller

Keine dieser Optionen

[]

Wieviel Personen leben insgesamt in deinem Haushalt? Bitte eine Zahl z.B. 2, 3, 4, etc. eintragen

*

Ihre Antwort muss zwischen 1 und 10 liegen. In diesem Feld darf nur ein ganzzahliger Wert eingetragen werden.

Bitte geben Sie Ihre Antwort hier ein:

[]

Wieviele Fahrzeuge gibt es insgesamt in deinem Haushalt? Bitte jeweils eine Zahl z.B. 0, 1, 2, etc. eintragen

*

Bitte geben Sie Ihre Antwort(en) hier ein:

Autos

E­Autos

Fahrräder

E­Fahrräder

Mopeds / Motorräder

E­Roller Stimme [ ]Wie bewertest du foSlgtimenmde ev oAllussagSetnim?m *e eher nicht Stimme gar und ganz zu eher zu zu nicht zu Weiß nicht Bitte wählen Sie die zutreffende Antwort für jeden Punkt aus: Stimme Stimme voll Stimme eher nicht Stimme gar und ganz zu eher zu zu nicht zu Weiß nicht Die öffentliche Verkehrsmittelinfrastruktur ist gut geeignet um meinen Schulweg / Arbeitsweg zu beschreiten. Die öffentliche Verkehrsmittelinfrastruktur ist gut geeignet um meine Freizeitwege zu beschreiten. Statement

[]

Wir bitten dich um ein letztes kreatives Statement zu der Frage: Was macht Qualität beim Unterwegs sein für dich aus? Bitte eintragen, wenn du möchtest

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[]Falls du noch Anmerkungen hast oder uns etwas mitteilen möchtest, kannst du das hier gerne tun:

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[]Falls du beim Gewinnspiel teilnehmen möchtest, bei dem du jeweils 7 x 2 Eintrittskarten für das Schwimmbad Weiz und das Wellenbad Gleisdorf gewinnen kannst, gebe bitte im folgenden Feld deine Emailadresse ein. Selbstverständlich werden alle deine Angaben vertrauchlich behandelt und nicht mit der Emailadresse in Verbindung gebracht!

Bitte geben Sie Ihre Antwort hier ein:

Vielen Dank für deine Teilnahme!

Wenn du Fragen hast, kannst du uns gerne kontaktieren:

Mag.a Maria Hecher Universität Graz Institut für Systemwissenschaften, Innovations­ und Nachhaltigkeitsforschung Email: maria.hecher@uni­graz.at Telefon: +43 (0)316 380­1521

23.10.2016 – 08:57

Übermittlung Ihres ausgefüllten Fragebogens: Vielen Dank für die Beantwortung des Fragebogens.

Fragebogen Jugend- mobilität

(Bericht)

Institut für Systemwissenschaften, Innovations- und Nachhaltigkeitsforschung Mag.a Maria Hecher Ao.-Univ. Prof. Alfred Posch

Projekt „e-CULT“

1 Beschreibung der Vorgehensweise und der UmfrageteilnehmerInnen

Das Ziel dieser Studie war es einen Einblick in die derzeitige Mobilitätssituation von Jugendlichen im ländlichen Raum zu bekommen, sowie deren Einschätzung von zweispurigen E-Fahrzeugen und deren Intention diese zu nutzen. Um dieses Ziel zu erreichen, wurden eine Literaturanalyse, 13 Interviews mit Jugendlichen, sowie eine Online- Umfrage durchgeführt. Auf Basis einer Literaturanalyse über die Einflussfaktoren des Mobilitätsverhaltens von Jugendlichen im ländlichen Raum, wurde ein Interviewleitfaden für Jugendliche erstellt. Bei der E-Bergrallye in Naas am 6. Juli 2016 wurden insgesamt 13 Interviews mit Jugendlichen aus der Energieregion Weiz-Gleisdorf geführt (7 Interviews mit SchülerInnen, 6 Interviews mit Lehrlingen). Das Ziel der Interviews war es, einen Einblick in die derzeitige Mobilitäts- situation von Jugendlichen, deren Vorstellungen über die ideale Mobilitätsinfrastruktur, sowie deren Meinung über zweispurige E-Fahrzeuge zu bekommen. Gemeinsam mit der Literaturanalyse, dienten die Ergebnisse aus den Interviews wiederum als gute Basis für die Erstellung des schriftlichen Fragebogens. Der Fragebogen besteht hauptsächlich aus 6 verschiedenen Abschnitten: (i) Verkehrsmittelwahl für Schulweg bzw. Freizeitwege, (ii) Bewertung von Eigenschaften unterschiedlicher Verkehrsmittel (Auto, Moped / Motorrad, Fahrrad, öffentlicher Verkehr, E-Fahrrad und E-Roller), (iii) Intention zweispurige E- Fahrzeuge zu nutzen, (iv) Einschätzung von regionalen Maßnahmen, welche die Mobilitätssituation von Jugendlichen verbessern, (v) Informationen zur derzeitigen Mobilitätssituation von Jugendlichen, und (vi) sozio-demographische Daten. Der Online-Fragebogen wurde in Limesurvey erstellt und der Link der Umfrage an SchülerInnen der Energieregion Weiz-Gleisdorf verteilt. Im Zeitraum zwischen 21. September und 21. Oktober 2016, haben insgesamt 123 SchülerInnen der Energieregion Weiz-Gleisdorf den Online-Fragebogen vollständig ausgefüllt (59% weiblich, 41% männlich). Davon sind 19% der SchülerInnen 14 Jahre, 20% sind 15 Jahre, 15% sind 16 Jahre, 33% sind 17 Jahre und 13% sind älter als 18 Jahre alt.

2 Ergebnisse der Umfrage

2.1 Verkehrsmittelwahl für Schul- und Freizeitwege

Im Folgenden wird gezeigt, welche Verkehrsmittel von den SchülerInnen am häufigsten in Anspruch genommen werden bzw. welche Verkehrsmittel sie für ihren Schulweg und ihre Freizeitaktivitäten nutzen. Abbildung 1 zeigt, dass SchülerInnen am häufigsten mit einem Auto mitfahren (41%) und den Bus nutzen (25%). Von den befragten SchülerInnen fahren 12% selbst mit dem Auto, jeweils 8% nutzen das Fahrrad und den Zug, und 6% sind am häufigsten mit dem Moped bzw. Motorrad unterwegs.^

Abbildung 1: Am häufigsten genutztes Verkehrsmittel.

Für den Schulweg werden in den meisten Fällen mehrere Verkehrsmittel genutzt, wobei der Bus mit 71% am häufigsten in Anspruch genommen wird (Abbildung 2). Den Weg zur Schule legen 44% der befragten SchülerInnen - zumindest teilweise - zu Fuß zurück. 28% der SchülerInnen fahren mit einem Auto mit, 19% fahren mit dem Zug und jeweils 12% fahren selbst mit dem Auto, Moped bzw. Motorrad oder mit dem Fahrrad. Die Entfernung vom Wohnort zur Schule liegt für 25% der SchülerInnen unter 5 km, für 20% über 5 bis 10 km, und für 30% der SchülerInnen über 10 bis 20 km. Für 25% der SchülerInnen liegt die Schule mehr als 20 km vom Wohnort entfernt.

Abbildung 2: Verkehrsmittelwahl für den Schulweg.

2

Für ihre Freizeitaktivitäten fahren die meisten SchülerInnen (fast) täglich bzw. mehrmals die Woche mit einem Auto als MitfahrerIn mit (62%) bzw. gehen zu Fuß (54%). Das Fahrrad (45%) und der Bus (39%) wird mehrmals pro Monat bzw. seltener für Freizeitaktivitäten genutzt, wobei das eigene Auto (61%), das Moped / Motorrad (70%) und der Zug (55%) von den meisten SchülerInnen gar nicht als Verkehrsmittel für Freizeitaktivitäten genutzt wird (Abbildung 3).

Abbildung 3: Verkehrsmittelwahl für Freizeitaktivitäten.

2.2 Bewertung von zweispurigen E-Fahrzeugen

In der Umfrage wurden E-Fahrräder und E-Roller von den SchülerInnen in Bezug auf eine Reihe von unterschiedlichen Eigenschaften bewertet. Abbildung 4 zeigt, dass E-Fahrräder in fast allen Eigenschaften mehrheitlich als (sehr) gut bewertet werden (bequem, schnell, einfach, etc.). Nur die Kosten von E-Fahrrädern werden von den SchülerInnen (eher) negativ bewertet. Nur die Kosten von E-Fahrrädern werden von den SchülerInnen (eher) negativ bewertet. Bei E-Rollern zeigt sich ein sehr ähnliches Bild, wobei hier - zusätzlich zu den Kosten - die Sicherheit und die Auswirkungen auf die Fitness mehrheitlich (eher) negativ bewertet werden (Abbildung 5).

Abbildung 4: Bewertung unterschiedlicher Eigenschaften von E-Fahrrädern. 3

Abbildung 5: Bewertung unterschiedlicher Eigenschaften von E-Rollern.

Neben den Eigenschaften in Abbildung 4 und Abbildung 5, wurden von den SchülerInnen noch weitere typische Eigenschaften von zweispurigen E-Fahrzeugen bewertet. Es zeigt sich, dass E-Fahrräder und E-Roller in Bezug auf den entstehenden Lärm, die Kosten im Betrieb, die mögliche Reichweite, das Aufladen und die notwendige Ladedauer (eher) positiv bewertet werden (Abbildung 6). Auch hier werden die Kosten bei der Anschaffung von E- Rollern als einziges Merkmal (eher) negativ bewertet.

Abbildung 6: Bewertung von E-Fahrrädern und E-Roller.

Die SchülerInnen wurden ebenfalls gefragt, wie wichtig ihnen die einzelnen Eigenschaften im Allgemeinen bei ihrer Verkehrsmittelwahl sind. Abbildung 7 zeigt, dass die Kosten (für 73% sehr bzw. eher wichtig) und die Bequemlichkeit (72%) bei der Verkehrsmittelwahl die größte Rolle spielen. Neben diesen beiden Eigenschaften sind die Unabhängigkeit (für 66% sehr bzw. eher wichtig), Schnelligkeit und Spaß (jeweils 65%) sowie die Umweltfreundlichkeit (60%) am wichtigsten, gefolgt von der Coolness (57%) und der Entspannung (54%). Die Fitness wird am wenigsten wichtig eingeschätzt (für 71% gar nicht bzw. eher nicht wichtig), gefolgt von der Einfachheit (48%) und der Sicherheit (41%).

4

Abbildung 7: Bewertung der Wichtigkeit von Eigenschaften bei der Verkehrsmittelwahl.

2.3 Intention zweispurige E-Fahrzeuge zu nutzen

In der Umfrage wurde gefragt, ob sich die Jugendlichen vorstellen können ein E-Fahrrad oder einen E-Roller für ihren üblichen Schulweg oder ihre üblichen Freizeitwege zu nutzen. Abbildung 8 zeigt, dass sich 37% bzw. 57% der SchülerInnen vorstellen können ein E- Fahrrad für ihren Schulweg bzw. ihre Freizeitwege zu nutzen (ganz sicher bzw. eher schon). Beim E-Roller sind diese Anteile mit 42% und 53% sehr ähnlich.

Abbildung 8: Intention E-Fahrrad und E-Roller für Schulweg bzw. Freizeitwege zu nutzen.

In einem weiteren Schritt wurde geprüft, ob es einen signifikanten Unterschied bei den im Kapitel 2.2 vorgestellten Bewertungen der Eigenschaften von E-Fahrzeugen gibt, zwischen:

− den SchülerInnen, die (eher) die Intention haben ein E-Fahrrad oder E-Roller zu nutzen und − den SchülerInnen die (eher) keine Intention haben ein E-Fahrrad oder E-Roller zu nutzen.

5

In Abbildung 9 werden die Bewertungen der SchülerInnen gezeigt, welche (eher) die Intention haben ein E-Fahrrad für ihre Schul- und Freizeitwege zu nutzen (links). Diese werden den Bewertungen der SchülerInnen, die (eher) keine Intention haben ein E-Fahrrad zu nutzen, gegenübergestellt (rechts). In der Abbildung scheinen nur diejenigen Eigenschaften auf, bei denen ein signifikanter Unterschied zwischen den beiden Gruppen besteht. Es zeigt sich, dass SchülerInnen die (eher) die Intention haben ein E-Fahrrad zu nutzen, diese auch bequemer, einfacher, unabhängiger, entspannender und cooler einschätzen als die SchülerInnen, die (eher) keine Intention haben ein E-Fahrrad für ihren Schul- bzw. Freizeitwege zu nutzen. Weiters zeigt sich, dass die Reichweite, das Aufladen und die Ladedauer von E-Fahrrädern bzw. E-Roller von der ersteren Gruppe positiver bewertet wird als von denen, die (eher) keine Intention haben ein E-Fahrrad zu nutzen. Die in Abbildung 9 gezeigten Eigenschaften von E-Fahrzeugen hervorzuheben, erscheint als vielversprechende Strategie, um E-Mobilität bei SchülerInnen zu fördern.

Abbildung 9: Signifikante Unterschiede bei der Bewertung unterschiedlicher Eigenschaften von E- Fahrzeugen zwischen SchülerInnen die (eher) eine Intention haben ein E-Fahrrad zu nutzen, und denen die (eher) keine Intention haben ein E-Fahrrad zu nutzen (*** Irrtumswahrscheinlichkeit < 1%, ** < 5%, * < 10%).

In Abbildung 10 werden die Bewertungen der SchülerInnen gezeigt, welche (eher) die Intention haben einen E-Roller für ihre Schul- und Freizeitwege zu nutzen (links). Diese werden wiederum den Bewertungen der SchülerInnen, die (eher) keine Intention haben einen E- Roller zu nutzen, gegenübergestellt (rechts). Es zeigt sich, dass SchülerInnen die (eher) die Intention haben einen E-Roller zu nutzen, diesen auch bequemer, schneller, einfacher, unabhängiger, sicherer, lustiger und cooler einschätzen als die SchülerInnen, die (eher) keine Intention haben einen E-Roller für ihren Schul- bzw. Freizeitwege zu nutzen. Auch hier zeigt sich, dass das Aufladen und die Ladedauer von E-Fahrzeugen von der ersten Gruppe positiver bewertet werden, als von der zweiten Gruppe.

6

Abbildung 10: Signifikante Unterschiede bei der Bewertung unterschiedlicher Eigenschaften von E- Fahrzeugen zwischen SchülerInnen die (eher) eine Intention haben einen E-Roller zu nutzen, und denen die (eher) keine Intention haben einen E-Roller zu nutzen (*** Irrtumswahrscheinlichkeit < 1%, ** < 5%, * < 10%).

2.4 Mobilitätssituation von Jugendlichen

Im Folgenden werden einige ausgewählte Merkmale zur aktuellen Mobilitätssituation von SchülerInnen der Energieregion Weiz-Gleisdorf vorgestellt. Abbildung 11 zeigt, dass die meisten Befragten ein SchülerInnenticket (50%) und/oder ein Top-Ticket (28%) besitzen. Jeweils ein Viertel der befragten SchülerInnen besitzen einen Autoführerschein und/oder einen Moped- bzw. Motorradführerschein. Von den SchülerInnen, die noch keinen Autoführerschein besitzen (N = 94), haben 84% ganz sicher bzw. 15% eher schon vor in Zukunft einen Autoführerschein zu machen. Von den SchülerInnen, die noch keinen Moped- bzw. Motorradführerschein besitzen, haben nur 35% vor diesen zu machen (ganz sicher bzw. eher schon), wobei 55% sicher bzw. eher keinen machen wollen (die restlichen 10% wissen es nicht genau).

7

Abbildung 11: Mobilitätssituation von SchülerInnen [1].

Abbildung 12 zeigt, dass die meisten SchülerInnen ein Fahrrad besitzen (82%), gefolgt von einem Moped bzw. einem Motorrad (33%). Bereits 11% der SchülerInnen besitzen ein eigenes Auto, wobei 4% bzw. 1% bereits ein E-Fahrrad bzw. einen E-Roller besitzen.

Abbildung 12: Mobilitätssituation von SchülerInnen [2].

Die öffentliche Verkehrsmittelinfrastruktur in der Energieregion wird von den SchülerInnen im Allgemeinen als (sehr) positiv bewertet. Wie in Abbildung 13 gezeigt wird, sind 74% der SchülerInnen der Meinung, dass diese gut geeignet ist um den Schulweg zu beschreiten (stimme voll und ganz bzw. stimme eher zu). Im Hinblick auf die Freizeitwege sinkt dieser Anteil auf 59%.

Abbildung 13: Bewertung der öffentlichen Verkehrsmittelstruktur.

8

Interview- leitfaden Masterarbeit

(Vorlage)

Interviewleitfaden Heike Rinnhofer

• Teil meiner MA, möchte mehr über Mob. von Jug. in ER erfahren. Deine Erfahrungen interessiert mich. Werde Informationen streng vertraulich, nur anonym verwenden • Kennenlernenà Name, Alter, Schüler/ Lehrling, e-cult, Wohnort (Stadt/Land) • Einführung in Modus des Gesprächs; Einholen der Einwilligung für Aufzeichnung Derzeitiges Mobilitätsverhalten Erzähl doch mal, wie so ein typischer Schultag/Arbeitstag bei dir aussieht? Wie kommst du in die Schule/ zur Arbeit? Warum? VM in der Freizeit? Warum? Wie oft benützt du das Auto? Warum? Wie oft benützt du Öffis? Warum? Wie oft benützt du das Rad? Warum? Wie oft benützt du das Moped? Warum? (Moped) Führerschein? ja Warum? nein Jahres- oder Monatskarte für Öffis? ja Warum? nein Wichtig, ein Auto und/oder Moped zu besitzen? ja Warum? nein Wichtig, mit Öffis zu fahren? ja Warum? nein Ohne Auto leben? ja Warum? nein Autoverfügbarkeit im HH bzw. eigenes Auto? ja Wie viele? nein

Ideale Mobilitätsinfrastruktur Wie zufrieden bist du derzeit mit deinen Möglichkeiten bei der Mobilität? Welche Veränderungen wünscht dir? Was besser machen, besser von A nach B? ErgäF: Gibt es deiner Meinung nach genügend Öffis/ ja Warum? Anbindungen? Was müsste verändert werden? nein Was verstehst du unter „mobil sein“? Interviewleitfaden Heike Rinnhofer

e-Mobilität/ e-cult Kennst du das e-cult Projekt der Energieregion Weiz-Gleisdorf? Warum? Wenn ja: Nimmst du teil? Warum? e-cult Kannst du ein bisschen was über das Projekt erzählen? (3 positive, 3 negative Dinge?)

Seit wann nutzt du Pedelecs, e-Roller? Wie häufig? In welchen Situationen? (Freizeit/Arbeit/Schule) Verbesserungsvorschläge für die e-Fahrzeuge? Verbesserungsvorschläge für Infrastruktur für e-Mobilität in eurer Region? In Zukunft nur mit e-Fahrzeugen unterwegs sein, und auf ja Warum? herkömmliche Autos/Mopeds zu verzichten? nein Freunden die Nutzung von e-Fahrzeugen empfehlen? ja Warum? nein nicht e-cult (kurze Einführung in Projekt geben!) Würdest du gerne einmal ein Pedelec/ einen E-Roller ja Warum? testen? Vorahnung? nein Wenn nein: Unter welchen Umständen? Was müsste sich verändern? Was ist für dich e-Mobilität? Was ist für dich an E-Fahrzeugen positiv/ negativ?

Ausklang Über Mobilität kann man sich ja viel unterhalten. Was ist dir denn bei diesem Thema noch wichtig? Wenn wir noch andere Jugendliche interviewen. Was sollen wir die deiner Meinung nach noch Fragen?

Soziodemografische Daten: Geburtsdatum/ Alter: Schule/Lehrbetrieb: Höchste abgeschlossene Ausbildung:

Masterarbeit University*of*Graz* Karl2Franzens2Universität*Graz* * * DRIVING'CHANGE?'MOBILITY'BEHAVIOUR' OF'ADOLESCENTS'AND'YOUNG'ADULTS' A'Qualitative'Analysis'of'Drivers'and'Barriers'for'Sustainable'Mobility' * * Master’s(Thesis(( submitted*in*fulfilment*of*the*requirements*for*the*academic*degree*of** * Master(of(Science(( in*the** International*Joint*Master’s*Programme*in*Sustainable*Development* Specialization*track:*Environmental*Governance,*Utrecht*University* * at*the** Institute*of*Systems*Sciences,*Innovation*and*Sustainability*Research* University*of*Graz* * by* Heike*Rinnhofer,*BSc*BSc** * Supervisor:*Ao.Univ.2Prof.*Mag.*Dr.rer.soc.oec.*Alfred*Posch* and*Mag.rer.soc.oec.*Bakk.rer.soc.oec.*Maria*Hecher* *

* * Second*reader:*Dr.*Peter*Driessen,*Utrecht*University* * Graz,*March*14th,*2017* * !

* *

* * * II*

* !

Statutory'Declaration'

* * * I* herewith* declare* that* unless* otherwise* indicated* in* the* text* or* references,* this* thesis* is* entirely* the* product* of* my* own* academic* work.* All* literal* quotations* and* corresponding* reproductions* of* other* people’s* thoughts* are* clearly* indicated;* identification* of* other* references*with*regard*to*the*statement*and*scope*of*the*work*is*quoted.** This*thesis*has*not*been*submitted*either*as*a*whole*or*in*part*for*a*degree*at*this*or*any*other* university*or*institution.*The*printed*version*at*hand*is*equivalent*to*the*submitted*electronic* one.* * * * * Place*and*Date:*Graz,*March*14th,*2017* * * * * Heike*Rinnhofer* * *

* * * III*

* !

Acknowledgement''

* * I*would*like*to*take*this*opportunity*to*first*of*all*thank*my*co2supervisor*Mag.a*Maria*Hecher* for* her* continuous* support* and* dedication* throughout* the* writing* process* of* this* master* thesis.* You* have* been* a* great* support* with* regard* to* subject2specific* questions,* fruitful* discussions*and*feedback*at*any*time.** I* would* also* like* to* thank* Ao.Univ.2Prof.* Mag.* Dr.* Alfred* Posch* of* the* Institute* of* System* Sciences,*Innovation*and*Sustainability*Research,*who*took*responsibility*for*the*academic* supervision* of* the* present* master* thesis* and* provided* guidance* throughout* the* whole* master’s*programme.** Thanks*to*the*team*at*Energieregion*Weiz*Geisdorf,*who*made*a*cooperation*possible,*and* especially*to*MMag.*Christian*Hütter*for*his*support*during*the*interviews.** Finally*and*most*importantly,*I*wish*to*thank*my*parents*Karin*and*Wolfgang*for*their*love*and* unfailing*support*in*any*way*possible*and*the*amazing*opportunities,*which*they*have*given* me*over*the*years.*You*are*always*there*for*me.*Markus,*you*are*always*on*my*side,*giving*me* love*and*providing*encouragement*when*needed.*My*sun*and*stars.*Thank*you*to*my*friends* (too*many*to*list*here*but*you*know*who*you*are!)*for*providing*friendship*that*I*needed*and* who*made*my*years*of*study*unforgettable!** This*accomplishment*would*not*have*been*possible*without*them.*Thank*you.** * * Heike*Rinnhofer* * * * * * !“As!we!express!our!gratitude,!! we!must!never!forget!that!the!highest!appreciation!! is!not!to!utter!words,!but!to!live!by!them.”!! =!John!F.!Kennedy* !

* * * IV*

* !

Abstract'

The*current*level*of*mobility*provides*the*possibility*for*society*to*go*anywhere*at*any*time,* but* poses* a* threat* to* the* world’s* ecosystem.* In* this* respect,* the* mobility* behaviour* of* adolescents*and*young*adults*is*highly*relevant,*as*they*are*in*a*period*of*transition*during* which*future*mobility*patterns*are*shaped.*Hence,*the*research*questions*of*this*thesis*are,* firstly,*what*drivers*that*contribute*to*the*decisions*regarding*mode*of*transportation,*as*well* as*barriers*for*more*sustainable*mobility*behaviour*can*be*derived*from*theories*and*concepts* as*well*as*empirical*studies*on*adolescents’*mobility*behaviour,*and,*secondly,*what*are*the* drivers*and*barriers*affecting*adolescents’*mobility*behaviour*in*an*Austrian*rural*area.*To* answer* the* research* questions,* a* content* analysis* identifies* drivers* and* barriers* of* adolescents’* mobility* behaviour,* namely* (i)* sociodemographic* factors,* (ii)* psychological* factors,* (iii)* social* interaction,* (iv)* environmental* awareness,* (v)* technological* factors,* (vi)* possessions*of*driver’s*licence*and*driving*a*car,*(vii)*weather*conditions,*and*(viii)*the*analysis* whether*e2vehicles*can*be*seen*as*an*opportunity.*The*findings*are*examined*based*on*a* qualitative*research*in*the*case*study*region*Energieregion*Weiz*Gleisdorf*(EWG).*Interviews* with*adolescents*are*undertaken,*who*partly*tested*e2vehicles*within*the*e2cult*project*of*the* EWG.*The*results*prove*the*importance*of*the*symbolic*dimension*autonomy*and*symbolic* dimension* experience* and* the* diverse* attitudes* for* mobility* decisions* of* adolescents.* E2 vehicles* provide* the* desired* independence* as* well* as* fun* while* driving.* By* providing* temporary* structural* changes* through* projects* such* as* e2cult,* the* mobility* behaviour* of* adolescents*can*be*influenced*and*the*opportunities*for*a*future*use*of*e2vehicles*can*be* increased.* * *

* * * V*

* !

Zusammenfassung''

Die* derzeitigen* Möglichkeiten* hinsichtlich* der* Mobilität* bieten* Unabhängigkeit* für* die* Gesellschaft,*stellen*aber*eine*Bedrohung*für*das*weltweite*Ökosystem*dar.*In*dieser*Hinsicht* ist*das*Mobilitätsverhalten*von*Jugendlichen*und*jungen*Erwachsenen*von*großer*Bedeutung,* da*diese*sich*in*einer*Übergangsphase*befinden,*in*der*zukünftige*Mobilitätsmuster*geformt* werden.*Daher*sind*die*zentralen*Forschungsfragen*dieser*Masterarbeit*zum*einen*welche* Treiber* für* die* Verkehrsmittelwahl* und* Barrieren* für* nachhaltige* Mobilität* können* aus* Theorien*und*Konzepten,*sowie*aus*empirischen*Forschungsstudien*zum*Mobilitätsverhalten* von*Jugendlichen*abgeleitet*werden,*und*zum*anderen*welche*Treiber*und*Barrieren*für*das* Mobilitätsverhalten* von* Jugendlichen* können* anhand* einer* empirischen* Untersuchung* in* einer* österreichischen,* ländlichen* Region* abgeleitet* werden.* Zur* Beantwortung* der* Forschungsfragen*bestimmt*eine*Inhaltsanalyse*die*Aspekte*(i)*soziodemografische*Faktoren,* (ii)* psychologische* Faktoren,* (iii)* soziale* Interaktion,* (iv)* Umweltbewusstsein,* (v)* technologische* Faktoren,* (vi)* Besitz* von* Führerschein* und* Fahren* eines* Autos,* (vii)* Wetterbedingungen,* sowie* (viii)* die* Analyse,* ob* e2Fahrzeuge* als* Chance* gesehen* werden* können.*Diese*Erkenntnisse*werden*basierend*auf*einer*qualitativen*Forschungsstudie*in*einer* österreichischen,* ländlichen* Fallstudienregion* empirisch* untersucht.* Die* Resultate* der* Interviews* mit* Jugendlichen,* von* denen* etwa* die* Hälfte* im* Rahmen* eines* Projektes* e2 Fahrzeuge* getestet* haben,* zeigen,* dass* die* symbolischen* Dimensionen* Autonomie* und* Erlebnis,* sowie* diverse* Einstellungen* der* Jugendlichen,* die* wichtigsten* Faktoren* für* Mobilitätsentscheidungen*darstellen.*E2Fahrzeuge*bieten*die*begehrte*Unabhängigkeit*sowie* Spaß*am*Fahren.*Temporäre,*strukturelle*Veränderungen*können*das*Mobilitätsverhalten*von* Jugendlichen* beeinflussen* und* die* Chancen* für* die* zukünftige* Nutzung* von* e2Fahrzeugen* erhöhen.* * *

* * * VI*

* !

Table'of'contents''

1* INTRODUCTION(...... (11* 1.1* THE*NATURE*OF*THE*PROBLEM*...... *11* 1.2* CURRENT*MOBILITY*PATTERNS*IN*AUSTRIA*...... *13* 1.3* TARGET*GROUP*ADOLESCENTS*AND*YOUNG*ADULTS*...... *15* 1.4* SUSTAINABLE*MOBILITY*...... *17* 1.4.1* Development!and!initiatives!...... !18* 1.4.2* Sustainable!transport!modes!...... !19* 1.4.3* Sustainable!mobility!in!Austria!...... !21* 1.5* RESEARCH*OBJECTIVES*AND*QUESTIONS*...... *21* 2* METHODOLOGICAL(FOUNDATION(...... (23* 2.1* LITERATURE*REVIEW*...... *23* 2.2* CONTENT*ANALYSIS*...... *25* 2.3* QUALITATIVE*INTERVIEWS*...... *27* 3* DRIVERS(AND(BARRIERS(OF(ADOLESCENTS’(MOBILITY(BEHAVIOUR(...... (28* 3.1* UNDERLYING*PSYCHOLOGICAL*CONCEPTS*...... *29* 3.1.1* Attitudes!...... !29* 3.1.2* Norms!...... !30* 3.1.3* Values!...... !31* 3.1.4* Habits!...... !34* 3.2* THEORIES*OF*ACTION*...... *35* 3.2.1* Theory!of!Planned!Behaviour!(TPB)!...... !36* 3.2.2* Norm!Activation!Theory!(NAT)!...... !37* 3.3* CONCEPTS*AND*THEORIES*IN*MOBILITY*RESEARCH*...... *38* 3.3.1* The!concept!of!mobility!biography!...... !39* 3.3.2* Travel!socialization!...... !40* 3.3.3* Mobility!styles!and!target!groups!...... !42* 3.3.4* Perceived!Mobility!Necessities!(PMN)!...... !47* 3.3.5* Levels!of!mobility!sphere!development!...... !48* 3.3.6* Components!of!mobility!perception!...... !49* 3.3.7* Defining!features!of!adolescence!...... !50* 3.4* SCIENTIFIC*MOBILITY*STUDIES*...... *51* 3.4.1* Sociodemographic!factors!...... !61* 3.4.2* Psychological!valuation!of!mobility!...... !69* 3.4.3* Environmental!awareness!...... !75* 3.4.4* Social!interaction!...... !78* 3.4.5* Technology!in!everyday!life!...... !80* 3.4.6* Possession!of!driver’s!licence!and!travelling!by!car!...... !84* 3.4.7* Weather!...... !85* 3.4.8* Opportunity!e=vehicles?!...... !86*

* * * VII*

* !

4* EMPIRICAL(ANALYSIS(...... (87* 4.1* SAMPLE*DESCRIPTION*...... *88* 4.2* INTERVIEW*RESULTS*...... *88* 4.2.1* Current!mobility!behaviour!...... !88* 4.2.2* Ideal!mobility!infrastructure!...... !96* 4.2.3* Opportunity!e=vehicles?!...... !97* 5* DISCUSSION(...... (102* 5.1* DISCUSSION*OF*RESULTS*...... *102* 5.1.1* Drivers!and!barriers!of!adolescents’!mobility!behaviour!...... !102* 5.1.2* Opportunity!e=vehicles!...... !110* 5.2* LIMITATIONS*...... *111* 6* CONCLUSION(...... (112* REFERENCES(...... (116* ANNEX(1(...... (124* ANNEX(2(...... (127* * * *

* * * VIII*

* !

List'of'figures''

FIGURE*1:*SHARE*OF*SECTORS*OF*TOTAL*GHG*EMISSIONS*IN*AUSTRIA*IN*2013*...... *12*

FIGURE*2:*CHANGE*IN*GHG*EMISSIONS*IN*AUSTRIA,*FROM*1990*TO*2013*BY*SECTORS*...... *13*

FIGURE*3:*MODAL*SPLIT*BY*STATE*IN*AUSTRIA,*2005*...... *14*

FIGURE*4:*MODAL*SPLIT*OF*ADOLESCENTS*REGARDING*AGE*AND*GENDER** *...... *16*

FIGURE*5:*MODAL*SPLIT*OF*ADOLESCENTS*REGARDING*GENDER*AND*REGION*...... *17*

FIGURE*6:*THE*GREEN*TRANSPORTATION*HIERARCHY** *...... *20*

FIGURE*7:*FOUR*PERSPECTIVES*OF*CULTURAL*THEORY*...... *31*

FIGURE*8:*VALUE*GROUPS*AND*ORIENTATIONS**...... *33*

FIGURE*9:*THEORY*OF*PLANNED*BEHAVIOUR**...... *37*

FIGURE*10:*NORM*ACTIVATION*THEORY*...... *38*

FIGURE*11:*INTEGRATION*OF*PMN*IN*THE*FRAMEWORK*OF*TPB*...... *47*

FIGURE*12:*THREE2LEVEL*MODEL*OF*THE*MOBILITY*SPHERE*DEVELOPMENT*...... *48*

FIGURE*13:*DEFINING*FEATURES*OF*ADOLESCENCE*AND*MOBILITY**...... *51*

FIGURE*14:*EDUCATIONAL*LEVEL,*GENDER*RATIO*AND*PARTICIPATION*IN*THE*E2CULT*PROJECT*OF*THE*SAMPLE*...... *88*

FIGURE*15:*CURRENT*AND*FUTURE*LICENCE*HOLDERS*AMONG*INTERVIEWEES*...... *89*

FIGURE*16:*CAR*AVAILABILITY*OF*INTERVIEWEES*IN*HOUSEHOLD**...... *89* *

List'of'tables''

TABLE*1:*MOBILITY*TYPES*AS*DEFINED*BY*U.MOVE*...... *43*

TABLE*2:*OVERVIEW*OF*SELECTED*AND*ANALYSED*RESEARCH*STUDIES*...... *57*

TABLE*3:*THEORETICAL*FOUNDATIONS,*EMPIRICAL*METHODS,*RESEARCH*AREA**AND*SAMPLE*OF*THE*ANALYSED*STUDIES*...... *60*

TABLE*4:*ACTION2THEORETICAL*CONSTRUCTS*FOR*ECOLOGY2RELATED*ATTITUDES**...... *75*

TABLE*5:*ATTITUDE2BASED*MOBILITY*TARGET*GROUPS*IDENTIFIED*IN*THE*EMPIRICAL*RESEARCH** **...... *107*

TABLE*6:*LIST*OF*CODES*FROM*THE*MAXQDA*SOFTWARE*PROGRAM**...... *134* * * * *

* * * IX*

* !

List'of'abbreviations''

BMV* * * * Bundesministerium*für*Verkehr,*Bau2*und*Wohnungswesen* (German*Ministry*for*Transport,*Building*and*Housing)* BMVIT** * * Bundesministerium*für*Verkehr,*Innovation*und*Technologie* (Austrian*Ministry*for*Transport,*Innovation*and*Technology)* BVMobil* * * Bundesverband*nachhaltige*Mobilität** (Austrian*Sustainable*Mobility)* CIVITAS* * * City*Vitality*and*Sustianability*

CO2** * * * Carbon*Dioxide* EC* * * * European*Commission* EU* * * * European*Union* EWG* * * * Energieregion*Weiz2Gleisdorf*(energy*region*Weiz2Gleisdorf)* GHG** * * * Greenhouse*gas** ICT* * * * Information*and*Communication*Technology* IFMO* * * * Institute*for*Mobility*Research* IPCC* * * * Intergovernmental*Panel*on*Climate*Change* NAT* * * * Norm*Activation*Theory* OECD* * * * Organisation*for*Economic*Co2operation*and*Development* PMN* * * * Perceived*Mobility*Necessities** RCT* * * * Rational*Choice*Theory* SORA** * * * Institute*for*Social*Research*and*Consulting* TPB** * * * Theory*of*Planned*Behaviour* TRA* * * * Theory*of*Reasoned*Action* UNCED** * * United*Nations*Conference*on*Environment*and*Development* UNFCCC** * * United*Nations*Framework*Convention*on*Climate*Change** WBCSD* * * World*Business*Council*of*Sustainable*Development* WCED* * * * World*Commission*on*Environment*and*Development** WKO* * * * Wirtschaftskammer*Österreich*(Austrian*Economic*Chambers)** ZIMONA* * * Zielgruppen*und*deren*Mobilitätsbedürfnisse*im*Nahverkehr* (target*groups*and*their*mobility*needs*in*local*traffic)* *

* * * X*

* * INTRODUCTION!

! ! ! ! ! ! “Never!doubt!that!a!small!group!of!thoughtfully!! committed!citizens!can!change!the!world.!! Indeed,!it's!the!only!thing!that!ever!has.”! ! =!Margaret!Mead! ! ! ! ! !

1! Introduction''

1.1! The'nature'of'the'problem' Since*the*last*century,*mobility*has*not*only*become*a*necessity*for*humans,*but*also*a*matter* of*course.*The*achieved*freedom*to*be*able*to*go*anywhere*at*any*time*is*accompanied*by* rising*greenhouse*gases*(GHG),*especially*CO2,*emissions.*For*that*reason,*in*2009,*the*United* Nations* Framework* Convention* on* Climate* Change* (UNFCCC)* emphasized* that* “climate* change*is*one*of*the*greatest*challenges*of*our*time”*and,*therefore,*agreed*that*the*increase* in*global*temperature*needs*to*remain*below*two*degrees*Celsius*as*has*been*verified*by* scientific* literature* and* by* the* IPCC* Fourth* Assessment* Report* (UNFCCC,* 2009,* pp.* 1–2).* Furthermore,* in* December* 1997,* the* Kyoto! Protocol* was* adopted* at* the* United* Nations* Climate* Change* Conference* and* entered* into* force* in* February* 2005.* This* international* agreement*set*binding*emission*reduction*targets*for*its*parties*in*order*to*react*to*global* climate*change*(UNFCCC,*2014).*The,*at*the*time,*EU215*countries*committed*to*reducing*GHG* emissions*in*the*period*from*2008*to*2012*by*8%,*compared*to*the*basis*year*1990.*Austria,* in*particular,*agreed*to*decrease*its*GHG*emissions*by*13%,*as*a*result*of*internal*burden* sharing*within*the*EU*(Umweltbundesamt,*2013,*p.*63).*However,*Austria*did*not*meet*its* commitments* for* emission* reduction* targets.* In* contrast,* Austria* emitted* 82.8* Mt* CO2* equivalents*in*2011,*compared*to*the*annual*mean*of*68.8*Mt*CO2*equivalents*for*the*period* of* 2008* to* 2012* agreed* upon* in* the* Kyoto* Protocol.* This* corresponds* to* an* increase* of* emissions*by*6%*in*2011,*compared*to*1990*(ibid,*p.*65).**

* * * 11*

* INTRODUCTION!

Emissions*by*sector*in*2013

Waste*management Fluorinated*gases 4% 3% Agriculture 10%

Buildings Energy*and*industry* 10% (incl.*emission* trading) 37%

Transport 28% Energy*and*industry* (excl.*emission* trading) 8% * Figure!1:!Share!of!sectors!of!total!GHG!emissions!in!Austria!in!2013!! (adapted!from!Umweltbundesamt,!2015a;!Umweltbundesamt,!2015b)!

!

Private!citizens!and!households*contribute*to*a*large*part*to*Austria’s*current*CO2*emissions* due*to*requirements*of*accommodation*and*mobility*patterns.*A*change*in*user*behaviour*in* this*sector*can*contribute*to*lowering*GHG*emissions*and*meet*the*two*degrees*Celsius*target* (Seebauer*et*al.,*2010).*Accordingly,*the*Austrian*Federal*Environment*Agency*stated*that*the* significant*sectors,*responsible*for*CO2*emissions*and*the*maximum*deviation*of*the*Austrian* 2007* climate* strategy* sectoral* targets,* are* industry* and* transport.* The* transport* sector* showed*the*highest*deviation*compared*to*the*target,*namely*+2.9*Mt*CO2*equivalent,*while* its* emissions* continue* to* rise* sharply* (Umweltbundesamt,* 2013,* pp.* 66–67).* In* 2013,* the* transport*sector*accounted*for*28%*of*total*GHG*emissions*in*Austria*(see*Figure*1).*Compared* to* 1990,* the* Austrian* transport* and* fluorinated* gases* sectors* were* the* only* sectors* with* increasing*GHG*emissions*in*2013*(see*Figure*2).*The*CO2*emissions*within*the*transport*sector* show*by*far*the*largest*increase,*with*8.5*Mt*CO2*equivalents,*or*61.4%*(Umweltbundesamt,* 2015a,*p.*51;*Umweltbundesamt,*2015b,*p.*18).**

* * * 12*

* INTRODUCTION!

Change*in*emissions*from*1990*to*2013*

(Mt*CO2 equivalent)

Fluorinated*gases

Waste*management

Agriculture

Buildings

Transport

Energy*and*industry

26 24 22 0 2 4 6 8 10 * Figure!2:!Change!in!GHG!emissions!in!Austria,!from!1990!to!2013!by!sectors! !(adapted!from!Umweltbundesamt,!2015a;!Umweltbundesamt,!2015b)!

* 1.2! Current'mobility'patterns'in'Austria' The*modal!split*in*Austria*is*currently*dominated*by*motorised*private*transport,*e.g.*cars*and* motorcycles.*In*2015,*there*was*an*emphasis*on*the*use*of*cars*for*passenger*transportation,* with* a* share* of* 75%;* 11%* account* for* the* railway,* 10%* of* passenger* journeys* have* been* covered*by*bus,*and*4%*account*for*metro/tramway*(WKO,*2015,*p.*111).*The*share*of*car* usage*is*higher*in*rural*than*in*urban*areas,*whereas*the*share*of*public*transportation*is* higher* in* agglomerations,* e.g.* Vienna* (see* Figure* 3)* (BMVIT,* 2012a,* p.* 23).* Since* 1990,* motorisation* in* Austria* has* increased* steadily;* in* 1990,* for* every* 1,000* inhabitants,* 363* passenger*cars*have*been*registered,*compared*to*546*passenger*cars*by*the*end*of*2015.*At* the*same*time,*the*share*of*alternative*fuel*vehicles*in*Austria*is*increasing,*albeit*from*a*very* low*level,*namely*from*0.2%*in*2011*to*0.5%*in*2015*(ibid,*p.*211;*Statistics*Austria,*2016).** The*travel!distances*of*Austrians*per*way*are*on*average*rather*short.*However,*the*daily* travel*distance,*especially*among*women,*is*increasing.*The*average*travel*distance*including* walkways*in*1995*added*up*to*9.5*km,*with*men*travelling*longer*distances*then*women.*More* recent*data*yet*shows*that*ways*of*men*as*well*as*women*after*1995*became*longer,*with* Lower*Austrian*men*increasing*their*average*travel*distance*from*15.4*km*(1995)*to*17.5*km* (2008)*and*Lower*Austrian*women*from*8.5*km*(1995)*to*12.1*km*(2008).*But,*from*2003,* especially*the*ways*of*women*remained*constant*or*became*shorter*again.*Studies*in*Lower* Austria*and*Vorarlberg*showed*that*the*share*of*weekday*travel*distances*by*passenger*car* of*5*km*or*less*amount*for*up*to*41%*and*47%,*respectively.*This*means*in*effect,*that*about* half*of*mobile*Austrians*travel*ways*of*5*km*or*less*by*car*every*day.*Furthermore,*in*Lower* Austria,*it*has*been*shown*that*every*twelfth*way*by*car*ends*after*only*1*km*(BMVIT,*2012b,*

* * * 13*

* INTRODUCTION! p.*88).*The*average!daily!travel!distance*of*Austrians*on*workdays*added*up*to*almost*29*km* in*1995,*in*Lower*Austria*even*up*to*35*km.*More*recent*data*shows*an*increase*of*daily*travel* distances*on*working*days.*A*comparison*between*men*and*women*shows*that,*in*1995,*the* daily*travel*distance*of*men*was*almost*twice*as*long*as*the*daily*travel*distance*of*women,* yet*more*recent*data*(2008)*shows*a*significant*increase*of*women’s*daily*travel*distances* (ibid,*p.*89).*Bernhard*(2016,*p.*218)*provides*an*overview*and*comparison*of*ways*in*urban* and*rural*areas*in*Switzerland,*which*are*comparable*to*Austrian*situations.*There,*the*daily* amount*of*ways*in*urban*areas*amounts*to*3.7,*whereas*in*rural*areas*it*amounts*to*3.4*daily* ways.* The* daily* travel* distance* in* urban* areas* is* 31.9* km* and* 40.8* km* in* rural* areas,* respectively.*This*difference*of*travel*distances*can*be*explained*by*the*spatial*proximity*of* points*of*interest,*care*facilities*and*workstations*in*urban*areas.*Furthermore,*a*mobility* survey*undertaken*in*Weiz,*Styria,*a*rural*area*in*Austria,*shows*that*approximately*20%*of* total* daily* ways* undertaken* are* within* a* distance* of* 3* km,* which* is* a* distance* that* can* thoroughly*be*covered*non2motorised.*Moreover,*about*50%*of*all*ways*in*Weiz*are*shorter* then*5*km*(Bernhard,*2016,*pp.*218–219).* *

Modal*split*by*state*in*Austria

100%

90%

80%

70%

60%

50%

40%

30%

20%

10%

0%

Public*Transport Pedestrians Cyclist Car*and*motorcycle:*driver Car*and*motorcycle:*passenger * Figure!3:!Modal!Split!by!state!in!Austria,!2005!! (adapted!from!BMVIT,!2012b,!p.!137)!

*

* * * 14*

* INTRODUCTION!

As*a*result*of*current*CO2*emissions,*discussed*in*sub2chapter*1.1,*and*the*finite*nature*of* currently*used*fossil2based*resources*such*as*petrol,*but*comparatively*few*alternative*fueled* vehicles,*scientific*literature*strongly*encourages*future*scenarios*for*the*transport*sector*that* recognise* the* need* for* “behavioural* changes* towards* more* sustainable* travel* futures”* (Prillwitz*and*Barr,*2011,*p.*1590)*(cf.*Schwanen*et*al.,*2011;*Schwanen*et*al.,*2012;*Bamberg* et*al.,*2007;*Nykvist*and*Whitmarsh,*2008).** * 1.3! Target'group'adolescents'and'young'adults'' Due*to*the*need*for*more*sustainable*mobility*behaviour,*this*thesis*focuses*on*adolescents! and!young!adults*from*16*to*20*years*and*targets*their*travel*behaviour.*This*stage*of*life*is* interesting*and*highly*relevant*because*most*young*adults*long*for*the*acquisition*of*a*driving* licence*between*the*age*of*16*to*20,*hold*a*driving*licence*by*the*age*of*18*and*gain*ones’*own* driving*experiences*between*the*age*of*18*to*20.*Besides*that,*adolescents*and*young*adults* are* in* a* period* of* transition* –* from* education* to* occupation,* to* their* own* residence,* to* partnerships*and*a*new*legal*status,*and*therewith,*new*rights*and*duties.*During*this*time,* they* are* confronted* with* status* transitions* as* well* as* the* necessity* to* develop* new* competencies*and*independent*orientations*in*different*areas*of*life.*For*that*reason,*future* mobility*patterns*are*shaped*at*that*time.*Young*adults,*determine*not*only*the*current*but* also*future*energy*consumption*in*Austria.*It*has*been*shown*that*changing*ones*individual* life*situation*due*to*biographical*changes*leads*to*breaking*old*habits*and*a*reorientation*of* everyday*life*(Seebauer*et*al.,*2010,*pp.*III–IV;*Sydow*and*Scholl,*2002,*pp.*11–12).*Hence,*it* is* relevant* to* address* mobility* behaviour* at* that* age,* raise* awareness* and* shape* more* sustainable*future*mobility*patterns.** The* decisions* of* adolescents* and* young* adults* regarding* mobility* are* not* reinforced* yet,* although*fundamental*decisions*are*shaped*in*childhood*and*adolescence.*Therefore,*there*is* an*opportunity*to*convince*them,*even*after*getting*a*driver’s*licence,*to*change*individual* mobility*behaviours*in*favour*of*more*sustainable*mobility*choices.*This*is*possible,*if*these* choices*are*compatible*with*their*changing*lifestyles.*Although*various*individual*evaluation* processes* characterize* young* adults’* choice* of* transportation,* Rabe* et* al.* (2002,* p.* 141)* describe*them*as*‘bearer*of*hope’*for*future*sustainable*development.*As*Witzke*(2015,*pp.* 22–23)*summarised*the*current*scientific*understanding*of*youth*mobility,*it*can*be*stated* that*IFMO*(2011,*p.*8),*Kuhnimhof*et*al.*(2012a,*p.*767)*and*Schönduwe*et*al.*(2012,*p.*20),* among* others,* argue* that* the* share* of* licensed* drivers* among* adolescents* is,* in* general,* decreasing*or*stagnating*–*yet*on*a*high*level.*Füssl*et*al.*(2013,*p.*1216),*though,*were*able* to* show* that* holding* a* driver’s* licence* is* important* for* Austrian* adolescents.* However,* it* seems*that*cars*are*no*longer*an*important*status*symbol,*but*have*been*replaced*by*new* status*symbols*such*as*smartphones*or*travels*(cf.*Progenium,*2011,*p.*2).**

* * * 15*

* INTRODUCTION!

Modal*split*regarding*age*and*gender

100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% Female*2 Male*2 Education* Female*2 Male*2 Education* Female*2 Male*2 Education*under* under*17*years* Education*aged* aged*18*and* Apprenticeship* Apprenticeship* 17*years* 18*and*above above or*employed or*employed

Public*Transport Pedestrians Cyclist Car*and*motorcycle:*driver Car*and*motorcycle:*passenger * Figure!4:!Modal!split!of!adolescents!regarding!age!and!gender!! ! (adapted!from!Seebauer!et!al.,!2010,!p.!196)!

* The*modal!split!of!Austrian’s!adolescents!and!young!adults*shows*differences*to*the*general* Austrian*modal*split*and*can*be*compared*in*Figure*3*and*4.*Seebauer*et*al.*(2010,*pp.*196– 201)*investigated,*among*others,*the*mobility*behaviour*and*styles*of*young*adults*in*different* Austrian*areas.*In*general,*it*has*been*shown*that*the*modal*split*among*adolescents*shows* variations* regarding* age,* gender* and* their* living* area.* The* share* of* car* usage* among* adolescents*increases*as*one*gets*older,*with*the*largest*shift*occurring*when*young*adults* enter* into* employment* (see* Figure* 4).* The* research* study* showed* a* preference* of* male* adolescents*for*the*usage*of*cars*and*motorcycles,*be*it*as*driver*or*passenger,*whereas*the* share*of*public*transportation*among*female*adolescents*is*highest,*especially*under*the*age* of* 18.* The* share* of* cyclists* is* much* higher* among* male* adolescents* under* the* age* of* 18* compared*to*females.*In*urban*areas,*the*share*of*car*usage*among*adolescents*is*lower*than* in*rural*areas,*as*is*the*case*nationwide*not*only*among*adolescents.*However,*in*urban*areas,* the*share*of*cyclists*among*adolescents*is*much*higher*than*in*rural*areas.*Males*show*a* higher*share*of*car*and*bike*usage*in*urban*as*well*as*rural*areas,*whereas*females*show*a* higher* share* of* public* transportation* usage* in* urban* as* well* as* rural* areas* (see* Figure* 5)* (Seebauer*et*al.,*2010,*pp.*196–201).** *

* * * 16*

* INTRODUCTION!

Modal*split*regarding*gender*and*region

100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% Female*2 Urban*areas Male*2 Urban*areas Female*2 Rural*areas Male*2 Rural*areas

Public*Transport Pedestrians Cyclist Car*and*motorcycle:*driver Car*and*motorcycle:*passenger * Figure!5:!Modal!split!of!adolescents!regarding!gender!and!region!! (adapted!from!Seebauer!et!al.,!2010,!p.!201)!

* With*increasing*age,*the*travel!distances*of*adolescents*and*young*adults*increase.*However,* the*number*of*ways*and*time*requirement*decrease.*It*has*been*shown*that*the*average* number*of*ways*decreases*at*the*end*of*university*education.*At*the*same*time,*the*average* travel*distance*increases*noticeably*(Seebauer*et*al.,*2010,*p.*173).*Furthermore,*the*ways*of* adolescents*in*education*are,*at*large,*shorter*than*the*ways*of*employed*adolescents.*In* addition,*the*travel*distances*among*young*adults*increase*with*age.*The*time*requirement* decreases*slightly,*which*can*be*explained*by*the*modified*choice*of*transport*mode.*The* older*the*adolescents,*the*higher*is*the*share*of*car*usage*as*driver*(see*Figure*4)*(Seebauer* et*al.,*2010,*pp.*198–199).** * 1.4! Sustainable'mobility'' This* chapter,* in* a* first* step,* addresses* the* development* of* the* term* and* the* concept* of* sustainable* mobility,* and* presents* different* initiatives* related* to* this* issue.* Second,* the* discussion* of* sustainable* mobility* in* scientific* literature* is* described.* Finally,* sustainable* mobility*in*the*Austrian*context*is*discussed.** *

* * * 17*

* INTRODUCTION!

1.4.1! Development'and'initiatives'' The*WBCSD*defines*sustainable*mobility*as!mobility!that!meets!“the!needs!of!society!to!move! freely,! gain! access,! communicate,! trade! and! establish! relationships! […]! without! sacrificing! other!essential!human!or!ecological!requirements!now!or!in!the!future“*(WBCSD,*2004,*p.*12).* This* definition* seems* to* be* inspired* by* the* widely* known* and* much* cited* definition* of* sustainable*development,*given*in*the*Brundtland*Report*(c.f.*Williams,*2007,*p.*2).*The*WCED* stated*that*“sustainable!development!is!development!that!meets!the!needs!of!the!present! generation!without!compromising!the!ability!of!future!generations!to!meet!their!own!needs”! (WCED,*1987,*p.*37).** The* Brundtland* Report,* published* in* 1987,* was* the* starting* point* for* the* discussion* of* sustainable*mobility,*even*though*it*did*not*include*a*discussion*of*sustainable*mobility*as*a* separate* theme* (Holden,* 2012,* pp.* 41–42).* The* report* referred* to* transport* policies* and* practices*as*causes*of*environmental*problems*(WCED,*1987,*p.*17),*such*as*climate*change* due*to*CO2*emissions,*increased*local*air*pollution*in*cities*and*industrial*areas,*and*amplified* acidification*due*to*burning*fossil*fuels*(ibid,*p.*165).*Additionally,*transport*is*mentioned*to* be*hardly*provided*for*the*growing*population*in*the*developing*world,*a*service*“needed*for* an*adequate*human*life”*(ibid,*p.*199).*Following*the*Brundtland*Report,*the*United*Nations* Conference*on*Environment*and*Development*(UNCED)*recognised*transport*as*a*main*aspect* for* sustainable* development* at* the* 1992* meeting.* Besides* that,* international* institutions,* such* as* the* Organisation* for* Economic* Co2operation* and* Development* (OECD),* the* World* Business* Council* of* Sustainable* Development* (WBCSD),* the* World* Bank* as* well* as* the* European*Union*decided*to*adopt*policies*concerning*sustainable*mobility*(Holden,*2012,*pp.* 41–42).** In*general,*sustainable*mobility,*or*sustainable*transport,*is*a*concept*that*aims*at*addressing* the*increasing*risk*of*pollution*and*congestion*due*to*growing*freight*and*passenger*transport.* The*European*Commission*is*“working*towards*a*form*of*mobility*that*is*sustainable,*energy2 efficient*and*respectful*of*the*environment”.*This*aim*shall*be*achieved*by:*(i)*co2modality,* which*describes*the*ideal*combination*of*different*modes*of*transport*within*the*same*chain* of* transport,* (ii)* technical* innovations,* and* (iii)* the* promotion* of* least* polluting* but* most* efficient* modes* of* transport* (European* Commission,* 2016).* The* ‘Action* Plan* on* Urban* Mobility’* proposes* twenty* measures* aiming* at* supporting* local,* regional* and* national* authorities*to*achieve*the*goals*for*sustainable*mobility*and*has*been*adapted*on*September* 30th,*2009.*Based*on*the*Action*Plans’*review,*the*European*Commission*developed*the*Urban* Mobility*Package*in*2013*(European*Commission,*2015).** Furthermore,*the*European*Commission*has*initiated*different*policies*and*project*fundings* for*urban*transport,*e.g.*the*initiative*CIVITAS.*The*word*CIVITAS*is*an*abbreviation*for*City,* Vitality*and*Sustainability,*the*“three*key*components*of*modern*European*city”.*Within*the* scope*of*this*master’s*thesis,*it*has*been*chosen*to*further*describe*this*initiative*as*it*already* * * * 18*

* INTRODUCTION! did* drive* change* in* 31* countries* for* cleaner* and* better* transport* in* cities.* Moreover,* it* provides*an*interactive*network*for*exchange*and*innovation,*which*any*city*can*join.*It*was* launched*in*2002*to*encourage*the*over*200*participating*European*cities*to*introduce*new* transport*measures*and*policies*for*greener*transport.*Over*the*last*years,*CIVITAS*has*helped* to*introduce*various*innovations*and*measures*for*eco2friendlier*mobility,*such*as*a*public* transport*ticketing*system*in*Tallinn*(Estonia),*a*new*traffic*control*system*in*Bologna*(Italy),* as*well*as*a*completely*clean,*eco2friendly*bus*fleet*in*Toulouse*(France).*These*and*other* innovations* are* based* on* empowering* citizens,* who* convince* politicians* to* adopt* certain* changes*to*enhance*the*sustainability*of*urban*transport*(CIVITAS*Initiative,*2013a).*In*the*first* phase*of*CIVITAS*(200222006),*Graz*joined*the*initiative,*as*the*only*Austrian*city.*The*city* adopted*measures*such*as*creating*a*biodiesel*bus*fleet,*reducing*traffic*speeds*and*car*use,* and*bike2and2ride*parking*(CIVITAS*Initiative,*2013b).* Moreover,*a*federal*association*for*Austrian*Sustainable*Mobility*has*been*introduced,*which* comprises* a* coalition* of* active* clubs* in* the* field* of* sustainable* mobility,* companies,* organisations* and* individuals* to* provide* an* interconnectedness* of* the* field* of* sustainable* mobility*throughout*Austria.*The*federal*association*aims*at*improving*the*basic*conditions* and*awareness*for*sustainable*mobility*in*Austria.*The*main*area*of*operations*are*electric* vehicles,* vegetable* oil* vehicles* and* intermodal* transport.* Austrian* Sustainable* Mobility* encourages* knowledge* exchange* by* developing* and* providing* information,* studies,* test* results*and*other*data*(BVMobil,*n.d.).** * 1.4.2! Sustainable'transport'modes'' The*following*chapter*focuses*on*the*most*common*sustainable*modes*of*transportation,* which*are*also*part*of*the*discussion*throughout*this*research*project.*In*2001,*the*Green* Transportation* Hierarchy* was* first* published* in* the* Transport* Alternatives* Magazine.* The* hierarchy*puts*the*most*sustainable*transport*modes*on*top,*which*are*characterized*by*low* costs,*space*efficiency*and*zero*environmental*impact.*The*degree*of*sustainability*within*the* hierarchy*decreases*downwards*(Transportation*Alternatives,*2001,*p.*9).*It*has*been*revised* in*2015,*expanding*the*hierarchy*by*some*transport*modes*and*adding*new*alternatives,*e.g.* electric* scooters* (Litman,* 2015).* However,* electric* bikes* (e2bikes)* as* well* as* environment* friendly*cars,*e.g.*e2cars,*hydrogen*cars*or*hybrid*cars,*have*not*been*added*to*the*hierarchy* yet.*An*adapted*Green*Transportation*Hierarchy*can*be*seen*in*Figure*6.*Here,*walking*is*seen* as*the*most*sustainable*transport*mode*followed*by*bicycles,*as*in*the*initial*hierarchy.*The* next* level* are* e2bikes* as* well* as* e2scooters,* which* are* significant* for* the* present* thesis.* Furthermore,*public*transport*is*listed;*then,*service*and*freight*vehicles*are*listed,*which*are* not*last*in*the*hierarchy*due*to*their*vital*commercial*functions*in*cities.*In*the*following,*taxis* and* car* sharing* are* listed.* Yet,* no* distinction* is* made* between* vehicles* with* combustion* engines*and*alternative*vehicle*drives,*which*would*in*both*cases*be*listed*first.*The*hierarchy* * * * 19*

* INTRODUCTION! continues*with*alternative*vehicle*drives*that*are*occupied*by*a*private*individual,*motorcycles* and*single2occupant*cars*with*combustion*engines.** *

Walking

Bicycles

e2Bikes*/*e2Scooters

Public*Transport

Service*&*Freight*Vehicles

Taxis

Car*sharing

Alternative*vehicle* drives

Motorcycles Single2 occupied* cars * Figure!6:!The!Green!Transportation!Hierarchy!! ! (adapted!from!Transportation!Alternatives,!2001,!p.!9;!Litman,!2015)!

* The* present* master* thesis* specifically* focuses* on* electric* vehicles,* which* is* why* general* information*on*electric*vehicles*is*given*in*the*following.*Electric*vehicles*already*emerged*in* 1884,*when*Thomas*Parker*first*created*an*electric*car*using*rechargeable*batteries.*Electric* cars*from*then*on*were*common*until*the*early*20th*century;*by*the*turn*of*the*century,*40%* of*cars*were*electric*cars*while*only*22%*of*cars*were*gasoline*powered*and*38%*were*steam2 powered*cars.*Gasoline*powered*cars*took*over*as*market*leaders*by*the*1930s,*and*replaced* electric* vehicles* as* they* became* better* and* cheaper* due* to* “improvements* in* internal* combustion*engines*and*the*invention*of*the*electric*starter”.*Around*1980,*environmental* degradation*increased*calls*for*environment*friendly*alternatives*and*zero2emission*cars,*and* electric*vehicles*became*attractive*again.*In*general,*the*most*important*technological*aspects* of*an*electric*vehicle*are*its*electric*engine,*battery*and*motor’s*controller.*Here,*the*car’s* battery*powers*its*controller,*which*in*turn*sends*it*along*and*powers*the*motor*to*drive*the* electric*vehicle.*There*exist*two*different*motor*types,*alternating*current*(AC)*invented*by* Nikola*Tesla*which*uses*92*to*192*volts,*and*direct*current*(DC)*invented*by*Thomas*Edison* which*uses*240*volts*and*has*a*3002volt*battery*pack.*However,*electric*cars*are*facing*various*

* * * 20*

* INTRODUCTION! limitations,*namely*heavy*batteries,*long*charging*periods,*high*investment*costs*and*small* reach*(White,*2015).** * 1.4.3! Sustainable'mobility'in'Austria'' Regarding*the*usage*of*more*sustainable*modes*of*transportation*in*Austria,*a*survey*among* 1,638*Austrians*from*the*age*of*16*undertaken*in*December*2012*and*January*2013*has*shown* that*about*one*third*of*the*sampled*population*is*interested*in*the*use*of*e2bikes,*while*17%* already* tried* riding* an* e2bike.* 16%* are* interested* in* using* electric* mopeds* (e2scooters),* whereby*only*8%*of*the*sampled*population*already*tried*this*type*of*transport.*People*who* tend*to*use*a*combination*of*car*and*bike*for*transportation*have*most*commonly*tried*e2 bikes*or*e2scooters,*50%*of*them*are*interested*in*alternative*driving.*Furthermore,*people*in* rural*areas*seem*to*show*greater*interest*in*new*technologies*(SORA,*2013,*p.*6).** The*survey*also*showed,*that*barriers*of*individuals*to*use*a*bicycle*can*be*reduced*by*up*to* 53%,*when*using*e2bikes.*As*well*as*that,*there*is*the*possibility*to*encourage*a*low*share*of* car*users*(approximately*4%)*to*use*e2bikes*instead,*in*areas*with*hilly*topographies*and*short2 distance*travels*(Collado*et*al.,*2014,*pp.*262–263).*As*has*been*discussed*before,*in*the*rural* Austrian*area*Weiz,*about*50%*of*all*ways*are*shorter*then*5*km.*Therefore,*this*rural*area* might*be*a*possible*target*for*an*increasing*use*of*e2vehicles.*Moreover,*Mann*et*al.*(2014,*p.* 232)*argue*that*sparsely*populated,*rural*areas*show*a*potential*for*electric*vehicles*due*to* several* available* parking* spaces,* charging* facilities* at* residences,* high* numbers* of* people* holding*driving*licenses*and*the*high*share*of*individual*transport*in*the*modal*split.*However,* it*depends*on*the*framework*conditions.*Factors*such*as*funding*from*the*state*to*achieve* low*costs*of*electric*vehicles*obviously*encourage*the*potential.** * 1.5! Research'objectives'and'questions' This*chapter*identifies*the*knowledge*gap*in*scientific*literature,*and*the*research*objective* and*questions,*which*the*thesis*at*hand*aims*at*analysing.*As*well*as*that,*it*is*described*how* the*anticipated*outcomes*(i)*will*have*potential*to*make*a*relevant*contribution*to*theoretical* debates* about* sustainable* mobility* and* (ii)* can* contribute* to* societal* changes* for* more* sustainable*mobility.* Although*a*number*of*studies*exist*which*identify*the*factors*influencing*mobility*behaviour,* there*exists*a*gap!in!scientific!literature*discussing*the*determinants*of*sustainable*mobility*in* Austria,*especially*among*adolescents*and*young*adults*in*rural*areas.*As*their*behaviour*is* significant*for*future*sustainable*development*in*the*transport*sector,*it*is*highly*relevant*to* analyse*and*evaluate*their*drivers*and*barriers*for*sustainable*mobility*behaviour.**

* * * 21*

* INTRODUCTION!

As* a* result* of* the* above* mentioned* research* gap,* the* following* research* objective* and* research*questions*are*addressed.** This*research*project*focuses*on*the*mobility*behaviour*of*adolescents*in*rural*areas,*and*the* different*drivers*that*contribute*to*their*decisions*regarding*mode*of*transportation,*as*well* as*the*barriers*for*more*sustainable*mobility*behaviour.*Based*on*the*existing*research*in*this* area,*the*scientific*contribution*of*this*thesis*comprises*pinpointing*drivers*for*adolescents* specifically*in*rural*areas*that*can*contribute*towards*a*transition*to*more*sustainable*mobility* choices*in*the*long*run.** The*research*aims*to*yield:** •! descriptive* knowledge* providing* an* overview* of* the* current* situation* regarding* mobility* behaviours* of* adolescents* by* identifying* drivers* and* barriers* (i)* within* concepts*and*frameworks*established*in*scientific*literature,*as*well*as*(ii)*discussed*in* empirical*studies.* •! explanatory* knowledge* by* investigating* the* drivers* and* barriers* for* the* mobility* behaviour*of*adolescents*in*a*rural*area*in*Austria.* The*main*research*questions*of*the*present*master*thesis*are:** •! What* drivers* and* barriers* can* be* derived* from* theories* and* concepts* as* well* as* empirical*studies*on*adolescents’*mobility*behaviour?** •! What* are* the* drivers* and* barriers* affecting* adolescents’* mobility* behaviour* in* an* Austrian*rural*area?** * Even*though*the*scientific*literature*about*sustainable*mobility*and*mobility*behaviour*is*quite* vast,*there*exists*a*knowledge*gap*concerning*the*determinants*of*sustainable*mobility*in* rural* Austrian* areas* among* adolescents* and* young* adults.* This* research* project* is* from* scientific*relevance*and*contributes*to*international*debates*about*more*sustainable*mobility* patterns*by*addressing*the*behaviour*of*adolescents*specifically*in*rural*Austrian*areas,*who* are*the*future*decision*makers.*Even*though*the*findings*from*this*study*might*be*applicable* to*other*rural*areas*within*Austria*or*even*in*other*(European)*countries,*similar*prevailing* conditions* are* a* prerequisite.* Hence,* this* research* contributes* to* an* extensive* body* of* scientific*literature*by*generating*new*knowledge*due*to*an*extensive*literature*review*and*a* qualitative*analysis*by*undertaking*interviews*among*young*adults*in*a*rural*Austrian*area.** The*current*scientific*body*of*literature*concerning*sustainable*mobility*has*been*analysed*by* Holden*(2012,*p.*59).*He*separated*sustainable*mobility*studies*into*three*generations:*(i)* from* 199221993,* (ii)* from* 1993* to* 2000,* and* (iii)* from* 200022005.* Throughout* these* generations,*the*discussed*issues*changed*in*terms*of*the*addressed*areas,*travel*categories,* and*research*questions.*The*first*generation*of*sustainable*mobility*studies*discussed*solely*

* * * 22*

* METHODOLOGICAL!FOUNDATION! environmental*impacts*of*the*transport*sector,*while*the*second*generation*as*well*discussed* societal*impacts,*such*as*quality*of*life.*The*third*generation,*in*addition,*addressed*economic* and*distributional*impacts*of*the*transport*sector,*such*as*equity.*With*regard*to*the*travel* categories,* only* production* travel* was* discussed* in* the* beginning* (i.e.* travel* to* work* or* school).*Later*also*reproduction*travel,*meaning*non2work*travel*by*car*to*shops*or*nursery* schools,*came*into*play.*During*the*third*generation,*in*addition,*leisure2time*travel*including* long2distance*travel*by*car*and*plane,*was*addressed.*The*research*question*mainly*raised*in* the* first* generation* was* “Is* transport* sustainable?”.* This* changed* to* “When* is* transport* sustainable?”,*while*the*focus*in*the*last*generation*broadened*to*“How*must*we*change*to* achieve*sustainable*mobility?”*and*“Why*do*we*fail*to*achieve*sustainable*mobility?”.** Therefore,*the*content*matter*of*the*present*thesis*is*of*great*societal*relevance.*In*order*to* be* able* to* change* behaviour,* it* is* crucial* to* first* analyse* the* factors* that* determine* the* behaviour.* There* is* a* need* to* investigate* current* behaviour* patterns* and* unsustainable* mobility*in*order*to*be*able*to*make*statements*about*current*issues*and*necessary*changes,* and*aim*at*changing*them.*This*thesis*determines*and*analyses*the*factors*that*provide*the* basis*for*adolescents’*mobility*decisions*to*change*mobility*behaviours*to*more*sustainable* ones.*Current*mobility*trends*are*a*significant*issue*that*society*is*facing*in*regard*to*future* sustainable*development,*as*GHG*emissions,*that*are*a*threat*to*the*environment*and*human* beings,*need*to*be*minimized*(see*sub2chapter*1.1).*Moreover,*the*transition*to*an*overall* more*sustainable*lifestyle*needs*to*be*a*priority*over*the*next*years,*in*order*to*be*able*to* provide*the*current*comparatively*high*standard*of*living*for*future*generations*in*Austria,*but* also*in*other*countries.**

*

2! Methodological'foundation''

In* order* to* answer* the* above* mentioned* research* questions,* a* triangulation* of* scientific* research*methods*has*been*chosen.*The*theoretical*explanation*of*the*methods*as*well*as*the* empirical*implementation*are*described*in*the*following*subchapters.*The*thesis*at*hand*was* preceded* by* a* literature* research,* which* was* underpinned* by* a* content* analysis.* In* the* following,*an*empirical*analysis*with*qualitative*interviews*was*selected*as*the*appropriate* research*approach.* * 2.1! Literature'review'' In*a*first*step,*a*literature*research*was*conducted*which*is*the*starting*point*for*any*scientific* research*in*order*to*gain*an*understanding*of*the*current*knowledge*in*the*specific*field*of* interest,* and* become* acquainted* with* the* subject* matter* and* “the* wider* theoretical* and* practical* context”* (Verschuren* et* al.,* 2010,* p.* 31).* An* extensive* and* effective* literature* * * * 23*

* METHODOLOGICAL!FOUNDATION! analysis*is*a*solid*basis*for*advancing*knowledge,*as*it*provides*a*firm*foundation*of*knowledge* on* existing* research* and* simultaneously* reveals* gaps* in* scientific* literature* (Webster* and* Watson,*2002,*p.*xiii).** As* a* starting* point,* theories* and* concepts* of* human* behaviour* in* general* and* mobility* behaviour*in*particular*were*investigated.*There*exists*a*vast*amount*of*literature*regarding* sustainable* development* and* mobility* behaviour,* as* awareness* for* climate* change* within* society*is*increasing.*Accordingly,*literature*on*sustainable*mobility*shaped*the*theoretical*and* social*debate*in*recent*years,*and*current*literature*is*crucial*for*this*research*project.*First,* for*the*acquisition*of*general*knowledge*on*the*topic,*general*literature*in*this*research*area* was*acquired.*Subsequently,*a*more*advanced*and*detailed*search*was*undertaken.*Here,*the* underlying*strategy*as*formulated*by*Brink*(2013,*p.*53)*was*‘from*the*general*to*the*specific’.* In*temporal*terms,*the*search*for*preferably*current*literature*is*of*advantage.*The*list*of* references* was* used* to* gain* access* to* older* studies,* according* to* the* principle* ‘from* the* current*to*the*previous’*(Brink,*2013,*p.*53).** The*following*framework*conditions*for*the*literature*research*of*the*master*thesis*at*hand* have*been*specified:** •! Time!frame:*In*accordance*with*the*aim*to*use*current*literature*and*in*order*to*narrow* down*the*number*of*results,*the*minimum*year*of*publication*2000*was*decided*on.* This* time* frame* for* investigated* literature* is* considered* with* a* few* exceptions,* if* important*pilot*studies*are*presented,*which*were*undertaken*before*2000*but*shaped* the*research*landscape.* •! Type!of!publication:*Information*was,*for*the*most*part,*gathered*through*academic* publications,*i.e.*monographs*and*compilations,*research*articles*in*scientific*journals* related*to*the*topic.*However,*also*statistics*of*–*mostly*Austrian*–*public*institutions,* reports*or*conference*proceedings*or*adequate*websites.*Grey*literature*as*well*as* publications* by* print* media* have* been* excluded* from* the* literature* review* (Brink,* 2013,*p.*48).** •! (Online)!Database:*The*literature*has,*for*the*most*part,*been*assessed*through*an* online* literature* research,* and* to* a* smaller* part* through* research* publications* provided* by* the* university* library* or* university* employees.* Data* provided* online* is* gathered*from*search*engines*such*as*Google*Scholar,*Scopus*and*Science*Direct.*As* the*available*literature*directs*the*analysis,*this*projects*outcome*is*limited*by*the* provided*material*online*as*well*as*by*the*university*library*and*the*university*VPN* network.*The*VPN*network*provides*electronic*resources*such*as*e2journals,*e2books* and*full*text*academic*publications*and*research*articles*via*the*search*engines*named* above.** •! Keywords! and! key! concepts:* Various* key* words* and* concepts,* and* different* combinations,*have*been*used*in*the*search*process*in*the*online*databases.*Following* * * * 24*

* METHODOLOGICAL!FOUNDATION!

words* have* been* used* for* the* online* research:* “mobility”,* “mobility* behaviour”,* “sustainable*mobility”,*“green*transport”,*“alternative*mobility”,*“transport”,*“travel”,* “mobility* style”,* “transport* mode”,* “travel* mode”,* “public* transport”,* “car* use”,* “electric* mobility”,* “e2mobility”,* “e2vehicle”,* “climate* change”,* “environment”,* “environmentally* friendly”,* “transition”,* “adolescents”,* “adolescence”,* “youth”,* “young* adults”,* “drivers”,* “barriers”,* “behaviour”,* “decision”,* “choice”,* “behaviour* change”,*“attitudes”,*“norms”,*“urban”,*“rural”,*“Austria”.** Furthermore,*the*German*equivalents*of*these*search*terms*were*used*in*the*search* process.*Articles*that*were*chosen*based*on*these*search*terms*were*downloaded,*and* articles*that*have*been*viewed*by*other*users*based*on*the*downloaded*articles*were* investigated*as*well.** * Hence,*an*overview*and*summary*of*theories*and*concepts*discussing*drivers*and*barriers*of* adolescents’*mobility*behaviour*was*established.* * 2.2! Content'analysis'' In*a*second*step,*based*on*the*literature*review,*a*content*analysis*was*conducted,*identifying* the*driving*factors*that*contribute*to*the*mobility*behaviour*of*adolescents*and*young*adults.* In* general,* the* above* defined* framework* conditions* have* been* adopted* for* the* content* analysis.** A*Qualitative*Content*Analysis*by*Mayring*is*a*so2called*mixed*methods*approach,*which*has* the* Quantitative* Content* Analysis* as* a* starting* point,* but* conceptualises* “the* process* of* assigning* categories* to* text* passages* as* a* qualitative2interpretive* act,* following* content2 analytical*rules”.*In*this*regard,*assigning*categories*to*a*text*is*a*qualitative*research*step,* while*analysing*text*passages*and*the*frequencies*of*the*categories*is*a*quantitative*research* step,*which*makes*it*a*mixed*methods*approach*(Mayring,*2014,*p.*10).*Mayring*states*that* the*main*idea*of*this*approach*is*“to*preserve*the*advantages*of*quantitative*content*analysis* as* developed* within* communication* science* and* to* transfer* and* further* develop* them* to* qualitative2interpretative*steps*of*analysis”*(Mayring,*2000,*p.*1).** Qualitative*Content*Analysis*comprises*three*distinct*analytical*procedures,*(i)*summary,*(ii)* explication,*(iii)*structuring,*which*can*either*be*carried*out*independently*or*in*combination.* Summary*narrows*down*the*material*but*preserves*the*essential*content,*in*order*to*provide* a* comprehensive* overview.* Explication* describes* the* explanation,* clarification* as* well* as* annotation* of* the* previously* summarised* material.* Structuring* is* the* essential* part* of* a* content*analysis,*where*certain*aspects*are*selected,*a*material*cross2section*based*on*pre2 determined*ordering*criteria*is*given,*or*the*material*is*assessed*in*regard*to*certain*criteria* (Kohlbacher,*2006;*Mayring,*2014,*p.*64).** * * * 25*

* METHODOLOGICAL!FOUNDATION!

The*two*central*approaches*of*Qualitative*Content*Analysis*needed*for*the*development*of*a* category*system*and*the*finding*of*appropriate*passages*in*the*text*are*inductive*category* development* and* deductive* category* application.* On* the* one* hand,* inductive! category! development* is* the* formulation* of* categories* in* a* way* that* is* “as* near* as* possible* to* the* material,*to*formulate*them*in*terms*of*the*material”.*The*categories*are,*in*this*respect,* aspects* of* interpretation.* Inductive* category* development* belongs* to* the* previously* described*procedure*summary*(Mayring,*2000,*p.*3).*On*the*other*hand,*deductive!category! application*describes*the*connection*of*previously*formulated*aspects*of*analysis*with*text* passages.*Assigning*categories*to*the*text*is*the*qualitative*research*aspect*of*content*analysis* (ibid,*p.*4).** Within*the*scope*of*this*master*thesis,*the*category*system*was*developed*both*inductive*and* deductive,*covering*the*procedure*summary.*Based*on*the*literature*research,*first,*categories* were*build*based*on*the*preliminary*findings.*Each*text*passage*of*the*literature*research* matching*a*category*was*assigned*to*it.*If*text*passages*were*found*that*did*not*fit*in*an* existing*category,*a*new*category*was*created*or*an*existing*one*was*adapted.*The*explication* of*the*material*at*hand*required*little*time*due*to*the*easily*comprehensible*literature*of*the* research*topic.** In*the*following,*the*structuring*of*the*text*passages*according*to*the*categories*provided*the* basis*for*the*statements*in*sub2chapter*3.4.*Table*2*in*the*respective*chapter*provides*an* overview* of* the* analysed* empirical* research* studies* that* were* taken* into* account* for* the* content* analysis.* In* total,* 44* studies* were* selected,* as* they* met* the* previously* defined* framework*conditions*and*dealt*with*the*topic*at*hand.*Table*3*in*the*respective*chapter* summarises*the*theoretical*and*empirical*methodology*of*the*scientific*papers.*The*studies* were*analysed*using*a*rough*classification*of*factors*that*were*searched*for.*Therefore,*the* following*category*system*was*established:** •! Sociodemographic!factors!! •! Psychological!factors!! •! Social!interaction!! •! Environmental!awareness!! •! Technological!factors! •! Possession!of!driver’s!licence!and!travelling!by!car! •! Weather! •! Opportunity!e=vehicles!! * *

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* METHODOLOGICAL!FOUNDATION!

2.3! Qualitative'interviews'' In* a* third* step,* this* research* project* undertook* 13* face2to2face* interviews* in* a* case* study* region*in*Austria.** The*case*study*region*was*the*‘Energieregion!Weiz!Gleisdorf’*(EWG).*The*EWG*is*an*energy* region*and*an*amalgamation*of*12*municipalities,*including*the*two*towns*Gleisdorf*and*Weiz,* with*approximately*45,000*inhabitants.*It*is*located*in*Eastern*Styria*and*covers*an*area*of*285* km2.*The*energy*region*has*been*founded*in*May*1996*and,*since*then,*aimed*at*encouraging* regional* development.* From* the* beginning,* EWG* worked* intensely* on* topics* such* as* sustainability,*renewable*energy,*energy*efficiency*as*well*as*(electric)*mobility,*where*the* region*has*made*progress*over*the*last*years*with*different*projects*(Energieregion*Weiz*–* Gleisdorf,*2016a).** One* of* the* projects* realized* in* the* mobility* sector* was* the* so2called* e=cult! project* (Energieregion* Weiz* –* Gleisdorf,* 2016b).* The* e=cult! project* aimed* at* promoting* electric* mobility*among*adolescents*and*young*adults,*from*the*age*of*16*to*20.*About*100*pupils*and* apprentices* were* provided* with* the* opportunity* to* test* 50* pedelecs* (e2bikes)* and* four* e2 scooters*for*free*within*an*eight2month*trial*period*(March*to*October*2016).*This*was*done* in*order*to*investigate*whether*this*target*group*can*identify*themselves*with*electric*two2 wheeled* vehicles.* Adolescents* had* the* chance* to* use* the* e2vehicles*up*to*four*weeks*for* commuter*traffic*and*leisure*travel.*Within*the*scope*of*this*project,*at*least*ten*photovoltaic* charging*points*were*established*in*the*region*and*were,*along*with*already*existing*charging* points,*available*to*the*adolescents*for*free.*Simultaneously,*pupils*acquired*the*ecological,* economic* and* technical* advantages* of* electric* vehicles* in* class* by* means* of* theoretical* considerations*and*practical*tasks*(Energieregion*Weiz*–*Gleisdorf,*2016b).* The*interviews*were*conducted*with*altogether*13*adolescents*that*participated,*or*not,*in* the*e2cult*project.*To*be*more*specific,*five*of*the*interviewed*adolescents*participated*in*the* e2cult*project,*eight*adolescents*did*not*take*part*or*just*started*by*the*time*the*interviews* took*place.*Seven*of*the*interviewed*adolescents*were*pupils*–*four*of*which*female*–*and*six* were*apprentices*–*however,*only*male*apprentices*could*be*interviewed.*Of*all*interviewees,* nine* males* and* four* females* were* interviewed* concerning* their* mobility* behaviours.* The* interviews*were*conducted*in*connection*with*the*project*event*‘e2Bergrallye*Naas’,*in*July* 2016,*and*during*the*following*days.*The*interview*guide*was*composed*of*three*main*guiding* questions,*dividing*the*interviews*into*the*three*parts*(i)*current*mobility*behaviour,*(ii)*ideal* mobility*infrastructure,*and*(iii)*e2mobility.** The*respective*guiding*questions*were** 1)! Can*you*tell*me*about*a*typical*school*day/*work*day*of*yours?*How*do*you*get*there,* how*do*you*get*home?*Why?**

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* DRIVERS!AND!BARRIERS!OF!ADOLESCENTS’!MOBILITY!BEHAVIOUR!

2)! How* satisfied* are* you* with* your* current* possibilities* regarding* mobility?* Which* modifications*would*you*wish*for*regarding*different*transport*modes?*What*could*be* done*better*in*future,*so*you*get*from*A*to*B*without*problems?** 3)! Do*you*know*the*e2cult*project*of*the*energy*region*Weiz2Gleisdorf?*Why?*If!yes:*Do* you*take*part?*Why?** Each*guiding*question*comprised*various*sub*questions*regarding*the*three*topics.*For*more* detailed* information* regarding* the* interview* guideline,* see* Annex* 1.* The* interviews* took* approximately*20*to*30*minutes*and*were*held*in*German,*and*later*on*translated*into*English.* The*questions*were*raised*openly*and*generally,*in*order*to*avoid*influencing*the*adolescents* or* anticipating* answers.* Furthermore,* the* specific* influencing* factors* have* not* been* mentioned*directly.*Rather,*it*was*assumed*that*if*a*factor,*e.g.*environmental*awareness,*is* important*to*the*adolescents*and*their*choice*of*transport*mode,*the*topic*would*be*broached* by*them.** With*the*permission*of*the*interviewees,*all*interviews*were*recorded.*The*transcription!of* the*interviews*was*done*using*the*guidelines*developed*by*Dresing*and*Pehl*(2013,*pp.*21– 23).*In*the*following,*the*interviews*were*analysed*using*the*software*‘MAXQDA’*to*evaluate* the* drivers* and* barriers* named* by* the* adolescents.* Here,* the* category* system* which* was* established* in* the* previous* chapter* through* content* analysis* was* applied.* Yet,* it* was* not* enhanced*as*all*mentioned*factors*were*already*discussed*based*on*content*analysis.*See* Annex*2*for*a*list*of*codes.** *

3! Drivers'and'barriers'of'adolescents’'mobility'behaviour'

To*start*the*transition*towards*more*sustainable*mobility,*it*is*essential*to*be*aware*of*the* different*drivers*and*barriers*of*mobility*behaviour.*IFMO*(2011,*p.*8)*argues*that*individual* mobility*behaviours*of*young*adults*are*not*only*shaped*by*fundamental*beliefs*and*decisions* that*have*long2term*consequences,*such*as*taking*one’s*driving*test,*but*also*by*actions*and* decisions*made*spontaneously*during*everyday*life.*This*chapter*provides*an*overview*of*the* current* scientific* literature* on* the* mobility* behaviour* of* adolescents.* First,* underlying* psychological*concepts,*i.e.*attitudes,*norms,*values,*as*well*as*habits,*are*discussed.*Second,* different*theories*of*action*that*describe*human*behaviour*are*summarised.*Third,*the*most* significant*concepts*and*theories*as*well*as*studies*in*mobility*research,*that*aim*at*explaining* adolescents’*mobility*behaviour,*are*summarised*and*analysed.*Last,*a*content*analysis*on* scientific*research*studies*is*done,*investigating*the*various*aspects*that*influence*the*mobility* behaviour*of*young*adults.** *

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3.1! Underlying'psychological'concepts' Since*the*1960s,*there*has*been*a*change*of*thinking*about*the*transport*behaviour*of*people.* Before*that*time,*traffic*has*been*considered*an*unchangeable*phenomenon.*However,*this* way*of*thinking*developed*and*principles*of*peoples’*individual*behaviour*patterns*became* increasingly*important*in*the*transport*sector.*Today,*individual*behavioural*dispositions*and* decision*situations*are*taken*into*account*and*the*driver*herself*is*the*object*of*investigation.* Therefore,*the*investigation*of*choice*of*destination,*mode*of*transport*and*route*takes*the* centre*stage*(Jarass,*2012,*p.*21).*These*decisions*and*behaviours*are*built*on*the*drivers’* attitudes,* norms* and* value* orientations,* but* also* habits.* Even* though* all* the* underlying* aspects*have*an*influence*on*peoples’*mobility*behaviour,*transport*research*has*the*central* assumption* that* mobility* behaviour* is* characterized* by* habits* and* routines* (Holz2Rau* and* Scheiner,*2015,*p.*8).*In*the*following,*these*underlying*psychological*concepts*are*presented* and*the*connection*to*the*transport*sector*is*established.** * 3.1.1! Attitudes'' Attitudes* are* characterized* by* overall* evaluations* of* objects,* persons,* situations* and* perceptions.*They*reflect*a*persons’*positive*or*negative*approach*regarding*intentions*and* behaviours.*Attitudes*differ*from*values*which*refer*to*generalised*and*abstracted*goals*in* life.*Even*though*an*individual*forms*attitudes*based*on*his*advantages*and*disadvantages*of* objects,*attitudes*do*not*illustrate*a*rational*calculation*of*benefits*and*drawbacks,*but*rather* result*from*individual*experience*which*is*influenced*by*a*persons’*attention*and*memory.* Attitudes*can*include*cognitive,*affective*and*behavioural*elements.*The*cognitive*component* describes*opinions*and*perceptions*one*has*towards*an*object.*The*affective*component*is* defined* by* the* emotions* an* individual* has* towards* an* object.* Behavioural* elements* of* attitudes*are*shown*as*an*individual*tends*to*act*and*react*in*a*certain*manner*when*in*contact* with*a*certain*object.*They*have*an*influence*on*peoples’*behaviour*as*information*processing* is*pre2structured*and*adjusted*in*prior*decision2making*processes.*In*the*case*of*mobility,* attitudes* usually* refer* to* objects,* which* represent* modes* or* forms* of* transportation.* Methodically,* attitudes* are* operationalised* by* presenting* the* sampled* population* rival* adjective* pairs* for* an* evaluation* of* respective* intentions,* e.g.* ‘good* 2* bad’,* ‘pleasant* 2* unpleasant’*or*‘environmentally*friendly*2*pollutive’*(Nobis,*1997,*p.*21;*Hunecke,*2015,*p.*16;* Witzke,*2015,*p.*54).** In*mobility*research,*attitudes*have*mostly*been*analysed*with*respect*to*the*evaluation*of* different* modes* of* transportation.* Three* categories* of* motives* have* been* identified* to* characterise* different* attitudes:* instrumental,* affective,* and* symbolic* motives.* The* instrumental!function*of*a*transportation*mode,*in*particular*car*use,*can*be*described*as*the* possibility* to* undertake* activities.* When* evaluating* a* transportation* mode* from* an*

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* DRIVERS!AND!BARRIERS!OF!ADOLESCENTS’!MOBILITY!BEHAVIOUR! instrumental*point*of*view,*the*focus*is*on*aspects*such*as*time,*cost*or*effort*involved*in*using* the*transport.*Affective!motives*are*described*by*non2instrumental*desires*that*are,*or*are* not,*fulfilled*by*using*the*chosen*mode*of*transportation.*When*using,*for*instance,*a*car,* positive*emotions*such*as*joy*due*to*being*on*the*road,*but*also*negative*emotions*due*to* high*stress*levels*in*traffic*jams*can*build*up.*Furthermore,*symbolic!motives*can*be*fulfilled* by*transport*as*it*can*be*a*way*for*self2expressiveness*or*to*express*your*social*status.*Here,*a* mode* of* transport* can* reveal* an* aspect* of* a* persons’* social* identity* (Steg,* 2005,* p.* 149;* Hunecke,*2015,*p.*17).** By*now,*most*studies*compared*the*attitudes*towards*the*use*of*car,*public*transportation*or* bikes.*In*general,*these*studies*have*attributed*a*higher*spatial*and*temporal*autonomy*as* well*as*shorter*travel*times*to*cars,*whereas*they*have*attributed*a*higher*cost2effectiveness* and*no*problems*concerning*parking*spaces*to*public*transport.*The*use*of*bikes*shows*the* same* attributes* as* the* use* of* public* transport,* but* additionally* cover* security* and* health* aspects*(Hunecke,*2015,*p.*18).** * 3.1.2! Norms'' Norms* differ* from* attitudes* with* respect* to* a* certain* obligation* that* people* feel* they* are* supposed*to*fulfil.*It*describes*appropriate*as*well*as*inappropriate*behaviour*and*usually* refers* to* expectations* of* close* persons* or* social* groups.* In* general,* norms* are* oriented* towards*values*that*set*a*desirable*direction*in*life.*However,*norms*are*more*action2oriented* and* powerful* motivators* for* specific* behaviour.* They* can* be* distinguished* by* injunctive,* descriptive,*and*personal*norms.*Injunctive!norms*characterise*the*respective*expectations*of* a*group*on*how*one*should*behave.*An*injunctive*norm*is,*for*instance,*that*a*car*driver*needs* to*be*considerate*of*bike*riders*and*pedestrians.*Compared*to*that,*descriptive!norms*describe* the*actual*behaviour*of*members*of*a*relevant*reference*group*with*regard*to*expectations.* Regarding*the*above*given*example,*the*descriptive*norm*describes*whether*the*car*driver*is* considerate*or*not.*Furthermore,*personal!norms*describe*a*personal,*moral*obligation*to*act* in*a*certain*way,*even*though*surrounding*social*peer*groups*do*not*think*the*same*way.* Personal* norms* are* internalised* social! norms* that* are,* in* time,* adopted* from* social* peer* groups*and*carried*on*as*independent*moral*norms.*Concerning*mobility*behaviour,*most* action*models*aim*at*determining*the*influence*of*environmental*norms*on*the*behaviour*and* operationalised* environmental* awareness* as* personal* ecological* norm.* Personal* norms* provide*the*possibility*to*raise*awareness*of*the*polluting*impacts*of*mobility*and*transport,* and*to*accept*environmental*responsibility*(Hunecke,*2015,*pp.*19–20).** *

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* DRIVERS!AND!BARRIERS!OF!ADOLESCENTS’!MOBILITY!BEHAVIOUR!

3.1.3! Values' In* contrast* to* attitudes,* values* are* not* oriented* towards* objects* but* rather* cognitive* represented*criteria*that*evaluate*one’s*own*actions*as*well*as*things*and*people*within*the* social*environment.*Therefore,*values*structure*a*persons’*life*goals*and*world*views,*and*have* a* general* function* for* orientation.* A* prediction*of*specific*behaviour*is*only*possible*to*a* limited*extent*(Hunecke,*2015,*p.*23).** For* a* better* understanding,* Thompson* et* al.* (1990)* proposed* the* framework* of* Cultural* Theory,*which*provides*an*interesting*heuristic*for*an*investigation*of*different*viewpoints*and* issues*on*sustainability*topics*such*as*climate*change.*This*framework*distinguishes*four*types* of*perspectives:*(i)*fatalist,*(ii)*hierarchist,*(iii)*individualist,*and*(iv)*egalitarian.*They*describe* different*viewpoints*of*peoples’*experience*and*interpretation*of*reality*depending*on*the* two*categories*group*and*grid.*The*four*perspectives*are*classified*within*a*matrix*(see*Figure* 7).* The* x2axis* (or* group* axis)* describes* “the* degree* to* which* individuals* behave* and* feel* themselves*part*of*a*larger*group*of*individuals*with*whom*they*share*values*and*beliefs”.*The* y2axis* (or* grid* axis)* describes* “the* extent* to* which* individuals* are* subjected* to* role* prescriptions*within*a*larger*structural*entity”*(de*Vries,*2013,*p.*158).* *

fatalist hierarchist •strong*grid,*weak* •strong*grid,*strong* group group

•ineffective •control* •ad2hoc •state* •anarchy •consolidation

individualist egalitarian •weak*grid,*weak* •weak*grid,*strong* group group

•opportunity* •cooperation* •pioneer •guru* •competition •external*threat

* Figure!7:!Four!perspectives!of!Cultural!Theory! (de!Vries,!2013,!p.!158)!

*

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* DRIVERS!AND!BARRIERS!OF!ADOLESCENTS’!MOBILITY!BEHAVIOUR!

These* two* criteria* further* define* the* self2organisation* of* the* four* perspectives,* and* how* rationality,*solidarity*and*fairness*are*expressed.*The*four*perspectives*show*differences*in* the*way*how*the*relationship*between*human*beings*and*nature,*and*between*fellow*human* beings*is*perceived.*Also,*the*four*perspectives*show*different*points*of*view*regarding*quality* of*life,*risks*for*technology*and*the*environment*(ibid,*p.*158).** The*fatalist*shows*a*strong*grid*but*weak*group*affiliation.*The*fatalist*believes*that*sheer* coincidence*determines*the*world.*Fatalists*are*often*poor*and*their*worldview*determines* their*prospect*of*life,*as*both*people*and*nature*are*seen*as*unpredictable*and,*every*day,* they*contend*against*daily*life*difficulties*alongside*a*limited*freedom*of*movement* The* hierarchist* shows* both* a* strong* grid* and* group.* Specifically,* that* implies* that* the* hierarchist* aims* to* achieve* stability* in* a* world* of* limits* by* exercising* control* and* expert* knowledge.* Very* often,* hierarchists* are* administrators,* managers* or* engineers* who* have* complete*trust*in*measurement*and*risk*calculation*results,*and*have*concern*for*but*also* trust*in*“good*economic*and*environmental*management”*(ibid,*pp.*159–161).* The* individualist* shows* both* a* weak* grid* and* group.* In* contrast* to* the* hierarchist,* the* individualist*is*convinced*of*a*completely*opposite*worldview*in*which*“nature*has*inherent* stability*and*abundance”.*For*the*individualist,*that*implies*full*confidence*in*humans’*genius* and*natures’*resilience*and*a*denial*of*the*‘limits*to*growth’*debate.* The*egalitarian*shows*a*weak*grid*but*strong*group.*This*perspective*is*a*firm*believer*in* natures’*fragility*and,*therefore,*its*risk*of*irrevocable*destruction,*who*observes*nature*as*a* fragile*and*complex*whole,*and*human*knowledge*as*limited.*An*egalitarian*believes*in*the* equity*not*only*among*people*but*also*between*people*and*nature*(ibid,*pp.*159–161).** In* contrast* to* the* framework* of* Cultural* Theory* discussed* by* de* Vries* (2013),* Gawronski* (2002,*pp.*150–157)*analysed*the*general*value*orientations*of*adolescents*and*young*adults.* He*introduced*a*framework*with*five*different*value*groups.*This*classification*provides*the* possibility* to* visualise* inter2individual* shifts* between* the* value* groups* and* to* assign* each* person*to*one*of*the*value*groups*at*each*point*in*time.*The*framework*is*a*two2dimensional* coordinate*system,*illustrating*the*two*independent*dimensions*‘traditional*orientation’*on* the*x2axis*and*‘humanistic*orientation’*on*the*y2axis.*The*dimension*traditional*orientation*is* determined*by*the*scales*obligation/*acceptance,*status*seeking,*strong*government/*political* power*and*performance*in*profession.*Humanistic*orientation,*on*the*contrary,*is*determined* by*self2development/*engagement,*humanistic*idea*of*man*and*prosocial*values.** The*four*‘extreme’*value*groups*are*referred*to*as*alternative!idealist,*bourgeois!humanist,* conservative! materialist* and* nihilist.* Moreover,* a* fifth* group* besides* the* ‘extreme’* orientations* has* been* introduced,* the* group* of* conventionalists.* The* four* ‘extreme’* value* groups*can*be*identified*along*the*two*axis*traditional*and*humanistic*orientation.*The*group*

* * * 32*

* DRIVERS!AND!BARRIERS!OF!ADOLESCENTS’!MOBILITY!BEHAVIOUR! of*conventionalists*are*placed*in*the*centre*of*the*coordinate*system*due*to*their*average* value*orientation*(see*Figure*8).** *

* Figure!8:!Value!groups!and!orientations! (Gawronski,!2002,!p.!157)!

* Using* the* given* coordinate* system,* the* author* evaluated* the* value* orientations* of* young* adults,*as*people*tend*to*complain*about*a*decline*in*values*of*adolescents.*First,*the*results* show* the* same* relative* importance* of* traditional* and* humanistic* values* for* adolescents,* whereas*adults*(25*to*40*years)*show*a*significant*higher*importance*of*humanistic*values.* Furthermore,*adolescents*indicate*a*higher*importance*of*traditional*values*at*both*times*of* measurement* compared* to* adults,* while* humanistic* values* indicate* the* same* relative* importance*among*adolescents*as*well*as*adults.*This*result*proves*the*opposite*of*a*decline* in*values*of*adolescents,*as*this*group*seems*to*give*a*higher*priority*to*traditional*values*than* adults.* Moreover,* the* dimensions* show* a* relatively* high* stability,* as* both* results,* of* adolescents*and*adults,*indicate*no*significant*changes*over*time,*which*suggests*that*societal* changes*do*not*affect*value*orientations*(Gawronski*2002,*pp.*153–155).** Further* on,* the* analysis* indicated* that* the* four* ‘extreme’* dimensions,* alternative* idealist,* bourgeois* humanist,* nihilist* and* conservative* materialist,* hold* steady.* The* group* of* conventionalists*disintegrates*in*each*of*the*four*‘extreme’*dimensions,*which*can*be*noticed* among* adults* as* well* as* adolescents.* This* suggests* a* polarisation* of* individual* value* orientations*within*the*period*of*the*survey.*A*possible*explanation*might*be*that*extreme* * * * 33*

* DRIVERS!AND!BARRIERS!OF!ADOLESCENTS’!MOBILITY!BEHAVIOUR! value*orientations*are,*in*general,*more*stable*than*moderate*ones*(Gawronski,*2002,*p.*1582 159).** However,* the* correlation* of* theoretical* value* orientations* and* actual* human* behaviour* is* anything*but*self2evident,*which*can*be*observed*in*everyday*situations,*where*one*might*use* grand*words*about*environmental*protection*but*it*is*not*possible*to*observe*that*one*suits* the* action* to* the* word* due* to* inconvenience.* A* theoretical* discussion* of* general* value* orientations,* as* can* be* seen* in* Figure* 7* and* 8,* should* make* it* possible* to* influence* the* behaviour*of*people.*Changes*in*value*orientations*in*turn*should*change*behaviour*and*cause* societal*changes*(Gawronski,*2002,*pp.*161–162).*The*author*argued*that*a*direct*influence*of* value*orientations*on*actual*behaviour*is*rather*unlikely.*Instead,*value*orientations*directly* influence* an* individuals’* attitudes,* which* are* related* to* intention* and,* in* turn,* actual* behaviour.*But*market*research*results*as*well*as*the*results*of*the*discussed*study*indicate* that*value*orientation*influences*actual*behaviour.*There*is*a*connection*between*traditional* and*humanistic*orientations,*and*the*actual*choice*of*transport*mode.*The*study*shows*that* an* increasing* traditional* orientation* and* decreasing* humanistic* orientation* of* adolescents* leads* to* a* decreasing* willingness* for* the* usage* of* environmentally* friendly* modes* of* transportation,* e.g.* public* transport* or* bike.* Simultaneously,* the* usage* of* cars* and* motorcycles*increases*(ibid,*pp.*162–164).** * 3.1.4! Habits'' Habits*are*defined*by*automated*decisions*and*are*not*influenced*by*deliberate*decision2 making*processes.*In*general,*habits*can*only*develop*if*people*behaved*successfully*in*the* same*way,*in*the*same*situational*context.*For*action2theoretical*aspects,*it*is*essential*that* habits*make*behaviour*easier*and*less*risky.*They*are*used*if*one*might*think*that*searching* for*alternatives*entails*too*high*costs*or*the*expected*benefit*is*too*low.*A*central*criterion*for* habits*is*the*constantly*recurring,*unquestioned*repetition*of*familiar*behaviour*patterns.** Habits* are* especially* relevant* as* the* relationship* between* intentions* and* behaviour* (see* Figure*9)*is*weakened.*The*more*distinct*habits*are,*the*less*behaviour*can*be*ascribed*to* intentions.*This*can*be*explained*by*the*fact*that*habits*disable*the*incorporation*of*new* information,* and* therefore* reduce* the* possibility* of* seeking* alternative* viewpoints* and* behaviour.* The* selectivity* of* information* might* prove* to* be* a* disadvantage,* as* better* alternatives* for* behaviour,* that* develop* from* changing* situations* or* social* requirements,* might* not* be* recognised* (Hunecke,* 2015,* pp.* 34–36;* Holz2Rau* and* Scheiner,* 2015,* p.* 8;* Müggenburg*and*Lanzendorf,*2015,*p.*81).** Recurring* destinations* and* long2term* modes* of* transport* have* a* strong* influence* on* the* chosen* transport* mode,* as* everyday* life* is* dominated* by* action* and* routines* rather* than* constant*questioning*and*self2reflection.*There*is*a*strong*dependence*of*mobility*at*a*specific*

* * * 34*

* DRIVERS!AND!BARRIERS!OF!ADOLESCENTS’!MOBILITY!BEHAVIOUR! date*on*earlier*mobility*patterns.*One*might*also*argue*that*the*strongest*influencing*factor* for*the*choice*of*transport*on*the*way*to*work*is*the*chosen*transport*mode*of*the*previous* day.*When*comparing*different*studies*on*mobility*behaviour,*mobility*behaviour*is*found*to* be*relatively*stable*in*the*short*and*medium*term,*which*is*the*result*of*habits*and*norms.* Usually,*target*places*and*travel*distances*stay*the*same*in*the*short*term,*which*is*also*true* for*the*chosen*transport*mode.*However,*the*choice*of*transport*mode*has*become*more* variable*over*the*last*years.*This*is*especially*true*for*young*adults,*who*tend*to*be*more* flexible*(Holz2Rau*and*Scheiner,*2015,*pp.*8–9).*Holz2Rau*and*Scheiner*(2015,*p.*9)*question* whether*the*flexibility*of*young*adults*is*a*more*complex*form*of*habits*as*the*bike*is*chosen* in*good*weather,*public*transport*is*chosen*in*bad*weather,*and*the*car*is*chosen*if*they*go* shopping*on*the*way*home*from*work.** * 3.2! Theories'of'action' There* exist* different* theories* of* action* in* order* to* frame* the* previously* discussed* psychological*concepts*(i.e.*attitudes,*norms,*values,*and*habits)*determining*behaviour.*One* of*the*most*basic*models*of*human*behaviour*is*the*Rational*Choice*Theory*(RCT).*The*theory* describes* human* decision* making* processes* as* rational* decisions* that* are* made* by* “calculating*the*individual*costs*and*benefits*of*different*courses*of*action”.*Based*on*these* calculations,*the*alternative*providing*the*highest*expected*net*benefit*is*chosen*(Jackson,* 2005,*p.*VII).*The*underlying*assumptions*of*RCT*are*that*consumers*have*preferences,*which* they*aim*at*satisfying*perfectly,*and*that*consumers*underlie*restrictions,*such*as*financial* reasons*or*restricted*time*resources.*First,*restrictions*determine*the*amount*of*objectively* available*alternatives.*Second,*preferences*determine*what*alternatives*are*chosen*and*used* (Harms* et* al.,* 2007,* p.* 736).* RCT* has* also* been* used* to* investigate* and* describe* mobility* behaviour.*Preferences*and*restrictions*are*responsible*for*human*transport*mode*decisions* according*to*this*concept.*In*recent*years,*the*‘hard’*criteria*price*and*time*resources*have* been*supplemented*with*criteria*such*as*comfort*or*quality*of*supply*of*a*certain*transport* mode.* Quality* of* supply* of* a* transport* mode* includes* subjective* criteria* such* as* safety,* prestige*or*the*symbolic*character*of*a*transport*mode.*On*the*way*to*work,*one*might*choose* to* use* the* car* due* to* the* (usually)* shorter* way,* (usually)* lower* marginal* costs* and* the* advantage* of* being* able* to* listen* to* the* radio.* Or* else,* one* might* choose* to* use* public* transport*for*the*reasons*of*(generally)*environmental*friendliness,*(usually)*more*recreation* and*getting*company*by*strangers.** However,*several*restrictions*underlie*RCT.*First,*the*concept*assumes*that*all*consumers,*or* in*this*case*traffic*participants,*are*completely*informed*regarding*the*characteristics*of*all* (transport)* alternatives,* and* perceive* these* subjectively* as* given* objectively.* Second,* the* concept*assumes*that*all*available*alternatives*are*conceived*as*potential*opportunities*for* action* by* the* consumers* and* traffic* participants,* and* all* available* information* on* the* * * * 35*

* DRIVERS!AND!BARRIERS!OF!ADOLESCENTS’!MOBILITY!BEHAVIOUR! opportunities*for*action*is*taken*into*account*in*the*final*decision.*Both*of*these*assumptions* have* to* be* brought* into* question,* as* objective* features* are* not* necessarily* understood* identically* to* subjective* ones,* and* some* opportunities* for* action* are* not* even* taken* into* account*when*taking*a*decision.*Yet,*RCT*takes*into*account*the*room*for*manoeuvre*that*is* used* for* decision* making* processes,* not* only* but* also* in* the* case* of* mobility* behaviour.* Research* took* an* important* step* ahead* with* RCT,* as* reasons* for* mobility* decisions* are* investigated.*Due*to*that,*RCT*is*deeply*embedded*in*the*models*of*human*behaviour*and* depicts*a*reasonable*starting*point*for*the*following*overview*of*theories*of*action*(ibid,*p.* 736;*Götz,*2007,*p.*764;*Jackson,*2005,*p.*29).** The*basic*idea*of*RCT*has*been*used*by*numerous*human*behaviour*models*that*extended* the*concept*and*assumptions*of*rational*choice.*Specifically,*the*influence*of*other*people’s* attitudes* on* one’s* (mobility)* decisions* is* included* in* extended* theories* of* action.* Among* others,*the*Theory*of*Reasoned*Action*(TRA),*Theory*of*Planned*Behaviour*(TPB)*and*Norm* Activation*Theory*(NAT)*are*important*extensions*of*RCT.*TRA*and*TPB*can*contribute*to*the* understanding*of*intentional*behaviours*by*integrating*“the*influence*of*people’s*perceptions* about*their*own*control*over*the*situation”.*NAT*takes*into*account*moral*as*well*as*normative* considerations*and*argues*that*behaviour*results*from*a*personal*norm*to*act*in*a*certain*way* (Jackson,*2005,*p.*viii).* These* theories* of* action* are* fundamental* concepts* used* in* mobility* behaviour* research.* Therefore,*they*are*described*in*the*following*subsections.* * 3.2.1! Theory'of'Planned'Behaviour'(TPB)' The*Theory*of*Planned*Behaviour*(TPB)*was*developed*by*Ajzen*(1991)*and*is*one*of*the*most* widespread*social2psychological*models*used*for*the*explanation*of*deliberate*behaviour.*It*is* based*on*the*previously*developed*Theory*of*Reasoned*Action*(TRA)*by*Ajzen*and*Fishbein* (1975)* and* includes* the* most* important* psychological* concepts* for* deliberate* decision* processes*(Hunecke,*2002,*p.*52;*Stark*and*Hössinger,*2015,*pp.*181–182).** According* to* the* TPB,* behaviour* is* a* result* of* intentions* influenced* by* (i)* attitude,* (ii)* subjective*norm,*and*(iii)*perceived*behaviour*control.*Intention*is,*in*turn,*determined*by* three*dispositions*that*have*mutual*impacts.*The*attitude*towards*behaviour*describes*an* individuals’* subjective* attitude* towards* a* behaviour,* which* might* be* either* positively* or* negatively.*Subjective!norm*is*the*expectation*of*how*reference*persons*evaluate*the*planned* behaviour.*Subjective*social*norms*(see*sub2chapter*3.1.2)*only*show*an*impact*on*behaviour* intentions*caused*by*the*peer*pressure*of*close*persons*rather*than*on*immediate*behaviour.* Self=efficacy* or* perceived! behavioural! control* describes* the* expectation* of* problems* in* implementing*the*planned*behaviour.*The*stronger*the*intention,*the*higher*is*the*possibility* that*the*planned*behaviour*is*practised.*Moreover,*perceived*behavioural*control*can*directly*

* * * 36*

* DRIVERS!AND!BARRIERS!OF!ADOLESCENTS’!MOBILITY!BEHAVIOUR! influence*behaviour,*especially*if*a*person*only*has*a*low*voluntary*control*over*one’s*own* behaviour* (see* Figure* 9)* (Stark* and* Hössinger,* 2015,* pp.* 181–182;* Hunecke,* 2015,* p.* 13;* Witzke,*2015,*pp.*31–35).** *

* Figure!9:!Theory!of!Planned!Behaviour!! (adapted!from!Witzke,!2015,!p.!32)!

* According* to* Hunecke* et* al.* (2007,* p.* 278),* the* TPB* provides* an* “adequate* theoretical* framework”*for*investigating*a*persons’*goal2directed*mobility*behaviour.*They*stress*out*two* reasons* for* this.* First,* various* empirical* studies* applied* the* TPB* in* the* field* of* mobility* behaviour* and* support* this* theory.* Second,* even* though* the* TPB* summarises* the* sophisticated* aspect* of* mobility* behaviour* into* four* predictors* only,* it* provides* a* well2 developed,*comprehensive*model*to*describe*it.*Aspects*such*as*habits*and*routines*(Jarass,* 2012,*p.*22),*previous*behaviour*and*personal/*moral*norms*are*not*taken*into*account*within* the* TPB.* The* integration* of* these* aspects* into* the* TPB* resulted* in* its* most* significant* extensions*(Haustein*and*Hunecke,*2007,*p.*1858;*Stark*and*Hössinger,*2015,*p.*182).** * 3.2.2! Norm'Activation'Theory'(NAT)' The*Norm*Activation*Theory*(NAT)*was*developed*by*Schwartz*(1977)*and*describes*decision* processes* with* the* background* of* a* moral* dimension* (Hunecke,* 2002,* p.* 52).* The* theory* represents* the* central* hypothesis* “that* personal* norms* are* direct,* unmediated* causal* determinants*of*pro2social*behaviors”.*Thereby,*Schwarz*makes*a*clear*distinction*between* social*and*personal*norms*(see*sub2chapter*3.1.2).*Personal*norms*reflect*a*persons’*belief*in* right*or*wrong,*whereas*social*norms*are*triggered*by*social*pressure*and*the*fear*of*social*

* * * 37*

* DRIVERS!AND!BARRIERS!OF!ADOLESCENTS’!MOBILITY!BEHAVIOUR! sanctions.*Therefore,*following*personal*norms*is*not*determined*by*the*fear*of*others*but*by* the*feeling*of*guilt*or*regret*for*oneself*if*ones’*own*personal*norms*are*broken*(Bamberg*et* al.,*2007,*p.*1902191).*The*influence*of*personal*norms*on*the*choice*of*transport*mode*has,* by*now,*been*confirmed*in*different*studies.*In*a*decision*situation,*the*activation*of*ecological* norms*creates*a*moral*feeling*of*obligation*for*someone*due*to*his*or*her*own*expectations* (Witzke,*2015,*p.*35).* According* to* the* NAT,* personal! norms! have* “two* direct* psychological* antecedents”,* the* awareness!of!consequences*of*an*individuals’*actions*and*the*ascription!of!responsibility*an* individual*holds*for*these*consequences*(see*Figure*10).*The*relationship*between*personal* norm* and* behaviour* is* accordingly* stronger,* if* the* individual* is* “aware* of* the* negative* consequences*of*not*engaging*in*the*pro2social*behaviour”*and*“accepts*responsibility*for* these* consequences”,* and* in* turn* weaker* if* this* is* not* the* case* (Jackson,* 2005,* p.* 55).* Furthermore,*the*moral*reasons*for*a*certain*behaviour*are*balanced*with*non=moral!reasons* such*as*ones’*own*costs*and*benefits*(Jarass,*2012,*p.*22).** *

* Figure!10:!Norm!Activation!Theory!! (adapted!from!Jackson,!2005,!p.!55)!

* The* TPB* and* the* NAT* overlap* in* many* cases* concerning* their* central* action2theoretical* constructs.*However,*the*NAT*complements*the*TPB*with*aspects*of*responsible*behaviour* (Hunecke,*2002,*p.*52).** * 3.3! Concepts'and'theories'in'mobility'research' This* chapter* identifies* drivers* and* barriers* for* adolescents’* mobility* behaviour* within* authored* concepts* and* theories* specifically* constructed* in* mobility* research,* and* aims* at* explaining*different*aspects*and*factors*of*mobility*decisions.**

* * * 38*

* DRIVERS!AND!BARRIERS!OF!ADOLESCENTS’!MOBILITY!BEHAVIOUR!

In*detail,*the*concept*of*mobility*biography,*travel*socialisation,*mobility*styles*and*target* groups,* Perceived* Mobility* Necessities* (PMN),* levels* of* mobility* sphere* development,* components* of* mobility* perception,* as* well* as* the* defining* features* of* adolescence,* are* described.** Lanzendorf*(2003),*Scheiner*(2007)*and*Beige*and*Axhausen*(2006)*developed*the*mobility! biography* approach* to* be* able* to* describe* stability* and* changes* in* individual* mobility* behaviour*relating*to*someone’s*curriculum*vitae.*Mobility!styles!and!target!groups*were*first* developed*by*Götz*(1999)*and*Götz*and*Jahn*(1998),*and*aim*at*describing*mobility*lifestyles* for* various* population* subgroups* that* are* determined* by* mobility* specific* attitudes* and* motivational* backgrounds.* The* concept* of* Perceived! Mobility! Necessities* (PMN)* was* developed* by* Haustein* and* Hunecke* (2007),* as* an* extension* of* the* TPB* next* to* PBC,* specifically* for* the* investigation* of* mobility* behaviour* and* the* perception* of* related* consequences*of*certain*living*circumstances.*All*of*these*concepts*were*developed*for*the* investigation*of*mobility*behaviour*in*general,*but*can*as*well*be*used*to*analyse*specifically* adolescents’*mobility*behaviour.** The*concept*of*travel!socialisation,*as*described*by*Tully*and*Baier*(2006a,*p.*120),*is*a*crucial* process*of*growing*up,*during*the*course*of*which*an*individual*becomes*part*of*the*transport* society* and* develops* a* mobility* lifestyle.* Levels! of! mobility! sphere! development* were* developed*by*Sydow*and*Scholl*(2002,*pp.*15–16)*to*describe*three*levels*that*are*responsible* for* the* development* of* mobility* behaviour* of* adolescents.* The* concept* components! of! mobility! perception* was* described* by* Sydow* and* Scholl* (2002,* p.* 15)* and* describes* the* components*which*are*responsible*for*a*subjective*perception*of*the*mobility*sphere.*Defining! features!of!adolescence,*a*concept*developed*by*Tully*(2002a,*pp.*17–18),*is*used*to*gain*a* better*understanding*of*adolescents’*mobility*behaviour*by*investigating*the*six*dimensions* that* are* responsible* for* the* interaction* of* their* everyday* life* and* mobility.* All* of* these* concepts*focus*on*children*and*adolescents*or*have*been*used*to*specifically*investigate*the* mobility*patterns*of*adolescents*and*young*adults.* In*the*following,*the*above*named*concepts*and*theories*are*described*in*greater*detail.** * 3.3.1! The'concept'of'mobility'biography'' The*concept*of*mobility*biographies*has*been*used*to*describe*mobility*behaviour*for*a*vast* amount* of* time.* Initially,* the* importance* of* life* phases* was* first* indicated* in* the* 1970s* (Hägerstrand,*1975)*and*biographies*and*life*cycles*have*been*used*to*illustrate*long2term* mobility*decisions*(Mulder*and*Wagner,*1993).*The*mobility*biography*approach*has*been* developed* quite* recently* by* Lanzendorf* (2003),* Scheiner* (2007)* and* Beige* and* Axhausen* (2006),*in*order*to*be*able*to*describe*stability*and*changes*in*individual*mobility*behaviour*

* * * 39*

* DRIVERS!AND!BARRIERS!OF!ADOLESCENTS’!MOBILITY!BEHAVIOUR! relating* to* someone’s* curriculum* vitae* (c.f.* Döring* et* al.,* 2014,* p.* 166;* Müggenburg* and* Lanzendorf,*2015,*p.*83).** In*general,*three*levels*can*be*distinguished:*(i)*life*situation/lifestyle,*(ii)*accessibility,*and*(iii)* mobility.*The*first*level*includes*demographic,*professional*and*leisure*events,*such*as*a*new* workplace*or*a*new*place*of*residence.*Lifestyle*changes*are*highly*relevant*for*adolescents* from*the*age*of*16*to*20,*as*discussed*in*sub2chapter*1.3.*At*this*age,*young*adults*are*in*a* period*of*transition.*They*go*from*education*to*occupation,*start*their*professional*life,*move* to*their*own*place*of*residence,*enter*into*partnerships*and*attain*full*age*and,*therewith,* duties* and* responsibilities.* The* accessibility* level* comprises* external* factors* within* the* physical* environment* and* describes* the* infrastructure* a* person* has* access* to,* e.g.* for* everyday*errands.*The*level*of*mobility*summarises*long2term*transport*choices*such*as*a*car* purchase*or*ones’*choice*of*transport*mode.*Changes*within*one*level*can*influence*the*other* levels,*whereby*the*changes*are*not*hierarchical.*For*example,*changes*on*the*lifestyle*level* have*an*influence*on*the*other*two*levels.*A*new*workplace*might*influence*the*decision*to* move*to*a*new*place*of*residence,*which*can*in*turn*influence*changes*in*distances*to*places* or*activities*of*daily*living*(accessibility*level).*As*a*consequence,*this*can*influence*the*choice* of* transport* mode* (mobility* level)* (Müggenburg* and* Lanzendorf,* 2015,* p.* 83;* Lanzendorf,* 2003).** As*Müggenburg*and*Lanzendorf*(2015,*p.*82)*analysed,*in*the*beginning,*mobility*biographies* have* mostly* been* used* in* order* to* describe* long2term* mobility* decisions,* e.g.* choice* of* residential*location*or*migration.*This*aspect*was*already*part*of*the*mobility*investigation* more*than*two*decades*ago*(Mulder*and*Wagner,*1993).*It*was*only*recently*that*mobility* biographies* have* as* well* been* taken* into* account* when* investigating* short2term* mobility* decisions.* Here,* mostly* the* choice* of* transport* mode* has* been* explained* by* mobility* biographies*(Scheiner*and*Holz2Rau,*2013)*(c.f.*Döring*et*al.,*2014,*p.*166).** * 3.3.2! Travel'socialization'' Tully*and*Baier*(2006a,*p.*120)*defined*the*concept*of*travel*socialisation*as*a*crucial*process* of*growing*up,*during*the*course*of*which*an*individual*becomes*part*of*the*transport*society.* The*main*result*of*this*process*is*a*lifestyle*oriented*towards*mobility,*which*determines*a* long2term,* individual* dealing* with* mobility.* The* concept* of* travel* socialisation* has* been* subject*to*investigation*in*various*studies*over*the*last*decade*especially*in*Germany*(Haustein* et* al.,* 2009;* Limbourg* et* al.,* 2000;* Tully* and* Baier,* 2011)* (c.f.* Döring,* 2015,* p.* 29).* Socialisation,*in*general,*is*a*process,*through*which*an*adolescent*develops*a*personality*and* is*socially*capable*to*act.*One*gets*to*know*the*underlying*norms*and*values*predetermined* by* society* (see* sub2chapters* 3.1.2* and* 3.1.3).* Even* though* socialisation* processes* occur* throughout*all*stages*of*life*due*to*the*growing*societal*dynamics,*childhood*and*adolescence*

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* DRIVERS!AND!BARRIERS!OF!ADOLESCENTS’!MOBILITY!BEHAVIOUR! are*especially*vital*phases*for*socialisation*processes.*The*most*important*social*contexts*that* trigger* and* accompany* those* processes* are* family,* the* residential* environment,* friends,* school*and,*by*now,*even*media*(Tully*and*Baier,*2011,*p.*195).** The*same*is*true*for*mobility*and*travel*socialisation*(Tully*and*Baier,*2011,*p.*195).*In*regard* to*mobility,*an*individual*learns*how*to*run*or*bike,*and*acquires*the*attitude*of*the*social* environment*and*contexts*in*terms*of*transport*modes*and*their*usage*(Döring,*2015,*p.*30).* In*order*to*be*able*to*analyse*a*person’s*mobility*behaviour,*it*is*necessary*to*not*only*take* into*account*the*distance*travelled,*or*the*chosen*mode*of*transport,*but*also*mobility*of* people*as*a*whole.*The*way*how*people*are*spatially*moving*is*the*result*of*travel*socialisation* (Tully*and*Baier,*2011,*p.*195).*Overall,*the*research*studies*regarding*mobility*socialisation* focus* on* the* investigation* of* childhood* and* adolescence,* as* one’s* character* formation* is* mostly*completed*during*that*life*phase.*However,*also*social*and*spatial*structures*during* adulthood,* such* as* priorities* or* goals,* can* influence* and* change* mobility* behaviour* and* mobility*personality*(Döring,*2015,*p.*31).** In*scientific*literature,*there*exist*different*models*of*travel*socialisation,*which*focus*on*how* the*appropriation*of*space*is*handled*(Döring,*2015,*p.*29).*Two*crucial*models*are*the*so2 called*‘island*model’*and*‘zone*model’.*According*to*the*‘island*model’,*the*area*of*life*of* children,*adolescents*and*young*adults*consists*of*islands*which*they*need*to*reach*in*order* to*be*able*to*participate*in*social*activities.*The*journeys*between*the*different*islands,*e.g.* schools,*work*places,*residential*areas,*or*shopping*centres,*are*often*dangerous*and*far.*This* is*why*these*journeys*are*often*undertaken*motor2driven*in*somebody’s*company*(Tully*and* Baier,* 2011,* p.* 198).* The* ‘zone* model’,* on* the* other* hand,* assumes* that* children* and* adolescents* continually* extrapolate* these* areas* by* themselves* from* the* centre.* Here,* the* centre*is*the*residential*area*of*children*and*adolescents,*while*their*action*scope*increases* with*age*(Tully*and*Baier,*2011,*p.*199;*Tully*and*Baier,*2006a).** Furthermore,*different*levels*determine*the*process*of*transport*socialisation*and*the*actual* mobility*lifestyle.*Tully*and*Baier*(2011,*p.*196)*argue*that*(i)*societal*conditions,*(ii)*meso2 social*conditions,*and*(iii)*personal*conditions*define*the*resulting*mobile*lifestyle.*The*societal* conditions*provide*the*general*framework*for*possibilities*to*behave*in*the*area*of*mobility.* This*includes*spatial*and*social*differentiation,*the*existing*infrastructure*and*technology,*legal* foundations*and*cultural*guiding*principles.*The*meso2social*conditions*are*defined*by*the*role* models*within*the*family*or*relatives,*the*traffic*education,*and*the*attitudes*and*behaviour* of*friends.*The*third*level,* i.e.* personal* conditions,* is* defined* by* aspects* such* as* the* own* attitudes*and*values*(compare*sub2chapter*3.1),*capital*resources*and*factors*such*as*age*or* gender.** *

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* DRIVERS!AND!BARRIERS!OF!ADOLESCENTS’!MOBILITY!BEHAVIOUR!

3.3.3! Mobility'styles'and'target'groups'' The* first* subgroup* specific* perspective* for* groups* with* the* same* behaviour* has* been* developed*by*Kutter*(1972),*who*classified*different*groups*based*on*individual*behavioural* patterns*and*lifestyles.*As*lifestyles*describe*aspects*of*ways*of*life*that*are*chosen*by*oneself,* but* do* not* directly* describe* a* person’s* mobility* behaviour,* mobility* styles* have* been* developed.*Mobility*styles*were*first*developed*by*Götz*(1999)*and*Götz*and*Jahn*(1998).** In* contrast* to* lifestyles,* mobility* styles* have* a* sole* focus* on* mobility* behaviour.* As* the* influencing*factors*for*the*choice*of*transport*mode*and*mobility*behaviour*are*so*numerous,* some*influencing*factors*are*only*relevant*for*specific*subgroups.*Mobility*styles*categorise* various*population*groups*according*to*their*mobility*specific*attitudes*and*behaviours,*which* make* it* possible* to* identify* motivational* backgrounds* and* establish* different* groups* with* specific* attitudes.* A* subgroup* specific* perspective* and* classification* based* on* individual* behavioural*patterns*provides*the*possibility*of*a*better*forecast*of*mobility*behaviour.*The* mobility*behaviour*of*the*different*mobility*types*varies*widely*(Hunecke*et*al.,*2002a,*pp.* 89–90;*Jarass,*2012,*pp.*31–32).* Therefore,* various* researchers* developed* classified* mobility* target* groups.* Hunecke* et* al.* (2002a,*pp.*92–94)*identified*ten*attitude2based*mobility*target*groups*based*on*four*areas* of*research.*The*ten*groups*show*decisive*differences*concerning*their*mobility*behaviour,* attitudes* and* orientations.* These* areas* are* (i)* action* theoretical* constructs,* (ii)* symbolic* dimensions*of*mobility,*(iii)*youth*culture,*as*well*as*(iv)*leisure*behaviour,*while*each*of*these* contain* different* features.! Action! theoretical! constructs* include* personal* ecological* norm,* subjective* social* norm,* perceived* behavioural* control,* awareness* of* consequences* of* behaviour*and*external*attribution*of*responsibility.*Symbolic!dimensions!of!mobility*include* attitudes* towards* transportation* modes,* avoidance* or* experience* of* disturbance* and* sensibility*towards*status.*Youth!culture*is*linked*to*the*mindset*and*attitudes*of*adolescents,* describes*their*technical*affinity,*raver,*ecologically*oriented*and*alternative*youth*cultures* and* their* satisfaction* with* leisure* activities.* Leisure! behaviour* is* defined* by* outdoor* and* domestic*leisure*behaviour,*car*oriented*leisure*activities,*relaxing,*sports*and*membership*in* different*associations.*Besides*these*areas,*sociodemographic*factors,*such*as*school2leaving* qualification,*age*and*living*environment,*are*taken*into*account.** Table*1*illustrates*a*list*including*the*ten*mobility*target*groups,*half*of*them*belonging*to*the* sub2group*under*18*years,*and*the*other*half*to*the*sub2group*from*18*years.*A*separation*is* necessary*as*the*sub2group*from*18*years*has*the*possibility*to*possess*a*driver’s*licence,* which*fundamentally*changes*the*possibilities*for*action*(Hunecke*et*al.,*2002a,*p.*94).** * *

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* DRIVERS!AND!BARRIERS!OF!ADOLESCENTS’!MOBILITY!BEHAVIOUR!

Subgroup(under(18(years( Subgroup(from(18(years( Adolescent*oriented*towards*technology*and*cars* Adolescent*oriented*towards*technology*and*cars* * Established*adolescent* Ecologically*aware*adolescent* Ecologically*aware*adolescent* Young*technology*fan* * Unobtrusive*adolescent* * * Adolescent*in*transition*period* Distanced*adolescent* Distanced*adolescent* Table!1:!Mobility!types!as!defined!by!U.Move!! (adapted!from!Hunecke!et!al.,!2002a,!p.!94)!

* Belonging*to*the*first*sub2group,*the*adolescent*oriented*towards*technology!and!cars*is*a*172 year2old* male* living* in* a* rural* area,* in* professional* training* living* with* his* parents.* He* is* interested*in*technology,*often*drives*his*motor*scooter*but*dreams*about*his*own*car*and* drivers’*licence.*Due*to*his*apprenticeship,*he*has*more*money*available*than*others*in*his*age* and*uses*it*to*cover*long*distances,*while*not*recognising*connections*between*the*choice*of* transport*mode*and*environmental*damage.** The*ecologically!aware*adolescent*is*a*sharp*contrast*to*the*previous*type.*She*is*a*162year2 old* female* high* school* student* living* with* her* parents* in* an* urban* area* and* is* highly* ecologically*aware,*also*concerning*her*choice*of*transport*mode.*She*feels*responsible*for* the*environment,*aligns*everyday*life*accordingly*and*assesses*sustainable*transport*modes* (public*transport,*bike,*on*foot)*positively*while*refusing*the*use*of*cars.*However,*she*plans* to*get*a*driver’s*licence.** The*young!technology!fan*is*a*152year2old*male*pupil*who*lives*with*his*parents*in*both*urban* and*rural*areas.*His*life*is*characterized*by*sports*and*a*fascination*for*technology.*On*the*one* hand,*he*likes*sports*and*uses*his*bike.*On*the*other*hand,*he*is*enthusiastic*about*technology,* owns*a*motor*scooter,*and*dreams*of*a*driver’s*licence.** The*typical!unobtrusive*adolescent*is*a*162year2old*high*school*student*living*with*her*parents* in*a*rural*area,*and*is*aware*about*the*connection*between*motor*traffic*and*environmental* degradation.*Yet,*she*does*not*feel*personally*accountable*for*it.*She*refuses*the*transport* modes*bike*and*on*foot,*while*she*is*undecided*concerning*car*and*public*transport.** The*typical!distanced*adolescent*is*a*162year2old*female*living*with*her*parents*in*an*urban* area.*She*goes*to*school*and*is*characterised*by*her*deprecating*fundamental*attitude*and* keeping*her*distance.*Her*leisure*time*is*characterised*by*the*refusal*of*certain*activities,*such* as*sports,*technology*and*special*youth*sub*cultures.*She*is*not*interested*in*environmental* protection*as*well*as*many*other*topics*(ibid,*pp.*98–100).**

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* DRIVERS!AND!BARRIERS!OF!ADOLESCENTS’!MOBILITY!BEHAVIOUR!

Belonging* to* the* sub2group* from* 18* years,* the* typical* adolescent* orientated* towards* technology!and!cars*resembles*the*respective*type*in*the*age*group*below*18*years.*The*202 year2old*male*still*lives*with*his*parents*in*a*rural*area,*owns*a*car*and*uses*it*extensively.*His* leisure*time*is*characterised*by*his*car,*on*which*he*also*spends*most*of*his*available*money.* At*the*same*time,*relaxing*and*going*out*is*important*to*him.*Most*of*the*free2time*activities* are*faraway*and,*therefore,*he*drives*by*car.** The*typical!established*adolescent*is*a*242year2old*female*university*student*or*worker*in*an* urban*area*who*lives*by*herself*and*owns*her*own*car.*For*her,*the*use*of*a*car*is*pragmatic,* as* she* thinks* of* the* car* as* the* most* practical* mode* of* transport,* while* she* is* not* environmentally*aware.** The*ecologically!aware*adolescent*is*a*242year2old*university*student*living*by*herself*or*in*a* shared*apartment*in*an*urban*or*rural*area.*She*is,*as*well*as*the*type*below*18*years,*and* even*more,*highly*ecologically*aware.*She*is*sceptical*concerning*technology*and*cars,*she* reads,*upgrades*her*education*and*values*travelling*around*the*world.** The*typical*adolescent*in*a*transition!period*is*a*female*202year2old*living*in*both*urban*and* rural*areas,*who*is*characterised*by*indecisiveness.*She*possibly*acquired*a*driver’s*licence*but* is*undecided*regarding*her*attitude*towards*different*modes*of*transport.*She*has*only*weak,* if*any,*preferences*for*transport*modes*or*leisure*activities,*but*evaluates*public*transport* slightly*positive.*She*is*in*a*transition*period*and*going*through*a*process*of*change*towards* stronger*positions.* The*distanced*adolescent*is*similar*to*the*type*within*the*sub2group*below*18*years.*She*is*a* 222year2old*employed*female*living*in*a*rural*area*by*herself*or*still*with*her*parents.*She*owns* her*own*car*and*spends*much*money*on*clothes*and*her*car,*as*she*is*not*satisfied*with*the* local*leisure*activities.*She*is*not*interested*in*technology*or*the*environment*(ibid,*pp.*100– 102).** Based*on*these*mobility*target*groups,*the*study*ZIMONA*(2003)*(German*abbreviation*for* target* groups* and* their* mobility* needs* in* local* traffic/* Zielgruppen* und* deren* Mobilitätsbedürfnisse*im*Nahverkehr)*investigated*mobility*needs*and*the*choice*of*transport* means*in*the*local*traffic*system.*The*study*undertook*an*integrative*and*mobility*target*group* segmentation*based*on*psychographic*characteristics*(Hunecke*et*al.,*2005).*It*focused*on*the* use* of* cars* and* public* transport,* and* identified* six* attitudinal* dimensions,* which* are* independent*from*each*other.*These*are*the*ecological*value*orientation,*symbolic2emotional* evaluation*of*cars,*and*the*four*symbolic*mobility*dimensions:*autonomy,*experience,*status,* and* privacy.* Based* on* these,* six* attitude2based* mobility* target* groups* were* determined,* which* are* supposed* to* build* a* basis* for* actions* to* be* taken* to* improve* the* use* of* public* transport.*The*defined*mobility*target*groups*are*(i)*public*transport*orientated,*(ii)*public* transport* sensitised,* (iii)* pragmatist,* (iv)* public* transport* distanced,* (v)* public* transport*

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* DRIVERS!AND!BARRIERS!OF!ADOLESCENTS’!MOBILITY!BEHAVIOUR! reluctant,*and*(vi)*lackadaisical*(Hunecke*et*al.,*2008a,*p.*11;*Hunecke,*2015,*p.*66).*Hunecke* and*Schweer*(2006,*pp.*161–162)*adapted*the*mobility*target*groups,*excluding*the*target* group* of* public* transport* reluctant.* The* study* showed* that* attitude2based* mobility* target* groups*can*best*describe*the*share*of*used*transport*modes,*especially*for*the*use*of*cars.* However,*they*can*only*insufficiently*clarify*desired*destinations*compared*to*the*lifestyle* study,*which*has*an*advantage*over*the*concept*of*mobility*target*groups.** Within* the* MOBILANZ* project,* the* operationalisation* of* psychographic* characteristics* was* oriented* towards* empirically* proven* constructs* of* psychological* theories* of* action,* i.e.* an* extension*of*the*TPB,*namely*PMN*(see*sub2chapter*3.3.4)*(Hunecke,*2015,*p.*67).*Hunecke*et* al.*(2007)*identified*seven*mobility*related*attitude*dimensions*as*well*as*a*value*orientation,* which*build*the*basis*for*five*mobility*target*groups.*The*options*profile*of*the*five*mobility* target*groups*is*based*on*the*factors*public*transport*control,*public*transport*status*and* excitement,* car* attitude,* bicycle* attitude,* weather* resistance,* ecological* norm,* PMN* and* openness*to*change.*The*resulting*mobility*target*groups*are*(i)*public*transport*distanced* with*perceived*growing*mobility*requirements,*(ii)*car*individualists,*(iii)*weather*proof*bicycle* fans,*(iv)*environmental*aware*public*transport*fans,*(v)*self2determined*mobiles.*The*group* of* public! transport! distanced! with! perceived! growing! mobility! requirements* evaluates* the* simplicity*and*experience*of*public*transport*more*negative*than*other*groups*and*are*not* open*to*change.*The*car!individualists*can*be*distinguished*from*them*by*their*openness*to* change*and*positive*symbolic*assessment*of*cars.*The*group*of*weather!proof!bicycle!fans*are* characterised*by*their*negative*assessment*of*cars,*strong*bicycle*orientation*and*weather* resistance.*Environmental!aware!public!transport!fans*show*a*high*ecological*norm*and*have* a*positive*view*of*public*transport.*The*group*of*self=determined!mobiles*find*it*easy*to*use* public*transport*and*have*low*perceived*mobility*requirements*(Hunecke*et*al.,*2007,*p.*285;* Hunecke*et*al.,*2008,*p.*74;*Hunecke,*2015,*p.*68).** Another*approach*for*attitude2related*mobility*target*groups*was*developed*by*Götz*et*al.* (1998),*who*investigated*the*two*German*cities*Freiburg*and*Schwerin.*The*authors*identified* different*mobility*styles*and*types*in*the*two*cities.*In*Freiburg,*the*following*mobility*styles* have* been* identified:* (i)* traditional* familiar,* (ii)* risk2oriented* car* enthusiasts,* (iii)* status2 oriented*car*driver,*(iv)*traditional*nature*oriented,*and*(v)*strong*ecologically*advocate.*The* study*identified*far*reaching*differences*between*these*mobility*styles.*For*example,*strong* ecological* advocates* used* the* car* for* only* 10%* of* their* total* journeys,* compared* to* risk2 oriented*car*enthusiasts,*who*chose*the*car*for*56%*of*all*journeys.*The*traditional*nature* oriented*group*chose*to*go*on*foot*for*43%*of*all*journeys,*compared*to*the*status2oriented* car*drivers,*who*did*so*in*only*4%*of*all*journeys*(Götz,*2007,*pp.*771–772;*c.f.*Jarass,*2012,*p.* 32).** In*addition,*the*author*expanded*the*concept*of*mobility*styles*to*leisure*mobility.*The*starting* point*for*this*research*was*that*the*mobility*behaviour*in*leisure*time*depends*not*only*but*

* * * 45*

* DRIVERS!AND!BARRIERS!OF!ADOLESCENTS’!MOBILITY!BEHAVIOUR! also*on*a*persons’*lifestyle*that*does*not*directly*influence*mobility*or*transport*modes.*The* following* mobility* styles* have* been* identified:* (i)* disadvantaged* (low* school2leaving* qualifications*and*net*household*incomes,*mostly*workers,*welfare*recipients,*unemployed),* (ii)*modern2exclusives*(identify*with*their*occupation,*are*family*oriented,*deal*with*trends,* stocks*and*ICT,*and*show*commitment*for*social*fairness*and*ecology,*technic*affinity*but*insist* on* traditional* division* of* labour),* (iii)* fun2oriented* (fun,* experience* and* risk* orientation,* oriented*towards*modern*technology,*strong*relation*to*peer*groups),*(iv)*burdened*family* oriented* (family* gives* meaning,* home* and* domestic* orientation,* strong* neighbourhood* relations,*difficulties*delimiting*work,*household*and*leisure*time),*and*(v)*traditional*homely* oriented*(desire*for*safety*and*risk*avoidance,*consumption*preferences*for*longevity*and* closeness*to*nature,*oriented*towards*traditional*values,*distanced*from*modern*technology).* Comparing* the* travelled* distance* in* leisure* time,* the* fun* oriented* group* travels* the* most* kilometres*per*week,*the*burdened*family*oriented*and*traditional*homely*oriented*are*found* in* the* midfield,* while* the* group* of* disadvantaged* show* by* far* the* lowest* transport* performance*(Götz,*2007,*pp.*773–775).** Moreover,* the* author* discusses* mobility* styles* in* rural* areas,* which* have* been* identified* within* the* project* ‘New* local* traffic* offers* in* Nature* Park* Schwarzwald’* (NahviS,* German* abbreviation* for* Nahverkehsangebote* im* Naturpark* Schwarzwald).* The* project* was* conducted*in*the*sparsely*populated,*rural*and*mountainous*area*Black*Forrest*in*Germany,* where* a* strong* orientation* towards* the* own* car* can* be* perceived.* This* cannot* only* be* explained*by*poor*public*transport*alternatives,*but*also*by*the*fact*that*the*car*symbolises* social*integration*and*affiliation*for*people*in*this*area.*For*this*reason,*the*study*divided*the* dataset*into*two*subsamples,*first,*a*group*that*constantly*have*a*car*on*demand*and,*second,* a*group*for*which*this*does*not*apply.*The*following*mobility*types*have*been*identified*for* the*first*subsample:*(i)*risk2oriented*car*fans,*(ii)*workmen,*(iii)*disinterested,*(iv)*sensitized,* and* (v)* open2minded.*For*the*second*subsample,*the*following*mobility* types* have* been* formulated:*(i)*consequent,*(ii)*cautious,*and*(iii)*young*savages.*The*risk2oriented*car*fans,* workmen*and*disinterested*are*emotionally*and*symbolically*bond*to*the*car.*In*contrast,*the* other*mobility*groups*are*approachable*concerning*new*and*flexible*public*transport*because* they*have*a*positive*attitude*towards*public*transport,*have*voluntary*user*experience*or*are* dependent*on*it*–*such*as*pupils*among*the*mobility*group*young*savages*(Götz,*2007,*p.*777).* The*fact*that*especially*the*mobility*group*young*savages*is*not*emotionally*and*symbolically* bond*to*the*car*is*also*highly*important*for*the*research*project*at*hand,*as*this*group*is* approachable*for*more*sustainable*transport*modes.*During*that*time,*new*mobility*patterns* can*be*shaped*through*projects*such*as*e2cult.** *

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* DRIVERS!AND!BARRIERS!OF!ADOLESCENTS’!MOBILITY!BEHAVIOUR!

3.3.4! Perceived'Mobility'Necessities'(PMN)' Based*on*the*TPB,*Haustein*and*Hunecke*(2007)*introduced*the*concept*of*Perceived*Mobility* Necessities*(PMN),*which*enhances*the*TPB*“providing*a*more*differentiated*understanding* of*the*use*of*environmentally*friendly*transport*modes”*(Hunecke*et*al.,*2007,*p.*278).*Within* the*TPB,*the*PBC*is*used*to*measure*the*“perceived*ability*to*perform*an*intended*behaviour”.* PBC* originally* takes* into* account* the* two* factors* personal* living* circumstances* and* traffic* infrastructure,*which*determine*behavioural*control,*in*the*context*of*mobility*behaviour.*The* authors*argue*that*PBC*is*“dominated*by*the*perception*of*accessibility*of*the*considered* mode* of* transportation”,* while* the* effects* that* personal* living* conditions* can* have* on* behaviour*are*approached*only*implicitly,*even*though*sociodemographic*aspects*which*have* an*effect*on*a*persons’*living*situation*are*essential*to*predict*mobility*behaviour*(Haustein* and*Hunecke,*2007,*p.*1859).** *

* Figure!11:!Integration!of!PMN!in!the!framework!of!TPB!! (adapted!from!Haustein!and!Hunecke,!2007,!p.!1871)!

* Therefore,*PMN*should*be*used*within*the*model*of*the*TPB,*next*to*the*factor*of*PBC*(see* Figure*11).*PMN*have*an*impact*on*number*of*trips,*distance*travelled*and*travel*mode*choice.* The*authors*define*PMN*as*“people’s*perceptions*of*mobility2related*consequences*of*their* personal*living*circumstances”.*That*implies,*that*PMN*are,*on*the*one*hand,*defined*by*the* actual*mobility*demand*of*a*person*due*to*e.g.*a*job.*On*the*other*hand,*one*can*presume*

* * * 47*

* DRIVERS!AND!BARRIERS!OF!ADOLESCENTS’!MOBILITY!BEHAVIOUR! that*personal*differences*will*occur*in*respect*to*the*perception*of*demand,*as*some*people* see* a* perceived* necessity* to* own* a* car* when* having* a* child,* while* others* have* a* car2free* household*even*though*they*have*kids*(ibid,*p.*1859).*Travel*mode*choice*is,*consequently,* defined*by*the*“mental*representation*of*infrastructure*features”*as*well*as*“the*demands*of* everyday*life*with*regard*to*mobility”.** * 3.3.5! Levels'of'mobility'sphere'development' The*mobility*concept*‘levels*of*mobility*sphere*development’,*which*was*developed*by*Sydow* and*Scholl*(2002,*pp.*15–16),*describes*three*levels*that*are*responsible*for*the*development* of* mobility* behaviour* of* adolescents.* According* to* this* concept,* mobility* behaviour* is* determined*by*the*three*aspects*(i)*personality*characteristics,*(ii)*attitudes,*and*(iii)*mobility* sphere.** *

Personality*characteristics •fundamental,*relatively*stable •Personality*traits,*individual*and*social*norms,*future*orientation,*pursuit* of*success,*social*situation,*individual*driving*and*car*experience*(e.g.* parents*car)

Attitudes •individually*formed,*however,*shaped*by*the*spirit*of*age* •Attitudes*towards*means*of*transport,*technology*and*progress,* environment*and*its*perceived*degradation,*acceptance*of*parents' and* friends'*mobility*standards

Mobility*sphere •driver*and*vehicle2related*values*(e.g.*importance*of car*performance,*car* as*a*symbol*of*identity),*driving*style,*preferences*towards*different* modes*of*transportation,*preferences*towards*automobile*brands*and* car*type * Figure!12:!Three=level!model!of!the!mobility!sphere!development! (adapted!from!Sydow!and!Scholl,!2002,!p.!16)!

* Personality!characteristics*influence*the*behaviour*of*young*adults*in*the*individual*areas*of* life*to*a*certain*degree.*They*include*personality*traits,*individual*and*social*norms,*future* orientation,* pursuit* of* success,* social* situation,* individual* driving* and* car* experience* (e.g.* parents’*car).*Attitudes*of*adolescents*towards*their*surrounding*areas*and*environment,*the* aspects*of*life*that*they*consider*of*importance,*and*the*expectations*of*close*persons*or*

* * * 48*

* DRIVERS!AND!BARRIERS!OF!ADOLESCENTS’!MOBILITY!BEHAVIOUR! family* members* and* the* social* situation* within* the* family* determine* the* behaviour* and* decisions*within*the*mobility*sphere.*This*level*includes*aspects*such*as*attitudes*towards* means*of*transport,*technology*and*progress,*environment*and*its*perceived*degradation*and* the*acceptance*of*parents'*and*friends'*mobility*standards.*Mobility!sphere*includes*driver*and* vehicle2related*values,*driving*style,*preferences*towards*different*modes*of*transportation* and* preferences* towards* automobile* brands* and* car* types.* The* overall* context,* which* provides*the*possibility*to*comprehend*the*development*of*the*mobility*sphere,*can*be*shown* in*a*three2level*model*(see*Figure*12).** Relationships* between* and* within* these* aspects* depend* on* the* operationalisation* of* the* single* concepts.* This* model* implies* a* multitude* of* assumptions,* which* involves* not* only* assumptions*about*relationships*within*a*certain*assessment*period,*but*also*assumptions* concerning*the*impact*of*one*variable*on*another*variable*at*a*later*time.*However,*when* investigating*these*assumptions,*there*remain*questions*of*how*to*operationalize*constructs* such* as* value* dimensions,* or* what* personality* traits* and* preferences* towards* automobile* brands*and*car*types*are*included,*as*well*as*the*question*how*attitudes*towards*technology* and*progress*are*measured*(Sydow*and*Scholl,*2002,*pp.*15–16).** * 3.3.6! Components'of'mobility'perception'' The*components*of*mobility*perception*were*described*by*Sydow*and*Scholl*(2002,*p.*15)*and* describe*the*components*which*are*responsible*for*a*subjective*perception*of*the*mobility* sphere.* According* to* this* concept,* the* subjective* perception* of* mobility* is* based* on* the* following* components:* (i)* values* regarding* driving* and* vehicles,* (ii)* style* of* driving,* (iii)* preferences* for* the* use* of* various* means* of* transportation,* and* (iv)* sympathy* for* vehicle* brands* and* types* of* cars.* During* youth,* adolescents* develop* individual* evaluations* for* characteristics*of*driving,*whereby*the*development*of*different*components*is*effected*by* means*of*individual*prerequisites*gained*already*before*the*age*of*16*(Sydow*and*Scholl,*2002,* p.*15).** Values!regarding!driving!and!vehicles*are*gained*as*children*and*adolescents*perceive*the*style* of*driving*of*close*people.*As*well*as*that,*before*gaining*a*drivers’*licence,*adolescents*often* try*different*styles!of!driving*with*bikes*or*mopeds.*They*perceive*accidents*or*conversations* concerning*accidents.*Therefore,*the*later*style*of*driving*is*already*preformed.*Moreover,* preferences!for!the!use!of!various!means!of!transportation*are*shaped*as*children*join*adults* in*cars*or*public*transportation.*Children*and*adolescents*experience*various*traffic*situations* and*emotional*responses*of*the*drivers*as*well*as*judgemental*statements*when*overtaking* or* getting* overtaken.* They* also* perceive* statements* regarding* driving,* engine* noise,* acceleration* of* speed* and* performance* characteristics.* Furthermore,* children* and* adolescents*become*acquainted*with*the*viewpoints*of*people*who*refuse*to*use*cars*but*

* * * 49*

* DRIVERS!AND!BARRIERS!OF!ADOLESCENTS’!MOBILITY!BEHAVIOUR! rather* appreciate* public* transport.* The* sympathy! for! vehicle! brands! and! types! of! cars* is* likewise*shaped*from*an*early*age*onwards.* In*general,*the*components*of*the*subjective*perception*of*mobility*are*developed*from*an* early*age,*when*children*from*childhood*onwards*join*their*family*or*friends*in*different* transport*modes.*Especially*boys*tend*to*be*familiar*with*vehicle*brands*from*an*early*age* onwards.*Later*they*might*recognise*even*the*type*of*car*as*they*encounter*car*types*during* (card)*games*that*explain*vehicle*brands,*or*they*get*explanations*from*adults.*Also,*media* calls* attention* to* cars.* Comparatively* less* attention* is* given* to* public* transportation.* Advertising*and*discussions*with*adults*or*peers*are*responsible*for*a*special*token*value*of* cars,*and*different*preferences*are*developed*towards*vehicle*brands*and*types*(ibid,*pp.*14– 15).** * 3.3.7! Defining'features'of'adolescence'' The*mobility*concept*‘defining*features*of*adolescence’,*which*was*developed*by*Tully*(2002a,* pp.*17–18),*describes*six*dimensions*that*are*responsible*for*the*interaction*of*everyday*life* and* mobility* of* adolescents.* According* to* this* concept,* youth* is* characterized* by* six* dimensions:*(i)*education,*(ii)*economic*independence*gained*due*to*the*first*job,*(iii)*leisure* time*and*youth*culture,*(iv)*family*connections*and*partnerships,*(v)*political*involvement,*and* (vi)* differentiated* contexts* (see* Figure* 13).* These* six* defining* features* of* adolescence* are* responsible*for*different*mobility*behaviours*(Tully,*2002a,*pp.*19–20).*First,*youth*is*a*time* of* education.* Second,* economic! independence* is* gained* at* this* time* due* to* the* first* job,* coexisting*with*economic*dependency*regarding*consumption.*Third,*youth*is*a*stage*of*life* when*new*ties*of*partnerships*are*forged,*especially*within*peer2groups,*and*participation*in* social* life* (e.g.* associations)* and* leisure* time* becomes* important.* Furthermore,* family! connections* and* entering* a* life* partnership* and* romantic* relationship* as* detachment* and* growing*new*roots*are*important.*Political!involvement*and*legal*independence*equally*define* features*of*youth.*Besides*these*dimensions,*the*process*of*growing*up*is*accompanied*with* differentiated!contexts.*Everyday*life*situations,*opportunities*and*options*of*adolescents*are* characterized* by* their* social* situation,* characterized* by* their* (i)* generation,* (ii)* origin,* (iii)* gender,*as*well*as*(iv)*location*of*residence*(i.e.*urban*versus*rural)*(see*Figure*13).*Each*of* these*six*defining*features*of*adolescence,*in*turn,*determine*their*mobility*behaviour*to*some* extent.* According*to*Tully*(2002a),*the*behaviour*of*adolescents*is*characterised*by*the*participation* in*different*cultures*and*social*relationships,*which*requires*mobility*to*commute*between* different* points.* Young* adults* appreciate* being* on* the* road* as* it* gives* them* a* feeling* of* freedom,*independence*and*self2determination.*Mobility*is*only*secondarily*oriented*towards* necessary*duties,*but*public*spaces*and*roads*provide*the*possibility*of*self2expression*and* are,*therefore,*targets*of*young*people*that*are*on*the*move*(Tully,*2002a,*pp.*13–14).*They* * * * 50*

* DRIVERS!AND!BARRIERS!OF!ADOLESCENTS’!MOBILITY!BEHAVIOUR! show* a* need* for* self2determined* movement,* as* this* stage* of* life* is* characterised* by* an* elaborate*and*mobility2intensive*search*for*contacts*and*friends*in*open*spaces.*Young*adults* are*continuously*situated*within*society,*which*is*an*extensive*process*characterized*by*being* on*the*road*in*order*to*search*for*the*true*self*(ibid,*pp.*15–16).** *

Education

School,* Political* Economic*

involvement vocational*training,.. independence Elections,* Job,* legal*independence,..* Consumption,..

Differentiated* Contexts

Family* Leisure*&*youth* connections* culture Parents,* romantic*partnership, Peer*groups, *life*partnership,.. association,..* * Figure!13:!Defining!features!of!adolescence!and!mobility!! (adapted!from!Tully,!2002a,!p.!20)!

* 3.4! Scientific'mobility'studies'' In* order* to* underpin* the* previously* discussed* concepts* and* theories* regarding* mobility* behaviour,*numerous*scientific*mobility*studies*have*been*undertaken*over*the*last*years.*This* chapter*reviews*the*44*investigated,*most*relevant*in2depth*research*studies*and*provides*an* overview*of*the*discussed*factors*influencing*the*mobility*behaviour*of*adolescents,*which*is* the*basis*for*addressing*the*previously*formulated*research*questions.*The*different*drivers* and*barriers*for*decision2making,*as*well*as*their*underlying*causes,*are*analysed.*The*factors* presented*in*the*studies*are*categorised*by*means*of*context*analysis*(see*sub2chapter*2.2)* and*discussed*within*the*scope*of*this*chapter.**

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* DRIVERS!AND!BARRIERS!OF!ADOLESCENTS’!MOBILITY!BEHAVIOUR!

Table*2*provides*a*first*overview*of*the*analysed*research*studies,*their*year*and*country*of* publication,*the*discussed*research*objective,*the*modes*of*transport*that*are*part*of*the* discussion*as*well*as*the*central*research*outcomes*of*the*particular*scientific*mobility*study.** For*reasons*of*clarity,*the*discussed*research*objectives*and*research*questions*in*the*studies* have*been*categorised*more*abstractly.*In*total,*five*categories*of*overall*research*objectives* were*identified*and*assigned*to*the*studies:** •! identification* of* mobility* behaviour* and/or* styles* (of* adolescents)* and* analysing* changes** •! investigation* of* factors* and/or* determinants* influencing* mobility* decisions* (of* adolescents)*between*mobility*alternatives*for*more*sustainable*mobility* •! introduction* of* a* theoretical* mobility* concept* and* investigation* of* effects* on* sustainable*transport*modes** •! exploration*of*potentials*for,*beliefs*about*and/or*attitudes*towards*e2vehicles** •! investigation*of*areas*of*innovation*and/or*models*for*a*transition*towards*sustainable* mobility* Here,*of*the*44*research*studies*that*are*part*of*the*investigation,*most*of*them*were*assigned* to*the*two*objectives*‘identification*of*mobility*behaviour*and/or*styles*(of*adolescents)*and* analysing* changes’,* and* ‘investigation* of* factors* and/or* determinants* influencing* mobility* decisions* (of* adolescents)* between* mobility* alternatives* for* more* sustainable* mobility’,* namely*15*and*22,*respectively.*Three*of*the*studies*aimed*at*the*‘introduction*of*a*theoretical* mobility*concept*and*investigation*of*effects*on*sustainable*transport*modes’,*three*have*the* objective*of*‘exploration*of*potentials*for,*beliefs*about*and/or*attitudes*towards*e2vehicles’,* and* two* of* the* analysed* studies* aimed* at* the* investigation* of* areas* of* innovation* and/or* models*for*a*transition*towards*sustainable*mobility.** *

Author(&(year( Country( Research(objective( Transport(modes( Outcomes( Investigation*of*factors* Household*income*and*car*ownership*is*not* and/or*determinants* Motorised*private* symmetric.*Rising*income*makes*it*easier*for* Dargay((2001)(( UK* influencing*mobility* transport* households*to*own*cars,*but*once*acquired*the* decisions*between* car*becomes*a*necessity.** mobility*alternatives** Introduction*of*ten*attitude2based*mobility* Identification*of*mobility* Motorised*private* target*groups*for*adolescents*(see*sub2chapter* Hunecke(et(al.( behaviour*and/or*styles*of* transport,*public* 3.3.3).*Investigation*of*mobility*behaviour,* DE* (2002b)( adolescents*and*analysing* transport,*bicycle,* influence*of*environmental*attitudes*and* changes* on*foot,*others* technical*orientation,*and*adolescents’*public* transport*acceptance.** Investigation*of*personality*characteristics,* Motorised*(two2 individual*and*general*value*orientations,*future* Identification*of*mobility* wheeled)*private* and*vocational*orientation*of*adolescents*in* Scholl(and( behaviour*and/or*styles*of* DE* transport,*public* general.*Transport*mode*use,*leisure*mobility,* Sydow((2002)( adolescents*and*analysing* transport,*bicycle,* attitudes*towards*cars,*vehicle2based*value* changes* on*foot* orientations,*risk2taking*and*environmental* awareness*of*adolescents*specifically.**

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* DRIVERS!AND!BARRIERS!OF!ADOLESCENTS’!MOBILITY!BEHAVIOUR!

In*new*decision*contexts,*car*users*show*strong* behavioural*reactions*to*small,*inexpensive* Identification*of*mobility* Motorised*private* Bamberg(et(al.( interventions.*A*new*decision*context*is*used*for* DE* behaviour*and/or*styles* transport,*public* (2003)(( making*new*behavioural*decisions*and*increases* and*analysing*changes* transport,*bicycle* people’s*attention*to*new*information*and* motivation*to*process*it*more*actively.* Motorised*(two2 A*temporary*structural*change*in*transportation* Fujii(and( Identification*of*mobility* wheeled)*private* service*level*can*induce*permanent*behavioural* Kitamura( JP* behaviour*and/or*styles* transport,*public* changes.*To*induce*behavioural*change,*a* (2003)(( and*analysing*changes* transport,*bicycle,* structural*change*can*be*temporary*including* on*foot* such*measures*as*a*free*bus*ticket.** After*a*breakthrough*of*routines*and*changing* Investigation*of*factors* Motorised*private* from*routine*to*rational*decision*making,*car* and/or*determinants* transport,*public* sharing*was*determined*by*mobility*needs,* Harms((2003)( CH* influencing*mobility* transport,*car2 attitudes,*values.*Significant,*cumulative* decisions*between* sharing* changes*are*vital*for*mobility*decisions*to*reduce* mobility*alternatives** car*use*and*for*conscious,*rational*decisions.* Investigation*of*factors* Values*and*problem*awareness*influenced* Motorised*private* and/or*determinants* personal*norm,*which*influenced*willingness*to* Nordlund(and( transport,*public* SE* influencing*mobility* reduce*personal*car*use.*The*results*showed*the* Garvill((2003)( transport,*bicycle,* decisions*between* importance*of*personal*norm*for*willingness*to* on*foot* mobility*alternatives* cooperate*in*a*social*dilemma.** Investigation*of*factors* The*evaluation*of*symbolic*and*affective*motives* and/or*determinants* not*instrumental*ones,*indicates*most*group* Steg((2005)(( NL* influencing*mobility* Car* differences.*Frequent*drivers,*people*with* decisions*between* positive*car*attitudes,*male*and*younger* mobility*alternatives** respondents*valued*non2instrumental*motives.* Personal*norm*and*public*transport*use*show*a* Investigation*of*factors* significant*and*substantive*relation.*Feelings*of* and/or*determinants* Motorised*private* guilt*and*social*norms*contribute*to*the* Bamberg(et(al.( DE* influencing*mobility* transport,*public* formation*of*pro2environmental*personal*norms.* (2007)( decisions*between* transport* Two*urban*agglomerations*attract*different* mobility*alternatives* population*segments*that*may*create*different* social*contexts.* Motorised*(two2 PMN*(see*sub2chapter*3.3.4)*showed*a* Introduction*of*a* wheeled)*private* significant*negative*effect*on*environment* theoretical*mobility* Haustein(and( transport,*public* friendly*modes.*PBC*directly*and*indirectly* DE* concept*and*investigation* Hunecke((2007)( transport,*bicycle,* influences*behaviour*via*intention,*PMN*only* of*effects*on*sustainable* on*foot,*car*sharing,* directly.*PMN*is*not*involved*in*the*intention*to* transport*modes* rental*car,*taxi* use*environment*friendly*modes.** Motorised*(two2 Psychological*variables*show*relationships*to*the* wheeled)*private* ecological*impact*of*mobility*behaviour*if* Identification*of*mobility* Hunecke(et(al.( transport,*public* sociodemographic*and*infrastructural*factors*are* DE* behaviour*and/or*styles* (2007)(( transport,*bicycle,* controlled*for.*Psychological*variables*are* and*analysing*changes* on*foot,*car*sharing,* related*to*intent2oriented*mobility*behaviour* rental*car,*taxi* and*ecological*impact*of*mobility*behaviour.** Weather*and*weather*resistance*influence* (i)*Identification*of* mobility*behaviour*of*mobility*target*groups* mobility*behaviour*and/or* differently.*Long*distance*travels*are*undertaken* styles*and*analysing* by*car*and*depend*on*individual*circumstances.* Motorised*private* changes* For*a*shift*to*public*transport,*information*on* Hunecke(et(al.( transport,*public* DE* (ii)*Investigation*of*factors* the*opportunities*of*action*is*needed.*Values,* (2008a)(( transport,*bicycle,* and/or*determinants* attitudes,*sociodemographic*factors*influence* on*foot* influencing*mobility* public*transport*use.*GHG*emissions*reduction* decisions*between* potential*per*person*per*year*amount*to*78kg* mobility*alternatives** (4.2%)*in*the*optimistic*scenario*and*25kg*(1.3%)* in*the*pessimistic*scenario.* Identification*of*attitude2based*target*groups* that*show*significant*differences*in*ecological* Investigation*of*factors* Motorised*(two2 impact*due*to*daily*mobility*behaviour.*The* and/or*determinants* wheeled)*private* Hunecke(et(al.( target2group*approach*has*a*high*predictive* DE* influencing*mobility* transport,*public* (2008b)(( power*as*differences*in*travel*mode*choice*are* decisions*between* transport,*bicycle,* maximised.*For*the*ecological*impact,*effect*size* mobility*alternatives** on*foot* is*weak*but*higher*than*of*alternative*models.* *

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* DRIVERS!AND!BARRIERS!OF!ADOLESCENTS’!MOBILITY!BEHAVIOUR!

Investigation*of*areas*of* Motorised*private* Nykvist(and( Three*areas*of*sustainable*transport*innovation:* UK** innovation*and/or*models* transport,*public* Whitmarsh( (i)*transport*technologies,*(ii)*product2to2service* SE* for*a*transition*towards* transport,*bicycle,* (2008)(( shift,*(iii)*mobility*management.** sustainable*mobility* on*foot* People*in*urban,*suburban*and*rural*regions*in* Austria*show*a*rather*different*mobility* behaviour.*Due*to*attractive*public*transport* Investigation*of*factors* offers*in*urban*areas,*every*third*journey*is* and/or*determinants* Motorised*private* Grüssinger(and( undertaken*that*way.*In*rural*areas,*only*every* AT* influencing*mobility* transport,*public* Kristan((2009)( 30th*journey*is*undertaken*by*public*transport.* decisions*between* transport,*on*foot* Every*second*person*in*the*urban*area*and*every* mobility*alternatives** third*person*in*the*suburban*area*uses*public* transport*more*often*now*than*five*years*ago.*In* rural*areas,*only*every*tenth*person*does*so.** After*2030,*FCV*will*dominate,*while*biofuels* Internal*Combustion* and*ICE2electric*hybrids*are*main*alternatives*in* Investigation*of*areas*of* Engine*(ICE)*motor* the*next*10–30*years,*as*they*are*developed*and* Köhler(et(al.( innovation*and/or*models* cars,*ICE/electric* UK* better*fit*current*infrastructures.*Technological* (2009)( for*a*transition*towards* hybrid*cars,*biofuel* transitions*are*likely.*Lifestyle*changes*can*only* sustainable*mobility* cars*and*Fuel*Cell* be*achieved*through*environmental*pressure*on* Vehicles*(FCV)* society*and*behaviour*change.* Participants’*travel*behaviour*intentions*are* Investigation*of*factors* dominated*by*a*desire*to*drive*and*their*values* and/or*determinants* Motorised*private* relating*to*identity,*self2image,*social*recognition* Line(et(al.( influencing*mobility* transport,*public* (at*the*expense*of*environmental*values),*as* UK* (2010)(( decisions*of*adolescents* transport,*bicycle,* well*as*affective*attitudes*towards*transport* between*mobility* on*foot* modes,*are*key*influences.*They*are*aware*of* alternatives** climate*change*but*the*understanding*of*the*link* between*transport*and*climate*change*is*weak.** Mobility*preferences*are*established*early* through*socialisation*and*play*a*prominent*role* in*personality*development.*In*biographical* Investigation*of*factors* transition*phases,*decisions*about*residential* and/or*determinants* Motorised*private* choice*and*car*possession*are*made,*which* Seebauer(et(al.( influencing*mobility* transport,*public* AT* determine*mobility*behaviour.*Youths’*car*use* (2010)( decisions*of*adolescents* transport,*bicycle,* increases*after*the*acquisition*of*a*license*and* between*mobility* on*foot* entry*in*employment.*Rural*regions*show*a* alternatives* higher*car*use.*Public*transport*cannot*keep*up* with*the*process*of*activity*places*drifting*apart* and*increasingly*diffusing*traffic*flows.* Driver’s*licence*holders*among*young*adults*in* Germany*are*stagnant.*But*their*average*car*use* Motorised*private* decreased*due*to*decreasing*car*owners*and* Identification*of*mobility* transport,*public* changing*mobility*behaviour.*Low*earners,* IFMO((2011)( DE* behaviour*and/or*styles* transport,*bicycle,* townspeople,*one2person*households*and*men* and*analysing*changes* on*foot* own*less*cars.*Reasons*are*socioeconomic* factors,*penetration*of*ICT,*a*decreasing*social* importance*of*cars,*changing*transport*offers.* The*role*of*attitudes*varies*for*individual*travel* Investigation*of*factors* Motorised*(two2 pattern*domains.*Four*attitudinal*mobility*style* and/or*determinants* wheeled)*private* clusters*are*identified.*Only*limited*influence* Prillwitz(and( UK* influencing*mobility* transport,*public* from*mobility*and*sustainability*attitudes*on* Barr((2011)( decisions*between* transport,*bicycle,* tourist*travel*patterns*are*seen.*Green*daily* mobility*alternatives* on*foot* travel*behaviour*often*linked*to*unsustainable* tourist*travel*modes.* Prestige*and*image*of*a*car*are*unimportant*to* Investigation*of*factors* adolescents,*but*brand*images*are*maintained.* and/or*determinants* Nevertheless,*living*without*a*car*in*the*future*is* Motorised*private* Rust((2011)( DE* influencing*mobility* not*imaginable*for*most.*Social*interaction*is* transport* decisions*between* important*for*mobility*behaviour,*but*also*costs* mobility*alternatives* are*paramount.*Little*understanding*for* environmental*degradation*can*be*proven.** Motorised*(two2 Clear*differences*emerge*between*daily*and* Identification*of*mobility* wheeled)*private* holiday*travel*behaviour*and*unexpected* Barr(and( UK* behaviour*and/or*styles* transport,*public* behaviour*occurs.*Unlike*daily*travel*behaviour,* Prillwitz((2012)( and*analysing*changes* transport,*bicycle,* within*the*context*of*holiday,*the*importance* on*foot* and*validity*of*climate*change*are*questioned.*

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* DRIVERS!AND!BARRIERS!OF!ADOLESCENTS’!MOBILITY!BEHAVIOUR!

Cost*minimisation*is*important*to*consumers* (purchase*costs*vs.*running*costs*with*PHEV).* Environmental*benefits*of*electric*vehicles*were* not*highly*valued.*Drivers*doubted*e2vehicles* Exploration*of*potentials* minimise*travel*times*and*offer*independence.* GrahambRowe( for,*beliefs*about*and/or* UK* Electric*vehicles* E2vehicles*would*need*to*be*subject*to*further* et(al.((2012)( attitudes*towards*e2 technological*and*infrastructural*developments* vehicles* and*price*decreases,*until*then*people*were* unwilling*to*purchase*them.*Drivers*positively* evaluated*carbon*emission*reductions,*but*were* sceptical*about*net*environmental*benefits.** Within*different*locations,*differences*regarding* the*transport*mode*choices*exist,*attributable*to* preferences*for*residential*location.*About*half* Investigation*of*factors* Motorised*(two2 of*suburban*residents*report*a*discrepancy* and/or*determinants* wheeled)*private* between*their*actual*and*their*preferences*for* Jarass((2012)( DE* influencing*mobility* transport,*public* residential*location,*and*show*differences* decisions*between* transport,*bicycle,* regarding*their*transport*mode*choices*and* mobility*alternatives* on*foot* sociodemographic*aspects*compared*to* residents*who*have*made*a*reality*of*their* preferences.*Residential*location*preferences* contribute*greatly*to*transport*mode*choices.** Personal*norms,*habits,*PBC*and*car*choice* behaviour*did*not*change*much*over*a*92month* Investigation*of*factors* period.*Personal*norms*and*PBC*showed*highest* and/or*determinants* stability,*behaviour*and*habit*were*dependent* Klöckner(and( DE* influencing*mobility* Unspecified* on*stability*and*external*factors.*Habits*are*not* Matthies((2012)( decisions*between* directly*linked*to*cognitive*variables*but* mobility*alternatives* influenced*by*past*behaviour.*Socialization*leads* to*behaviour*and*behaviour,*if*performed* consistently,*is*translated*into*habits.* DE* Motorised*(two2 Young*adults’*mobility*in*industrialised*countries* UK* Identification*of*mobility* wheeled)*private* is*still,*albeit*less*so,*dominated*by*the*car.* (Kuhnimhof(et( FR* behaviour*and/or*styles*of* transport,*public* Driving*licences,*car*availability*and*travel* al.,(2012a)(( JP* adolescents*and*analysing* transport,*bicycle,* distance*per*capita,*particularly*for*men,*has* NO* changes* on*foot* decreased.* US* Social*inequalities*have*a*greater*impact*on*long* Investigation*of*factors* distance*travel,*especially*by*car*(summer* and/or*determinants* holidays),*than*on*local*driving,*on*weekend* Licaj(et(al.( influencing*mobility* Motorised*private* driving*than*on*weekday*driving,*on*leisure*trips* FR* (2012)( decisions*of*adolescents* transport* than*on*daily*trips.*Young*adults*in*households* between*mobility* with*one*or*no*car*have*a*lower*incidence*of* alternatives** early*driver*training,*lower*rate*of*licence* holding*and*car*driving*among*licence*holders.** Main*causes*for*changing*mobility*behaviour* Investigation*of*factors* among*adolescents*are*changes*in*media*use* and/or*determinants* Motorised*private* and*mobility,*biographies,*value*orientations,* Schönduwe(et( influencing*mobility* transport,*public* budget*and*consumption*and*transport*system.* DE* al.((2012)( decisions*of*adolescents* transport,*bicycle,* Following*trends*can*be*summarised:*declining* between*mobility* on*foot* drivers*licence*holders,*car*ownership,*car* alternatives** availability,*car*use*especially*among*men,*but* increasing*multimodality*and*public*transport.** The*delivery*of*a*standardized*information* Introduction*of*a* Motorised*private* package*had*no*effect*on*participants’*travel* theoretical*mobility* transport,*public* behaviour.*But*participation*in*the*dialog* Bamberg((2013)( DE* concept*and*investigation* transport,*bicycle,* intervention*resulted*in*a*motor2car*use* of*effects*on*sustainable* on*foot* reduction*but*significantly*higher*PT*use.*Cycling* transport*modes* and*walking*remained*unchanged.** Adolescents*that*use*sustainable*transport* Investigation*of*factors* modes*feel*like*second2class*road*users.*To* Motorised*(two2 and/or*determinants* encourage*car2free*behaviour,*this*circumstance* wheeled)*private* Füssl(et(al.( influencing*mobility* that*affects*quality*of*life*needs*to*be*changed.* AT* transport,*public* (2013)( decisions*of*adolescents* Also,*complicated*and*ill2timed*timetables,*the* transport,*bicycle,* between*mobility* feeling*of*constraint*to*use*transport*modes*and* on*foot,*others* alternatives** dismissive*attitude*of*adults*towards*sustainable* transport*cause*difficulties.*

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* DRIVERS!AND!BARRIERS!OF!ADOLESCENTS’!MOBILITY!BEHAVIOUR!

The*results*show*that*behind*the*aggregate* stability*in*travel*mode*use*over*time*there*is* much*change*‘under*the*surface’,*induced*by*life* Motorised*private* Identification*of*mobility* course*changes,*individual*and*household* Scheiner(and( transport,*public* DE* behaviour*and/or*styles* sociodemographic,*and*spatial*context.*Walking* HolzbRau((2013)( transport,*bicycle,* and*analysing*changes* frequency*drops*when*walking*distance*from* on*foot* the*nearest*public*transport*stop*to*work* increases,*and*vice*versa.*When*parking*at*the* workplace*gets*easier,*respondents*drive*more.** 17%*do*not*own*a*bike,*all*other*respondents* own*one*or*more.*It*is*mostly*used*during*leisure* Motorised*private* time,*15%*use*it*daily,*24%*a*few*times*a*week.* transport,*public* Identification*of*mobility* Mobility*target*groups:*motorist*(36%),* transport,*bicycle,* SORA((2013)( AT* behaviour*and/or*styles* pedestrian*(13%),*cyclist*(9%),*car2bike2combiner* on*foot,*electric,* and*analysing*changes* (24%),*car2public*transport2combiner*(17%).* natural*gas*and* Open2mindedness*for*new*technologies:*about* hybrid*vehicles* one*third*are*interested*in*e2bikes,*42%*are* interested*in*e2cars*and*16%*in*e2scooters.* Trip*characteristics*(origin,*trip*purpose,*length)* and*frequency*of*transit*services*are*most* influential*on*adolescents'*transport*mode* Motorised*(two2 choice.*Girls*are*more*likely*to*travel*to*their* Bjerkan(and( Identification*of*mobility* wheeled)*private* leisure*activities*by*car.*Independent*mobility* Nordtømme( NO* behaviour*and/or*styles* transport,*public* increases*with*age.*Adolescents*from*single2 (2014)( and*analysing*changes* transport,*bicycle,* parent*households*have*less*activity,*a*more* on*foot* limited*radius*of*action*in*leisure*time*and*a* lower*probability*of*car*use.*One*explanation* could*be*lack*of*time*of*the*single*parent.* Awareness*campaigns*for*environmental,* economic*and*health*reasons*for*cycling*may*not* Motorised*private* Exploration*of*potentials* directly*change*modal*shift.*Positive*experiences* transport,*public* Collado(et(al.( for,*beliefs*about*and/or* of*control*during*cycling*have*a*53%*prediction* SE* transport,*bicycle* (2014)( attitudes*towards*e2 rate.*Barriers*to*cycle*are*more*physical*rather* (especially*e2bikes),* vehicles* than*psychological*and*e2bikes*can*reduce*up*to* on*foot* 53%*of*the*barriers*to*cycle.*4%*of*car*users*can* be*stimulated*into*using*e2bikes*instead.** Young*adults*show*a*high*risk*to*be*killed*in* Motorised*(two2 traffic*and*are*main*cause*of*accidents*involving* Identification*of*mobility* DE* wheeled)*private* personal*injury,*but*are*highly*automobile.* behaviour*and/or*styles*of* Kubitzki((2014)( AT* transport,*public* Mobility*behaviour*is*influenced*by*decreasing* adolescents*and*analysing* CH* transport,*bicycle,* cohort*size,*urbanisation,*economic*factors*and* changes* on*foot* level*of*education.*Car*has*high*emotional*value,* ecological*and*ethical*reasons*are*low.* Sparsely*populated,*rural*areas*are*a*potential* Exploration*of*potentials* for*e2vehicles,*depending*on*changing* Mann(et(al.( for,*beliefs*about*and/or* framework*conditions,*due*to*e.g.,*high*number* DE* e2vehicles** (2014)( attitudes*towards*e2 of*available*parking*spaces*and*thus*charging* vehicles* facilities*at*people’s*residences,*rate*of*driving* licenses,*share*of*private*transport*in*modal*split* Three*groups*for*gaining*a*license*and*owning*a* Investigation*of*factors* car:*(i)*Intended*early*car*users:*car*enthusiasts* and/or*determinants* (positive*attitudes*towards*cars),*(ii)*Intended* Sigurdardottir( influencing*mobility* Motorised*private* DK* early*license*holding*and*late*car*use:*car* et(al.((2014)(( decisions*of*adolescents* transport* pragmatists*(license*is*practical*reason),*(iii)* between*mobility* Delayed*license*holding*and*having*a*car:*car* alternatives** skeptics*(weak*motivation*to*gain*license)* Each*residential*area*has*characteristics*that* affect*mode*choice.*In*urban*areas,*mode*choice* Investigation*of*factors* is*affected*by*the*same*factors*in*the*same*way.* Motorised*(two2 and/or*determinants* The*results*for*rural*and*insular*areas*differ* wheeled)*private* Kamargianni( GR* influencing*mobility* significantly*from*urban*areas.*The*variable* transport,*public* (2015)(( CY* decisions*of*adolescents* affecting*cycling*behaviour*to*school*in*urban* transport,*bicycle,* between*mobility* areas*most*is*weather*conditions.*In*rural*areas,* on*foot* alternatives* it*is*the*percentage*of*cycleway*coverage.* * *

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* DRIVERS!AND!BARRIERS!OF!ADOLESCENTS’!MOBILITY!BEHAVIOUR!

The*target*group*had*a*high*level*of*knowledge* Investigation*of*factors* regarding*sustainable*transport*already*before* and/or*determinants* the*investigation.*However,*the*participants* Michelberger(et( influencing*mobility* AT* Unspecified* reported*on*their*behaviour*change*during*the* al.((2015)( decisions*of*adolescents* project.*A*behaviour*change*can*be*achieved* between*mobility* independent*of*attitude*and*knowledge,*but*is* alternatives** attributable*to*game*mechanics.* TPB*is*more*suitable*to*explain*the*mobility* Identification*of*mobility* Motorised*private* Stark(and( behaviour*of*adults*than*of*adolescents.* behaviour*and/or*styles*of* transport,*public* Hössinger( AT* Behaviour*is*determined*by*situational* adolescents*and*analysing* transport,*bicycle,* (2015)( criterions,*e.g.*travel*distance,*influencing*third* changes* on*foot* parties,*travel*purpose,** The*intention*of*adolescents*to*use*car*sharing* Investigation*of*factors* instead*of*a*car*depends*on*(i)*the*favourable* and/or*determinants* opinion*of*influencing*third*parties,*(ii)*perceived* influencing*mobility* Witzke((2015)( DE* Mainly*car*sharing* behavioural*control*for*car*sharing*use,*(iii)*the* decisions*of*adolescents* environmental*awareness,*(iv)*the*association*of* between*mobility* a*car*with*autonomy*or*social*status,*and*(v)*the* alternatives** perception*to*save*costs.** The*percentage*of*young*people*acquiring*a* driving*licence*dropped*since*the*beginning*of* the*1990s*and*stagnated*since*2000.*Young* Identification*of*mobility* Motorised*private* people*living*outside*larger*cities,*with*a*car(s)*in* behaviour*and/or*styles*of* transport,*public* the*household,*in*paid*work*and*married/* Hjorthol((2016)(( NO* adolescents*and*analysing* transport,*bicycle,* cohabiting*have*a*driving*licence*to*a*greater* changes* on*foot* degree*than*those*living*in*the*larger*cities*–* good*access*to*public*transport,*students*and* not*married/cohabiting.*Young*men*more*often* hold*a*driving*licence*than*young*women.** Decision*to*learn*to*drive*is*individual*and* intentional,*influenced*by*perception*of* Investigation*of* mobility,*employability,*adulthood,*third*parties,* influencing*factors*and/or* independence,*social,*economic*and*material* Mainly*motorised* Hopkins((2016)(( NZ* determinants*for*mobility* features.*Routine,*group*norms,*proximity*to* private*transport* decisions*between* friends*and*key*locations*determine*the*need*to* mobility*alternatives* drive.*Environmental*consciousness*is* interwoven*with*mode*choice*more*than* behavioural*intentions.** The*concept*of*‘mobility*milestones’*was* introduced*to*capture*and*group*mobility2 Introduction*of*a* Motorised*private* related*events*in*people's*lives*and*distinguish* theoretical*mobility* Rau(and( transport,*public* these*from*other*life*events.*Starting*college,* IE* concept*and*investigation* Manton((2016)(( transport,*bicycle,* residential*relocation*and*changing*employment* of*effects*on*sustainable* on*foot,*others* had*the*greatest*impact*on*the*travel*mode.*The* transport*modes* main*mobility*milestones*were*buying*a*car*or* bicycle*and*getting*a*driving*licence.* Table!2:!Overview!of!selected!and!analysed!research!studies! (created!by!author)!!

* In*the*following,*Table*3*summarises*the*theoretical*foundations*that*underlie*the*studies,*the* empirical*methods*used*to*undertake*the*research*projects*and*the*respective*research*area* as*well*as*sample*size*and*the*age*of*the*study*participants.** The*most*significant*theoretical*foundations*of*the*analysed*research*studies*have*already* been*discussed*in*the* sub2chapters* 3.1,* 3.2* and* 3.3.* Especially* the* TPB* is* used* in* various* research*studies*as*a*theoretical*foundation*to*investigate*mobility*behaviour,*not*only*but* also*of*adolescents.*To*be*exact,*13*of*the*investigated*44*studies*used*the*TPB.*As*well*as*

* * * 57*

* DRIVERS!AND!BARRIERS!OF!ADOLESCENTS’!MOBILITY!BEHAVIOUR! that,*17*of*the*studies*used*at*least*one*underlying*psychological*concept*(see*sub2chapter* 3.1)*as*a*theoretical*foundation.* With* regard* to* the* empirical* methods* used* in* the* research* studies,* most* used* either* qualitative*interviews*or*quantitative*questionnaires,*or*both,*for*the*assessment*of*empirical* data.*The*collection*of*data*has*in*most*cases*(24*studies)*been*conducted*in*both*urban*and* rural*areas.*13*of*the*studies*undertook*their*research*in*urban*areas,*whereas*only*one*study* investigated*solely*a*rural*area.*Furthermore,*17*of*the*44*studies*at*hand*conducted*empirical* research*on*the*mobility*behaviour*of*adolescents,*in*particular,*as*can*be*seen*in*the*last* column*of*Table*3.**

Author(&(year( Country( Theoretical(foundations( Empirical(methods( Research(area( Sample(/(age( Surveys*197021995* Concept*of*hysteresis* Economic*analysis*of* with*annually*7000* Dargay((2001)(( UK* Unspecified* Concept*of*asymmetry* asymmetry* households*/*age* unspecified* Defining*features*of* (i)*Quantitative* adolescence*and*mobility* Hunecke(et(al.( questionnaire** n=4,417*/** DE* Symbolic*dimension* Urban*&*rural* (2002b)( (ii)*Qualitative*guided* 15*to*26*years* Environmental*awareness** interviews* Mobility*types* Levels*of*mobility*sphere* development** Scholl(and( Components*of*mobility* n=approx.*360*/* DE* Quantitative*questionnaire* Urban*&*rural* Sydow((2002)( perception* 16*to*20*years* Personality*characteristics* Value*orientation* (i)*Survey* Bamberg(et(al.( TPB* n=241*/** DE* (ii)Experimental* Urban* (2003)(( Habits* mean*age*28.6*years* intervention* (i)*Survey** n=43*/** Fujii(and( TRA** (ii)Experimental* mean*age*21.5*and* Kitamura( JP* TPB* Urban* intervention* 22.6*years,* (2003)(( Habits* (iii)*Survey* respectively* (i)*Qualitative*interviews* Habits*and*routines* and*group*discussions* n=39*interviews* Harms((2003)( CH* Behavioural*model*resulting* (ii)*Quantitative* Urban* n=655*survey*/* from*qualitative*pre2study* questionnaire*to*five* age*unspecified* groups* Path2analytic*model:* influence*of*general*and* Nordlund(and( n=1,467*/* SE* environmental*values,* Survey*distributed*by*mail* Urban* Garvill((2003)( mean*age*43* general*and*specific*problem* awareness,*personal*norm* Model*of*material* possession*developed*by* (1)*n=185*/* Dittmar*(1992)* mean*age*41* Steg((2005)(( NL* Questionnaire* Urban* TPB** (2)*n=113*/* Instrumental,*symbolic,* mean*age*42* affective*motives* n=437*(Bochum,* Bamberg(et(al.( NAT** (i)*Telephone*interviews* Dortmund)* DE* Urban* (2007)( TPB* (ii)*Questionnaire* n=796*(Frankfurt)*/* age*unspecified* Haustein(and( TPB** (i)*Survey** n=1,545*/** DE* Urban* Hunecke((2007)( PMN* (ii)*In2depth*interviews* mean*age*46.5*years* TPB* PMN* Hunecke(et(al.( n=1,991*/** DE* Symbolic2affective* Interviews* Urban* (2007)(( mean*age*46.7*years* dimensions* *

* * * 58*

* DRIVERS!AND!BARRIERS!OF!ADOLESCENTS’!MOBILITY!BEHAVIOUR!

(i)*Survey* TPB** n=1,991*survey** Hunecke(et(al.( (ii)*Trip*diary* DE* NAT** Urban*&*rural* n=82*interviews*/* (2008a)(( (iii)*Semi2structured* Symbolic*dimension* mean*age*46.7*years* interviews* TPB* Hunecke(et(al.( NAT* n=1,991*/** DE* Survey* Urban* (2008b)(( Symbolic2*affective* mean*age*46.7*years* dimension* Nykvist(and( Multi2level*perspective*for* UK** Whitmarsh( radical*socio2technical* 2* Unspecified* 2* SE* (2008)(( innovation* Grüssinger(and( n=180*/** AT* 2* Questionnaire* Urban*&*rural* Kristan((2009)( age*unspecified* Multi2level*perspective*for* Köhler(et(al.( Dynamic*novel*simulation* UK* radical*socio2technical* 2* 2* (2009)( model* innovation* Line(et(al.( Urban*&* n=approx.*50*/** UK* Intention* Discussion*groups* (2010)(( suburban* 11*to*18*years* Norms,*values,*attitudes,* habits* n=2,511*/** Seebauer(et(al.( TPB* (i)*Statistical*evaluation* AT* Urban*&*rural* 15*to*27*years* (2010)( NAT** (ii)*Qualitative*interviews* (plus*2,037*caregiver)* Mobility*target*groups* Mobility*biography** (i)*Analysis*of*current* trends* IFMO((2011)( DE* 2* Urban*&*rural* Unspecified* (ii)*Interdisciplinary*expert* workshop* n=71*discussion* (i)*Focus*group*discussions** Prillwitz(and( n=1,561*survey*/* UK* Attitudes* (ii)*Travel*behaviour* Urban*&*rural* Barr((2011)( age*groups*from*16* questionnaire* to*75*years* (i)*Content*analysis* n=363*survey* Rust((2011)( DE* 2* (ii)*Quantitative*survey* Urban*&*rural** n=*30*interviews*/** (iii)*Interviews* 16*to*25*years** Barr(and( (i)*Qualitative*focus*groups* n=1,561*/** UK* Mobility*styles* Urban*&*rural* Prillwitz((2012)( (ii)*Quantitative*survey* age*unspecified* (i)*Participants*tested*plug2 in*electric*vehicles*for*a* GrahambRowe( n=40*/* UK* 2* seven2day*trial*period** Urban*&*rural* et(al.((2012)( mean*age*41.5*years* (ii)*Qualitative,*semi2 structured*interviews* (i)*Qualitative*expert* interviews*Analysis*of*local* Attitudes*and*norms** conditions* n=606*/** Jarass((2012)( DE* TPB* (ii)*Quantitative*analysis*of* (Sub)*Urban* age*unspecified* NAT* data*gathered*by*the* research*project* “StadtLeben”* (i)*Large*scale*online* Intentions* questionnaire*survey*and* (1)*n=3,755*/* Habits* travel*log* Klöckner(and( age*unspecified* DE* Associative*approach* (ii)*Reanalysis*of*data* Unspecified* Matthies((2012)( (2)*n=430*/** Heuristic*approach* collected*in*a*large2scale* age*unspecified* Script2based*approach* study*(recorded*travel2 mode*choice*of*students)* DE* Harmonized*descriptive* UK* analysis*of*micro2data* (Kuhnimhof(et( FR* 2* from*over*20*national* Unspecified* Unspecified* al.,(2012a)(( JP* travel*surveys*from*four* NO* decades* US* Licaj(et(al.( n=2,246*/** FR* 2* Household*Travel*Survey* Urban*&*rural* (2012)( 16*to*24*years* Attitudes** Schönduwe(et( DE* Values* Literature*review* Urban*&*rural* 2* al.((2012)( Travel*socialisation*

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* DRIVERS!AND!BARRIERS!OF!ADOLESCENTS’!MOBILITY!BEHAVIOUR!

NAT** TPB** (i)*letter*with*answer*cards* n=625*/** Bamberg((2013)( DE* Stage*model*of*self2 (ii)*phone*intervention* Urban* age*unspecified* regulated*behavioural* (iii)*evaluation*study* change* (i)*Qualitative*guided* n=24*interviews* Füssl(et(al.( interviews* AT* Unspecified* Urban*&*rural* n=800*survey*/* (2013)( (ii)*Quantitative*online* 14*to*19*years* questionnaires* Household*Survey*(every* Scheiner(and( household*is*surveyed* n=6,932*/** DE* Mobility*biography* Urban*&*rural* HolzbRau((2013)( three*times*over*a*period* age*unspecified* of*three*consecutive*years)* (i)*Telephone*interview** n=1,638*/** SORA((2013)( AT* Unspecified* Urban*&*rural* (ii)*Cluster*analysis* age*unspecified* Bjerkan(and( n=1,790*/** Nordtømme( NO* 2* Telephone*interview* Urban*&*rural* 13*to*17*years* (2014)( (i)*functional*analysis*of*e2 Collado(et(al.( Four*step*model*for*travel* bike*services** SE* Urban* 2* (2014)( demand*(Mannheim,*1979)* (ii)*secondary*data*from* travel*survey* DE* n=2,200*/** Kubitzki((2014)( AT* 2* Online*questionnaire* Urban*&*rural* 18*to*24*years* CH* Mann(et(al.( DE* 2** Scenario*planning* Rural* 2* (2014)( Sigurdardottir( Instrumental,*symbolic*and* n=50*/** DK* In2depth*interviews* Urban*&*rural* et(al.((2014)(( affective*values* 15*years* Kamargianni( GR* (i)*Survey* n=9,554*/** 2* Urban*&*rural* (2015)(( CY* (ii)*Case*Study* mean*age*15.7*years* User*test*with*continuous* Michelberger(et( n=60*/** AT* 2* assessment*and* Unspecified* al.((2015)( 10*to*18*years* questionnaire* Stark(and( (i)*Trip*diary* n=171*/** Hössinger( AT* TPB* Urban*&*rural* (ii)*Questionnaire* 12*to*14*years* (2015)( TPB* n=18*/** Witzke((2015)( DE* Personal*norm* Group*discussion* Urban*&*rural* 20*to*29*years* Symbolic*affective*motives* (i)*Logistic*regression** Unspecified*/* Hjorthol((2016)(( NO* 2* Urban*&*rural* (ii)*Cohort*analysis* 18*to*24*years* n=51*/** Hopkins((2016)(( NZ* TPB* Qualitative*interviews* Urban*&*rural* 18*to*35*years* Rau(and( Mobility*biographies* n=324*/* IE* Survey* Urban*&*rural* Manton((2016)(( Life*events** mean*age*38.8* Table!3:!Theoretical!foundations,!empirical!methods,!research!area! !and!sample!of!the!analysed!studies!(created!by!author)!

* The* scientific* mobility* studies* at* hand* discussed* drivers* and* barriers* for* mobility2related* behaviour*and*choices.*As*Witzke*(2015,*pp.*24–26)*summarised,*sociodemographic!aspects* such* as* the* residential* environment* have* a* strong* impact* on* the* chosen* mode* of* transportation.*Adolescents*who*live*in*rural*rather*than*urban*areas*are*more*likely*to*use*a* car*over*any*other*mode*of*transportation*(ibid,*p.*205;*cf.*Hunecke*et*al.,*2002a,*p.*106).*Also* other* sociodemographic* aspects,* such* as* age* and* stage* of* life,* gender,* social* status* or* household*structure*influence*mobility*behaviour*(Jarass,*2012,*p.*29;*Tully,*2002a,*p.*20).* Furthermore,*psychological!factors*are*essential*influencing*factors*in*this*respect.*Different* authors* further* argue* that* environmental! awareness* plays* a* central* role* concerning* their* * * * 60*

* DRIVERS!AND!BARRIERS!OF!ADOLESCENTS’!MOBILITY!BEHAVIOUR! mobility*behaviour*and*attitudes*(Hunecke,*2002,*p.*47;*Füssl*et*al.,*2013,*p.*1215;*Seebauer* et*al.,*2010,*p.*68),*as*well*as*social!interaction*(parents,*friends,*peer*group)*(Seebauer*et*al.,* 2010,*pp.*50–55;*Witzke,*2015,*p.*25).*Technological!aspects*such*as*affinity*for*motorised* transport,*mass*media*and*information*and*communication*technology*(ICT)*are*increasingly* important*for*young*adults*and*have*a*strong*influence*on*them*(Seebauer*et*al.,*2010,*pp.* 56–57;*Witzke,*2015,*p.*25).*Additional*influencing*factors*for*adolescents’*mobility*behaviour* are* the* possession!of!a!driver’s!licence!and!travelling!by! car,* and* weather! conditions.* The* opportunities!of!e=vehicles*for*more*sustainable*mobility*are*discussed.* In*the*following,*these*identified*factors*for*adolescents’*mobility*behaviour*are*described*in* more*detail.*It*needs*to*be*kept*in*mind*that,*even*though*a*clear*separation*is*made*in*the* following,*the*different*analysed*influencing*factors*are*also*influenced*by*one*another.** * 3.4.1! Sociodemographic'factors'' Some*of*the*most*basic*and*common*factors*for*mobility*behaviour*discussed*in*scientific* literature* are* sociodemographic* factors.* They* influence* the* behaviour* of* adults* but* also* adolescents.*Within*mobility*research,*sociodemographic*data*is*mostly*used*to*define*distinct* groups*of*persons*characterized*by*specific*mobility*needs*and*requirements.*In*the*following,* different* sociodemographic* characteristics* found* in* recent* studies* to* determine* mobility* behaviour*are*discussed.*Gender,*age*and*occupation*have*first*been*proven*to*be*a*relevant* characteristic*in*the*pioneering*work*by*Kutter*(1972),*and*in*the*following,*a*great*number*of* studies*conducted*research*in*this*area.*The*following*chapter*provides*an*overview*of*the* current*body*of*literature.*Yet,*it*needs*to*be*mentioned*that*other*factors*such*as*attitudes,* norms,* values* and* habits* were* proved* to* be* influential* as* well.* Sociodemographic* factors* alone*cannot*capture*the*mobility*behaviour*in*a*modern,*fully*differentiated*society*by*its* own*(Hunecke,*2015,*pp.*55–56).** * 3.4.1.1! Age!/!Stage!of!life!!

Age* is* found* to* be* a* central* sociodemographic* characteristic* that* influences* a* persons’* mobility*decision*(Hunecke,*2015,*p.*55;*Jarass,*2012,*p.*29;*Witzke,*2015,*p.*24;*Prillwitz*and* Barr,*2011,*p.*1593).*However,*Kirsch*(2015,*p.*161)*argues*that*the*impact*of*age*is*rather* controversial.*More*probably,*age2related*attributes*influence*decisions*regarding*mobility.* Comparably,*Hunecke*(2015,*p.*57)*refers*to*life*phases*or*life*cycles,*rather*than*age*itself.* Until*now,*no*universally*accepted*classification*of*life*phases*exists.*The*author*names*the* classification*of*life*phases*by*Jäger*(1989)*for*the*German*public*transport*sector*as*a*good* example.*This*classification*differentiates*nine*life*phases:*(i)*apprentices/pupils,*(ii)*students,* (iii)*young*persons*living*alone,*(iv)*households*with*at*least*one*child*under*the*age*of*6,*(v)*

* * * 61*

* DRIVERS!AND!BARRIERS!OF!ADOLESCENTS’!MOBILITY!BEHAVIOUR! households*with*pupils,*(vi)*young*two2* or* multi2person*households,*(vii)*households*with* adults*under*the*age*of*65,*(viii)*pensioner*households,* and* (ix)* single* pensioners.* In* this* connection,* Prillwitz* and* Barr* (2011,* p.* 1598)* investigated* the* daily* travel* behaviour* of* different*age*groups*and*found*that*‘persistent*car*users’,*who*use*a*car*most*frequently,*are* most*often*middle2aged*conservatives.*Moreover,*‘consistent*green*travellers’*are*more*often* than*not*young*professionals,*who*rather*walk*and*cycle*than*use*a*car.*Rau*and*Manton* (2016,*p.*59)*argue,*that*especially*life*events*during*different*stages*of*life,*such*as*starting* college,*residential*relocation,*or*changing*employment,*impact*mobility*behaviour*and*the* choice*of*transport*mode*most.*For*example,*when*starting*college,*the*use*of*sustainable* transport*modes*increases.** Adolescents*and*young*adults*are,*in*general,*more*mobile*than*other*age*groups,*as*their* mobility* needs* are* much* more* pronounced.* This* can* also* be* traced* back* to* the* fact* of* education*occupation*requirements,*which*demand*a*high*degree*of*mobility*(Jarass,*2012,*p.* 30).*Hunecke*(2015,*p.*58)*separates*adolescents*into*two*groups:*(i)*adolescents*under*the* age*of*18,*and*(ii)*young*adults*over*18*years.*Before*the*age*of*18,*adolescents*use*more* sustainable*modes*of*transportation,*such*as*the*bike*or*public*transportation.*By*the*age*of* 18,* adolescents* normally* receive* their* driving* licence,* which* fundamentally* changes* their* mobility* behaviour* (Hunecke* et* al.,* 2002a,* p.* 94).* Compared* to* the* total* population,* the* U.Move*study*showed*that*adolescents*are*above2average*mobile.*Studies*showed*that*in* 1999,*the*average*number*of*ways*was*3.5*ways*per*person*per*day*(BMV,*2001)*or*on*average* 3.0* ways* per* day* (Brög* and* Erl,* 2000).* Adolescents* travel* on* average* 4.0* ways* during* weekdays*and*3.17*ways*during*weekends.*About*three2fourths*of*young*adults*travel*more* than*three*ways*a*day,*almost*one2fourth*even*travel*six*or*more*ways*a*day.*In*contrast,*the* share*of*less*mobile*young*adults*is*low,*only*one*in*20*stays*at*home*during*a*weekday.*During* the*weekend,*on*Saturdays,*about*half*of*young*adults*travel*more*than*three*ways,*almost* every*sixth*even*travels*six*ways.*With*increasing*age,*the*number*of*ways*increases.*The*most* mobile*group*are*young*adults*from*the*age*of*23*to*26*(Rabe*et*al.,*2002,*pp.*144–145).* Similarly,* Seebauer* et* al.* (2010,* p.* 195)* showed* that* young* adults* travel* on* average* approximately*3*to*3.5*ways*per*day,*pupils*and*apprentices*from*18*years*are*most*mobile.** Life*events*such*as*gaining*ones’*driving*licence,*but*also*commencement*of*work*or*family* formation,*change*the*mobility*behaviour*of*adolescents*during*their*course*of*life*towards*a* growing*use*of*cars*(Füssl*et*al.,*2013,*p.*1213;*Witzke,*2015,*p.*24).*Pupils*and*apprentices* from*18*years,*travel*on*average*3.47*ways*per*person*per*day*and*are,*also*within*this*study,* the* most* mobile* age* group.* This* group* of* adolescents* shows* a* growing* use* of* cars* with* advancing*age.*The*largest*increase*of*car*usage*takes*place*when*young*adults*enter*into* employment*(Seebauer*et*al.,*2010,*p.*195).*Accordingly,*Hunecke*et*al.*(2002a,*pp.*131–134)* state* that* adolescents* who* just* turned* 18* years* showed* the* most* positive* symbolic* assessment*towards*cars.*Just*before*attaining*full*age,*cars*become*increasingly*interesting*

* * * 62*

* DRIVERS!AND!BARRIERS!OF!ADOLESCENTS’!MOBILITY!BEHAVIOUR! and* appreciated.* Once* some* time* has* passed* after* gaining* a* drivers’* licence,* the* positive* attitude*towards*cars*declines.*At*the*same*time,*the*authors*argue*that*adolescents*feel*a* higher* commitment* to* protect* the* environment* with* advancing* age,* by* changing* their* mobility*behaviour*to*a*more*sustainable*one.*This*is*in*line*with*the*observation*that*the*bike* becomes*less*attractive*before*gaining*a*drivers’*licence,*but*is*evaluated*increasingly*positive* with* increasing* age.* However,* public* transport* as* well* loses* its* attractiveness* once* adolescents*attain*full*age,*but*is*evaluated*only*slightly*more*positive*with*increasing*age.* What*is*interesting*when*looking*at*different*attitude2based*mobility*target*groups*(see*sub2 chapter*3.3.3)*and*their*mean*age,*it*becomes*apparent*that*the*different*target*groups*who* are*about*full*age*are*more*similar*than*the*target*groups*who*are*further*from*being*18*years* old.*The*oldest*and*youngest*adolescents*show*a*stronger*division*among*car*supporters*and* opponents,* while* the* target* groups* who* are* about* 18* years* old* are* not* only* more* homogeneous*but*also*show*a*higher*affinity*towards*cars*then*the*car*supporters*in*older*or* younger*age*groups*(Hunecke*et*al.,*2002a,*p.*138).* * 3.4.1.2! Gender!!

Different*studies*found*gender*to*be*a*central*aspect*for*mobility*behaviour*(i.*a.*Flade*and* Limbourg,*1999;*Flade,*1999;*VCÖ,*1999,*p.*19;*Hunecke*et*al.,*2002b;*Seebauer*et*al.,*2010;* Scheiner*and*Holz2Rau,*2013).** In*general,*females*are*less*oriented*towards*cars*and*tend*to*use*public*transportation*more* often*than*males.*As*well*as*that,*women*more*often*practice*fuel2efficient*driving*to*protect* the*environment.*Young*women*use*a*car*as*a*means*to*an*end,*while*young*men*link*a*car* to*the*experience*itself*(Jarass,*2012,*p.*30;*Witzke,*2015,*p.*24).*Statistically*significant*means* support*common*gender*related*stereotypes.*Men*own*larger*cars,*drive*more*aggressively,* cause*considerably*more*accidents*and*are*responsible*for*more*traffic*offences.*On*closer* consideration,*it*becomes*clear*that*no*authoritative*conclusions*can*be*drawn*from*these* results.*The*differences*within*the*sexes*are*bigger*than*the*variation*of*the*average*values* between*the*two*sexes.*Not*men*in*general,*but*9%*of*men*(compared*to*3%*of*women)*are* aggressive*drivers.*One*third*of*men,*as*well*as*women,*are*active2dynamic*drivers*who*have* fun*driving.*Only*a*minority*of*men*is*responsible*for*traffic*offences,*often*multiple*offenders.* Furthermore,*the*on*average*higher*use*of*public*transportation*of*women*(17%*compared* to* 14%* among* men)* and* higher* share* of* walking* among* women* (22%* compared* to* 14%* among*men)*can*to*a*considerable*part*be*traced*back*to*generational*differences*among* women.*Among*today’s*generation*of*women*over*65*years,*only*half*own*a*driver’s*licence,* compared*to*less*than*10%*of*men*who*do*not*own*a*driver’s*licence.*In*1999,*men*still*used* the*car*more*often*than*women,*and*were*also*more*often*the*car*driver.*Two*out*of*three* co2drivers*were*female.*For*that*reason,*women*tend*to*have*more*unfulfilled*mobility*wishes*

* * * 63*

* DRIVERS!AND!BARRIERS!OF!ADOLESCENTS’!MOBILITY!BEHAVIOUR! than*men.*Generational*differences*among*women*are*to*some*extent*responsible*for*gender* differences*in*mobility*behaviour.*These*traditional,*gender*typical*differences*have*almost* disappeared* among* adolescents* and* young* adults.* When* investigating* gender2related* differences*regarding*mobility*behaviour,*it*is*essential*to*investigate*smaller*homogeneous* subgroups* (Rosenbaum,* 2007,* pp.* 564–565;* VCÖ,* 1999,* p.* 19;* Flade* and* Limbourg,* 1999;* Jarass,*2012,*p.*30;*Kirsch,*2015,*p.*161;*Witzke,*2015,*p.*25).** For*the*specific*case*of*adolescents*and*young*adults,*the*discussed*gender*differences*are,* thus,*barely2there.*By*now,*almost*all*adolescents*get*a*driver’s*licence*and*both*boys*as*well* as*girls*wish*for*their*own*car*(Rosenbaum,*2007,*p.*565;*c.f.*Flade,*1999).*The*number*of* driver’s*licence*holders*in*Germany*remained*static*over*the*last*years.*Since*2008,*the*share* of*young*adults*from*18*to*24*years*holding*a*driver’s*licence*is*69%*among*women*compared* to*66%*among*men*and,*therefore,*even*lower*than*among*women.*From*1990,*the*number* of*registered*motor*vehicles*per*capita*declined*among*young*men*under*30*years,*while*the* registration*figures*for*women*continued*to*rise.*Only*since*2000,*the*number*of*registered* cars*per*capita*has*declined*for*both,*men*and*women.*Currently,*the*number*of*registered* cars*among*men*is*only*slightly*higher*than*the*number*among*young*women.*Moreover,*in* the*past,*the*car*transport*services*were*much*higher*for*young*men*than*for*young*women.* The* number* of* overall* transport* services* among* young* men* declined,* which* results* in,* currently,* quite* balanced* car* transport* services.* Regarding* car* usage* among* German* adolescents,* men* are* more* frequently* co2drivers* than* in* the* past* and* gender* differences* concerning*the*role*of*driver*and*co2driver*disappeared.*The*traditional*role*allocation*of*men* as*the*car*driver*is*increasingly*becoming*a*thing*of*the*past*(IFMO,*2011,*pp.*25–26).* However,* Licaj* et* al.* (2012,* p.* 22)* presents* contrary* findings,* and* argues* that* among* the* investigated*young*adults*in*France,*71%*among*men*and*68%*among*women*held*a*driving* licence*by*the*age*of*20.*In*this*study,*the*peak*of*the*gender*differences*was*at*the*age*of*24,* where*92%*among*men*but*only*77%*among*women*held*a*driving*licence.*Furthermore,* Seebauer*et*al.*(2010,*p.*201)*found*that*female*adolescents*both*in*urban*and*in*rural*areas* use*public*transport*more*often*than*males.*Among*male*adolescents,*the*share*of*bicycle* and*car*driver*usage*are*higher*in*both*urban*and*rural*areas*compared*to*female*adolescents.** In*general,*gender*has*an*effect*on*mobility*behaviour,*traffic*behaviour*and*the*choice*of* transport*mode.*It*can*only*be*understood*within*the*context*of*life*situations,*milieu*and* mobility*target*groups.*Women*show*significant*differences*of*mobility*behaviour*at*different* stages*of*life*and*different*family*constellations*while,*at*the*same*time,*they*show*many* similarities*to*the*mobility*behaviour*of*men*(Rosenbaum,*2007,*p.*566).** *

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* DRIVERS!AND!BARRIERS!OF!ADOLESCENTS’!MOBILITY!BEHAVIOUR!

3.4.1.3! Living!environment!!

The* living* environment* is* an* essential* sociodemographic* aspect* determining* the* mobility* behaviour*of*adolescents*(Hunecke*et*al.,*2002a,*p.*106;*Rabe*et*al.,*2002,*p.*151;*Jarass,*2012,* p.*27;*SORA,*2013,*p.*5;*Witzke,*2015,*p.*205).*Mobile*adolescents*in*urban*municipalities* cover*more*ways*per*day*than*adolescents*in*rural*municipalities.*Urban*municipalities*offer* a*greater*room*for*manoeuvre*with*better*accessibility*than*rural*municipalities.*The*share*of* private*ways*of*the*total*ways*of*adolescents*are*higher*in*urban*areas*(Seebauer*et*al.,*2010,* pp.*200–201).*Studies*have*shown*that*adolescents*who*live*in*rural*areas*tend*to*use*their* cars*more*often*than*adolescents*who*live*in*urban*areas.*In*contrast,*the*share*of*bicycles* among*adolescents*is*higher*in*urban*areas*(ibid,*p.*200;*Hunecke*et*al.,*2002a,*p.*106).*A* possible*explanation*for*these*differences*might*be*that*the*ways*of*adolescents*in*urban* areas*are*much*shorter*than*in*rural*areas.*In*urban*areas,*more*than*60%*and*up*to*90%*of* adolescents’*ways*are*below*10*km.*In*rural*areas,*on*the*contrary,*approximately*45%*up*to* 60%* of* ways* are* below* 10* km.* Also,* the* average* distance* covered* by* car* and* the* time* exposure*for*the*distance*is*higher*in*rural*than*in*urban*areas*(Seebauer*et*al.,*2010,*pp.*202– 203).*It*has*been*shown*that*the*higher*the*population*in*a*certain*area*is,*the*lower*is*the* possibility*of*adolescents*from*the*age*of*18*to*24*to*own*their*own*car.*In*rural*municipalities* with*less*than*2,000*inhabitants,*73%*of*young*adults*own*their*own*car,*whereas*in*German* megacities,*this*is*only*true*for*49%*(Kubitzki,*2014,*p.*38;*Witzke,*2015,*p.*24).** A*poor*connection*to*public*transportation*is*most*often*the*explanation*of*adolescents*in* rural*areas*for*the*usage*of*cars*(Hunecke*et*al.,*2002a,*p.*105).*Another*explanation*might*be* that*educational*establishments*such*as*universities*are*most*often*located*in*urban*areas.* Young*adults*who*are*still*students*do*not*have*the*same*financial*resources*as*peers*who* have* a* full2time* occupation,* mostly* in* rural* areas,* and* might* not* be* able* to* afford* a* car* (Kubitzki,*2014,*p.*38;*Witzke,*2015,*p.*24).*At*the*same*time,*adolescents*in*urban*areas*have* an*on*average*higher*education*level*than*adolescents*in*rural*areas.*More*students*and*pupils* who*strive*for*high*school*graduation*live*in*urban*areas.*In*rural*areas,*more*adolescents* strive*for*an*apprenticeship*and,*for*that*reason,*have*to*cover*longer*distances.*Only*one* third* of* adolescents* in* rural* areas* can* attend* school* or* work* at* their* place* of* residence,* compared*to*at*least*two*thirds*in*urban*areas,*which*corresponds*to*the*above*discussed*fact* that*adolescents*in*rural*areas*have*to*travel*longer*distances*(Hunecke*et*al.,*2002a,*p.*106).** However,* Scheiner* and* Holz2Rau* (2013,* p.* 179)* investigated* the* influence* of* residential* relocations*on*adults*in*general,*and*found*that*there*are*only*limited*effects.*A*move*to*the* suburbs*in*general*means*a*decline*in*walking,*while*it*increases*with*increasing*urbanity.*As* well*as*that,*in*urban*areas*the*shares*of*car*use*as*a*driver*as*well*as*passenger*decrease.* This*is*not*true*for*the*frequencies.*Accordingly,*Hunecke*et*al.*(2008a)*found*that*the*use*of* public*transport*is*of*little*importance*in*suburban*as*well*as*in*rural*areas.*Prillwitz*and*Barr* (2011,* p.* 1593)* further* state* that* adults* who* are* ‘constrained* public* transport* users’* or* * * * 65*

* DRIVERS!AND!BARRIERS!OF!ADOLESCENTS’!MOBILITY!BEHAVIOUR!

‘consistent* green* travellers’* are* more* often* than* not* located* in* urban* areas,* while* more* ‘persistent*and*frequent*car*users’*live*in*rural*areas.*In*accordance*with*these*studies,*Jarass* (2012,* p.* 81)* showed* spatial* differences* in* urban* and* rural* research* areas.* In* the* urban* research*area,*the*share*of*motorised*private*transport*accounted*for*19%,*while*it*was*71%* in*the*rural*research*area.*In*the*urban*area,*more*than*half*of*all*trips*have*been*travelled*by* bike* or* walking.* In* the* rural* area,* this* was* only* true* for* around* one* in* four* ways.* Public* transport*is*also*more*often*used*in*the*urban*area.* Interestingly,*it*has*been*shown*that*within*the*same*settlement*structure,*depending*on* different*preferences*for*residential*locations,*differences*in*the*choice*of*transport*mode*can* be*found.*Urbanities*in*the*urban*research*area*used*their*bike*or*walked*for*63%*of*their* trips,*while*for*suburbanites*in*the*same*research*area*this*is*true*for*only*59%*of*all*trips.*In* the*second,*rural*research*area,*the*difference*was*even*7%.*Moreover,*the*urban*research* area*showed*a*difference*in*the*car*use*among*urbanities*and*suburbanites*of*only*2%.*In*the* rural*research*area,*the*difference*amounted*to*even*10%*(Jarass,*2012,*pp.*82–83).** A* study* undertaken* in* different* Austrian* research* areas,* showed* that* people* in* urban,* suburban* and* rural* regions* in* Austria* show* a* rather* different* mobility* behaviour.* Due* to* attractive*public*transport*offers*in*urban*areas,*every*third*journey*is*undertaken*that*way.* In*rural*areas,*only*every*30th*journey*is*undertaken*by*public*transport.*Every*second*person* in*the*urban*area*and*every*third*person*in*the*suburban*area*uses*public*transport*more* often*now*than*five*years*ago.*In*rural*areas,*only*every*tenth*person*does*so*(Grüssinger*and* Kristan,*2009,*p.*20).* * 3.4.1.4! Education,!occupation,!income!level!and!social!status!

A*higher*level*of*education*normally*influences*occupation,*leads*to*a*higher*income*level*and* a*certain*social*status,*which*is*why*all*these*factors*can*be*observed*together.*A*higher*level* of*education*increases*the*level*of*mobility*and*the*mobility*participation,*also*in*an*old*age.* A*high*income*level*has*an*influence*on*the*number*of*journeys*taken*(Mollenkopf,*2005,*p.* 64;* Kirsch,* 2015,* p.* 161).* The* income* level* of* individuals* influences* the* possibility* of* car* availability.*The*higher*the*income*level,*the*higher*is*the*possibility*to*have*a*car*available*in* the*household*and*the*longer*are*the*annually*covered*distances*(Hunecke,*2006,*p.*35;*Flade,* 2006,* p.* 65;* Hunecke* et* al.,* 2008a,* p.* 135;* c.f.* Jarass,* 2012,* pp.* 29–30).* If* the* household* income* rises,* it* becomes* easier* to* own* one* or* even* more* cars.* Nevertheless,* once* they* become*accustomed*to*car*usage,*but*the*household*income*starts*falling*again,*it*is*hard*to* reverse* this* trend.* It* has* been* shown* that* the* acquisition* of* a* car* within* a* household* is* considered*a*luxury,*but*during*usage*it*becomes*a*necessity*and*selling*it*once*the*household* income*falls*is*difficult*(Dargay,*2001,*p.*819).**

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* DRIVERS!AND!BARRIERS!OF!ADOLESCENTS’!MOBILITY!BEHAVIOUR!

A*study*showed*that*the*entry*into*employment*is*in*general*linked*with*a*higher*car*usage,* especially*for*men,*whereas*the*share*of*walking*is*decreasing.*Men*seem*to*be*exclusively* driving* a* car* when* commencing* employment,* instead* of* walking,* using* the* bike* or* public* transport,* while* women* tend* to* change* from* walking* to* using* a* car* or* public* transport* (Scheiner*and*Holz2Rau,*2013,*p.*176).*In*general,*occupation*has*a*negative*effect*on*the*use* of*public*transport*(Hunecke*et*al.,*2008a,*p.*135).** In*the*case*of*adolescents*and*young*adults,*a*lower*level*of*education,*in*general,*decreases* the*willingness*to*go*without*an*own*car*(Klocke,*2002,*p.*397;*Witzke,*2015,*p.*24).*However,* Seebauer*et*al.*(2010,*pp.*2052207)*found*that*school*education*has*little*influence*on*the* choice* of* transport* mode* among* adolescents.* The* share* of* car* drivers* increases* with* the* employment* of* young* adults* and* with* increasing* age.* Accordingly,* the* probability* that* employed*adolescents*own*a*car*is*much*higher.*More*than*half*of*pupils*and*apprentices*up* to*the*age*of*17*use*public*transport*daily,*whereas*employed*adolescents*and*young*adults* over*17*years*use*public*transport*less*often.*Furthermore,*pupils*and*apprentices*more*often* own*a*bike*than*employed*adolescents.** In* this* respect,* Licaj* et* al.* (2012,* p.* 25)* investigated* social* inequalities* regarding* travel* behaviour* among* young* French* people.* The* authors* argue* that* the* impact* of* social* inequalities*is*greater,*the*longer*the*travel*distance*of*young*adults*is,*especially*in*regard*to* holiday*travels*by*car,*compared*to*local*driving.*Moreover,*low*income*among*young*adults* more*likely*affects*weekend*journeys*than*weekday*journeys,*and*leisure*trips*compared*to* daily* trips.* Adolescents* with* relatively* higher* incomes* can* more* easily* engage* in* leisure* activities*further*from*their*homes,*compared*to*peers*who*have*less*income*available.*Young* adults*living*in*underprivileged*areas*with*large*apartment*buildings*or*slums,*little*numbers* of*jobs*and*low*incomes*showed*differences*in*car*driving*compared*to*peers*from*privileged* zones.*Access*to*accompanied*driving*for*young*adults*decreased*with*lower*family*income* (ibid,* p.* 22).* Different* models* showed* that* adolescents* with* lowest* incomes* from* underprivileged*areas,*and*adolescents*from*households*with*no*or*only*one*car*were*least* likely*to*hold*a*drivers’*licence*(ibid,*p.*23).*Additionally,*the*authors*showed*that*driving*a*car* was*rarer,*the*lower*the*income*of*adolescents*was*(ibid,*p.*24).** Nevertheless,*the*share*of*students*among*young*adults*is*currently*increasing.*For*example,* the*share*of*students*per*1,000*persons*from*15*to*34*years*in*Germany*was*83*in*1998*and* increased*to*102*in*2008.*Therefore,*there*currently*is*a*relatively*lower*employment*rate* among*young*adults,*who*tend*to*have*a*family*at*an*increasingly*older*age.*A*higher*share*of* students*subsequently*means*a*higher*share*of*young*adults*who*can*be*found*in*urban*areas* and*who*have*a*relatively*lower*possibility*of*owning*or*using*a*car*(IFMO,*2011,*p.*15).**

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* DRIVERS!AND!BARRIERS!OF!ADOLESCENTS’!MOBILITY!BEHAVIOUR!

3.4.1.5! Household!structure!

Another*possible*differentiation*with*regard*to*sociodemographic*factors*can*be*made*by*the* household*structure*(Jarass,*2012,*p.*29),*and*the*aspect*whether*a*household*owns*a*car.*The* size*of*a*household*and,*correspondingly,*car*availability*and*car*ownership*highly*influence* the*use*of*different*transport*modes*(Hunecke,*2006,*p.*35).*As*well*as*that,*the*household* types*are*part*of*the*investigation.*Household*types*are*mainly*characterized*by*the*number* of*people*and*children*living*in*the*household*(Hunecke,*2015,*p.*56).*Here,*especially*the* number*of*children*and*their*age*are*considered,*due*to*a*difference*in*the*frequency*of*car* usage*depending*on*children*in*a*household*and*their*age.*Different*household*types*are*often* fully*differentiated*by*the*approach*of*life*phases,*as*illustrated*by*Jäger*(1989)*(see*above,* age/*stage*of*life).*Hence,*the*factor*household*structure*is*closely*linked*to*the*factor*age* (ibid,*pp.*56–57).** Scheiner*and*Holz2Rau*(2013,*p.*176)*argue*that*driving*is*positively*affected*by*the*number* of* children* in* a* household,* both* children* aged* 10* or* younger* and* children* aged* 14217.* Moreover,*couples*living*in*one*household*tend*to*decrease*their*share*of*walking*and*their* driving* frequencies* while* simultaneously* increasing* their* trips* as* car* passengers.* This* indicates*that*founding*a*household*with*a*partner*increases*shared*trips.*In*the*following,* when*a*child*is*born,*the*parents*show*a*decreasing*car*use*as*a*passenger*but,*interestingly,* driving*also*does*not*increase.*Public*transport*use,*which*just*fails*to*reach*significance*in*the* given*study,*and*cycling*decrease*as*well,*while*walking*increases*(ibid,*p.*179).*Accordingly,* Hunecke*et*al.*(2008a,*p.*135)*argue*that*the*probability*to*use*public*transport*is*rather*low,* when*toddlers*live*in*a*household.*Yet*another*study*shows*that*especially*the*age*of*the*child* affects*the*parents’*travel*behaviour,*as*parents*bring*or*get*their*child*mostly*between*the* age*of*8*to*11*years.*As*well*as*that,*it*needs*to*be*mentioned*that*the*effect*on*women*is* much*more*powerful*than*on*men,*e.g.*the*trip*purpose*‘to*bring*or*get*someone’*accounts* for*one*third*of*the*journeys*of*mothers.*This*effect*already*occurs*even*shortly*after*childbirth* (Zwerts* et* al.,* 2007,* p.* 13).* Moreover,* when* a* child* moves* out* of* a* household,* other* household*members*tend*to*use*public*transport*more*often.*A*possible*explanation*might*be* that*a*child*who*is*moving*out*takes*one*car*away*of*the*household.*However,*this*effect*as* well*fails*to*reach*significance*(Scheiner*and*Holz2Rau,*2013,*p.*179).*Furthermore,*it*is*argued* that*car*availability*within*a*household,*and*changes*to*it,*affect*the*use*of*all*different*modes* of*transport.*When*car*availability*in*a*household*decreases,*the*level*of*transport*decreases* and*vice*versa,*due*to*strong*effects*on*driving*which*predominate*other*transport*modes.* The*authors*argue*that*‘endogeneity*of*car*availability’*might*come*into*the*picture*as*the* availability*of*a*car*in*a*household*might*not*cause*but*rather*is*a*result*of*expanded*mobility* levels*(Scheiner*and*Holz2Rau,*2013,*p.*179).* When*considering*the*factor*household*structure*in*the*case*of*adolescents*and*young*adults,* the*share*of*households*that*do*not*own*a*car*have*increased,*especially*during*the*time*from* * * * 68*

* DRIVERS!AND!BARRIERS!OF!ADOLESCENTS’!MOBILITY!BEHAVIOUR! moving*out*from*the*parental*home*to*starting*a*family*by*oneself.*Socioeconomic*changes* explain*about*60%*of*the*decrease*of*car*owners,*while*40%*can*be*explained*by*changed* preference*structures.*In*particular,*low*earners,*townspeople,*academics*and*men*own*less* cars*now*than*they*did*in*1990*(IFMO,*2011,*p.*26).*Also,*it*can*be*shown*that*the*number*of* cars*available*in*a*household*is*significantly*higher*in*rural*than*in*urban*areas*(Seebauer*et* al.,*2010,*p.*205).*Moreover,*a*regression*analysis*showed*that*the*more*adolescents*live*in*a* household,*the*more*they*use*public*transport*(ibid,*p.*207).** Correspondingly,* Licaj* et* al.* (2012)* showed* that* adolescents* with* one* or* no* car* in* their* household*were*less*likely*to*have*access*to*accompanied*driving*(ibid,*p.*22),*were*least*likely* to*hold*a*driver’s*licence*(ibid,*p.*23)*and*were*driving*a*car*less*often*compared*to*young* adults*who*live*in*multi2car*owning*households*(ibid,*p.*24).*The*study*undertaken*by*Bjerkan* and* Nordtømme* (2014,* p.* 6)* investigated* the* effect* of* single2parent* and* dual2parent* households*on*the*mobility*behaviour*of*young*adults,*and*showed*that*these*different*living* circumstances*indeed*have*an*influence*on*transport*mode*choice*and*mobility*behaviour*of* adolescents.*For*adolescents*who*live*with*one*parent*only,*it*appears*less*likely*that*the*car* is*chosen*on*leisure*trips.*A*possible*explanation*for*this*might*be*that*a*single*parent*has*less* time*to*chauffeur*the*adolescent*to*leisure*activities.** * 3.4.2! Psychological'valuation'of'mobility' Besides*sociodemographic*aspects,*attitudinal*factors*which*include*underlying*psychological* concepts*such*as*attitudes,*norms,*values*and*habits*(as*discussed*in*sub2chapter*3.1)*are* significant*factors*determining*mobility*decisions*and*behaviour.*They*“affect*preferences*for* specific*activities,*destinations,*routes,*and*means*of*transport”*(Hunecke*et*al.,*2007,*p.*278).* For*young*adults,*mobility*is*not*only*defined*by*moving*in*a*physical*space,*but*also*by*the* possibility*to*participate*in*social*activities,*i.e.*moving*in*social*space.*Individual*life*situations* and*individual*preferences*of*adolescence*bias*their*judgement*concerning*transport*offering* structures,* which* regularly* leads* to* discrepancies* between* subjective* perception* and* objective*offers.*This*can*be*explained*by*values*and*beliefs,*that*determine*which*information* is*taken*into*account*in*the*decision2making*process*for*means*of*transportation*(Hunecke,* 2002,*p.*47).*In*the*following,*attitudes*and*norms,*habits*as*well*as*symbolic*motives*are* discussed.** * 3.4.2.1! Attitudes!and!norms!

The*TPB,*as*discussed*in*sub2chapter*3.2.1,*is*a*comprehensive*but*rather*adequate*model*to* explain* mobility* behaviour* using* the* four* constructs* attitude,* subjective* norm,* PBC* and* intention.*The*“TPB*also*postulates*that*sociodemographic*and*contextual*factors,*values,*and*

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* DRIVERS!AND!BARRIERS!OF!ADOLESCENTS’!MOBILITY!BEHAVIOUR! general*beliefs*affect*behavior*only*indirectly*via*the*four*predictors*of*the*TPB”*(Hunecke*et* al.,*2007,*p.*278).** Different* research* studies* have* investigated* the* influence* of* these* constructs* of* the* TPB.* Prillwitz* and* Barr* (2011,* pp.* 1596–1598)* investigated* the* influence* of* attitudes* on* travel* behaviour.*The*authors*found*clear*links*between*the*attitudes*of*respondents*and*their*daily* travel*patterns.*The*respondents*have*been*distributed*in*different*behavioural*clusters,*e.g.* car*users*vs.*green*travellers,*and*their*choice*of*transport*mode*represents*the*main*attitudes* accurately.*Therefore,*the*authors*state*that*“attitudes*are*directly*related*to*certain*mobility* styles”.*Attitudes*regarding*the*environment,*sustainability*or*environmentally*friendly*modes* of*transport*directly*influence*a*persons’*daily*travel*behaviour.*Yet,*this*is*not*true*for*tourist* travel* behaviour.* In* a* follow2up* study,* Barr* and* Prillwitz* (2012,* p.* 806)* confirmed* these* findings,*and*stated*that*the*cluster*of*‘committed*green*travellers’,*based*on*their*attitudinal* segmentation,*did*not*have*the*most*environmentally*friendly*mobility*behaviour*regarding* tourist*travel*behaviour.*Another*study*undertaken*by*Haustein*and*Hunecke*(2007,*p.*1879)* illustrates*that*attitudes*toward*motorised*private*transport*go*along*with*negative*effects*on* a*persons’*intention*to*use*sustainable*transport*modes.*Attitudes*toward*public*transport* had* a* positive* effect* on* intention,* while* the* attitudes* toward* bicycles* did* not* predict* significant* positive* intentions.* This* study* in* general* measured* attitudes* using* symbolic2 affective*motives*(discussed*in*the*following)*such*as*autonomy*and*excitement*dimensions.* Furthermore,*Haustein*and*Hunecke*(2007,*p.*1879)*investigated*the*influence*of*PMN*(see* sub2chapter*3.3.4)*on*mobility*behaviour,*and*its*connection*to*attitudes,*intention,*subjective* norm*and*PBC.*It*has*been*shown*that*PMN*does*not*influence*the*formation*of*a*persons’* intention* to* use* sustainable* transport* modes,* but* rather* it* influences* mobility* behaviour* directly.*Both*groups*low*and*high*in*PMN*argued*that*the*autonomy*dimension*is*crucial*for* the*attractiveness*of*motorised*private*transport.*For*people*with*high*PMN,*the*intention*to* use*sustainable*transport*modes*is*not*influenced*by*public*transport*attitudes,*but*only*by* car*attitude,*while*for*people*with*low*PMN,*the*intention*to*use*sustainable*transport*modes* is*influenced*by*car*and*public*transport*attitude.** Social!norms,*which*are*as*well*part*of*the*TPB,*have*been*found*to*contribute,*along*with* feelings*of*guilt,*to*the*formation*of*pro2environmental*personal*norms.*The*data*set*of*this* study*supports*the*point*of*view*that*if*an*individual*observes*social*norms,*they*combine* social*context*with*the*individuals’*judgement*and,*in*turn,*behaviour*(Bamberg*et*al.,*2007,* p.*202).** Mobility*research*further*identified*personal!norm*as*an*influencing*factor*for*the*choice*of* (environmentally* friendly)* transport* mode* (Hunecke* et* al.,* 2007,* p.* 278).* The* study* by* Nordlund*and*Garvill*(2003,*p.*345)*showed*that*personal*norms*influenced*the*willingness*of* respondents*to*reduce*their*car*use.*Personal*norms*in*this*case*have*been*influenced*by*the* respondents’* general* and* environmental* values,* and* their* problem* awareness* for* * * * 70*

* DRIVERS!AND!BARRIERS!OF!ADOLESCENTS’!MOBILITY!BEHAVIOUR! environmental*consequences*of*car*travel.*As*well*as*that,*Bamberg*et*al.*(2007,*pp.*201–202)* showed*the*relation*between*personal*norm*and*sustainable*mobility*behaviour,*the*actual* use*of*public*transport.*However,*it*is*mediated*by*ones’*intention*to*use*public*transport.** * 3.4.2.2! Habits!!

The*influence*of*habits*on*mobility*behaviour,*as*well*as*their*relation*to*other*behaviour* processes*have*been*investigated*by*Klöckner*and*Matthies*(2012,*pp.*815–816).*The*authors* argue*that*habits*are*only*directly*influenced*by*past*behaviour.*Social*or*personal*norms,*as* discussed*above,*need*to*influence*behaviour*first*and*be*performed*consistently,*in*order*to* be* translated* into* habits.* Moreover,* habits* are* closely* linked* to* social* interaction* with* influencing* third* parties* (see* next* sub2chapter),* as* they* explain* the* influence* of* social* interaction*on*behaviour*of*young*adults.** Bamberg*et*al.*(2003,*p.*100)*investigated*the*effectiveness*of*an*intervention*on*transport* mode* choice* among* recently* moved* participants.* Interestingly,* it* has* been* shown* that* habitual*car*users*who*are*in*new*decision*contexts,*and*received*information*and*a*free* public*transport*ticket,*show*strong*behavioural*reactions*to*these*rather*small*interventions.* Hence,*new*decision*contexts*in*combination*with*personally*relevant*information*can*lead* to* breaking* old* habits* and* making* new* mobility* behavioural* decisions.* Fujii* and* Kitamura* (2003,*p.*92)*show*similar*findings,*as*the*respondents*in*this*study*used*the*bus*more*often* (20%*increase)*after*an*intervention,*where*one2month*free*bus*tickets*were*handed*out.* These* findings* suggest* that* temporary* structural* changes* might* be* sufficient* in* order* to* induce*behavioural*change.*Moreover,*Bamberg*(2013,*p.*74)*investigated*the*difference*of* an*intervention*using*a*standardized*information*package,*which*had*no*significant*effect*on* the*mobility*behaviour*of*respondents,*and*an*intervention*where*respondents*participated* in*a*stage2based*dialogue,*which*resulted*in*a*changed,*more*sustainable*mobility*behaviour.* Accordingly,*Harms*(2003,*pp.*24–25)*argues*that*seeking*information*is*an*essential*first*step* to*strengthen*attitudes*regarding*new*transport*modes.*Context*changes*as*well*as*changes* in*the*mode*of*transport*have*a*strong*influence*on*mobility*decisions*and*are*important*to* take*steps*against*current*routine*strengths*(ibid,*p.*20).** * 3.4.2.3! Symbolic!motives!!

With* regard* to* the* psychological* valuation* of* mobility,* mobility* researchers* formulated* different*dimensions*of*mobility*valuation,*namely*instrumental*and*symbolic*motives.*First,* instrumental!factors*were*for*a*long*time*the*main*arguments*used*to*explain*especially*car* use.*Instrumental*factors*in*the*context*of*car*use*describe*its*convenience*or*inconvenience* and*are,*among*others,*its*safety,*price,*comfort,*“speed,*flexibility*and*convenience”.*The*car*

* * * 71*

* DRIVERS!AND!BARRIERS!OF!ADOLESCENTS’!MOBILITY!BEHAVIOUR! and*other*transport*modes*also*fulfil*other,*non2instrumental*functions*for*people*(Steg,*2005,* p.*148;*Hunecke,*2002,*p.*53).** Therefore,*Hunecke*(2000)*introduced*the*symbolic*dimension*of*mobility.*As*mobility*cannot* be*reduced*to*moving*in*physical*space,*it*also*has*to*be*linked*to*social*evaluation*processes* and*the*symbolic*significance*of*mobility.*Here,*a*crucial*area*of*evaluation*processes*that* determine*the*mobility*behaviour*of*adolescents*is*the*symbolic!assessment!of!socio=cultural! dimensions* and* the* symbolic* assessment* of* different* transport* modes.* The* author* differentiated* between* the* four* fundamental* symbolic* dimensions* autonomy,* experience,* status*and*privacy*(Hunecke,*2002,*p.*47;*Hunecke,*2000,*pp.*125–127).*The*four*dimensions* have* been* identified* through* a* study* that* analysed* the* influencing* factors* of* mobility* behaviour,* besides* instrumental* characteristics,* and* grasped* the* most* basic* dimensions.* Here,*autonomy!describes*the*feeling*to*be*able*to*have*a*free*choice*about*location*decisions.* The*individual*autonomy*is*closely*related*to*feelings*such*as*freedom,*self2determination,* flexibility* and* individuality.* In* the* following,* this* dimension* is* also* referred* to* as* independence.*The*dimension*of*experience*describes*the*experiential*value*of*being*on*the* road.*It*mainly*addresses*the*hedonistic*value*of*mobility.*The*dimension*status*describes*the* reputation*gained*through*mobility*among*other*people.*Especially*the*car*can*represent*the* social*status*of*its*users*to*the*outside*world*like*hardly*any*other*transport*mode.*The*privacy* dimension*characterises*the*possibility*to*control*self2determinedly*ones’*own*privacy*and*the* presence*of*other*people.*This*is*an*important*prerequisite*for*ones’*wellbeing.*Regarding*the* possibilities*for*the*regulation*of*privacy,*crucial*differences*in*the*use*of*different*transport* modes*can*be*observed.*Especially*the*car*provides*a*mobile*private*space,*in*contrast*to* public*transport*(Hunecke,*2002,*pp.*53–54;*Hunecke,*2006,*pp.*32–33).** A*study*undertaken*by*Steg*(2005)*differentiates*between*symbolic*and*affective*motives.* Here,* symbolic! motives* solely* describe* the* possibility* to* express* oneself* and* ones’* social* position*by*using*a*certain*mode*of*transport,*and*to*compare,*for*example,*the*“(use*of*the)* car*with*others*and*to*social*norms”.*Symbolic*motives*in*this*context*are,*e.g.*status,*prestige* and* defining* oneself* or* others* through* the* use* or* possession* of* a* car,* or* other* transport* modes*(ibid,*pp.*148–149).*The*symbolic*motives*defined*by*Steg*(2005)*correspond*to*the* symbolic*dimension*status*as*defined*by*Hunecke*(2000).*Besides*the*symbolic*dimension*of* mobility,*Steg*(2005,*pp.*1482150)*also*names*the*affective!dimension.*Affective*motives*that* are*responsible*for*transport*mode*choice*describe*emotions*evoked*while*riding*a*certain* transport*mode,*i.e.,*“driving*may*potentially*affect*people’s*mood*and*they*may*anticipate* these* feelings* when* making* travel* choices”.* The* affective* dimension* corresponds* to* the* symbolic*dimension*of*autonomy*as*well*as*the*symbolic*dimension*of*experience*as*defined* by*Hunecke*(2000).** The*study*by*Steg*(2005)*showed*that*respondents*who*used*the*car*more*often*than*others* evaluated* symbolic2affective* motives* to* be* of* higher* importance* compared* to* those* who*

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* DRIVERS!AND!BARRIERS!OF!ADOLESCENTS’!MOBILITY!BEHAVIOUR! drive*less.*However,*these*groups*did*not*show*any*differences*regarding*the*evaluation*of* instrumental* aspects.* Moreover,* people* with* a* (very)* positive* attitude* towards* cars* also* valued*the*symbolic,*affective*and*instrumental*aspects*of*cars*more*positively*than*people* who*have*a*less*positive*attitude*towards*cars.*Especially*symbolic2affective*aspects*of*car*use* are*evaluated*more*favourably.*In*general,*if*a*person*values*instrumental*functions*of*car*use* to*be*most*important,*symbolic2affective*functions*are*valued*to*be*less*important.*If*symbolic* functions* are* valued* positively,* also* affective* functions* are* valued* more* favourably* (Steg,* 2005,*pp.*153–155).** The*investigation*of*whether*instrumental,*symbolic*and*affective*motives*are*explanatory* variables*for*car*use*showed*that*commuter*car*use*can*often*be*explained*by*symbolic*and* affective* motives,* instead* of* instrumental* motives.* More* than* one* out* of* every* fourth* commuting*car*trip*can*be*explained*by*norms,*affect*and*social*comparison.*People*tend*to* drive*to*work*by*car*more*often*if*others*do*so*as*well,*if*the*family*expectations*are*that*a* car*should*be*used,*if*car*use*compared*to*other*transport*modes*is*seen*as*a*more*suitable* choice*for*oneself,*and*if*car*use*is*thought*of*as*being*less*stressful*than*other*transport* modes.*Furthermore,*people*who*only*use*a*car*to*go*to*work*evaluate*symbolic,*affective* and*instrumental*aspects*of*commuter*car*use*more*positively*than*those*who*also*use*other* transport*modes*(Steg,*2005,*pp.*157–158).** Regarding*the*case*of*adolescents*and*young*adults,*it*has*been*shown*that*this*age*group* values* symbolic* and* affective* aspects* more* positively* than* other* age* groups.* Especially* affective*functions*of*car*use*are*valued*to*be*of*higher*importance*compared*to*older*age* groups* (Steg,* 2005,* pp.* 153–55).* Moreover,* young* adults* under* the* age* of* 30* in* general* evaluate*driving*a*car*to*be*more*enjoyable*than*older*age*groups*(ibid,*p.*158).** * In* the* following,* the* two* most* often* discussed* symbolic* motives* for* mobility* decisions,* especially*in*the*case*of*adolescents*and*young*adults,*are*elaborated.*These*are*(i)*the*issue* whether*the*car*or*other*transport*modes*are*a*status*symbol*for*adolescents,*as*well*as*(iii)* the*motive*of*freedom*and*independence*in*the*context*of*mobility.** * 3.4.2.3.1! Status'symbol'car?''

An*important*and*often*discussed*symbolic*motive*is*the*car!as!a!status!symbol*and*level*of* prestige.*Over*the*last*decades,*the*car*has*been*discussed*to*be*an*important*status*symbol,* especially* for* adolescents* and* young* adults.* It* has* been* found* to* have* a* highly* positive,* emotional*value*for*young*adults*(Nykvist*and*Whitmarsh,*2008,*p.*1385;*Kubitzki,*2014,*p.* 127;*Schönduwe*et*al.,*2012,*p.*28;*Rust,*2011,*p.*152;*c.f.*Witzke,*2015,*p.*22).*Only*recently,* it*is*discussed*in*a*public*discourse*whether*the*concept*of*the*car*as*a*status*symbol*is*still*

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* DRIVERS!AND!BARRIERS!OF!ADOLESCENTS’!MOBILITY!BEHAVIOUR! generally*valid*today.*A*survey*among*1,000*Germans*showed*that*41%*think*of*their*car*as*a* solely* functional* object,* while* 17%* think* of* their* car* as* a* status* symbol* and* the* other* respondents* consider* the* car* as* both,* functional* object* and* status* symbol.* However,* a* contradiction*has*been*observed*as*55%*of*the*respondents*believe*that*Germans*in*general* think* of* their* car* as* a* status* symbol* (Progenium,* 2011,* pp.* 2–3).* As* well* as* that,* an* interdisciplinary* expert* workshop* assessed* that* increasing* pragmatism* and* flexibility* are* increasingly*important*psychological*factors*among*young*adults,*influencing*their*mobility* behaviour.* This* points* to* a* behaviour* of* increasing* multimodality,* different* modes* of* transport*are*chosen,*depending*on*the*situation.*Over*the*last*years,*new*status*symbols* especially*in*connection*with*ICT*(see*sub2chapter*3.4.5)*have*become*increasingly*important* and*are*used*for*the*stylisation*of*ones’*own*image*(IFMO,*2011,*p.*27).*As*well*as*that,*Rust* (2011,*pp.*151–152)*argues*that*even*though*conventional*brand*images*of*cars*are*quite* widespread* among* adolescents* and* emotional* criteria* shape* attitudes* towards* cars,* a* declining*importance*of*status*and*prestige*of*cars*can*be*observed*throughout*the*survey.** Nevertheless,*these*studies*have*also*been*criticised,*as*a*loss*of*significance*of*cars*among* adolescents*can*hardly*be*proven.*Status*criteria*are*more*often*than*not*dependent*on*social* classes* and* milieus,* and* the* survey* instruments* used* are* often* not* differentiated* clearly* enough*(Kubitzki,*2014,*p.*28).** * 3.4.2.3.2! Freedom'and'independence''

Freedom*and*independence*are*described*as*the*symbolic*dimension*autonomy.*With*respect* to*these*attributes,*cars*are*evaluated*much*more*positively*than*other*transport*modes,*such* as*public*transport*or*bicycle*(Hunecke*et*al.,*2007,*p.*279).*Especially*for*adolescents*and* young* adults,* travelling* and* mobility* is* connected* to* independence,* freedom* and* self2 determination*rather*than*necessary*performances*(Tully,*2002a,*p.*13).*Also*Line*et*al.*(2010,* p.*28)*argues*that*freedom*and*pleasure*are*important*values*for*adolescents.** The*investigation*undertaken*by*Rust*(2011,*p.*153)*showed,*that*freedom*and*independence* are* among* the* most* essential* motives* for* mobility.* This* is* not* only* true* for* the* online* questionnaire*and*the*undertaken*interviews,*but*also*for*magazines*and*TV*commercials* investigated*within*this*study.*Correspondingly,*Füssl*et*al.*(2013,*p.*1214)*found*that*self2 determination* and* independence* are* essential* factors* influencing* adolescents’* mobility* behaviour.*The*car*is*of*great*importance*with*regard*to*independence,*autonomy*and*the* transition*to*adulthood.*Nevertheless,*in*the*course*of*rational*decision*making*processes,*the* possession*of*a*car*or*a*driver’s*licence*becomes*less*important*for*adolescents*(especially*in* urban*areas).*In*this*study,*80%*of*adolescents*agree*with*the*statement*that*they*want*to*be* mobile,*independent*from*their*parents*during*their*leisure*time.*These*tendencies*solidify* with*increasing*age.**

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* DRIVERS!AND!BARRIERS!OF!ADOLESCENTS’!MOBILITY!BEHAVIOUR!

3.4.3! Environmental'awareness'' Environmental*awareness,*environmental*problems*and*environmental*behaviour*are*crucial* factors* that* need* to* be* taken* into* account* when* investigating* adolescents’* mobility* behaviour.*Measuring*the*ecology2related*attitudes*of*young*adults*is*an*important*part*of* mobility*studies.*Along*with*the*symbolic*dimensions*of*mobility,*Hunecke*(2002)*elaborated* the* measurement* of* ecology2related* dimensions* of* mobility* to* investigate* the* mobility* behaviour*of*adolescents*within*the*U.Move*project*(Hunecke*2002,*pp.*52–53;*2000,*pp.*67– 69).** The* author* summarized* the* most* important* constructs* of* the* TBP* and* the* NAT* within* a* modified*norm2activation2model*(see*Table*4)*to*explain*mobility*behaviour.*These*action2 theoretical*constructs*were*used*to*investigate*the*ecology2related*attitudes*of*adolescents* in*connection*with*their*mobility*behaviour.*Table*4*shows*the*identified*constructs*and*their* content*matter*with*regard*to*the*ecology2related*attitudes*and*the*environmental!awareness* for*ecological*consequences*of*mobility.* *

Construct( Content(matter( Personal(ecological(norm( Personal* commitment* for* environmentally* friendly* behaviour** Social(ecological(norm(( Expectations* of* any* other* relevant* people* for* environmentally*friendly*behaviour* Awareness(of(consequences(of(action( Knowledge* about* the* consequences* of* own* behaviour* Perceived(behaviour(control(( Assessment* of* own* scope* of* action* to* act* environmentally*friendly** Ecological(perception(of(challenges( Awareness*of*urgency*of*environmental*concerns**

Ecological(feelings(of(guilt(( Feelings* of* guilt* for* behaviour* damaging* to* the* environment* Intention(of(environmentally(friendly(behaviour( Behavioural* intentions* to* use* environmentally* friendly*transportation* Table!4:!Action=theoretical!constructs!for!ecology=related!attitudes!! (adpated!from!Hunecke,!2002,!p.!53)!

* In*a*further*study,*Hunecke*et*al.*(2008b,*p.*26)*investigated*the*ecological*impact*of*different* attitude* based* mobility* target* groups* and* found* that* the* two* groups* ‘public* transport* rejecters’*and*‘car*individualists’*are*responsible*for*most*of*the*total*GHG*emissions*and*the* most*GHG*emissions*resulting*from*the*use*of*private*motorised*modes.*These*two*groups* are*responsible*for*more*than*double*the*amount*of*GHG*emissions*compared*to*the*group* of*‘weather2resistant*cyclists’*and*‘eco2sensitized*public*transport*users’,*as*well*as*around* four*times*the*amount*of*GHG*emissions*compared*to*the*group*of*‘self2determined*mobile*

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* DRIVERS!AND!BARRIERS!OF!ADOLESCENTS’!MOBILITY!BEHAVIOUR! persons’.*The*main*influences*on*ecological*impact*of*the*target*groups*can*be*traced*back*to* the*attitudinal*segmentation*of*the*chosen*transport*mode,*as*well*as*the*travelled*distance* and*technical*data*of*the*chosen*transport*modes*(Hunecke*et*al.,*2008b,*p.*27).** As*well*as*that,*Prillwitz*and*Barr*(2011,*p.*1598)*developed*clusters*for*different*mobility* behaviours* of* their* respondents.* What* is* interesting,* is* that* “attitudes* towards* the* environment,* sustainability* and* certain* environmentally* friendly* transport* modes* have* a* significant*impact*on*daily*travel*behaviour,*they*seem*to*have*no*or*only*limited*influence*on* tourist*travel*behaviour”.*While*the*group*of*‘consistent*green*travellers’*shows*the*largest* share* concerning* train* use* to* and* walking* at* the* destination,* this* cluster* also* shows* the* highest*use*of*airline*use*to*get*to*a*holiday*destination.** In*the*case*of*adolescents,*Hunecke*et*al.*(2002a,*pp.*120–122)*show,*that*independent*of*the* mobility*target*group*the*adolescents*can*be*assigned*to*and*independent*of*their*attitudes* and* values,* they* acknowledge* that* the* use* of* motorised* private* transport* contributes* to* environmental* degradation* and* pollution,* and* that* environmental* pollution* has* to* be* decreased.*However,*the*respondents*of*the*individual*target*groups*have*diverse*views*and* approaches* towards* environmental* awareness* and* mobility* behaviour.* First,* especially* adolescents*who*are*oriented*towards*technology*and*cars*but*also*others*favour*the*concept* of*technical*solutions.*They*demand*constructions*and*technological*innovations*to*improve* the*eco2friendliness*of*cars*while*it*is*not*necessarily*assumed*that*a*reduction*in*the*use*of* motorised*private*transport*is*essential.*Therefore,*adolescents*who*favour*this*concept*are* not*of*the*opinion*that*environmental*pollution*through*transport*is*one’s*own*responsibility,* but*needs*to*be*regulated*by*the*state*or*the*car*industry.*Second,*especially*established,* ecologically*aware*and*adolescents*in*a*transition*period*hold*the*opinion*that*alternatives*to* car*use*only*take*effect*once*the*disadvantages*of*other*transport*modes*compared*to*cars* can*be*compensated*with*other*advantages.*These*adolescents*as*well*hand*over*their*own* responsibility.*Third,*environmental*aware*adolescents*feel*that*one*has*to*take*responsibility* regarding*the*environment*and*act*environmentally*friendly.*They*feel*obliged*to*not*only* develop*solutions*for*their*own*behaviour,*but*also*for*other*groups*(ibid,*pp.*120–122).** Tully*and*Baier*(2006b,*p.*175)*distinguished*three*types*of*adolescents*according*to*different* views*on*mobility*and*environment.*First,*the*‘environmentally*distanced*car*user’*mainly* cares* about* travelling* fast* and* independent* by* car,* while* being* distanced* towards* environmental*problems.*About*one*fifth*of*the*adolescents*in*this*study*can*be*assigned*to* this*group.*Second,*the*‘problem2conscious*transport*user’*is*aware*of*the*dangers*that*are* connected*to*motorised*private*transport,*is*interested*in*alternative*modes*of*transport*and* willing*to*contribute*to*solve*environmental*problems.*About*30%*of*the*adolescents*in*this* study*can*be*assigned*to*this*group.*Third,*the*‘open2minded*car*user’*is*open2minded*towards* environmental*problems*and*motorised*private*transport.*However,*environmental*problems*

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* DRIVERS!AND!BARRIERS!OF!ADOLESCENTS’!MOBILITY!BEHAVIOUR! are*seen*as*technological*problems,*while*a*change*of*ones’*own*mobility*behaviour*is*not* seen*as*necessary.*About*half*of*the*adolescents*can*be*assigned*to*this*group.** In*general,*even*though*a*positive*attitude*towards*environmentalism*can*be*proven,*it*has* been*found*that*willingness*of*adolescents*to*engage*in*environmentally*friendly*behaviour*is* rather*low.*Most*of*them*aim*at*justifying*cars*for*individual,*private*and*economic*reasons,* with*it*is*of*no*significance*whether*the*adolescents*live*in*urban*or*rural*areas*(Hunecke*et* al.,*2002a,*p.*129).*The*study*by*Line*et*al.*(2010,*p.*29)*found*that*adolescents*are*aware*of* environmental*problems,*but*“they*appear*to*place*little*value*on*‘the*environment’”.*Tully* and*Baier*(2006b,*p.*172)*likewise*argue*that*environmental*knowledge*can*only*limited*be* translated*into*environmental*action.*As*soon*as*adolescents*have*the*possibility*to*use*a*car,* it*is*often*the*case*that*ecological*considerations*are*put*in*the*rear.*Only*with*increasing*age,* young* adults* start* reflecting* their* mobility* behaviour* and* might* consider* changing* to* a* different*mode*of*transport.*At*that*point,*they*have*usually*developed*routines*that*may* make*it*difficult*to*question*them.*Even*though*most*adolescents*picture*themselves*using*a* car*in*the*future,*they*still*think*and,*to*a*limited*extent,*act*in*terms*of*mobility*alternatives* (ibid,* pp.* 176–177).* Accordingly,* Füssl* et* al.* (2013,* p.* 1215)* argues* that* environmental* protection*and*sustainability*are*important*for*adolescents.*67%*of*the*surveys’*respondents* agreed* that* for* environmental* reasons,* one* should* use* alternative* modes* instead* of* motorised*private*transport.*However,*this*does*not*imply*that*adolescents*go*without*a*car* as*a*matter*of*course.*Adolescents*who*were*part*of*this*study*argued*that*they*are*basically* willing*to*use*sustainable*transport*modes.*Young*adults*who*are*walking,*riding*a*bike*or* using*public*transport*feel*like*second2class*road*users,*which*is*why*any*adverse*effects*need* to* be* counteracted.* Another* study* argues* that* only* very* few* adolescents* can* imagine* to* completely*do*without*a*car,*as*there*are*little*ethical*and*ecological*considerations.*In*terms* of*mobility*decisions,*ethical*and*ecological*considerations*play*a*minor*role*(Kubitzki,*2014,* p.*127).** Furthermore,* Klocke* (2002,* pp.* 420–421)* investigated* environmental* awareness* of* adolescents*in*connection*with*mobility*decisions,*and*found*that*female*adolescents*regard* environmental* problems* significantly* more* threatening,* think* that* each* individual* citizen* needs* to* be* held* more* accountable* and* are* more* likely* to* change* to* more* sustainable* transport*modes*than*male*adolescents.*Adolescents*who*live*in*rural*areas*are*less*willing*to* go*without*cars*than*adolescents*living*in*urban*areas.*The*author*further*showed*that*even* though*environmental*awareness*is*at*a*relatively*high*level,*the*agreement*decreases*when* individuals* are* asked* for* specific* suggestions* to* solve* environmental* problems* caused* by* motorised*private*transport.** Environmental*awareness*in*connection*with*mobility*has*also*been*studied*by*Hopkins*(2016,* p.* 161).* The* author* argues* that* some* of* the* young* adults* are* aware* of* environmental* problems* and* let* this* be* known* in* their* mobility* decisions.* In* addition,* environmental*

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* DRIVERS!AND!BARRIERS!OF!ADOLESCENTS’!MOBILITY!BEHAVIOUR! awareness* has* been* found* to* influence* mobility* decisions* “more* so* than* learn* to* drive* behaviours*and*behavioural*intentions”*as*well*as*the*decision*to*gain*a*driver’s*licence*and* to*drive*in*general.*It*is*highly*interesting*that*learning*to*drive*or*gaining*a*driver’s*licence* does*not*self2evidently*lead*to*driving*or*vehicle2ownership*intentions*among*young*adults.* The*decision*to*gain*a*driver’s*licence*can*be*influenced*by*“a*wide*range*of*socio2cultural,* economic*and*structural*factors”,*but*environmental*awareness*in*connection*with*mobility* practices*can*lead*to*alternative*mobility*decisions*with*time.*The*author*argues*it*has*been* found* that* environmental* awareness* rather* influences* the* decision* of* individuals* with* a* drivers’*licence*not*to*drive,*than*learning*to*drive*in*the*first*place.*Moreover,*the*decision* not*to*drive*for*environmental*reasons*has*been*found*to*be*more*long*term*than*not*using*a* car*for*other,*e.g.*financial,*reasons.*Hence,*these*individuals*are*less*likely*to*change*their* behaviour* and* start* using* a* car.* With* respect* to* income,* Rust* (2011,* p.* 152)* states* that* ecological*behaviour*such*as*less*car*usage*can,*in*the*case*of*adolescents,*often*be*traced* back*to*the*fact*that*they*need*or*want*to*save*money.*As*well*as*that,*the*study*showed*that* the*willingness*of*young*adults*to*engage*in*more*sustainable*behaviour*in*the*future*is*often* linked*to*income.*The*higher*the*income,*the*more*likely*it*is*that*one*sees*the*possibility*to* use*sustainable*transport*modes.*However,*also*this*study*found*that*adolescents*often*name* technological*improvements*in*connection*with*future*environmentally2friendly*mobility,*and* cite*this*as*one’s*reason*to*driving*a*car.** * 3.4.4! Social'interaction''

Another*influencing*factor*for*mobility*behaviour,*especially*in*the*case*of*adolescents*and* young*adults,*is*social*interaction*and*influencing*third*parties.*As*discussed*in*sub2chapter* 3.3.2,*the*concept*of*travel*socialisation*is*a*crucial*aspect*of*adolescents’*development*of* mobility*behaviour.*Different*empirical*studies*have*shown*that*especially*parents*and*peers* have*a*strong*influence*on*the*socialisation*processes*of*adolescents*(c.f.*Witzke,*2015,*p.*25).* As*Döring*(2015,*p.*30)*summarises,*different*studies*concerned*with*mobility*socialisation*of* children*and*adolescents*determined*the*importance*of*the*parents’!role!model!function.*As* Baslington*(2008,*p.*101)*learned,*children*who*grow*up*in*households*with*three*cars*connect* a*happy*future*with*their*own*car*ownership.*The*more*cars*are*available*in*the*household*of* a*child,*the*less*they*can*imagine*living*without*a*car*in*the*future.*In*line*with*that,*Flade*and* Limbourg*(1998,*p.*3)*showed,*that*if*children*use*the*car*for*daily*routes*as*a*car*passenger,* they*believe*the*car*to*be*their*future*main*mode*of*transport*as*well.*Furthermore,*Haustein* et*al.*(2009,*p.*174)*found,*that*the*mobility*behaviour*of*adolescents*is*stronger*influenced* by*whether*the*parents*bring*their*adolescents*to*school,*than*by*adolescents’*peer*groups* discussing*the*effects*of*transport.*A*study*undertaken*in*Germany*argues*that*the*future* mobility*behaviour*of*adolescents*is*influenced*by*whether*the*household*they*live*in*owns*a*

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* DRIVERS!AND!BARRIERS!OF!ADOLESCENTS’!MOBILITY!BEHAVIOUR! car.* Specifically,* 96.3%* of* 202year2old* adolescents* who* used* a* car* as* their* main* mode* of* transport,*lived*in*a*household*that*owned*a*car*when*they*were*17*years*old.*On*the*other* hand,*202year2old*adolescents*who*had*a*preference*for*public*transport,*bicycles*or*walking* rarer*grew*up*in*a*household*with*a*car.*The*authors*argued*that*this*can*be*explained*through* imitation*effects*(Scholl,*2002,*p.*228).*Accordingly,*Füssl*et*al.*(2013,*p.*1214)*found*that*the* choice* of* transport* mode* as* well* as* the* attitudes* of* parents* or* older* siblings* shaped* the* behaviour*of*adolescents.*The*role*model*effect*can*be*explained*by*adults*bringing*or*picking* up* adolescents* by* car* due* to* concerns* about* the* safety* of* children* or* adolescents,* by* supporting*the*purchase*of*an*own*car,*gaining*a*driver’s*licence,*by*prohibiting*to*go*by*bike* or*to*be*on*the*way*in*the*evenings.*As*Hopkins*(2016,*p.*160)*argues,*the*study*showed*that* the*decision*of*adolescents*to*gain*a*driver’s*licence*or*to*drive*a*car*is*not*only*individual*and* intentional,*but*is*also*influenced*by*implicit*and*explicit*“cultural*assumptions*about*being*a* driver”*which*are*enhanced*by*influencing*third*parties*such*as*parents*or*employers,*who* have*the*possibility*to*control*and*influence*the*mobility*decisions*of*young*adults.*Also,*the* participants*of*this*study*argued*that*group*norms*and*behaviours*disincentives*them*to*gain* a* driver’s* licence* and* rather* aim* at* using* alternative* transport* modes.* Therefore,* ones’* intensity*of*car*use*seems*to*be*predefined*already*during*childhood*and*youth.*Influencing* third*parties*such*as*parents*play*a*central*role*in*the*development*of*mobility*behaviour*and* attitudes* of* young* adults* and* adolescents* (c.f.* Witzke,* 2015,* p.* 25).* The* study* by* Sigurdardottir* et* al.* (2014,* p.* 24)* investigated* the* role* of* family* and* community* on* the* mobility*behaviour*of*adolescents,*and*found*that*they*play*an*important*role*regarding*the* formation* of* habits* during* that* age.* Most* adolescents* in* this* study* remember* the* travel* patterns*of*their*parents*and*siblings.*Also,*parents*who*bring*their*adolescents*to*school*or* to*leisure*activities*by*car*shape*their*car*values*and*with*it*the*car*dependency*of*young* adults.** The*evaluation*of*adolescents*regarding*the*mobility*practice*of*their*family*has*further*been* investigated*by*Rust*(2011,*p.*151).*The*author*states*that*on*the*one*hand,*adolescents*tend* to*question*the*implicitness*of*travelling*many*ways.*On*the*other*hand,*they*only*rarely*aim* at*organising*mobility*very*differently*from*their*parents.*In*addition,*the*study*by*Bastian* (2010,*pp.*238–239)*showed*that*adolescents*aged*14*years*show*the*greatest*consistency* with*the*mobility*behaviour*of*their*parents.*With*increasing*age,*the*consistency*with*their* parents’*mobility*behaviour*decreases.*However,*the*level*of*significance*of*the*remaining* similarities*with*parents*increases*over*time.*During*youth,*adolescents,*in*general,*validate* mobility*related*attitudes*gained*during*childhood*and,*if*necessary,*they*are*discarded.*The* remaining*consistencies*are*stabilising*and*show*higher*correlations.*Nevertheless,*the*author* cannot*prove*a*previously*predicted*mediating*role*of*parents*and*peers.** Moreover,*different*studies*argue*that*peers*have*an*important*influence*on*the*mobility* behaviour*of*adolescents.*Young*adults*from*the*age*of*21*to*25,*who*discuss*different*modes*

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* DRIVERS!AND!BARRIERS!OF!ADOLESCENTS’!MOBILITY!BEHAVIOUR! of*transport*with*their*peers,*tend*to*show*a*stronger*social*as*well*as*personal*norm*to*use* alternative*modes*of*transport*besides*a*car.*Both*peers*and*parents*have*an*influence*on*the* personal*norm*of*adolescents,*for*example*by*discussing*transport*mode*choices*and*causing* a*change*in*thinking.*The*author*showed*that*parents*have*a*considerably*stronger*influence* on*the*social*norms*of*children*regarding*transport*mode*use*than*peers*(Haustein*et*al.,* 2009,*p.*174).*As*well*as*that,*Baslington*(2008)*investigated*the*mobility*behaviour*of*children* aged*9*to*11*in*connection*with*the*influence*of*peers.*Children*expressed*the*desire*to*meet* peers*as*a*reason*to*choose*a*specific*transport*mode.*Especially*the*use*of*bicycles*as*well*as* public*transport,*which*provides*independence*from*parents*and*the*possibility*to*spend*time* with*peers,*have*been*named.*Adolescents*who*preferred*the*use*of*a*car*named*the*desire* to*impress*others*and*not*wanting*to*be*expelled*by*peers*as*their*motives.*Sigurdardottir*et* al.*(2014,*p.*24)*found*that*also*peers,*besides*family,*influence*adolescents’*travel*patterns.* Adolescents*recall*mobility*behaviour*and*mobility2related*discussions*with*peers,*and*their* mobility*behaviour*and*habits*are*shaped*accordingly.** Line*et*al.*(2010,*pp.*27–28),*however,*argue*that*socialisation*processes*already*took*place* before*adolescence.*The*behaviour*intentions*of*young*adults*are*already*well*developed*by* that*time.*Yet,*the*authors*argue*that*it*“remains*possible”*to*change*mobility*behaviour*and* habits*of*adolescents.** To*the*contrary,*Mienert*(2003,*p.*97)*cannot*prove*the*connection*of*influencing*third*parties* on*the*mobility*behaviour*of*adolescents,*and*argues*that*only*a*weak*connection*between* the*parents’*and*the*adolescents’*attitude*towards*cars*can*be*proven.*The*author*further* argues*that*the*importance*of*a*car*within*a*family*is*determined*by*the*regional*background* of*the*parents.*For*mothers*who*live*in*rural*areas,*cars*take*on*a*more*important*role*than* for*mothers*in*urban*areas.** * 3.4.5! Technology'in'everyday'life' For*the*investigation*of*mobility*behaviour,*it*is*important*to*take*into*account*the*attitudes* towards*modern*technological*developments*in*general*as*well*as*in*personal*life.*On*the*one* hand,*travelling*is*connected*to*technology,*and*progresses*in*terms*of*mobility*are*therefore* connected*to*technological*progresses.*Especially*in*the*case*of*adolescents,*priority*in*the* case* of* mobility* and* utilization* of* a* car* is* not* given* to* simple* coverage* of* ways* and* environmental*concerns,*but*to*technological*aspects*(Tully,*2002b,*pp.*65–66).*On*the*other* hand,* technology* in* terms* of* ICT* as* well* as* mass* media* has* an* influence* on* the* mobility* behaviour*of*adolescents*and*young*adults.** *

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* DRIVERS!AND!BARRIERS!OF!ADOLESCENTS’!MOBILITY!BEHAVIOUR!

3.4.5.1! Technology!and!mobility!

Mobility* technology* is* a* crucial* factor* for* adolescents’* mobility* decisions.* As* mentioned* above,*for*young*adults,*mobility*cannot*only*be*discussed*in*terms*of*objective,*ecological* issues.*Rather,*they*link*mobility*to*experience*and*effects,*the*fun*of*driving*and*technology,* the*fun*of*colours*and*engine*sound*(Tully,*2002b,*p.*66).** Technology*has*a*symbolic*meaning*for*adolescents.*It*is*highly*prestigious*and,*therefore,* relevant*regarding*the*social*perception.*Social*appreciation*and*interest*of*third*parties*is* associated* with* the* provision* of* new* technologies,* as* it* provides* potentials* for* mobility,* download*of*data,*copying*music,*etc.*(ibid,*p.*72).*Tully*(2002b,*pp.*73–74)*investigated*the* perception*of*technology*and*mobility*of*adolescents.*Those*who*link*the*fun*of*driving*to* technological* knowledge* and* regard* the* car* as* more* than* an* object* for* use* are* called* ‘controlled*users’.*Adolescents*who*are*less*interested*in*technological*details*and*view*the* car*as*an*object*of*utility*are*called*‘instrumental*users’.*As*might*be*expected,*mostly*women* can*be*found*in*the*biggest*cluster*of*‘instrumental*users’.*Moreover,*an*older*age*and*higher* educational* qualifications* prevail* in* this* cluster,* whereby* urbanites* and* students* are* overrepresented.* On* the* contrary,* three* out* of* four* ‘controlled* users’* are* male,* they* are* younger*and*have*an*undistinguished*education.*The*former*pay*attention*to*unusual*design,* speed,*new*technology*and*sportiness*when*buying*a*car,*while*the*latter*rather*pay*attention* to*reliability,*low*price,*environmental*friendliness,*safety*and*transport*possibilities.*Driving* a* car* is* correspondingly* more* fun* for* the* cluster* of* ‘controlled* users’.* Accordingly,* the* investigation*of*attitudes*towards*technology*by*Klocke*(2002,*p.*412)*showed*that*female* adolescents* show* less* interest* in* technology* and* less* emotions* towards* technology* even* among* the* younger* age* groups.* Furthermore,* adolescents* with* higher* income* evaluate* modern*technology*slightly*more*positive*and*are*more*interested*in*technological*questions.** The*evaluation*of*the*attractiveness*of*mobility*technologies*has*been*undertaken*by*Tully* (2002b,*p.*76).*The*evaluation*of*attractiveness*of*different*transport*modes*has*shown*that* the* car* is* most* attractive* among* young* adults,* followed* by* cycling,* public* transport* and* walking.*However,*a*differentiation*is*needed,*as*female*adolescents*are*less*interested*in*cars* than*males,*while*the*approval*of*other*transport*modes*is*higher*among*women.*Moreover,* the*evaluation*of*attractiveness*of*mobility*technologies*varies*widely*along*with*attitudes* towards*the*environment.*Environmentally*aware*adolescents*evaluate*bicycles*and*public* transport*as*most*attractive,*while*disinterested*adolescents*evaluate*the*car*as*the*most* important* and* attractive* transport* mode.* At* the* same* time,* environmentally* aware* adolescents* do* not* rarer* own* cars.* Within* this* study,* 62%* of* environmentally* aware* adolescents*owned*a*car,*while*56%*of*disinterested*adolescents*owned*one*(ibid,*p.*76;*Tully* and*Baier,*2006b,*p.*151).*In*this*regard,*it*has*been*found*that*ecologically*aware*adolescents* are*not*technophobe,*contrary*to*prejudices*(Tully*and*Baier,*2006b,*p.*167).*Tully*(2002b,*p.* 85)*argues,*that*concerns*for*the*environment*and*interest*in*technology*can*coexist.*It*is* * * * 81*

* DRIVERS!AND!BARRIERS!OF!ADOLESCENTS’!MOBILITY!BEHAVIOUR! often*the*case*that*these*adolescents*shift*responsibility.*It*is*argued*that*technology*can*solve* environmental*problems,*while*the*use*of*sustainable*transport*modes*is*rather*low.** The*investigation*of*interest*in*technology*in*general*showed*that*enthusiastic*technology* fans*are*85%*male,*whereas*age,*education,*origin*and*occupation*do*not*show*such*clear* results*(Tully,*2002b,*p.*79).** * 3.4.5.2! Information!and!communication!technologies!(ICT)!!

Information* and* communication* technologies* (ICT)* currently* shape* the* everyday* life* of* adolescents*more*than*many*other*factors.*Also*a*connection*to*mobility*decisions*of*young* adults*can*be*found.** According*to*Hunecke*et*al.*(2002a,*p.*111)*and*Tully*and*Baier*(2006b,*pp.*161–162),*ICT* becomes* increasingly* important* in* three* different* ways,* in* connection* to* the* mobility* behaviour*of*adolescents.*First,*ICT*has*a*substitution*effect*as*information*instead*of*persons* or*goods*go*on*a*journey*and*the*use*of*cars,*buses*or*trucks*are*omitted.*Second,*ICT*provides* the*possibility*for*a*steady*utilization*of*streets*and*is*seen*as*a*possibility*to*prevent*traffic* jams.*Third,*ICT*can*be*integrated*into*ones’*everyday*life*as*a*technology*that*makes*mobility* accessible,*through*the*use*of*route*planning*and*travel*organisation*technologies.** Already*in*2002,*the*possession*and*use*of*phones*as*well*as*the*Internet*had*an*enormous* importance*for*adolescents*(Hunecke*et*al.,*2002a,*p.*114).*Over*the*last*years,*the*use*of* phones,* especially* smartphones,* has* increased* steadily* among* young* adults.* Among* the* adolescents*aged*up*to*29*years,*89%*use*a*smartphone*(A1,*2014,*p.*22).** An*empirical*analysis*of*ICT*and*adolescents’*mobility*showed,*that*female*as*well*as*male* adolescents*are*open2minded*towards*ICT*to*the*same*extent.*Phones*and*short*messages* already*then*determined*their*contact*design,*more*than*spatial*distances.*A*higher*flexibility* concerning*appointments*can*be*observed.*Yet,*the*authors*argue*that*technology*does*not* substitute* ways.* Nevertheless,* ICT* shape* the* everyday* life* of* adolescents* (Hunecke* et* al.,* 2002a,*p.*120;*Tully*and*Baier,*2006b,*p.*167).** Accordingly,*Nykvist*and*Whitmarsh*(2008,*p.*1384)*argue*that*the*current*development*of* ICT*changes*peoples’*communication*patterns.*The*impact*of*working*from*home*and*online* shopping,* which* has* been* made* possible* by* ICT,* on* transport* can* hardly* be* estimated.* Working*from*home*may*reduce*commuting*transport,*while*it*may*increase*leisure*travel.* Moreover,*ICT*for*online*shopping*has*increased*steadily*over*the*last*years.*It*is*argued*that* this*might*reduce*the*overall*transport*demand.*However,*even*though*these*strong*trends* regarding*ICT,*which*influence*current*consumption*patterns,*can*be*observed,*it*cannot*be* proven*that*these*behavioural*changes*actually*impact*transport*demand.**

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* DRIVERS!AND!BARRIERS!OF!ADOLESCENTS’!MOBILITY!BEHAVIOUR!

On*the*other*hand,*even*though*there*are*only*few*explicit*findings,*it*is*highly*unlikely*that* ICT*does*not*influence*mobility*behaviours.*This*is*especially*true*for*adolescents*and*young* adults,*whose*everyday*life*and*travel*socialisation*is*characterised*by*ICT.*It*provides*a*greater* spatial*as*well*as*temporal*flexibility,*and*supplements*and*changes*mobility.*ICT*might*reduce* physical* mobility,* as* e.g.* visits* at* government* offices* might* become* unnecessary,* while* it* might* also* stimulate* mobility,* as* long* distance* relationships* can* easier* be* maintained.* Furthermore,*an*impact*on*transport*mode*choice*through*ICT*is*possible.*Public*transport* might*have*an*advantage*over*other*transport*modes,*as*the*usage*of*ICT*is*possible*while* travelling*(IFMO,*2011,*p.*15;*Hjorthol,*2016,*p.*141).** Interestingly,*Michelberger*et*al.*(2015,*p.*4)*used*the*potential*of*ICT*and*mobile*games,*to* change*the*mobility*behaviour*of*adolescents.*The*adolescents*in*this*survey*already*had*a* high*standard*of*knowledge*concerning*environmentally*friendly*transport*modes.*A*change* in* mobility* behaviour* among* the* adolescents* due* to* the* mobile* game* developed* for* this* survey* has* been* observed.* Independent* of* previous* attitudes* and* knowledge* concerning* environmentally*friendly*transport*modes,*the*app*contributed*to*a*change*towards*a*more* sustainable*mobility*behaviour.** * 3.4.5.3! Media!!

The*influence*of*mass*media*on*human*behaviour*has*been*discussed*in*regard*to*different* areas*of*life,*just*as*for*mobility*behaviour.*It*is*argued*that*through*the*growing*use*of*ICT* (see*above),*socialisation*through*mass*media*is*increasing*simultaneously*and*is*omnipresent* in*nearly*every*realm*of*everyday*life,*e.g.*work,*leisure*time,*communication,*entertainment* (Seebauer*et*al.,*2010,*pp.*56–57).** With*regard*to*mobility*behaviour,*Baslington*(2008)*determined*a*reinforcing*effect*of*media* on* the* attitudes* regarding* mobility* behaviour* and* transport* modes* of* children* and* adolescents.* However,* the* author* assumes* that* the* influence* of* mass* media* is* not* interactional.* Children* acquire* knowledge* through* mass* media* to* some* extent,* but* travel* socialisation*starts*at*the*parental*home.*Nevertheless,*it*has*been*shown*that*children*aged* 7*years*associate*different*modes*of*transport*with*different*levels*of*prestige.*The*surveyed* children*further*stated*that*they*already*know*which*cars*they*want*to*own*later*on,*mostly* fast* sports* cars.* Besides* other* motives,* this* can* be* explained* by* the* admiration* of* other* people*and*role*models*from*movies*or*sportsmen.** * *

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* DRIVERS!AND!BARRIERS!OF!ADOLESCENTS’!MOBILITY!BEHAVIOUR!

3.4.6! Possession'of'driver’s'licence'and'travelling'by'car' With*respect*to*the*possession!of!driver’s!licences*among*adolescents,*changing*trends*can*be* observed.*Different*studies*have*shown*decreasing*numbers*of*driver’s*licences*among*young* adults,*not*only*but*also*in*the*European*area*(IFMO,*2011,*p.*8;*Kuhnimhof*et*al.,*2012b,*p.* 446;*Hjorthol,*2016,*p.*142;*Kubitzki,*2014,*p.*43;*Schönduwe*et*al.,*2012,*p.*20;*Nykvist*and* Whitmarsh,*2008,*p.*1383).*The*reasons*for*this*development*are*manifold.*Young*adults*who* live*in*rural*areas,*have*a*car*available*in*their*household,*are*employed*and*married,*own*a* driver’s*licence*with*a*much*higher*probability*than*others.*Over*the*last*25*years,*it*has*been* observed*that*a*higher*percentage*of*young*adults*lives*in*cities*and*takes*more*time*for* education,*while*starting*a*family*is*delayed*(Hjorthol,*2016,*p.*145).** In*this*respect,*Nykvist*and*Whitmarsh*(2008,*p.*1383)*argue*that*young*adults*are*currently* merely* delaying* the* obtainment* of* a* driver’s* licence,* and* do* not* spare* it* altogether.* Nevertheless,*it*can*be*hypothesized*whether*a*shift*away*from*the*car*affinity*is*happening* at*the*moment.*Especially*in*large*cities*with*excellent*public*transport*connections,*young* adults*have*a*“pragmatic*relationship*to*car*use”.*In*order*to*sustain*this*view,*young*people* need* to* keep* their* values,* remain* using* alternative* transport* modes* and* public* transport* needs*to*stay*attractive*also*with*increasing*age*and*income.*Hjorthol*(2016,*p.*146)*states* that*adolescents*living*without*a*driver’s*licence*for*a*longer*period*after*they*turned*18*years,* become*more*acquainted*to*the*use*of*public*transport,*cycling*or*walking.*During*that*time,* adolescents*“learn*how*to*use*public*transport,*how*to*find*their*way*around*and*become* accustomed* to* the* system”,* and* experience* positive* effects* such* as* the* possibility* to* use* smartphones* during* travelling.* These* positive* experiences* might* decrease* the* desire* to* possess*a*car.* However,*the*adolescents*questioned*in*the*survey*by*Füssl*et*al.*(2013,*p.*1216)*stated*that* possessing*a*driver’s*licence*is*important*to*them.*All*of*them*wanted*to*use*a*car*once*they* are*adults,*or*they*already*drive*a*car.*Nevertheless,*the*usage*of*cars*has*been*reflected* critically,*e.g.*if*alternative*transport*modes*are*available*or*only*short*distances*are*travelled.* Also*Line*et*al.*(2010,*p.*27)*argue*that*the*adolescents*within*their*study*show*“a*strong* desire*to*continue*driving*or*to*learn*to*drive*in*the*future”*and*did*not*want*to*change*their* mobility*behaviour.*As*well*as*that,*even*though*the*number*of*driver’s*licence*holders*is* decreasing,*it*remains*on*a*high*level.*In*Germany,*around*90%*of*young*adults*aged*18*to*29* possessed*a*driver’s*licence*in*2008*(IFMO,*2011,*p.*8).** The*situation*is*similar*with*regard*to*the*possession!of!a!car*among*adolescents.*As*few*as* 3%*of*surveyed*German*adolescents*aged*18*to*24,*who*do*not*yet*own*a*car,*can*imagine* living*without*a*car*in*the*future*(Kubitzki,*2014,*p.*7;*c.f.*Witzke,*2015,*p.*22).*The*mobility* behaviour*of*adolescents*living*in*industrialised*countries*is*to*this*day*dominated*by*the*use* of* cars.* Yet,* decreasing* trends* regarding* driver’s* licences* as* well* as* car* availability* in* households*can*be*observed*compared*to*one*decade*ago*(Kuhnimhof*et*al.,*2012a,*p.*776).* * * * 84*

* DRIVERS!AND!BARRIERS!OF!ADOLESCENTS’!MOBILITY!BEHAVIOUR!

Moreover,*a*decreasing*use*of*cars*has*been*observed*among*adolescents*aged*18*to*29*years.* This* can* be* explained* by* two* main* factors.* First,* adolescents,* especially* car* users,* are* increasingly*multimodal*–*multiple*transport*modes*are*used*during*one*day*or*week.*Second,* particularly*young*men*own*and*use*less*cars*in*the*last*few*years.*The*previous*gender*gap,* that*has*been*observed*regarding*the*car*use*of*young*men*and*women,*closed*(Kuhnimhof* et*al.,*2012b,*p.*449).** Moreover,*Scheiner*and*Holz2Rau*(2013,*p.*179)*investigated*the*effects*of*car!availability*in* a*household*on*mobility*behaviour.*Changes*in*car*availability*have*an*influence*on*the*use*of* all*transport*modes.*As*well*as*that,*a*decrease*in*the*availability*of*cars*in*a*household*goes* along*with*decreased*levels*of*travel*in*general,*and*vice*versa.*This*finding*suggests*that* having*a*car*available*does*not*cause*enhanced*mobility*levels,*but*rather*is*an*outcome*of*it.* This*is*called*“endogeneity*of*car*availability”.** The*investigation*of*life*events*on*mobility*behaviour*undertaken*by*Rau*and*Manton*(2016,* p.*59)*showed*that*buying*a*car*and*getting*a*driver’s*licence*are*among*the*most*important* life* events* that* change* mobility* behaviour.* The* car* use* of* almost* every* respondent* who* bought* a* car* increased* significantly,* showing* a* shift* from* public* transport* to* car* use.* Accordingly,* gaining* a* driver’s* licence* lead* to* an* increase* of* driving* of* almost* every* respondent,*while*bicycle*and*public*transport*use*decreased.** * 3.4.7! Weather'' The*influence*of*weather*conditions*on*mobility*decisions,*especially*the*choice*of*transport* mode,*seems*self2evident.*Hunecke*et*al.*(2008a,*pp.*88–92)*analysed*this*situational,*often* neglected* influencing* factor* more* precisely.* The* study* proved* that* weather* conditions* influence*the*choice*of*transport*mode.*On*sunny*and*cloudy*days,*only*minor*differences*can* be*observed,*whereas*the*share*of*public*transport*increases*clearly*on*rainy*days*while*the* share*of*walking*and*cycling*is*halved*on*these*days.*Additionally,*an*influence*of*a*persons’* weather*resistance*could*be*proven.*The*subjective*evaluation*of*the*influence*on*weather* conditions* influences* mobility* decisions* to* a* greater* extent* than* the* objective* weather* conditions.** Moreover,*it*has*been*shown*that*different*mobility*target*groups*react*differently*to*weather* conditions,*based*on*their*weather*resistance.*The*use*of*bicycles*among*‘weather*resistant* bicycle*fans’*is*quite*independent*from*current*weather*conditions.*However,*on*rainy*days,* they*use*public*transport*more*often*and*walk*less.*The*‘public*transport*distanced’*and*‘self2 determined* mobile’* groups* clearly* reduce* the* share* of* walkways* in* favour* of* motorised* private*transport.*The*target*groups*of*‘car*individualists’*and*‘environmentally*sensible*public* transport*fans’*show*the*least*behaviour*changes*based*on*weather*conditions*(Hunecke*et* al.,*2008a,*p.*92).**

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* DRIVERS!AND!BARRIERS!OF!ADOLESCENTS’!MOBILITY!BEHAVIOUR!

Furthermore,*Kamargianni*(2015,*p.*53)*identified*weather*conditions*as*the*most*important* factor*for*the*choice*to*cycle*among*adolescents.*Sunny*weather*considerably*increases*the* possibility*of*adolescents*using*a*bicycle.*Besides*weather,*the*infrastructure*influences*the* use*of*bicycles*among*adolescents*in*a*large*part.*A*high*percentage*of*cycleway*coverage*and* bicycle* parking* spaces* increase* the* share* of* cycling* among* adolescents* within* this* study.* Nevertheless,*infrastructure*is*not*explicitly*discussed*within*this*chapter.** * 3.4.8! Opportunity'e_vehicles?' The*thesis*at*hand*focuses*on*the*opportunity*for*e2vehicles,*to*make*adolescents’*mobility* behaviour*more*sustainable.*Different*factors*as*well*influence*the*choice*to*use*e2vehicles.** Considering*peoples’*openness*to*e2vehicles,*opportunities*for*a*higher*degree*of*sustainable* transport*in*Austria*are*given.*42%*of*the*respondents*are*interested*in*e2cars,*about*one*third* are* interested* in* e2bikes* and* 16%* in* e2scooters* (see* sub2chapter* 1.4.3* for* more* detailed* information).*The*survey*found*that*male*respondents*were*somewhat*more*interested*in*e2 vehicles* than* women.* The* age2group* above* 60* years* showed* least* interest,* while* no* significant*differences*could*be*found*regarding*the*other*age*groups.*Moreover,*people*living* in* rural* areas* indicated* a* stronger* interest* in* e2vehicles* than* people* living* in* urban* areas* (SORA,*2013,*p.*6).** This*finding*corresponds*with*a*survey*undertaken*in*Germany,*that*investigated*different* scenarios*and*framework*conditions*for*e2vehicles*in*rural*areas.*Sparsely*populated,*rural* areas,* relative* to* the* changes* of* framework* conditions* over* time,* show* potential* for* e2 vehicles.*People*living*in*rural*areas*are*holders*of*a*driver’s*licence*with*a*higher*probability* than* people* living* in* urban* areas.* For* that* reason,* also* the* share* of* motorised* private* transport*is*high.*Moreover,*the*conditions*in*rural*areas*are*favourable*as*a*high*number*of* parking*spaces*is*available,*as*well*as*the*possibilities*for*charging*facilities.*Nevertheless,*in* order*to*increase*the*number*of*e2vehicles*in*urban*areas,*the*author*argues*that*transfers* from*the*state*to*ensure*lower*power*and*cost*of*electric*vehicles*are*a*prerequisite*to*make* them*competitive*(Mann*et*al.,*2014,*p.*232).*Another*study*argues*that*both,*policy*actions* as*well*as*a*change*in*consumer*behaviour*and*choices,*are*essential*for*a*transition*to*a*more* sustainable*transport*system*(Köhler*et*al.,*2009,*p.*2994).* Accordingly,*Graham2Rowe*et*al.*(2012,*p.*150)*argue*that*cost!minimisation*is*an*important* factor*to*drivers.*The*respondents*of*this*study*doubted*that*even*though*the*running*costs* of*e2vehicles*in*general*are*rather*low,*factors*such*as*durability*uncertainty*and*service*costs* would*lead*to*lower*running*costs*and*offset*the*higher*purchase*costs.*Therefore,*also*this* author*argues*that*an*intervention*by*the*state*is*necessary,*through*increasing*fuel*prices* and*ensuring*cheaper*running*costs*of*e2vehicles,*and*introducing*government*subsidies.*The*

* * * 86*

* EMPIRICAL!ANALYSIS! respondents*of*this*study*believed*in*significant*price*decreases*of*e2vehicles,*and*were*not* willing*to*purchase*an*e2vehicle*until*then.** What*was*further*important*to*the*study*respondents*were*the*utilitarian*goals*of*vehicles,* e.g.*minimisation*of*travel*times*and*physical*effort,*as*well*as*positive*affective*experiences,* e.g.*independence,*autonomy,*personalised*space,*that*regular*internal*combustion*engine* cars*can*provide.*The*drivers*doubted*whether*e2vehicles*can*fulfil*these*goals.*Also,*due*to* the*limited*range*of*e2vehicles,*drivers*tend*to*not*use*facilities*such*as*stereo*or*heating* system,* which* reduces* the* pleasure* and* comfort* while* driving.* Respondents* believed* in* further*technological*and*infrastructural*improvements*for*e2vehicles*(Graham2Rowe*et*al.,* 2012,* p.* 150).* In* this* respect,* Köhler* et* al.* (2009,* p.* 2994)* argue* that* supporting* radical* technological*niches*is*highly*important*to*ensure*sustainable*mobility*in*the*long*run.*The* most*promising*alternative*for*the*next*10*years*is*not*necessarily*the*best*choice*in*the*long* run.** According* to* Nykvist* and* Whitmarsh* (2008,* p.* 1385),* when* stakeholders* are* part* of* the* development*of*sustainable*mobility*visions,*the*power*of*these*innovations*can*be*increased.* It*is*argued*that*“neither*technological*solutions*nor*policy*can*reform*transport*alone”,*the* support*of*consumers*is*essential.*Furthermore,*the*opportunities*of*e2vehicles*are*dependent* on*peoples’*evaluation*of*environmental*benefits.*The*carbon*emission*reductions*due*to*e2 vehicles*are*evaluated*positively.*However,*the*net*environmental*benefits*of*e2vehicles*are* questioned* critically,* due* to* the* carbon* intense* electricity* generation,* as* well* as* the* manufacturing*process*of*e2vehicles.*The*respondents*yet*acknowledge*the*advantages*of*e2 vehicles*due*to*noise*reduction*and*technological*advancements.** *

4! Empirical'analysis'

In* addition* to* the* theoretical* considerations* and* empirical* findings* of* research* studies* discussed* in* the* previous* chapter,* the* subsequent* findings* are* examined* in* the* empirical* research*of*this*paper.*In*order*to*answer*the*central*research*questions,*this*study*uses*a* qualitative*case*study*approach*to*investigate*the*mobility*behaviour*of*adolescents*in*a*rural* Austrian*area.*13*face2to2face*interviews*with*adolescents*were*conducted*in*the*case*study* region* ‘Energieregion! Weiz! Gleisdorf’* (EWG)* (see* sub2chapter* 2.3* for* more* detailed* information).* In* the* first* sub2chapter,* the* sample* description* is* presented.* Second,* the* interview*results*are*presented.*Here,*a*distinction*is*made*between*the*different*guiding* questions*of*the*interview*guideline.** *

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* EMPIRICAL!ANALYSIS!

4.1! Sample'description' Regarding*the*sociodemographic!composition*of*the*sample,*only*adolescents*between*16*and* 20* years* were* part* of* the* research.* By* the* time* the* interviews* were* conducted,* eleven* adolescents*were*17*years*old,*one*was*18*years*and*one*was*19*years*old.*Seven*of*the* interviewed* adolescents* were* pupils,* four* of* which* female,* and* six* were* apprentices.* However,*only*male*apprentices*could*be*interviewed.*Of*all*interviewees,*nine*males*and* four*females*were*interviewed*concerning*their*mobility*behaviours.*The*living*situation*of* the*interviewed*adolescents*is*in*a*rural*Austrian*area,*the*EWG.*Two*of*them*though*live*in*a* city*centre,*while*the*others*live*very*rurally.*Five*of*the*interviewed*adolescents*participated* in*the*e2cult*project,*while*the*remaining*young*adults*did*not*take*part*or*just*started*by*the* time*the*interviews*took*place*(see*Figure*14).** *

Educational*level Gender*ratio Participation*e2cult

4 5 6 7 8 9

Pupils Apprentices Male Female Yes No * Figure!14:!Educational!level,!gender!ratio!and!participation!in!the!e=cult!project!of!the!sample! (created!by!author)!

* 4.2! Interview'results'' This*chapter*discusses*results*of*the*interviews*with*adolescents.*The*three*guiding*questions* comprised*in*the*interview*guide*(see*Annex*1)*were*the*basis*for*the*chapter*layout.** * 4.2.1! Current'mobility'behaviour''

The* adolescents* were* asked* regarding* the* possession* of* a* driver’s* licence* and* a* public* transport*ticket,*as*well*as*the*availability*of*cars*in*their*household.*They*were*questioned* regarding*their*current*mobility*behaviour*for*ways*to*school*or*work*and*during*leisure*time.* Furthermore,* the* motives* for* the* choice* of* transport* mode* have* been* covered* in* the* interviews,*as*well*as*the*attitudes*of*adolescents*towards*different*modes*of*transport.**

* * * 88*

* EMPIRICAL!ANALYSIS!

4.2.1.1! General!mobilityUspecific!aspects!of!the!interviewees!!

In* Austria,* the* possession* of* a* moped* licence* is* possible* from* the* age* of* 15,* while* the* possession*of*a*driver’s*licence*is*possible*for*adolescents*from*the*age*of*17.*Among*the* interviewees,*six*hold*a*moped!licence.*Five*of*which*are*male*apprentices,*one*is*a*female* student.*Only*four*of*the*adolescents*hold*a*driver’s!license.*Three*of*which*are*male*and* apprentices,*one*is*a*female*pupil.*Only*one*adolescent,*a*female*pupil*who*does*not*yet*hold* a* driver’s* licence,* also* does* not* plan* to* acquire* a* licence* in* the* near* future.* Most* of* the* adolescents,*who*do*not*yet*hold*a*licence,*already*started*driving*education*or*plan*on*doing* so*in*the*near*future*(see*Figure*15).** *

Moped*licence*holder Driver's*licence*holder Future*licence*acquisition

1 4 6 7 9 8

Yes No Yes No Yes No * Figure!15:!Current!and!future!licence!holders!among!interviewees! (created!by!author)!

*

Car*availability*in*household

2 1

3 2

4

No*car One*car Two*cars Three*or*more*cars Own*car * Figure!16:!Car!availability!of!interviewees!in!household! (created!by!author)!!

*

* * * 89*

* EMPIRICAL!ANALYSIS!

Different*motives!to!gain!a!driver’s!licence*are*mentioned*by*the*adolescents.*The*symbolic* dimension* autonomy,* more* precisely* independence,* is* by* far* the* most* often* mentioned* motive*to*gain*a*licence.*The*instrumental*factors*flexibility,*convenience,*speed*and*comfort* have* been* mentioned* as* well.* Yet,* no* status* or* prestige* aspects* were* mentioned* by* the* adolescents.** The*adolescents*have*been*questioned*regarding*the*car!availability!in!their!household.*Two* of*them*already*own*an*own*car,*both*of*them*are*male*apprentices,*while*only*one*has*no* car*available*in*the*household*(see*Figure*16).** Moreover,* the* possession* of* public! transport! season! tickets* was* covered* during* the* interviews.*In*Austria,*young*adults*in*education*(both*pupils*and*apprentices)*receive*a*public* transport*ticket*to*travel*for*a*contribution*towards*costs*between*their*home*and*place*of* work*or*school*(Verbund*Linie,*2016a).*Seven*of*them*mentioned*that*they*use*this*ticket.* Two* of* the* adolescents* even* use* the* Top2Ticket,* a* public* transport* season* ticket* for* adolescents*for*all*public*transport*in*the*federal*state*(Verbund*Linie,*2016b).*The*remaining* adolescents* said* that* they* do* not* use* a* season* ticket.* Most* of* them* think* that* it* is* not* worthwhile,*as*they*do*not*use*public*transport*often*enough.** * 4.2.1.2! Transport!mode!choice!!

The*transport*mode*choices*of*the*interviewed*adolescents*are*very*diverse,*ranging*from*the* use*of*a*car,*both*as*a*driver*or*passenger,*moped,*public*transport,*bicycle,*walking*as*well* as*e2scooter*and*e2bike.** * 4.2.1.2.1! General'findings''

When*investigating*the*choice*of*transport*mode*of*each*adolescent,*it*becomes*evident*that* no*interviewed*adolescent*names*only*one*mode*of*transport*for*the*ways*to*school*or*work* and* in* leisure* time.* This* may* indicate* the* multimodality* of* young* adults,* as* discussed* in* scientific*literature.*Furthermore,*the*choice*of*transport*mode*seems*to*be*different*for*the* ways*to*school*or*work*than*for*the*ways*travelled*during*leisure*time.*The*use*of*public* transport* is* named* more* often* for* ways* to* school* or* work,* whereas* the* use* of* a* car* is* mentioned*more*often*for*ways*during*leisure*time.** The* choices* of* transport* mode* for* ways! to! school! and! work* among* the* interviewed* adolescents* are* manifold.* Most* often,* public* transport* is* named* by* both,* pupils* and* apprentices.*In*general,*no*clear*preferences*for*transport*modes*can*be*derived*among*pupils* or*apprentices.*Here,*also*no*difference*can*be*observed*with*regard*to*male*and*female* adolescents.* The* ways* covered* by* public* transport* are* often* connected* to* ways* that* are*

* * * 90*

* EMPIRICAL!ANALYSIS! covered*on*foot.*Some*of*the*adolescents*go*to*school*or*work*as*a*car*passenger.*However,* some*only*cover*part*of*their*way*as*a*car*passenger*or*do*so*on*rare*occasions.*The*bicycle*is* a*further*important*transport*mode*to*cover*ways*to*school*or*work.*Two*apprentices*drive* to*work*by*car,*while*the*use*of*a*moped,*e2scooter*and*e2bike*have*each*been*mentioned* once.* The* e2vehicles* have* only* been* used* by* adolescents* who* borrowed* them* within* the* frame*of*the*e2cult*project.** Concerning* ways! covered! during! leisure! time,* the* choice* of* transport* mode* among* adolescents*is*different.*Most*often,*adolescents*named*the*bicycle*as*well*as*being*a*car* passenger.*This*applies*to*all,*pupils*and*apprentices,*males*and*females.*Specifically,*the*car* usage*is*higher*during*leisure*time.*Being*a*car*driver*has*been*mentioned*more*often*for*ways* during*leisure*time*than*for*school*or*work*ways.*Most*of*the*interviewees*who*drive*a*car* are*apprentices.*Furthermore,*also*the*use*of*public*transport,*moped*and*walking*are*named,* in*order*to*cover*ways*during*leisure*time.* * 4.2.1.2.2! Motives'for'transport'mode'choice''

The*motives*among*the*interviewed*adolescents*for*their*transport*mode*choice*are*manifold.** The*interviewed*adolescents*use*the*car*both,*as*drivers*and*passengers.*The*most*frequent* mentioned* motive* for* the* use* of* a* car* is* the* symbolic* dimension* independence.* Predominantly*male*adolescents*seem*to*place*an*extremely*great*value*on*independence* from*parents,*public*transport*or*other*third*parties.*A*pupil*argued*that** “a!car!would!be!important!to!me,!in!order!to!go!anywhere!whenever!I!want,!so!I!am!mobile.”1! An*apprentice*said*that*owning*a*car*is*important*because* “you!do!not!have!to!consider!anything.!You!do!not!have!to!consider!bus!schedules,!or!anything! else.!You!just!get!in!the!car,!and!drive.!It!does!not!matter!where!you!want!to!go.!And!I!just!think! that!is!convenient.”2! Another*apprentice*even*said*that** “I!think!the!car!is!a!necessity!of!life.!In!order!to!get!anywhere,!and!to!be!able!to!do!many! things.”3!

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1 *“Aber*Auto*wäre*schon*wichtig*für*mich.*Damit*ich*überall,*wann*ich*will*hinfahren*kann.*Damit*ich*eben*mobiler*bin,* dass*ich*überall*hinfahren*kann.”* 2 *“Weil*man*auf*nichts*mehr*achten*muss.*Man*muss*nicht*auf*Buszeiten*schauen,*oder*auf*sonst*irgendetwas.*Sondern* du*steigst*einfach*in*dein*Auto*ein,*und*fährst.*Egal,*wo*du*hinwillst.*Und*ich*finde*das*einfach*praktisch.”* 3 *“Weil*ich*finde,*ein*Auto*braucht*man*zum*Leben.*Damit*man*überall*hinkommt,*und*damit*man*viel*unternehmen* kann.”* * * * 91*

* EMPIRICAL!ANALYSIS!

Instrumental*attributes*have*been*named*rather*often*as*reasons*for*car*usage.*Adolescents* argue*that*the*car*is*simple*and*convenient.*Also,*it*is*said*to*be*comfortable*to*go*by*car.* Twice,* adolescents* mentioned* that* they* go* by* car* because* it* is* a* habit.* Other* factors* influencing*the*use*of*cars*according*to*adolescents*are*the*weather,*technical*affinity*towards* cars,*and*the*fun*while*driving,*which*describes*the*symbolic*dimension*experience.*One*car* passenger*argues*that*the*driver*he*goes*with,*goes*by*car*anyway.** Interestingly,*the*factors*status*and*prestige*as*well*as*privacy*in*connection*to*car*use*have* not*been*mentioned*by*any*adolescent.** The*motives*for*the*use*of*mopeds*are*less*diverse.*The*adolescents*who*drive*a*moped,*both* male*and*female,*argue*that*it*is*fast*and*comfortable*(instrumental*attributes)*as*well*as*fun* (symbolic*dimension*experience).*Moreover,*technical*affinity*has*been*named*as*a*reason*to* go*by*moped.*Another*motive*influencing*moped*use*is*weather.*One*adolescent*argued*that* he*uses*the*moped*so*that*he*can*go*to*work*faster*in*winter,*while*another*argued*that*he* uses*the*moped*only*if*the*weather*is*kind.** Concerning*public!transport,*adolescents*most*often*mentioned*the*good*connections*as*their* motive*for*usage.*Especially*female*adolescents*highlighted*this.*A*female*pupil*said*that** “the!bus!connections!to!Graz!are!very!good,!that!is!why!it!is!not!necessary!for!me!to!own!a! car”4,! while*another*female*pupil*argued*that** “there!is!a!good!range!of!public!transport!services,!I!think,!in!Austria!and!Styria.!You!can!go! almost! anywhere! by! public! transport.! One! should! use! these! services,! as! they! are! already! provided.”5! The*second*most*important*motive*for*that*the*use*of*public*transport*among*the*interviewed* adolescents*is*comfort.*Moreover,*simplicity*and*convenience*are*named,*as*well*as*speed.* All*of*these*motives*are*instrumental*attributes*of*transport*mode*choice.*Interestingly,*three* adolescents*mentioned*that*the*reason*for*the*use*of*public*transport*is*the*fact*that*their* parents*are*either*not*able*or*not*willing*to*take*them.*Others*also*link*public*transport*to*the* use*of*cars.*While*some*adolescents*view*public*transport*as*an*alternative*to*cars,*another* adolescent*only*uses*public*transport*as*long*as*he*is*not*able*to*go*by*car*himself.*It*must*also* be* noted* that* the* interviewed* adolescents* mentioned* only* twice,* that* public* transport* is* cheap,*and*only*once*that*it*is*environmental*friendly.*A*male*pupil*said*that**

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4 *“Und*die*Verbindung*zwischen*Weiz*und*Graz*ist*eigentlich*eh*relativ*gut*mit*dem*Bus.*Und*da*brauche*ich*das*Auto* eigentlich*eher*nicht.”* 5 *“Weil*es*gibt*ein*gutes*Angebot,*finde*ich,*in*Österreich*und*in*der*Steiermark.*Man*kommt*eigentlich*fast*überall* hin,*mit*den*Öffis.*Man*sollte*das*nützen,*wenn*es*das*schon*gibt,*wenn*man*die*Möglichkeit*dazu*hat.”* * * * 92*

* EMPIRICAL!ANALYSIS!

“I!always!think!it!is!definitely!better,!then!if!everyone!who!sits!in!the!bus!would!go!by!car! instead.!Thus!more!environmental!friendly.”6** The*motives*for*adolescents*to*use*bicycles*are*mainly*fun*(symbolic*dimension*experience),* the*adolescents*like*to*go*by*bike,*as*well*as*the*instrumental*attribute*speed.*An*apprentice* argued*that** “it!is!much!faster!than!going!by!car.!I!do!not!own!a!car!yet,!but!even!if!I!did,!I!would!go!by! bike.”7! Moreover,*the*interviewees*mentioned*the*motives*health,*comfort,*independence*as*well*as* the*fact*that*parents*do*not*drive*them,*as*reasons*for*the*use*of*bicycles.** Regarding*the*use*of*e=bikes,*the*adolescents*who*tested*them*argued*that*comfort*is*mainly* important*to*them.*An*apprentice*argued*that*when*riding*a*regular*bike* “I!lose!interest!in!going!by!bike.!Yet!alone!because!I!live!on!a!mountain.!Going!down!is!fun,!but! when!going!up!again,!you!just!think:!no!!Then!I!would!rather!go!by!car.!When!going!with!the! e=bike,!it!is!much!more!comfortable.!I!enjoy!it!”8!! Moreover,*it*has*been*mentioned*that*riding*an*e2bike*is*both,*healthy*and*fun.** * 4.2.1.3! Attitudes!towards!transport!modes!!

During*the*interviews,*the*adolescents*have*further*been*asked*to*talk*about*their*attitudes* towards*public*and*motorised*private*transport.** Public! transport* is* mainly* observed* positively,* due* to* a* well2developed* infrastructure,* the* relatively* low* price* for* adolescents* in* education,* environmental* friendliness* and* comfort.* However,* also* negative* attitudes* towards* public* transport* are* formulated.* Mostly,* the* infrastructure* and* the* dependency* are* criticised.* Some* of* the* adolescents* mention* infrastructure*as*a*positive*aspect*of*public*transport,*while*others*perceive*it*as*negative.*No* clear*trend*regarding*pupils*and*apprentices*can*be*observed*concerning*attitudes*towards* public*transport.*Only*male*adolescents*formulated*negative*opinions.*Yet,*one*needs*to*keep* in*mind*that*the*share*of*male*interviewees*is*higher*in*this*study.*

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6 *“Und*ich*denk*mir*immer,*es*ist*auf*jeden*Fall*besser,*als*wenn*jeder*der*im*Bus*sitzt*stattdessen*mit*dem*Auto*fahren* würde.*Also*umweltschonender.”** 7 *“Weil*es*viel*schneller*geht.*Als*wenn*ich*jetzt*zum*Beispiel*mit*dem*Auto*fahren*könnte.*Ich*habe*noch*kein*Auto,* aber*wenn*ich*eines*hätte,*würde*ich*auch*mit*dem*Rad*fahren.”* 8 *"Ich*weiß*nicht,*da*vergeht*mir*die*Lust*zum*Rad*fahren.*Alleine*schon,*weil*ich*ziemlich*am*Berg*wohne.*Jedes*Mal* beim*runter*fahren*ist*es*ja*klass,*aber*beim*Heim*fahren*wieder*denkst*du*dir:*nein...*Und*ich*weiß*nicht,*da*fahre*ich* lieber*mit*dem*Auto.*Und*beim*e2Rad*ist*das*einfach*viel*gemütlicher.*Das*daugt*mir!“* * * * 93*

* EMPIRICAL!ANALYSIS!

When* questioning* the* interviewees* whether* they* think* that* owning! a! car! or! moped* is* important,*diverse*points*of*view*were*phrased.*About*half*of*the*adolescents*think*that*a*car* (or*moped)*is*necessary*and*important.*Again,*independency*is*the*most*important*reason*for* them* to* own* a* car.* About* one* in* four* argues* that* owning* a* car* is* not* necessary,* but* comfortable*and*convenient.*Here,*adolescents*differentiate*between*different*life*phases.*A* female*pupil*said*that** “when!attending!a!university,!it!is!not!important!to!me!to!own!a!car.!But!once!I!find!a!job!or! start!a!family,!it!is!important!to!me!to!own!a!car.!Because!it!is!just!easier.”9!! Another*female*pupil*differentiated*between*living*in*urban*or*rural*areas*and*stated*that** “it!depends!on!your!place!of!residence.!I!do!not!think!it!is!necessary,!but!convenient,!when!you! have!the!possibility!to!go!by!car.!Except!if!you!live!in!a!very!rurally!area!and!public!transport!is! poor.”10* The*remaining*adolescents*do*not*think*of*the*car*as*a*necessity.*A*male*apprentice*argued** “lately,! it! seems! to! me! that! I! do! not! need! a! car! at! all.! Whenever! I! go! out,! I! do! so! in! the! immediate!vicinity.!There!I!can!as!well!go!by!bike,!or!even!walk.”11!! Another*apprentice*argued*that*it*is*not*important*to* “own!a!car,!but!possessing!a!driver’s!licence!is.![…]!that!way!you!have!more!freedom.”12!! A*female*pupil*referred*to*her*place*of*residence,*and*said*that** “because!I!live!close!to!the!city!in!Weiz,!it!is!not!important!to!me.!And!the!public!transport! connections!to!Graz!are!well.”13!! When*going*one*step*further*and*asking*adolescents*whether*they*can*imagine!living!without! a!car,*again*about*half*of*them*cannot*imagine*forgoing*a*car.*An*apprentice*said*that*a*life* without*a*car*is*unimaginably*

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9 *“Ja,*(...)*wenn*ich*studiere*oder*so,*da*ist*es*mir*sicher*nicht*so*wichtig.*Aber*dann,*wenn*ich*einen*Beruf*habe*oder* Familie,*dann*ist*es*mir*schon*wichtig,*ein*Auto*zu*haben,*weil*das*ist*dann*schon*viel*leichter,*wenn*man*ein*Auto*hat.”* 10 *“Hmm..*kommt*darauf*an*wo*man*lebt.*Ich*finde*es*jetzt*nicht*unbedingt*nötig,*aber*ich*finde*es*schon*praktisch,* wenn*man*den*Führerschein*hat*und*die*Möglichkeit*hat.*Aber*außer*man*wohnt*komplett*am*Land,*wo*die*Öffis*eben* ganz*schlecht*sind.”* 11 *“In*letzter*Zeit*kommt*es*mir*irgendwie*nicht*so*vor,*als*würde*ich*ein*Auto*brauchen.*Ich*weiß*auch*nicht,*wenn*ich* fortgehe,*gehe*ich*in*Kaindorf*forf.*Da*kann*ich*mit*dem*Rad*hinfahren,*oder*ich*gehe*zu*Fuß*hin,*wenn*ich*nicht*weit* entfernt*bin.“* 12 *“Auto*nicht*unbedingt,*aber*Führerschein*ja.”* 13 *“Also,*dadurch,*dass*ich*eigentlich*relativ*nahe*bei*der*Stadt*wohne,*also*in*Weiz,*ist*es*sowieso*nicht*so*wichtig.* Und*die*Busverbindungen*nach*Graz*sind*sehr*gut,*also*es*ist*nicht*so*notwendig*ein*Auto*zu*haben.”* * * * 94*

* EMPIRICAL!ANALYSIS!

“because!I!am!interested!in!cars.!Because!I!more!or!less!work!for!my!car.!Because!the!car!has! an!extremely!high!value!for!me.”14!! Others*argue,*once*again,*that*they*want*to*be*independent*(symbolic*dimension*autonomy),* that*they*need*to*go*to*an*urban*area*as*there*are*not*enough*leisure*opportunities*in*the* rural*area*they*live*in,*and*that*they*would*not*have*enough*patience*to*go*there*by*public* transport.** Nevertheless,*other*adolescents*differentiate*between*their*future*living*situation,*as*well*as* different*phases*of*life.*When*living*in*an*urban*area,*some*adolescents*mentioned*that*a*car* would*not*be*as*important*than*in*a*rural*area.*Furthermore,*it*was*mentioned*by*pupils*that* a*car*is*disposable*during*studies*in*an*urban*area.*However,*when*starting*a*family,*it*seems* important*to*some*adolescents*to*own*a*car.*An*apprentice*said** “when!I!see!into!the!future,!having!children!and!so!on,!it!would!be!difficult!without!a!car.! Because!when!I!have!two!children,!I!cannot!take!them!on!my!bike.![…]!Yet,!one!car!is!enough.”15! For*two*adolescents,*living*without*a*car*would*be*imaginable.*A*male*apprentice*argued*that* living*without*a*car*is*imaginable** “if! I! have! something! else! to! go! with.! […]! something!on!two!wheels.![…]!also!an!e=vehicle,! because!it!is!fun!and!you!improve!your!health.!It!is!comfortable.!The!only!thing!that!is!annoying! is!rain.!But!otherwise,!I!could!imagine!living!without!a!car.”16!! And*a*female*pupil*stated*that** “it!is!more!efficient!for!the!environment,!and!I!do!not!know,!I!do!not!like!being!a!car!driver!that! much.!I!think!you!can!cover!short!distances!on!foot!or!by!bike.!I!do!not!like!it!at!all,!if!short! distances!are!travelled!by!car,!it!is!also!possible!using!a!bike!”17!* * *

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14 *“Nein.*Weil*mich*ein*Auto*interessiert.*Weil*ich*quasi*für*mein*Auto*arbeiten*gehe.*Weil*das*Auto*einen*enormen* Wert*hat*für*mich.”* 15 *“Nein,*also*wenn*ich*weiter*in*die*Zukunft*plane,*mit*Kindern*usw.,*dann*geht*das*ohne*Auto*schwer.*Weil*wenn*ich* zwei*Kinder*habe,*die*kann*ich*nicht*am*Rad*mitnehmen.*[…]Also*ein*Auto*in*der*ganzen*Familie*reicht.”* 16 *“Das*kommt*darauf*an.*Wenn*ich*etwas*Anderes*zum*Fahren*habe,*dann*schon.*[…]*Irgendetwas*mit*zwei*Rädern.* [Auch*das*e2Fahrzeug?]*Das*schon*ja.*Weil*es*Spaß*macht.*Und*du*machst*etwas*für*die*Gesundheit.*Es*ist*gemütlich.* Das*einzige*blöde*ist,*wenn*es*regnet.*Aber*ansonsten*könnte*ich*es*mir*schon*ohne*Auto*auch*vorstellen,*ja.”* 17 *“Es*ist*sicher*effizienter*für*die*Umwelt*und,*ich*weiß*nicht,*ich*bin*nicht*so*gern*Autofahrer.*Ich*finde*man*kann* kurze*Strecken*auch*zu*Fuß*gehen*oder*mit*dem*Rad.*Ich*mag*das*gar*nicht,*wenn*man*so*kurze*Strecken*mit*dem*Auto* fährt,*das*geht*mit*dem*Rad*auch!”* * * * 95*

* EMPIRICAL!ANALYSIS!

4.2.2! Ideal'mobility'infrastructure''

Within*the*scope*of*the*second*part*of*the*interview,*the*adolescents*were*asked*to*define* ‘being*mobile’*using*their*own*words.*Interestingly,*all*but*one*of*the*interviewees*defined* ‘being*mobile’*using*the*term*independence.*Mobility*for*the*interviewed*adolescents*can*be* defined*using*the*symbolic*dimension*autonomy.*According*to*the*adolescents,*mobility*is** travelling!anytime,!wherever!and!whenever!you!want!to,!independent!of!third!parties.!! Twice,*spatial*flexibility*was*mentioned,*e.g.*being*able*to*go*from*A*to*B.*When*defining*the* term*‘being*mobile’,*the*interviewees*made*reference*to*different*modes*of*transport.*The* transport*mode*that*was*most*frequently*referred*to*in*association*with*being*mobile*was*the* car.* Mopeds* and* bikes* have* been* mentioned* twice,* and* public* transport,* airplanes,* car* sharing*and*walking*once.** The*interviewed*young*adults*have*been*asked*for*their*level!of!satisfaction!with!their!current! mobility!situation.!Half*of*them,*males*and*females,*pupils*and*apprentices,*are*very*satisfied.* Among*these*pupils*and*apprentices,*no*clear*trend*for*transport*mode*preferences*can*be* identified.* Some* of* the* very* satisfied* adolescents* already* gained* a* driver’s* licence,* while* others* did* not,* and* several* but* not* all* were* part* of* the* e2cult* project.* Three* of* the* interviewees,* more* precisely* pupils,* stated* to* be* rather* satisfied,* while* three* apprentices* stated*to*be*less*satisfied.*The*less*satisfied*adolescents*have*the*wish*for*a*car*or*better*public* transport*connections.** However,*when*asking*the*adolescents*for*desired!changes,*the*need*for*more*or*better*public* transport*connections*has*been*mentioned*most*often,*namely*nine*times.*Especially*during* weekends,* on* statutory* holidays* and* during* the* night,* adolescents* wish* for* more* public* transport*connections*in*Weiz*and*in*the*surrounding*rural*regions.*A*pupil*said*that* “especially!during!the!weekends,!buses!only!go!every!three!hours!or!only!until!midday!at! irregular!intervals.!Therefore,!it!is!hard!to!arrange!to!meet!friends.!Particularly!on!the!weekend! from! Passail! to! Weiz,! there! is! no! bus! at! all.! That! means! it! is! hard! if! friends! decide! to! go! swimming!during!the!weekend.!Then!my!parents!have!to!serve!as!drivers.”18!! An*apprentice*stated*that*his**

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18 *“Weil*vor*allem*an*den*Wochenenden*ist*es*so*dass*dann*nur*alle*drei*Stunden*oder*nur*bis*Mittag*die*Busse*oft* fahren.*Und*das*dann*auch*nur*in*sehr*unregelmäßigen*Abständen.*Und*da*ist*es*dann*oft*schwer,*dass*man*sich* verabredet.*Oder*vor*allem*am*Wochenende*fährt*von*Passail*nach*Weiz*überhaupt*kein*Bus*heraus.*Das*heißt*da*ist* es*schwer,*wenn*jetzt*die*Freunde*sagen,*gehen*wir*am*Wochenende*schwimmen.*Da*müssen*dann*meine*Eltern* herhalten*oder*so.”* * * * 96*

* EMPIRICAL!ANALYSIS!

“ex=girlfriend!lived!in!Rollsdorf,!and!the!last!bus!leaves!at!6.20!pm,!and!during!the!weekend! and!on!statutory!holidays!there!are!no!buses!at!all.!Well,!without!a!car!or!moped![...]!I!had!to! cycle!there!often!enough.”19!! The*wish*for*cheaper*public*transport*was*further*expressed.*Some*adolescents*argued*that* they*are*unsure*about*current*public*transport*offers,*as*they*do*not*use*them,*while*some* stated*that*they*are*satisfied*with*the*offers.** Also*the*desire*for*the*use*of*motorised*private*transport*was*mentioned,*namely*the*wish* for*a*car,*a*moped*or*even*a*driver’s*licence.*Among*the*five*adolescents*who*took*part*in*the* e2cult*project,*two*apprentices*also*wished*for*an*e2bike,*as*they*had*the*chance*to*test*it*and* were*highly*satisfied.** “If!I!had!an!e=bike,!I!would!cycle.!As!long!as!I!do!not!have!one,!I!would!go!by!car.!From!that! perspective…!I!have!already!thought!about,!I!have!already!looked!for!e=bikes,!because!it!is!a! real!pleasure!for!me.!When!I!have!to!give!this!one!back,!that!I!buy!one!myself.”20!* Some*adolescents*expressed*no*desired*changes*at*all*and*stated*that*they*are*satisfied*with* their*current*mobility*situation.** * 4.2.3! Opportunity'e_vehicles?''

The*opportunities*of*e2vehicles*have*been*discussed*both,*with*adolescents*who*took*part*in* the*e2cult*project*and*with*the*group*who*did*not*(yet)*take*part.*However,*different*guiding* questions*have*been*formulated*for*these*two*groups*(see*Annex*1).*As*has*been*mentioned* above,*five*of*the*interviewees*already*took*part*in*the*project*by*the*time*the*interviews* were*conducted.** * 4.2.3.1! Participation!in!eUcult!project!!

Among*the*adolescents!who!took!part!in!the!e=cult!project,*the*motive*to*do*so*was*mainly*to* try*and*test*e2vehicles.*During*the*renting*period,*all*but*one*used*the*e2vehicle*almost*daily* to*go*to*school.*During*leisure*time,*three*adolescents*said*that*they*used*it*almost*daily,*while* two* used* the* e2vehicle*on*occasion.* Regarding* the* renting* period* of* the* e2vehicles,* some*

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19 *“Weil*meine*Ex2Freundin*hat*in*Rollsdorf*gewohnt,*und*wenn*der*letzte*Bus*um*18.20*fährt,*und*am*Wochenende* und*Feiertag*gar*nichts...*Dann....*Ohne*Moped,*ohne*Auto,*bin*ich*oft*genug*hinuntergeradelt.”* 20 *“Wenn*ich*ein*e2Rad*hätte,*dann*würde*ich*mit*dem*e2Rad*fahren.*Und*wenn*ich*keines*habe,*würde*ich*mit*dem* Auto*fahren.*Also*von*dem*her...*Ich*habe*jetzt*schon*überlegt,*ich*habe*schon*ein*bisschen*nach*e2Rädern*geschaut,* weil*es*mir*wirklich*daugt.*Wenn*ich*dieses*wieder*zurückgeben*muss,*dass*ich*mir*wirklich*selber*eines*kaufen*würde.”* * * * 97*

* EMPIRICAL!ANALYSIS! adolescents*still*used*the*e2vehicles*by*the*time*the*interviews*were*conducted,*while*some* had*already*returned*them*after*a*renting*period*of*up*to*three*months.** The*adolescents*were*asked*for*positive*and*negative*aspects*of*the*project.*Positive*aspects* concerning*the*project*according*to*them*were*the*good*organisation*and*the*long*renting* periods*of*the*project.*It*was*acknowledged*that*the*project*might*increase*the*number*of*e2 vehicles*in*the*region,*which*was*observed*positively.*An*adolescent*again*mentioned*the* factor*independence*from*parents,*which*can*be*achieved*due*to*e2vehicles,** “my!mum!did!not!have!to!drive!me!all!the!time,!when!I!had!to!cover!longer!distances,!which! would!have!been!quite!exhausting!with!a!regular!bike.”21!! The*interviewees*also*mentioned*the*electric*motor*support*of*e2vehicles*to*be*very*positive.** “I!borrowed!an!e=bike,!which!was!great.!Especially,!one!has!to!climb!a!hill!up!to!my!house,!and! with!the!e=bike!it!is!possible!to!go!up!quite!fast,!which!is!great.!You!can!get!from!A!to!B!really! quick.”22!! As*well*as*that,*an*apprentice*mentioned*the*range*of*the*battery,** “Since!I!borrowed!the!bike,!I!rode!100!kilometres!within!six!days.![…]!The!battery!range!is!really! good.!I!would!have!never!thought!that!it!has!such!a!long!battery!life.!Absolutely!top.”23! Nevertheless,*when*asked*about*negative*aspects*of*the*project,*the*adolescents*exclusively* mentioned*technical*difficulties*with*the*e2vehicles.*First,*it*was*criticised*that*the*electric* engine* of* the* e2bike* shuts* off* at* 25* km/h.* However,* the* adolescents* at* the* same* time* acknowledged*that*in*this*case*one*would*need*a*licence.*Second,*it*was*mentioned*that*the* engine*is*too*weak*in*general,*or*that*it*failed*now*and*then.*Furthermore,*it*was*mentioned* once*that*an*e2bike*had*worn2out*breaks.*As*well*as*that,*an*apprentice*criticised*the*low* range*of*the*e2scooter,*in*contrast*to*the*comment*above.** “With!the!moped!you!cannot!get!very!far.!Regarding!the!kilometres,!the!range,!it!is!very!low.! That!is!one!reason!why!I!would!not!buy!it!myself.!Every!night,!when!I!drive!to!work![I!have!to! charge!it].!That!is!quite!inconvenient.”24!!

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21 *“Die*Mama*musste*auch*nicht*immer*fahren,*wenn*ich*länger*Strecken*fahren*musste,*was*wirklich*mit*dem*Rad* ohne*Akku*schon*ein*bisschen*anstrengender*war.”* 22 *“Also*ich*hab*das*Pedelec*gehabt,*es*war*eigentlich*echt*klass.*Vor*allem,*es*geht*zu*meinem*Haus*eine*Steigung* hinauf,*und*mit*dem*Pedelec*bist*du*sehr*schnell*oben,*das*ist*schon*ziemlich*klass.*Man*kommt*wirklich*schnell*von*A* nach*B.”* 23 * “Und*ansonsten*gibt*es*eigentlich*nur*Vorteile.*Seit*ich*das*Rad*habe,*bin*ich*100km*damit*gefahren.*Das*war* innerhalb*von*6*Tagen.*[…]*Und*ansonsten*wirklich*nur*Vorteile.*Akkulaufzeit*ist*wirklich*sehr*gut.*Das*hätte*ich*nicht* gedacht,*dass*es*so*lange*hält.*Wirklich*top.”* 24 *“Nur*mit*dem*Moped...*man*kommt*nicht*sehr*weit.*Von*den*Kilometern,*von*der*Reichweite*her,*ist*es*sehr*gering.* Das*ist*auch*ein*Grund,*warum*ich*es*mir*nicht*kaufen*würde.*Jede*Nacht,*wenn*ich*arbeiten*fahre*[muss*ich*es*laden].* Das*ist*dann*doch*recht*umständlich.”* * * * 98*

* EMPIRICAL!ANALYSIS!

In* the* following,* the* adolescents* who* took* part* in* the* e2cult* project* were* asked* for* suggestions*regarding*the*e2vehicles,*as*well*as*the*infrastructure.*Concerning*suggestions!for! the!e=vehicles,*the*above2mentioned*aspects*have*been*repeated.*The*engine*should*not*shut* off*at*25*km/h,*should*be*stronger*in*general*with*regard*to*the*collapsible*bike*or*should*be* improved*so*it*does*not*fail.*Another*suggestion*was*that*the*worn*out*breaks*should*be* improved.*Furthermore,*the*adolescents*mentioned*that*the*e2bike*is*quite*heavy,*especially* if*e.g.*the*engine*fails*while*going*up*a*hill.*The*range*of*the*e2scooter*should*be*improved,*as* mentioned*above.*The*adolescents*who*took*part*in*the*e2cult*project*mentioned*that*besides* the*discussed*aspects,*they*were*highly*satisfied*with*testing*the*e2vehicles.*With*regard*to* suggestions!for!the!infrastructure,*none*have*been*made.*The*adolescents*are*satisfied*with* the*range*of*bicycle*roads*and*paths*in*the*area,*as*well*as*with*the*range*of*electric*charging* stations*in*the*EWG.*In*this*context,*one*adolescent*questioned*the*reasonableness*of*electric* charging*stations*in*the*city,*as*charging*takes*too*long*to*be*done*during*e.g.*shopping.** Beyond* these* suggestions,* adolescents* were* asked* for* their* attitudes! towards! a! future! exclusive!use!of!e=vehicles.*Here,*the*opinions*are*divided.*While*this*is*imaginable*for*two* female*pupils,*who*argued** “yes,!this!is!imaginable!for!me.!Because!I!have!tried!the!e=bike,!and!it!has!worked!really!well.! And!my!neighbours!have!an!e=car!and!took!me!once.!I!think!it!works!really!well,!and!I!think!it! will!work!out,!that!I!also!use!it.”25!* “I!can!very!well!imagine!that.!I!am!a!person!who!thinks!much!about!the!future,!regarding! emissions,!climate!change.!I!am!interested!in!it!and!want!to!make!a!contribution!to!it.”26!* For*a*male*student,*the*future*use*of*e2bikes*is*imaginable,*but*a*future*exclusive*use*of*e2cars* is*not,*as*according*to*him*charging*e2cars*is*somewhat*difficult.** Two* male* apprentices,* who* both* enjoyed* testing* and* the* use* of* an* e2bike* and* e2scooter,* nevertheless* cannot* imagine* a* future* exclusive* use* of* e2vehicles,* mostly* due* to* technical* aspects*and*their*technical*affinity.*It*has*been*stated*that* “it!just!does!not!make!any!noise.!I!grew!up!with!motorsport,!and!that!is!just!simply!part!of!it.! Exclusively!e=vehicles…!not!necessarily.”27!!

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25 *“Ja,*könnte*ich*mir*eigentlich*schon*vorstellen*(...)*weil,*ich*habe*eben*schon*das*e2Rad*benützt,*und*das*hat*recht* gut*funktioniert.*Und*meine*Nachbarn*haben*schon*ein*e2Auto,*und*da*bin*ich*auch*schon*einmal*mitgefahren.*Ich* finde*das*funktioniert*recht*gut,*und*ich*glaube*das*wird*funktionieren,*dass*ich*das*auch*machen*würde.”* 26 *“Ja,*das*kann*ich*mir*gut*vorstellen.*Weil*ich*bin*eine*Person,*die*auch*viel*über*die*Zukunft*nachdenkt,*was*das*so* betrifft*mit*Abgasen,*Klimaerwärmung,*(...)*Es*interessiert*mich*selber*auch,*und*ich*schaue,*dass*ich*meinen*Beitrag* dazu*leisten*kann.”* 27 *“Nicht*unbedingt.*(...)*Wie*soll*ich*das*erklären.*Es*macht*einfach*keinen*Lärm.*Ich*bin*mit*dem*Motorsport*eigentlich* aufgewachsen,*und*da*gehört*das*ja*irgendwie*dazu.*Nur*Elektrofahrzeuge...*nicht*so*unbedingt.”* * * * 99*

* EMPIRICAL!ANALYSIS!

This*argument*also*suggests*that*habits*as*well*as*travel*socialisation*by*parents*play*a*central* role*for*the*mobility*behaviour*of*the*adolescent.*The*other*apprentice*argued*that** “from!my!point!of!view,!you!just!need!to!hear!the!motor!of!a!car.!I!need!to!smell!the!motor.!It! is!simply!because!I!am!interested!in!technology!and!so!on.!I!would!not!want!to!miss!that.”28!! However,* all* of* the* adolescents* who* took* part* in* the* e2cult* project* said* that* they* would* recommend*joining*the*project*to*their*friends.*According*to*them,*testing*e2vehicles*was*an* interesting* experience,* and* it* was* fun,* which* corresponds* to* the* symbolic* dimension* experience.* * 4.2.3.2! No!participation!in!eUcult!project!

The*adolescents*who*took*part*in*the*interviews,*but*did*not*or*not*yet*take*part*in*the*e2cult* project,* were* as* well* questioned* concerning* their* attitudes* and* ideas* of* e2vehicles.* An* apprentice*just*started*taking*part*in*the*project*the*day*the*interview*was*conducted,*as*he* thought*it*is*convenient*during*summer*and*free*of*charge.*Some*received*information*in* school* or* at* the* workplace,* but* have* not* decided* yet* to* take* part,* while* others* had* no* knowledge*about*the*project*yet.*After*explaining*the*idea*of*the*project,*the*adolescents* were*asked*for*their*motives*not*to*take*part.*While*some*wanted*to*engage*in*the*project* after*it*was*explained*to*them,*others*argued*that*they*either*feel*insufficiently*informed*and* have*not*decided*yet*whether*to*take*part.*It*is*mentioned*that*testing*e2scooters*is*not*a* possibility*without*a*driver’s*licence,*that*the*adolescents*rather*use*their*own*moped*or*that* an*e2bike*is*not*an*alternative*to*a*regular*bike*for*sporting*reasons.*Two*of*the*adolescents* are*not*at*all*interested*in*testing*an*e2bike*or*e2scooter.*On*the*one*hand,*it*is*argued*that* the*way*from*home*to*school*is*too*long*to*go*by*e2bike.*On*the*other*hand,*an*adolescent* said*the*only*circumstance*under*which*he*would*use*an*e2bike*instead*of*a*regular*bike*is*if* he*received*it*as*a*gift.** Those*adolescents*who*are*at*least*somewhat*interested*in*testing*e2vehicles*said*that*they* believe*it*is*worthwhile*to*test*and*get*to*know*this*transport*mode.*Both,*e2vehicles*in*general* and*charging*specifically,*are*assessed*to*be*comfortable.*Moreover,*the*fact*that*the*project* is*for*free*is*another*reason*for*an*interviewee*to*take*part.** In*the*following,*the*adolescents*were*asked*to*define!e=mobility*in*their*own*words.*Most*of* the*adolescents*in*this*respect*mentioned*the*environmental*friendliness*of*e2vehicles.*As*well* as*that,*it*was*called*a*possibility*of*mobility*and*a*new*achievement,*using*electric*engines.*

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28 *“Weil*in*meinen*Augen*muss*man*den*Motor*hören,*beim*Auto.*Ich*muss*den*Motor*riechen*können.*Es*ist*einfach,* weil*ich*an*der*Technik*und*allem*Drum*und*Dran*interessiert*bin.*Das*will*ich*nicht*vermissen.”* * * * 100*

* EMPIRICAL!ANALYSIS!

The* adolescents* associated* a* way* of* comfortable* biking* with* it.* It* was* mentioned* that* e2 vehicles*need*to*be*charged*and*they*are*considered*to*have*a*low*range.** Consequently,*the*interviewees*were*asked*for*advantages*and*disadvantages*of*e2vehicles* from*their*point*of*view.*The*aim*was*to*compare*and*contrast*the*evaluation*of*adolescents* who*did*not*take*part*in*the*e2cult*project,*with*the*observations*of*adolescents*who*did.** Regarding* the* advantages! of! e=mobility,* again* environmental* friendliness* was* mentioned* most*often.** “Simply!the!possibility,!that!you!can!use!alternative!energy!and!transport!options!besides!fossil! oil!options.!That!slowly!a!change!in!thinking!is!happening.!Because,!for!example,!when!looking! 29 at!China,!the!CO2!emissions!are!madness.” !! Yet,*a*male*pupil*called*this*into*question,*he*said*that*an*advantage*is** “certainly!environmental!friendliness.!However,!this!is!torn,!because!if!everyone!uses!it,!where! is!the!electricity!supposed!to!come!from?!But,!generally,!environmentally!friendly!driving.”30!! Furthermore,*the*comfortability*of*travelling*by*e2bike*was*considered*positive,*as*well*as*the* efficiency*and*reliability*of*e2vehicles.*A*male*pupil*argued*that*an*advantage*is** “of!course,!the!efficiency.!The!e=engines!are!much!more!effective!than!internal!combustion! engines,!regarding!the!energy!turnover.!This!basically!means,!that!you!have!a!higher!output! compared!to!the!input.”31** The*adolescents*mentioned*that*the*e2vehicles*are*less*noisy,*produce*no*fumes,*that*the* maintenance*is*cheaper*compared*to*internal*combustion*engines*and*that*charging*the*e2 vehicles*is*comfortable.** “You!just!need!to!park!it!where!the!electricity!is,!and!can!charge!it!immediately,!without!driving! to!a!petrol!station.!I!like!that!about!e=scooters.!And!e=cars.”32!! As*well*as*that,*it*is*argued*that*e2bikes*provide*the*possibility*to*become*a*better*traffic* participant,*because*of*the*better*acceleration*compared*to*regular*bikes.**

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29 * “Und* einfach* die* Möglichkeit,* dass* man* neben* den* Erdölmethoden* auch* schon* alternative* Energie2* bzw.* Mobilitätsmethoden*hat.*Dass*da*schön*langsam*auch*ein*Umdenken*stattfindet.*Weil*wenn*man*nach*China*oder*so* schaut,*ist*das*ja*ein*Wahnsinn*mit*den*CO2*Emissionen.”* 30 *“Auf*jeden*Fall*Umweltfreundlichkeit.*Ich*finde*das*ist*auch*wieder*sehr*Zwiegestalten,*weil*wenn*es*jeder*hat,*wo* dann*der*Strom*herkommen*sollte?*Aber*einfach*dieses*umweltfreundliche*Fahren.”* 31 *“Und*natürlich*auch*die*Effizienz.*Die*e2Motoren*sind*um*einiges*effektiver*als*die*Verbrennungskraftmotoren,*vom* Energieumsatz.*Das*heißt*man*bekommt*im*Prinzip*mehr*raus,*von*dem*was*man*rein*steckt.”* 32 *“Ja,*weil*ich*es*klass*finde,*du*brauchst*es*nur*zum*Strom*stellen*und*kannst*es*gleich*aufladen,*ohne*dass*man*zur* Tankstelle*fahren*braucht.*Das*finde*ich*klass*bei*e2Rollern.*Das*finde*ich*auch*klass*bei*e2Autos.*Das*daugt*mir.”* * * * 101*

* DISCUSSION!

However,*the*adolescents*also*listed*several*disadvantages!of!e=mobility.*First*and*foremost,* the*perceived*low*range*of*e2vehicles*is*a*problem*for*the*adolescents.*Along*with*that,*the* high*investment*costs*when*buying*an*e2vehicle*are*barriers*for*young*adults.*Moreover,*the* environmental*friendliness*and*sustainability*of*the*electricity*generation*is*questioned.*The* missing*sound*is*a*disadvantage*for*several*adolescents.*For*some*of*them,*this*is*because*a* silent*vehicle*is*dangerous,*for*some*it*is*because*of*their*technical*affinity.*According*to*an* adolescent,* charging* the* e2vehicles* is* time2consuming,* and* the* infrastructure* in* terms* of* electric*filling*stations*is*still*low.** At*the*end*of*the*interviews,*several*adolescents,*who*took*part*in*e2cult*and*who*did*not,* stressed*the*importance*of*projects*such*as*e2cult,*that*people*their*age*can*get*to*know* alternative*transport*modes.*E2mobility*is*seen*as*a*great*opportunity*for*the*future,*and*it*is* argued*that*as*many*people*as*possible*should*have*the*chance*to*become*more*familiar*with* it.*An*apprentice*said** “as!far!as!I!am!concerned,!such!projects!could!be!done!much!more!often!and!much!longer!! Many!more!of!them!!And!maybe!even!other!projects,!where!one!can!for!example!try!a!car,! Tesla!or!the!like.!But!I!guess!that!is!impossible.”33!! *

5! Discussion''

Within*the*scope*of*the*following*chapter,*the*obtained*and*previously*presented*empirical* results* are* used* to* answer* the* research* questions* formulated* in* sub2chapter* 1.5.* First,* a* discussion*of*results*is*presented.*Second,*the*limitations*of*the*research*are*addressed.**

* 5.1! Discussion'of'results''

*

5.1.1! Drivers'and'barriers'of'adolescents’'mobility'behaviour''

The* formulated* research* questions* are* aimed* at* identifying* drivers* and* barriers* affecting* adolescents’*mobility*behaviour*in*both,*theories*and*empirical*research*studies,*as*well*as*in* an*Austrian*case*study*region*in*a*rural*area.*In*the*previous*chapters,*various*drivers*and* barriers*influencing*the*mobility*behaviour*of*adolescents*have*been*identified*and*examined.* In* the* following,* these* results* are* discussed* and* it* is* analysed* to* what* extent* the* factors*

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33 *“Vor*mir*aus*könnten*sie*solche*Projekte*viel*öfter*oder*länger*machen.*Viel*mehr*davon!*Und*vielleicht*auch*ein* paar*andere*Projekte,*dass*man*z.B.*mal*ein*Auto*hat,*Tesla*oder*so,*zum*Probieren.*Aber*ich*glaube*das*ist*eher* unmöglich.”* * * * 102*

* DISCUSSION! identified*in*the*literature*differ*from*the*ones*named*by*adolescents*and*young*adults.*As* this*research*project*focuses*on*the*area*EWG,*the*results*of*this*research*project*are*mainly* relevant*for*action*carried*out*within*the*energy*region.*However,*the*findings*presented*can* be*adopted*to*other*areas*within*or*outside*Austria,*for*decision2making*strategies*on*a*local,* regional*or*national*level.* The*drivers*and*barriers*identified*using*empirical*research*papers*are*(i)*sociodemographic* factors,*i.e.*age*or*stage*of*life,*gender,*living*environment,*education,*occupation*and*income* level,*as*well*as*household*structure,*(ii)*psychological*factors,*i.e.*attitudes*and*norms,*habits,* symbolic2affective* motives,* (iii)* social* interaction,* (iv)* environmental* awareness,* (v)* technological* factors,* (vi)* possessions* of* driver’s* licence* and* driving* a* car,* (vii)* weather* conditions*and*(viii)*the*analysis*whether*e2vehicles*can*be*seen*as*an*opportunity.** Yet,*defining*an*order*of*importance*of*the*different*factors*based*on*the*literature*research* and*content*analysis*is*hardly*possible.*First,*it*has*to*be*acknowledged*that*the*identified* factors*have*a*strong*influence*on*each*other*and*a*clear*separation*between*them*is*hardly* possible.* For* example,* social* interaction* and* travel* socialisation* by* parents* and* peers* influence*the*development*of*psychological*factors*such*as*habits,*norms*or*attitudes.*The* level*of*environmental*awareness*is*connected*to*psychological*factors,*social*interaction*or* even*technological*aspects.*The*possession*of*a*driver’s*licence*of*a*young*adult*might*be* influenced* by* sociodemographic* factors,* as* for* instance* household* structure,* or* by* social* interaction.*The*opportunities*of*e2vehicles*to*improve*the*level*of*sustainable*mobility*among* adolescents*might*be*influenced*by*all*other*factors*named*above,*just*to*mention*a*few.* Second,*while*a*certain*influencing*factor*might*be*the*main*reason*for*the*mobility*behaviour* of*an*adolescent,*this*influencing*factor*might*not*at*all*be*important*to*the*next*adolescent.** The* current* mobility* behaviour* of* adolescents* in* general* and* the* drivers* and* barriers* identified* throughout* the* empirical* analysis* of* this* thesis* are* broadly* consistent* with* the* discussed*aspects*in*scientific*literature.*In*the*following,*the*results*are*discussed*consistent* with*the*drivers*and*barriers*identified*through*the*content*analysis*in*research*papers.** * 5.1.1.1! Transport!mode!choice,!driver’s!licence!and!travelling!by!car!!

Regarding*the*general*mobility2specific*aspects*of*adolescents*in*the*case*study*region,*the* share*of*driver’s*licence*holders*and*future*license*holders*is*approximately*equivalent*to*the* share*discussed*in*scientific*literature*(IFMO,*2011,*p.*8;*Seebauer*et*al.,*2010,*p.*194).*Only* one*of*the*interviewed*adolescents*mentioned*that*she*does*not*have*a*driver’s*licence*yet,* and*is*also*not*sure*whether*she*will*gain*one*at*all.** Furthermore,* only* one* of* the* adolescents* in* the* case* study* region* does* not* have* a* car* available*in*the*household.*This*observation*is*consistent*with*findings*in*scientific*literature*

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* DISCUSSION!

(i.a.*Seebauer*et*al.,*2010,*p.*188),*as*car*availability*in*rural*areas*is*in*general*higher*than*in* urban*areas.*More*than*half*of*adolescents*in*the*case*study*region*have*two*or*more*cars* available*or*possess*an*own*car.*Here,*no*clear*preferences*for*transport*modes,*especially*for* the*use*of*cars,*can*be*derived*from*the*number*of*cars*adolescents*have*available*in*their* household.** As*all*of*the*interviewed*adolescents*are*in*education,*either*school*or*apprenticeship*and*live* in*a*rural*Austrian*area,*the*share*of*those*owning*a*public*transport*season*ticket*is*relatively* high.*This,*again,*corresponds*with*other*findings*(i.a.*Seebauer*et*al.,*2010,*p.*191).** The*conducted*interviews*further*showed*that*the*mobility*behaviour*of*adolescents*with* regard*to*their*transport*mode*choice*is*highly*diverse.*The*adolescents*name*the*use*of*cars* both,*as*driver*and*passenger,*of*mopeds,*public*transport,*bicycles,*walking*and*e2vehicles.* Not*only*do*the*adolescents*name*different*transport*modes*among*one*another,*but*each* adolescent*also*names*different*transport*modes*for*the*way*to*school*or*work,*as*well*as*for* ways*travelled*during*leisure*time.*Therefore,*the*increasing*multimodality*of*adolescents*at* the* present* time,* as* discussed* in* different* scientific* research* studies* (IFMO,* 2011,* p.* 27;* Schönduwe*et*al.,*2012,*p.*24),*can*be*confirmed*with*the*results*at*hand.*The*adolescents* take*a*decision*for*a*transport*mode*dependent*on*their*current*situation,*or*dependent*on* different*framework*conditions.*These*might*be*the*mobility*behaviour*of*third*parties*at*a* certain* time,* the* weather* or* other* symbolic2affective* motives.* As* Holz2Rau* and* Scheiner* (2015,*p.*9)*argue,*the*flexibility*of*young*adults*in*terms*of*transport*modes*might*be*a*more* complex*form*of*habits*than*previously*observed.*This*theory*was*also*observed*among*the* interviewees*in*the*case*study*region,*as*the*bike*and*moped*are*chosen*in*good*weather,*the* car*is*chosen*in*bad*weather,*to*travel*longer*distances*or*to*go*shopping,*and*public*transport* is*chosen*on*the*way*to*or*home*from*school*or*work.** What*is*interesting,*is*that*a*difference*in*the*choice*of*transport*mode*for*ways*to*school*or* work*and*during*leisure*time*can*be*perceived.*For*ways*to*school*or*work,*adolescents*more* often*use*public*transport,*are*quite*often*car*passengers*or*use*the*bicycle.*During*leisure* time*the*car*usage*increases*and*the*use*of*a*car*not*only*as*passenger*but*also*as*a*driver*is* important.*Furthermore,*the*use*of*bicycles*becomes*slightly*more*important.*When*analysing* this*varying*behaviour,*a*possible*explanation*might*be*the*decreasing*availability*of*public* transport*connections*during*evenings,*weekends*and*federal*holidays.*This*is*criticised*by* different* adolescents* in* the* case* study* region.* Also* psychological* aspects,* especially* the* frequently*mentioned*aspect*independence,*might*be*an*explanation*for*the*increasing*use* of*motorised*private*transport*during*leisure*time.** *

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* DISCUSSION!

5.1.1.2! Sociodemographic!factors!!

Regarding* the* influence* of* sociodemographic! factors* among* the* adolescents* within* the* empirical* research* study,* it* can* be* said* that* no* clear* statement* can* be* made* about* the* influence* of* age* based* solely* on* the* empirical* research.* All* of* the* adolescents* are* approximately*the*same*age,*namely*17*to*19*years.*Also,*the*sample*is*not*evenly*distributed* enough*to*analyse*differences*in*the*mobility*behaviour*among*adolescents*younger*and*from* 18*years.*Youth*is*an*imprinting*time*for*future*mobility*behaviour,*as*shown*in*scientific* literature.*When*looking*into*the*future,*the*interviewed*adolescents*differentiate*between* different*stages*of*life*concerning*their*mobility*behaviour.*Pupils*argue*that,*when*attending* a*university*and*living*in*an*urban*area,*owning*a*car*is*not*essential.*At*the*same*time,*some* adolescents*mentioned*that*they*cannot*imagine*living*without*a*car*once*they*start*a*family.* These*findings*are*in*line*with*findings*in*scientific*literature.*As*summarised*in*sub2chapter* 3.3.4,* it* is* argued* that* PMN* influence* demand* of* mobility* and,* in* the* following,* ones’* behaviour*(Haustein*and*Hunecke,*2007,*p.*1859).** Few*gender!differences*could*be*shown*regarding*the*attitudes*towards*different*mobility* behaviours.* No* differences* have* been* observed* regarding* the* current* use* of* different* transport*modes.*However,*only*two*male*apprentices*own*a*car,*which*could*be*explained* by* their* higher* income* level* and* the* fact* that* only* male* apprentices* were* interviewed.* Nevertheless,* even* though* independence* is* an* important* factor* for* all* adolescents* throughout*the*interviews,*predominantly*males*placed*importance*upon*independence*from* third*parties*or*public*transport*and*thus*justified*the*use*of*cars.*Yet,*when*the*interviewees* were*asked*whether*they*can*imagine*living*without*a*car,*no*gender*differences*could*be* observed*with*regard*to*their*answers.*Gender*differences*have*though*been*observed*when* asking*adolescents*about*their*attitude*towards*public*transport.*Females*were*in*general* more*positive*to*public*transport,*while*only*male*adolescents*formulated*negative*opinions.* Here,*one*needs*to*keep*in*mind*that*more*males*than*females*have*been*interviewed,*which* might*be*responsible*for*this*outcome.*Nevertheless,*these*findings*correspond*with*findings* in*scientific*literature.*Moreover,*when*asking*adolescents*who*took*part*in*the*e2cult*project,* whether*they*can*imagine*a*future*exclusive*use*of*e2vehicles,*female*adolescents*answered* in*the*affirmative,*while*males*did*not.*The*attitudes*of*the*male*interviewees*can*for*the*most* part*be*explained*by*their*technological*affinity,*while*the*attitudes*of*the*female*adolescents* are* predominantly* motivated* by* environmental* concerns.* Again,* this* corresponds* with* findings*in*scientific*literature,*see*sub2chapter*3.4.3*as*well*as*3.4.5.** Concerning*the*living!situation*of*the*interviewees,*few*statements*can*be*made*based*solely* on*the*empirical*research,*as*all*of*them*live*in*a*rural*area.*Only*two*live*in*a*city*centre*in* the*rural*case*study*region,*but*no*differences*with*regard*to*transport*mode*choices*can*be* perceived.*In*general,*the*share*of*cars*available*in*the*households*as*well*as*the*share*of* adolescents*owning*a*public*transport*season*ticket*are*relatively*high,*as*is*usually*the*case* * * * 105*

* DISCUSSION! in*rural*areas.*Some*of*the*adolescents*differentiated*between*their*future*living*situation*in* a*rural*or*urban*area,*when*they*were*asked*for*future*transport*mode*choices.** Concerning*the*level!of!education!and!income*among*the*adolescents,*a*difference*can*be* made* between* pupils* and* apprentices.* As* discussed* in* the* previous* chapter,* no* clear* preferences*for*transport*modes*in*general*have*been*identified*for*either*of*the*two*groups.* Furthermore,*no*clear*preferences*regarding*the*attitude*towards*public*transport*can*be* identified* either* among* pupils* or* apprentices.* However,* when* asked* whether* they* can* imagine* living* without* a* car,* apprentices* more* often* stated* they* cannot* imagine* that,* in* contrast* to* pupils.* This* finding* might* again* be* influenced* by* the* fact* that* only* male* apprentices*were*interviewed.*Moreover,*when*the*adolescents*were*asked*for*their*level*of* satisfaction*with*their*current*mobility*situation,*only*apprentices*stated*that*they*are*less* satisfied.*They*expressed*their*wish*for*an*own*car*and*better*public*transport*connections.** The*household!structure*of*adolescents*was*not*explicitly*queried*within*the*interviews.*Yet,* some*adolescents*mentioned*that*they*used*a*certain*transport*mode*due*to*another*family* member.*A*male*pupil*said*that*he*goes*to*school*as*a*car*passenger,*as*his*parents*take*his* little*sister*to*school*anyway,*while*a*female*pupil*goes*to*school*as*a*car*passenger,*as*her* father*goes*by*car*anyway.* * 5.1.1.3! Psychological!factors!!

Regarding*the*influence*of*psychological*factors*on*the*mobility*behaviour*of*adolescents*in* the*case*study*region,*it*can*be*said*that*the*symbolic!dimension!autonomy*seems*to*be*the* most*important*motive*for*a*transport*mode*choice*and*mobility*decision*in*general.*When* asked* for* the* motive* to* gain* a* driver’s* licence,* most* adolescents* mentioned* the* factor* independence.*As*well*as*that,*almost*all*adolescents*defined*mobility*using*words*such*as* independence*or*freedom.*Independence*is*a*main*driver*for*car*use,*or*for*the*wish*to*use* them.*As*well*as*that,*independence*is*mentioned*in*connection*with*the*use*of*bicycles,*as* well*as*e2vehicles*by*the*adolescents*who*took*part*in*the*e2cult*project.** Furthermore,*the*symbolic!dimension!experience*is*important*for*adolescents.*It*has*been* mentioned*that*the*use*of*cars,*mopeds,*bicycles*and*e2vehicles*is*fun*and*this*is*a*motive*to* use*a*certain*transport*mode.** Interestingly,* the* remaining* two* symbolic* dimensions,* status* and* privacy,* were* never* mentioned* during* the* interviews,* which* suggests* that* they* might* be* neglectable* for* the* adolescents*compared*to*autonomy*and*experience.** However,*not*only*symbolic2affective*motives*are*mentioned*by*the*adolescents,*but*also* instrumental!motives.*During*the*interviews,*instrumental*motives*such*as*comfort,*speed,*

* * * 106*

* DISCUSSION! flexibility*or*convenience*are*brought*up*as*motives*for*transport*mode*choice*surprisingly* often.** The*use*of*a*car*has*twice*been*explained*through*habits*by*the*interviewees.*The*use*of*no* other* mode* of* transport* has* been* associated* with* being* a* habit.* Yet,* habits* might* be* underlying*psychological*factors*which*the*adolescents*do*not*actively*think*about*or*name.* Concerning*attitudes*of*adolescents,*when*analysing*the*various*interviews,*it*can*be*stated* that* fundamental* differences* can* be* found* between* the* adolescents* and* their* mobility* decisions.*The*attitudes*towards*gaining*a*driver’s*licence,*owning*a*car,*living*without*a*car* or* towards* public* transport* show* fundamental* differences.* Here,* the* adolescents* can* be* divided*into*different*attitude2based*mobility*target*groups,*as*discussed*by*Hunecke*et*al.* (2002a,*pp.*92–94).*However,*some*can*unambiguously*be*assigned*to*an*established*target* group,* while* this* is* not* as* straightforward* for* other* interviewed* adolescents.* Especially* ecologically*aware*adolescents*under*18*years*and*adolescents*oriented*towards*cars*and* technology,*both*under*and*from*18*years,*can*easily*be*assigned*and*match*the*description* by* the* author* (see* sub2chapter* 3.3.3).* The* remaining* adolescents* need* to* be* assigned* to* mobility*target*groups*that*suit*their*attitudes*most*likely.*The*13*interviewed*adolescents* have*been*assigned*to*the*target*groups*as*discussed*previously.*Table*5*shows*how*many*of* the*adolescents*have*been*assigned*to*each*group.*As*only*two*interviewed*adolescents*were* 18*years*or*older,*only*these*are*assigned*to*subgroups*from*18*years.** *

Subgroup(under(18(years( Subgroup(from(18(years( Adolescent*oriented*towards*technology*and* 3( Adolescent*oriented*towards*technology*and* 1( cars( cars* * Established*adolescent* * Ecologically*aware*adolescent( 1( Ecologically*aware*adolescent* * Young*technology*fan( 4( * Unobtrusive*adolescent( 3( * * Adolescent*in*transition*period* 1( Distanced*adolescent( ( Distanced*adolescent* * Table!5:!Attitude=based!mobility!target!groups!identified!in!the!empirical!research!! ! (created!by!author,!adapted!from!Hunecke!et!al.,!2002a,!p.!92)!

*

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* DISCUSSION!

5.1.1.4! Environmental!awareness!!

During*the*interviews,*the*degree*of*environmental*awareness*of*the*interviewed*adolescents* was* not* questioned* directly.* Rather,* it* was* assumed* that* if* environmental* awareness* is* important*to*the*adolescents,*the*subject*is*brought*up*by*them*on*their*own.** As*shown*in*Table*5,*a*female*pupil*has*been*assigned*to*the*subgroup*ecologically*aware* adolescent*under*18*years.*Within*the*scope*of*this*interview,*environmental*degradation*and* the* willingness* to* use* sustainable* transport* modes,* as* she* feels* responsible* for* the* environment,*were*part*of*the*discussion.*This*female*pupil*is*as*well*the*only*one*who*is*not* sure*yet*whether*she*will*gain*a*driver’s*licence*and*is*not*planning*to*do*so*in*the*near*future.* Her*environmental*awareness*determines*her*mobility*behaviour*to*a*large*extent.** However,*also*other*young*adults*have*addressed*the*topic*of*environmental*degradation*and* sustainability.*A*male*pupil*highlighted*the*environmental*friendliness*of*public*transport.*The* environmental*friendliness*has*been*acknowledged*by*various*adolescents,*when*they*were* asked*for*a*definition,*as*well*as*for*advantages*and*disadvantages*of*e2mobility.*Even*more* so,*the*sustainability*of*electricity*generation*has*been*questioned.*Three*pupils*mentioned* that*the*degree*of*sustainability*of*electric*vehicles*depends*on*the*sustainability*of*electricity* generation.* The* farsightedness* of* these* adolescents* suggests* that* renewable* energy* is* important*to*them,*which*is*an*essential*aspect*for*future*sustainable*mobility*behaviour,*and* a*sustainable*lifestyle*in*general.*This*estimation*is*in*line*with*findings*from*Graham2Rowe*et* al.*(2012,*p.*150),*who*argue*that*drivers*positively*evaluated*carbon*emission*reductions,*but* were* sceptical* about* net* environmental* benefits* of* e2vehicles.* It* is* interesting* that* this* reflection*is*also*true*for*adolescents.* * 5.1.1.5! Social!interaction!!

The* importance* of* social* interactions* and* the* influence* of* third* parties* on* adolescents’* mobility* behaviour* was* not* directly* addressed* by* the* interviewees.* Surprisingly,* nobody* referred*to*the*behaviour*of*peers*when*discussing*their*own*mobility*behaviour.*It*can*be* assumed,* that* the* influence* of* peers* is* unconscious.* Furthermore,* only* one* adolescent* currently*has*no*car*available*in*the*household.*However,*he*cannot*imagine*living*without*a* car*once*he*has*a*family.*On*the*other*hand,*adolescents*whose*families*own*cars,*can*imagine* going*without*a*car*in*the*future.*The*findings*of*different*research*studies,*that*car*availability* in*a*household*during*youth*affects*the*mobility*behaviour*(see*sub2chapter*3.4.4),*cannot*be* proven*based*on*the*results*of*this*research.** The*use*of*cars*has*by*some*adolescents*been*explained*through*habits.*Here,*the*role*model* effect*might*be*responsible*for*the*formation*of*these*habits,*and*the*mobility*behaviour*of* parents*and*siblings*might*shape*adolescents’*habits*and*mobility*behaviour.*Some*pupils*

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* DISCUSSION! argued*that*they*are*at*least*sometimes*taken*to*school*by*their*parents.*Being*car*passengers* of*parents*shapes*adolescents’*values*towards*cars*and*might*influence*their*dependency,*as* discussed*by*Sigurdardottir*et*al.*(2014,*p.*24).*On*the*contrary,*some*adolescents*explained* their*choice*of*transport*mode*through*the*unwillingness*or*impossibility*of*their*parents*to* take*them.*This*suggests*that*these*adolescents*might*be*used*to*be*taken*by*their*parents.* The*fact*that*the*choice*of*one*transport*mode*is*explained*through*the*impossibility*to*be* taken*by*car,*suggests*that*a*dependency*on*the*car*might*have*already*been*developed.** * 5.1.1.6! Technological!factors!!

As*can*be*seen*in*Table*5,*several*adolescents*were*assigned*to*the*mobility*target*groups* adolescents*oriented*towards*technology*and*cars*under*and*from*18*years,*as*well*as*young* technology*fans.*The*technical*affinity*of,*unexceptional*male,*apprentices*but*also*pupils*was* part*of*the*discussion*throughout*several*interviews.*The*adolescents*argued*that*driving*a* car*or*moped*is*fun.*The*symbolic*dimension*experience*can*be*linked*to*their*technological* knowledge*and*interest,*as*argued*in*different*research*studies*(Tully,*2002b,*p.*76;*Klocke,* 2002,*p.*412).*Due*to*their*technological*interest,*a*life*without*a*car*is*hardly*imaginable*to* these*adolescents,*going*along*with*a*strong*desire*for*an*own*car,*if*they*do*not*own*one*yet.* Technological*affinity*might*at*the*same*time*be*an*opportunity*for*e2vehicles.*However,*the* technological*affine*apprentices*and*pupils*who*took*part*in*the*e2cult*project,*argued*that*a* future*exclusive*use*of*e2vehicles*is*unimaginable*or*only*partly*imaginable*to*them,*due*to* their*interest*in*technology*and*in*motorised*vehicles.** Interestingly,*the*two*technological*aspects*ICT*and*media*were*not*part*of*any*interview,* which*is*why*no*general*statements*can*be*made*regarding*these*factors.** * 5.1.1.7! Weather!!

As*the*interviews*were*undertaken*during*the*summertime,*in*July*2016,*and*the*adolescents* who*took*part*in*the*e2cult*project*borrowed*the*e2vehicles*mostly*during*spring*and*summer,* the* factor* weather* condition* was* not* crucial* during* the* empirical* research.* Nevertheless,* weather*has*been*mentioned*secondarily*in*connection*with*the*use*of*cars*and*mopeds.*An* apprentice*argued*that*he*uses*a*car*as*he*always*wants*to*be*dry2shod*when*travelling.*Also,* he*mentioned*that*he*uses*his*moped*when*the*weather*is*nice.*On*the*contrary,*another* apprentice*argued*that*he*needed*a*moped*to*be*able*to*get*to*work*fast*during*winter.** *

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* DISCUSSION!

5.1.2! Opportunity'e_vehicles''

In*the*following,*the*opportunities*for*e2vehicles*to*increase*the*share*of*sustainable*transport* modes*in*the*modal*split*are*discussed.*This*is*based*on*the*interview*results*in*the*case*study* region.** As*initially*presented,*the*share*of*motorised*private*transport*in*the*Austrian*modal*split*is* large,*especially*in*rural*areas.*This*is*not*only,*but*also,*true*for*adolescents.*Due*to*this*fact,* there*is*only*little*demand*of*public*transport,*which*in*turn*means*that*less*public*transport* offers*are*provided*(Bernhard,*2016,*p.*210).*Public*transport*cannot*halt*the*strong*tendency* towards* motorised* private* transport.* The* adolescents* in* the* case* study* region* as* well* criticised*the*few*public*transport*offers,*especially*during*evenings,*weekends*and*public* holidays.*Therefore,*other*sustainable*transport*possibilities*should*be*considered.*The*use*of* e2vehicles*can*offset*disadvantages*of*public*transport,*such*as*dependence.*As*has*often* been* mentioned* by* the* adolescents* in* the* empirical* research,* independence* is* of* great* importance*for*their*mobility*decisions.*The*important*symbolic*dimensions,*autonomy*and* experience,* are* fulfilled* by* e2vehicles.* The* adolescents* argued* that* they* can* provide* the* desired*independence,*in*contrast*to*public*transport,*as*well*as*fun*while*driving.** As*discussed*above,*the*increasing*multimodality*of*adolescents*can*also*be*proven*within*this* research.* The* adolescents* do* not* restrict* themselves* to* one* transport* mode* only,* which* creates*a*chance*for*e2vehicles*such*as*e2bikes*and*e2scooters.*Once*adolescents*have*come* to*know*e2vehicles,*as*is*the*case*during*the*e2cult*project,*it*can*be*one*possible*transport* mode,*besides*others.*When*asked*for*their*used*transport*modes*to*school*or*work,*some* adolescents*who*took*part*in*the*e2cult*project,*mentioned*that*they*used*the*borrowed*e2 vehicles.*Both*the*e2bike*and*the*e2scooter*were*used*instead*of*the*car.*This*suggests*that*e2 vehicles*might*be*a*possible*alternative*not*only*for*public*transport,*but*even*for*motorised* private*transport*among*young*adults.** Among*the*adolescents*who*took*part*in*the*e2cult*project,*a*positive*attitude*towards*the* project* and* e2vehicles* in* general* has* been* observed.* All* of* them* would* recommend* the* project*to*their*friends*and*even*a*future*exclusive*use*of*e2vehicles*is*imaginable*to*some.* Even*among*the*adolescents*who*did*not*take*part*in*the*e2cult*project,*positive*aspects*such* as* environmental* friendliness,* the* efficiency* and* reliability* regarding* the* range* and* the* comfort*of*e2bikes*in*contrast*to*regular*bikes*were*mentioned.*However,*some*technical* difficulties*were*observed*by*the*interviewees*who*borrowed*e2bikes*and*e2scooters,*such*as* worn*out*breaks*or*a*failing*engine.*It*is*crucial*that*these*difficulties*are*taken*care*of*during* project*such*as*e2cult,*in*order*to*influence*the*development*of*positive*rather*than*negative* attitudes*towards*e2vehicles.*Negative*experiences,*such*as*pushing*a*heavy*e2vehicle*up*a* steep*hill*because*the*engine*fails,*might*develop*poor*attitudes*towards*e2vehicles*for*life.* Nevertheless,*the*adolescents*who*took*part*in*the*e2cult*project*did*not*have*any*suggestions*

* * * 110*

* DISCUSSION! to*improve*the*infrastructure,*as*all*were*completely*satisfied.*Amongst*those*adolescents* who*did*not*take*part*in*the*e2cult*project,*the*low*range*of*e2vehicles*was*the*most*often* mentioned*disadvantage.*Only*one*adolescent*who*took*part*in*the*e2cult*project*mentioned* that*he*was*not*satisfied*with*the*range*of*the*e2scooter.*On*the*contrary,*an*apprentice*who* used*the*e2bike*said*that*he*was*pleasantly*surprised*concerning*the*long*range*and*long* battery*life*of*the*e2bike.*Therefore,*it*is*important*to*provide*possibilities*to*test*e2vehicles,* in*order*to*reduce*such*prejudices*and*barriers.** Interestingly,*suggestions*for*improvements*for*the*infrastructure*to*use*e2vehicles*are*only* mentioned*by*adolescents*who*did*not*test*e2vehicles.*It*might*be*a*general*believe*that*an* underdeveloped*infrastructure*is*a*drawback*for*the*use*of*e2vehicles.*However,*all*those* adolescents* who* tested* e2vehicles* and* the* infrastructure* in* the* case* study* region* had* no* suggestions*for*improvement*and*were*satisfied.*The*estimations*of*adolescents*who*did*not* take*part*in*the*e2cult*project*cannot*be*proven*by*the*observations*of*adolescents*who*tested* e2vehicles.*It*should*be*communicated*within*the*EWG,*that*a*satisfying*infrastructure*for*e2 vehicles*is*already*provided.** Nevertheless,*a*general*interest*in*e2vehicles*has*been*observed.*Among*those*who*were*not* yet*part*of*the*e2cult*project,*only*two*young*adults*did*not*take*into*consideration*joining*the* project*and*testing*e2vehicles.*Their*reasons*were*the*long*distances*from*home*to*school,* which*could*not*be*travelled*by*two2track*vehicles,*as*well*as*the*missing*sportiness*of*e2bikes* in*contrast*to*bicycles.*This*general*interest*in*e2vehicles,*apart*from*few*exceptions,*should* be* utilised* by* introducing* more* projects* such* as* e2cult.* Thereby,* future* travel* patterns* of* adolescents*can*be*shaped*and*a*more*sustainable*mobility*lifestyle*can*be*introduced*to* young* adults.* As* has* been* discussed* in* scientific* literature,* bringing* about* temporary* structural*changes*to*adolescents*might*be*sufficient*to*influence*their*mobility*behaviour* (Bamberg* et* al.,* 2003,* p.* 100;* Fujii* and* Kitamura,* 2003,* p.* 92;* Harms,* 2003,* pp.* 24–25;* Bamberg,* 2013,* p.* 74).* The* adolescents* are* confronted* with* precisely* such* temporary* structural*changes*during*the*e2cult*project.*A*new*possible*transport*mode*is*available*to* them,*which*influences*their*mobility*behaviour*during*the*project,*but*also*shapes*future* attitudes*towards*e2vehicles*and*future*travel*patterns.** * 5.2! Limitations' In*order*to*answer*the*research*questions,*different*methods*have*been*used.*The*method*of* literature* research* is* common* in* various* scientific* research* areas,* while* the* method* of* content* analysis* and* qualitative* interview* analysis* are* used* less* frequent.* However,* each* research*method*faces*limitations,*which*are*discussed*in*the*following.** First,*a*literature*research*has*been*conducted*to*provide*relevant*background*information* and*a*description*of*the*research*problem.*As*the*available*literature*directs*the*analysis,*this* * * * 111*

* CONCLUSION! projects*outcome*is*limited*by*the*provided*material,*which*has*been*accessed*online*as*well* as*by*the*university*library*and*the*university*VPN*network.* Second,* this* limitation* also* affects* content* analysis.* In* addition* to* this,* working* with* categories,*as*content*analysis*demands,*might*be*a*restriction.*Parts*of*relevant*texts*are* extracted*and*analysed,*which*means*that*“the*text*itself*is*not*the*subject*of*examination”* (Kohlbacher,*2006).** Third,*qualitative*interviews*in*the*case*study*region*EWG*were*conducted.*In*general,*a*case* study*enables*a*deep*insight*into*a*specific*object*or*case*with*time*and*space*restrictions.*It* is*characterized*by*intensive,*depth*and*qualitative*data*generation*(Verschuren*et*al.,*2010,* p.* 178).* It* has* to* be* acknowledged* that* the* results* of* case* studies* may* only* be* partly* generalized*and*applicable*to*other*areas.*Within*this*research,*a*relatively*small*sample*size* of*13*interviewees*was*used,*which*limits*generalization.*In*contrast*to*quantitative*research,* which*uses*a*large*sample*sizes,*the*“external*validity”*can*hardly*be*achieved*(ibid,*p.*185).* The*interviews*were*analysed*and*interpreted,*which*introduces*a*degree*of*subjectivity.** *

6! Conclusion''

In* the* following* concluding* section,* the* key* results* of* the* thesis* are* summarised,* policy* implications*are*presented*and*the*need*for*further*research*is*addressed.** The*aim*of*the*thesis*at*hand*was*to*analyse*the*drivers*and*barriers*of*adolescents’*mobility* behaviour* in* the* EWG.* In* addition,* it* addressed* the* opportunities* for* e2vehicles* for* more* sustainable*transport*among*young*adults*in*the*same*region.*Therefore,*this*study*presented* the*need*for*a*transition*to*more*sustainable*mobility*patterns,*due*to*current*emission*trends* and*unsustainable*travel*patterns*in*Austria.*The*importance*of*the*investigation*of*mobility* behaviour*of*adolescents*and*young*adults*was*presented,*as*they*are*in*a*period*of*transition,* and*future*mobility*patterns*are*shaped*during*that*time.*As*well*as*that,*adolescents*already* developed*a*specific*mobility*behaviour,*but*it*is*not*reinforced*yet.*With*projects*such*as*e2 cult*in*the*EWG,*habits*can*be*broken*and*the*period*of*transition*can*be*used*to*shape*future,* more*sustainable*travel*patterns.** The*extensive*literature*review*identified*the*underlying*psychological*concepts*for*mobility* behaviour,*i.e.*attitudes,*norms,*values*and*habits,*along*with*the*theories*of*action,*TPB*and* NAT,*where*these*psychological*concepts*are*applied.*In*the*following,*concepts*and*theories,* which*were*developed*in*mobility*research,*were*presented.*This*analysis*included*(i)*the* concept*of*mobility*biography,*(ii)*travel*socialization,*(iii)*mobility*styles*and*target*groups,* (iv)* PMN,* (v)* the* levels* of* mobility* sphere* development,* (vi)* the* components* of* mobility* perception,*as*well*as*(vii)*the*defining*features*of*adolescence.*On*the*basis*of*a*content* analysis,* drivers* and* barriers* for* mobility* behaviour* in* scientific* mobility* studies* were* * * * 112*

* CONCLUSION! identified.* These* are* (i)* sociodemographic* factors,* i.e.* age* or* stage* of* life,* gender,* living* environment,* education,* occupation* and* income* level,* as* well* as* household* structure,* (ii)* psychological*factors,*i.e.*attitudes*and*norms,*habits,*symbolic2affective*motives,*(iii)*social* interaction,*(iv)*environmental*awareness,*(v)*technological*factors,*(vi)*possessions*of*driver’s* licence*and*driving*a*car,*(vii)*weather*conditions*and*(viii)*the*analysis*whether*e2vehicles*can* be*seen*as*an*opportunity.*The*ranking*of*these*factors*is*not*referring*to*their*importance.* Also,*there*is*a*strong*influence*amongst*themselves,*which*prevents*a*clear*separation*of*the* factors.** On*the*basis*of*the*13*interview*results*regarding*drivers*and*barriers*among*adolescents*in* the* case* study* region* EWG,* it* might* be* legitimate* to* argue* that* the* symbolic* dimension* autonomy*and*the*symbolic*dimension*experience,*and*the*diverse*attitudes*of*adolescents* are*some*of*the*most*important*factors*for*adolescents*influencing*mobility*decisions*and* their*choice*of*transport*mode.*These*factors*determine*their*mobility*behaviour*to*a*large* part.*But*also*instrumental*motives*of*transport*modes*are*mentioned*surprisingly*often.*For* that*reason,*psychological*factors*seem*to*be*among*the*most*important*for*the*interviewees* in*the*case*study*region.*However,*it*needs*to*be*mentioned*that*the*symbolic*dimension* status*was*not*part*of*any*interview.*These*findings*suggest,*that*the*car*is*no*longer*such*an* important*status*symbol*as*it*used*to*be,*which*corresponds*to*different*findings*in*scientific* literature.* Furthermore,* the* findings* suggest* that* habits* and* attitudes* of* adolescents* are* influenced* by* social* interactions,* both* with* family* members* and* peers.* The* social* environment* shapes* attitudes* and* habits,* which* is* especially* true* for* the* factors* environmental*awareness*and*technological*affinity.*Nevertheless,*the*results*cannot*prove*a* connection*between*the*car*availability*in*households*during*childhood*and*youth,*and*future* mobility*behaviour*and*dependence*on*the*car.*A*future*imaginable*abandonment*of*the*car* among* the* interviewees* is* not* connected* to* a* current* low* share* of* car* availability* in* the* household.* Moreover,* the* interview* results* proved* that* sociodemographic* factors* and* weather*are*influencing*factors*for*mobility*decisions*of*adolescents*to*some*extent.*As*can* be*seen*in*Table*5,*the*interviewees*belong*to*diverse*attitude2based*mobility*target*groups.* Some* factors* that* might* be* crucial* for* one* young* adult,* might* not* at* all* be* important* to* another*one,*e.g.*environmental*awareness*and*technical*affinity.*Hence,*it*is*crucial*to*be* aware*of*the*different,*diversified*motives,*drivers*and*barriers*behind*the*mobility*behaviour* of*adolescents*when*introducing*temporary*structural*changes*to*bring*about*change.** Based*on*the*results*of*the*interviews*in*the*case*study*region*EWG,*it*can*be*said*that*e2 vehicles*are*an*important*opportunity*among*adolescents*to*increase*the*share*of*sustainable* mobility*in*the*modal*split.*Even*though*a*high*share*of*driver’s*licence*holders*and*a*relatively* high*share*of*car*availability*in*households*were*observed,*also*a*strong*tendency*towards* multimodality*among*the*adolescents*was*proven.*The*choice*of*transport*modes*depends*on* different* framework* conditions,* and* e2bikes* as* well* as* e2scooters* fulfil* the* two* important*

* * * 113*

* CONCLUSION! symbolic*dimensions,*autonomy*and*experience,*as*has*been*argued*during*the*interviews.* Due*to*the*fact*that*they*provide*independence*to*the*adolescents*and*are*fun*at*the*same* time,*they*are*a*possible*alternative*for*public*as*well*as*motorised*private*transport.*The* results*show*that*the*little*demand*for*public*transport*due*to*the*relatively*high*share*of* motorised*private*transport*in*rural*areas*influences*public*transport*offers,*which*are*in*turn* reduced.*It*is*particularly*frustrating*for*adolescents*that*few*public*transport*connections*are* offered*at*times*when*especially*adolescents*would*like*to*use*them,*i.e.*in*the*evening,*during* weekends*or*public*holidays.*E2vehicles*provide*the*possibility*to*offset*these*disadvantages,* offer*independence*and*fun*to*the*adolescents*and*increase*the*share*of*sustainable*transport* in*the*modal*split*at*the*same*time.*Due*to*this*fact,*e2vehicles*are*also*an*alternative*to* motorised*private*transport,*as*the*results*show.*Even*though*some*adolescents*reported*on* technical* difficulties* regarding* the* e2vehicles,* all* adolescents* who* took* part* in* the* e2cult* project*had*a*very*positive*attitude*towards*e2vehicles*and*the*e2cult*project.*It*is*crucial*that* technical*difficulties*are*taken*care*of*immediately*during*such*projects,*in*order*to*avoid* young*adults*developing*negative*attitudes*towards*e2vehicles*for*life.*But*also*most*of*those* adolescents*who*did*not,*or*not*yet,*take*part*in*the*project*argued*that*such*undertakings* are* deeply* interesting* and* can* positively* influence* the* share* of* e2vehicles* in* the* EWG.* Providing* temporary* structural* changes* through* projects* such* as* e2cult,* which* offer* the* possibility*for*adolescents*to*test*e2vehicles,*can*reduce*prejudices*and*barriers*regarding*e2 vehicles*and*the*infrastructure.*Hence,*it*can*influence*the*mobility*behaviour*of*adolescents,* increase*the*opportunities*for*the*future*use*of*e2vehicles*and*shape*future*travel*patterns.** However,*amongst*those*adolescents*who*took*part*in*the*e2cult*project*and*were*positive* about*the*use*of*e2vehicles,*often*the*investment*costs*were*a*barrier*for*the*achievement*of* an* own* e2vehicle.* Therefore,* one* resulting* policy! implication* of* this* analysis* for* the* enhancement*of*e2vehicles*in*the*Austrian*modal*split*is*that*subsidies*for*the*purchase*of*an* e2vehicle,*also*in*the*specific*case*of*e2bikes*and*e2scooters,*should*be*given*to*adolescents.*A* possible*option*might*be*to*hand*out*vouchers*for*the*acquisition*of*an*e2vehicle*to*Austrian* adolescents*when*they*receive*their*Higher*School*Certificate*or*Apprenticeship*Certificate.* Another* possibility* might* be* price* reductions* through* exemptions* from* the* purchase* tax* specifically*for*adolescents.*As*well*as*that,*policy*makers*need*to*be*aware*of*the*fact*that* the*sustainability*of*e2vehicles*depends*on*the*sustainability*of*electricity*production.*The* results* showed,* that* adolescents* are* aware* of* this* fact.* For* that* reason,* a* sustainable* electricity* production* through* renewable* energies* should* be* provided* in* the* EWG,* a* possibility*that*also*has*to*be*communicated*to*adolescents.*In*addition,*it*is*crucial*for*a*long2 term*success*of*e2vehicles*to*provide*retailers*and*vehicle*repair*shops*in*the*region.*In*the* case*of*technical*difficulties*with*e2vehicles,*as*was*the*case*during*the*e2cult*project,*places* to* go* for* help* in* the* immediate* vicinity* are* essential* for* the* success* of* e2vehicles.* Policy* makers* further* should* communicate* effectively* to* adolescents* that* e2vehicles* fulfil* the* psychological* symbolic* dimension* autonomy* and* symbolic* dimension* experience.* Even* * * * 114*

* CONCLUSION! though* the* adolescents* can* be* assigned* to* diverse* attitude2based* mobility* target* groups,* these*two*factors*seem*to*be*overall*important.*To*promote*e2vehicles*it*should*also*be*aimed* for*to*address*the*different*attitudes,*especially*in*terms*of*environmental*awareness*and* technological* affinity.* Moreover,* financial* contributions* should* be* given* to* provide* many* more*projects*such*as*e2cult*to*young*adults*all*over*Austria,*especially*in*rural*areas.*Most*of* the*interviewed*adolescents*were*interested*in*such*projects*and*said*that*they*would*wish* for*many*more*similar*ones.*These*projects*provide*important*temporary*structural*changes* to*adolescents*who*are*in*transition*phases.*They*provide*a*unique*possibility*to*break*old* habits,*shape*their*mobility*behaviour*and*increase*the*share*of*sustainable*mobility*in*the* Austrian* modal* split* in* the* long2term.* Within* the* scope* of* such* projects,* environmentally* friendly*areas*in*agglomerations*could*be*developed,*where*access*is*only*granted*when*using* sustainable* transport* modes.* In* such* areas,* leisure* activities* for* adolescents* could* be* provided.*This*would*decrease*noise*and*GHG*emissions,*and*at*the*same*time*provide*a* higher*quality*of*life*in*the*environmentally*friendly*area*and*increase*the*share*of*sustainable* transport*in*the*modal*split.*Hence,*in*the*long*term,*the*share*of*emissions*in*Austria*can*be* reduced,*as*the*mobility*sector*contributes*to*the*current*CO2*emissions*in*a*large*part.*This,* in*turn,*can*contribute*to*meet*the*commitments*for*emission*reduction*targets*of*the*Paris* Agreement,* which* entered* into* force* on* November* 4th,* 2016* (UNFCCC,* 2017).* The* achievement* of* emission* reduction* targets* needs* to* be* a* fundamental* aim.* Austria* in* particular*needs*to*meet*its*commitments,*in*contrast*to*the*outcome*of*the*Kyoto*Protocol,* which*resulted*in*an*increase*of*emissions*(Umweltbundesamt,*2013,*p.*63).** This*thesis*contributed*to*the*scientific*knowledge*of*drivers*and*barriers*for*the*mobility* behaviour*of*adolescents*and*the*opportunities*of*e2vehicles*among*this*age*group.*However,* further* research* is* needed* to* allow* more* general* results* and* recommendations* for* an* increase*of*e2mobility*projects*for*adolescents.*Therefore,*suggestions!for!further!research*are* to* analyse* factors* for* mobility* behaviour* based* on* a* quantitative* rather* than* qualitative* research*design.*The*opportunities*of*e2vehicles*based*on*projects*such*as*e2cult*should*be* investigated* in* a* more* long2term* and* in2depth* research* study.* Moreover,* with* regard* to* technological*improvements*in*the*mobility*sector,*the*adoption*in*rural*areas*could*be*a* promising*topic*for*further*research.*As*well*as*that,*no*significant*results*have*been*found* regarding* the* influence* of* ICT* and* the* current* widespread* use* of* smartphones* among* adolescents*on*mobility*behaviour.*Here,*further*research*is*needed.** *

* * * 115*

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Wegemerkmalen*in*die*Theory*of*Planned*Behaviour,*in:*Räumliche*Mobilität*Und*Lebenslauf.* Springer,*pp.*179–198.* Statistics* Austria,* 2016.* Kraftfahrzeuge* 2* Bestand* [WWW* Document].* URL* http://www.statistik.at/web_de/statistiken/energie_umwelt_innovation_mobilitaet/verkehr/s trasse/kraftfahrzeuge_2_bestand/index.html*(accessed*4.16.16).* Steg,* L.,* 2005.* Car* use:* lust* and* must.* Instrumental,* symbolic* and* affective* motives* for* car* use.* Transportation*Research*Part*A:*Policy*and*Practice*39,*147–162.* Sydow,*H.,*Scholl,*W.,*2002.*Die*Entwicklung*im*Jugendalter2der*Lebensbereich*Mobilität,*in:*Mobilität* Im*Jugend2*Und*Erwachsenenalter.*Waxmann*Verlag,*Münster,*pp.*11–25.* Thompson,*M.,*Ellis,*R.,*Wildavsky,*A.,*1990.*Cultural*theory.*Westview*Press.* Transportation*Alternatives,*2001.*Reclaiming*the*Streets.*T.A.*Magazine*7.* Tully,*C.J.,*2002a.*Bewegte*Jugend—kommunikativ*und*mobil,*in:*Mobilität*von*Jugendlichen.*Springer,* pp.*13–37.* Tully,*C.J.,*2002b.*Technik,*Mobilität*und*Umwelt,*in:*Mobilität*von*Jugendlichen.*Springer,*pp.*65–87.* Tully,*C.J.,*Baier,*D.,*2011.*Mobilitätssozialisation,*in:*Verkehrspolitik.*Springer,*pp.*195–211.* Tully,*C.J.,*Baier,*D.,*2006a.*Die*Mobilitätsgesellschaft,*in:*Mobiler*Alltag:*Mobilität*Zwischen*Option* Und*Zwang—Vom*Zusammenspiel*Biographischer*Motive*Und*Sozialer*Vorgaben.*VS*Verlag*für* Sozialwissenschaften,*Wiesbaden,*pp.*15–123.* Tully,* C.J.,* Baier,* D.,* 2006b.* Aufwachsen* in* der* Mobilitätsgesellschaft,* in:* Mobiler* Alltag:* Mobilität* Zwischen* Option* Und* Zwang—Vom* Zusammenspiel* Biographischer* Motive* Und* Sozialer* Vorgaben.*VS*Verlag*für*Sozialwissenschaften,*Wiesbaden,*pp.*124–201.* Umweltbundesamt,*2015a.*AUSTRIA’S*NATIONAL*INVENTORY*REPORT*2015:*Submission*under*the* United*Nations*Framework*Convention*on*Climate*Change*(No.*REP20552).*Umweltbundesamt,* Vienna.* Umweltbundesamt,*2015b.*Klimaschutzbericht*2015*(No.*REP20555).*Umweltbundesamt,*Vienna.* Umweltbundesamt,*2013.*Zehnter*Umweltkontrollbericht:*Umweltsituation*in*Österreich*(No.*REP2 0410).*Umweltbundesamt,*Wien.* UNFCCC,* 2017.* Paris* Agreement* 2* Status* of* Ratification* [WWW* Document].* URL* http://unfccc.int/paris_agreement/items/9444.php*(accessed*2.23.17).* UNFCCC,* 2014.* Kyoto* Protocol* [WWW* Document].* URL* http://unfccc.int/kyoto_protocol/items/2830.php*(accessed*4.16.16).* UNFCCC,*2009.*Copenhagen*Accord*(No.*FCCC/CP/2009/L.7).*UNFCCC*CONFERENCE*OF*THE*PARTIES,* Copenhagen.* VCÖ,*V.Ö.,*1999.*Jugend*und*Mobilität.*Wissenschaft*und*Verkehr.* Verbund* Linie,* 2016a.* SchülerInnen2Ticket* [WWW* Document].* URL* http://www.verbundlinie.at/schuelerlehrlinge/tickets/schuelerinnen2ticket*(accessed*1.30.17).* Verbund* Linie,* 2016b.* Top2Ticket* [WWW* Document].* URL* http://www.verbundlinie.at/schuelerlehrlinge/tickets/top2ticket*(accessed*1.30.17).* Verschuren,*P.,*Doorewaard,*H.,*Mellion,*M.,*2010.*Designing*a*research*project.*Eleven*International* Publishing.*

* * * 122*

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WBCSD,*2004.*Mobility*2030:*Meeting*the*Challenges*to*Sustainability.*World*Business*Council*for* Sustainable*Development.* WCED,* 1987.* Our* Common* Future* (Report* of* the* World* Commission* on* Environment* and* Development).*Oxford*University*Press,*Oxford.* Webster,*J.,*Watson,*R.T.,*2002.*Analyzing*the*past*to*prepare*for*the*future:*Writing*a*literature* review.*MIS*quarterly*xiii–xxiii.* White,* S.,* 2015.* Electric* Cars:* Their* past,* present* and* future* [WWW* Document].* URL* http://www.cio.com/article/2955025/consumer2technology/electric2cars2their2past2present2 and2future.html*(accessed*10.10.16).* Williams,* R.,* 2007.* A* Definition* of* Sustainable* Mobility* [WWW* Document].* URL* http://www.carbonsmart.com/files/definition_of_sustainable_mobility_2007mr15.pdf* (accessed*6.10.16).* Witzke,* S.,* 2015.* Carsharing* und* die* Gesellschaft* von* Morgen:* Ein* umweltbewusster* Umgang* mit* Automobilität?*Springer2Verlag,*Ulm,*Deutschland.* WKO,* 2015.* Die* österreichische* Verkehrswirtschaft* Daten* und* Fakten* 2* Ausgabe* 2015.* Wirtschaftskammer*Österreich,*Wien.* Zwerts,*E.,*Janssens,*D.,*Wets,*G.,*2007.*How*the*presence*of*children*affects*parents’*travel*behavior.* Hasselt*University*2*Campus*Diepenbeek.* * * * *

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* ANNEX!1!

Annex'1''

Interview!guide!! * Date:*06.*07.*2016*and*07.07.2016* Place:*e2Mountainrallye*in*Naas*near*Weiz*and*office*of*the*energy*region*Weiz*Gleisdorf* Duration:*approximately*20*minutes*per*interview* •! The*interviews*are*part*of*my*master*thesis*at*the*University*of*Graz,*in*cooperation* with*the*energy*region*Weiz*Gleisdorf.*Within*this*research*project,*I*aim*at* investigating*the*mobility*behaviour*of*adolescents*and*young*adults*in*the*energy* region.*Therefore,*I*am*interested*in*your*opinion*as*well*as*your*experience* regarding*mobility.*Certainly,*all*information*is*treated*as*confidential*and*is*only* anonymised.** •! Getting*to*know*the*interviewee!*name,*age,*student/*apprentice,*taking*part*in*the* e2cult*project,*place*of*residence*(urban/rural)* •! Introduction*to*the*mode*of*the*interview,*seeking*permission*to*record*the* interview** * Current'mobility'behaviour' Can(you(tell(me(about(a(typical(school(day/(work(day(of(yours?(How(do(you(get(there,(how( do(you(get(home?(Why?((

Which(transport(modes(do(you(use(in(your(leisure(time?( Why?**

How(often(do(you(use(the(car?(( Why?**

How(often(do(you(use(public(transport?(( Why?**

How(often(do(you(use(the(bike?(( Why?**

How(often(do(you(use(the(moped?( Why?**

Do(you(have(a(driver(licence?((car/(moped)( yes* Why?** no*

Do(you(have(a(season(ticket(for(public(transport?(( yes* Why?** no*

Is(it(important(to(you,(to(own(a(car/(moped?(( yes* Why?* no*

Is(it(important(to(you,(to(use(public(transportation?((( yes* Why?**

* * * 124*

* ANNEX!1!

no*

Can(you(imagine(living(without(a(car?* yes* Why?** no*

Do(you(have(access(to(a(car(within(your(household/(own( yes* How*many?** car?(( no* *

Ideal'mobility'infrastructure' ( How(satisfied(are(you(with(your(current(possibilities(regarding(mobility?(( Which(modifications(would(you(wish(for(regarding(different(transport(modes?(What(could( be(done(better(in(future,(so(you(get(from(A(to(B(without(problems?(

Supplement(question:(In(your(opinion,(are(there(enough/( yes* Why?** good(public(transport(connections?(What*needs*to*change?* no(

How(exactly(would(you(define(“being(mobile”?* *

e6mobility/'e6cult' Do(you(know(the(ebcult(project(of(the(energy(region(WeizbGleisdorf?(Why?(( ( If(yes:(Do(you(take(part?(Why?((

ebcult(

Can(you(tell(me(about(your(impressions(of(the(project?((3*positive,*3*negative*aspects?)(

Since(when(do(you(use(ebbikes,(ebscooters?((

How(often(do(you(use(them?(In(which(kinds(of(situations?((leisure(time/work/school)(

Do(you(have(suggestions(for(improvement(for(the(ebvehicles?((

Do(you(have(suggestions(for(improvement(for(the(infrastructure(for(ebvehicles(in(your(region?((e.g.( service(stations,(cycle(paths)((

Can( you( imagine( to( only( use( ebvehicles( in( the( future( and( do( yes* Why?** entirely(without(conventional(vehicles?(* no(

Would(you(recommend(trying(out(ebvehicles(to(your(friends?* yes** Why?** no(

not(ebcult((short(introduction(to(the(project)((

Would(you(like(to(try(out(an(ebbike(or(ebscooter(sometime?(Do( yes* Why?** you(have(an(anticipation?* no(

* * * 125*

* ANNEX!1!

If(no:(Under(what(circumstances(would(you(decide(to(try(out(an(ebbike(or(ebscooter?(What(would( need(to(change?((

In(general,(how(would(you(define(ebmobility?((

What(are(positive/(negative(aspects(of(ebvehicles(in(your(opinion?(* *

Conclusion' One(can(certainly(chat(about(mobility(for(a(long(time,(but(we(are(almost(at(the(end(of(this( talk.(Would(you(like(to(add(something(that(is(important(to(you(in(that(matter?((

Can(you(come(up(with(something(that(I(should(ask(other(adolescents(when(I(interview(them,(that( I(have(forgotten(now?(( * Sociodemographic*data:* Date*of*birth/*age:** School/*Apprenticeship:** Highest*educational*attainment:** * *

* * * 126*

* ANNEX!2!

Annex'2'

List!of!codes!from!the!MAXQDA!software!program!!

Codesystem( 556( (( Sociodemographic*data* 0* (( ** pupil* 7* (( ** apprentice* 6* (( ** e2cult* 5* (( ** not*in*e2cult* 8* (( ** urban*area* 2* (( ** rural*area* 11* (( Current*mobility*behaviour* 0* (( ** number*of*times*transport*mode*is*used* 0* (( ** ** car*driver* 0* (( ** ** ** (almost)*daily* 5* (( ** ** ** never* 2* (( ** ** ** several*times*a*month* 1* (( ** ** ** several*times*a*week* 2* (( ** ** car*passenger* 0* (( ** ** ** (almost)*daily* 3* (( ** ** ** several*times*a*week* 5* (( ** ** ** less*frequent* 2* (( ** ** moped* 0* (( ** ** ** (almost)*daily* 2* (( ** ** ** several*times*a*month* 1* (( ** ** ** less*frequent* 1* (( ** ** ** never* 9* (( ** ** public*transport* 0* (( ** ** ** (almost)*daily* 9* (( ** ** ** several*times*a*month* 3* (( ** ** ** less*frequent* 2* (( ** ** ** never* 2* (( ** ** bicycle* 0* (( ** ** ** (almost)*daily* 7* (( ** ** ** several*times*a*week* 3*

* * * 127*

* ANNEX!2!

(( ** ** ** less*frequent* 4* (( ** ** ** never* 1* (( ** ** e2bike* 0* (( ** ** ** (almost)*daily* 3* (( ** transport*mode*school/work* 0* (( ** ** car*driver* 2* (( ** ** car*passenger* 6* (( ** ** moped* 1* (( ** ** public*transport* 8* (( ** ** bicycle* 5* (( ** ** on*foot* 5* (( ** ** e2scooter* 1* (( ** ** e2bike* 1* (( ** transport*mode*leisure*time* 0* (( ** ** car*driver* 5* (( ** ** car*passenger* 6* (( ** ** moped* 2* (( ** ** public*transport* 4* (( ** ** bicycle* 6* (( ** ** on*foot* 2* (( ** ** e2scooter* 0* (( ** ** e2bike* 0* (( ** motives*for*transport*mode*choice* 0* (( ** ** moped* 0* (( ** ** ** weather* 2* (( ** ** ** comfort* 1* (( ** ** ** fast* 2* (( ** ** ** technical*affinity* 1* (( ** ** ** fun* 2* (( ** ** car* 0* (( ** ** ** weather* 1* (( ** ** ** independency* 9* (( ** ** ** simple/convenient* 5* (( ** ** ** passenger*because*moped*broke*down* 1* (( ** ** ** technical*affinity* 1* (( ** ** ** driver*uses*car*anyway*(as*passenger)* 1*

* * * 128*

* ANNEX!2!

(( ** ** ** fun* 1* (( ** ** ** habit* 2* (( ** ** ** comfort* 2* (( ** ** bicycle* 0* (( ** ** ** health* 1* (( ** ** ** comfort* 1* (( ** ** ** fun* 3* (( ** ** ** fast* 3* (( ** ** ** parents*do*not*drive*adolescents* 1* (( ** ** ** independency* 1* (( ** ** e2bike* 0* (( ** ** ** healthy* 1* (( ** ** ** comfort* 2* (( ** ** ** fun* 1* (( ** ** public*transport* 0* (( ** ** ** alternative*to*car* 2* (( ** ** ** cannot*drive*car*yet* 1* (( ** ** ** parents*do*not*drive*adolescents* 3* (( ** ** ** fast* 2* (( ** ** ** simple/*convenient* 3* (( ** ** ** comfort* 6* (( ** ** ** good*connections* 10* (( ** ** ** environment2friendly* 1* (( ** ** ** cheap* 2* (( ** driver's*licence* 0* (( ** ** driver's*licence*holder* 4* (( ** ** no*driver's*licence*holder* 1* (( ** ** moped*licence*holder* 6* (( ** ** no*moped*licence* 7* (( ** ** driving*education* 8* (( ** ** motives*to*get*driver's*licence* 0* (( ** ** ** convenience* 2* (( ** ** ** comfort* 2* (( ** ** ** getting*around*more*flexible* 3* (( ** ** ** independence* 10* (( ** public*transport*season*ticket* 0*

* * * 129*

* ANNEX!2!

(( ** ** no/*not*worth*while* 5* (( ** ** TopTicket* 3* (( ** ** ticket*for*pupils/apprentices* 7* (( ** attitude* 0* (( ** ** owning*a*car/moped* 0* (( ** ** ** necessary/important* 6* (( ** ** ** comfortable*but*not*necessary* 4* (( ** ** ** not*necessary* 3* (( ** ** life*without*car* 0* (( ** ** ** environment2friendly* 1* (( ** ** ** imaginable* 2* (( ** ** ** car*is*necessity* 6* (( ** ** ** car*is*necessity*when*starting*a*family* 3* (( ** ** ** depends*on*urban/rural*area* 3* (( ** ** ** car*dispensable*during*studies* 2* (( ** ** public*transportation* 0* (( ** ** ** negative* 6* (( ** ** ** positive* 9* (( ** car*availability*in*household* 0* (( ** ** one*car* 3* (( ** ** two*cars* 4* (( ** ** three*or*more*cars* 2* (( ** ** no*car* 1* (( ** ** own*car* 2* (( Ideal*mobility*infrastructure* 0* (( ** no*desired*changes* 3* (( ** satisfaction*with*current*mobility*situation* 0* (( ** ** very*satisfied* 6* (( ** ** satisfied* 3* (( ** ** less*satisfied* 3* (( ** ** dissatisfied* 0* (( ** desired*changes* 0* (( ** ** wish*for*driver's*licence* 1* (( ** ** wish*for*moped* 1* (( ** ** wish*for*a*car* 2* (( ** ** wish*for*e2bike* 1*

* * * 130*

* ANNEX!2!

(( ** ** ** wish*for*e2bike* 1* (( ** ** cheaper*public*transport*for*pupils/apprentices/students* 1* (( ** ** more/better*public*transport*connections* 9* (( ** satisfied*with*public*transport*offers* 4* (( ** unsure*about*public*transport*offers* 4* (( ** definition*of*being*mobile* 0* (( ** ** spatial*flexibility*/*moving*from*A*to*B* 2* (( ** ** independence* 12* (( ** ** named*transport*mode* 0* (( ** ** ** public*transport* 1* (( ** ** ** on*foot* 1* (( ** ** ** airplane* 1* (( ** ** ** moped* 2* (( ** ** ** bike* 2* (( ** ** ** car* 5* (( ** ** ** car*sharing* 1* (( e2mobility* 0* (( ** knowledge*about*e2cult* 0* (( ** ** informed*by*contact*person* 1* (( ** ** informed*in*school*/*at*work* 3* (( ** ** part*of*e2cult* 6* (( ** ** no*knowledge* 3* (( ** part*of*e2cult* 0* (( ** ** motive*to*take*part* 0* (( ** ** ** test*e2vehicles* 3* (( ** ** positive*aspects* 0* (( ** ** ** independent*from*parents* 1* (( ** ** ** good*organisation* 1* (( ** ** ** electric*motor*support* 2* (( ** ** ** long*range/*long*battery*life* 1* (( ** ** ** long*renting*periods* 1* (( ** ** ** increase*number*of*e2vehicles*in*region* 1* (( ** ** negative*aspects* 0* (( ** ** ** worn2out*breaks* 1* (( ** ** ** low*range*of*e2moped* 1* (( ** ** ** engine*failed*now*and*then* 1*

* * * 131*

* ANNEX!2!

(( ** ** ** engine*shuts*off*at*25*km/h* 2* (( ** ** ** engine*too*weak* 1* (( ** ** renting*period* 4* (( ** ** frequency*of*usage* 0* (( ** ** ** leisure*time* 0* (( ** ** ** ** (almost)*daily* 3* (( ** ** ** ** on*occasion* 2* (( ** ** ** ** never* 0* (( ** ** ** way*to*school/*work* 0* (( ** ** ** ** (almost)*daily* 4* (( ** ** ** ** never* 1* (( ** ** suggestions*for*improvement* 0* (( ** ** ** e2vehicles* 0* (( ** ** ** ** improve*worn2out*breaks* 1* (( ** ** ** ** improve*range*of*e2moped* 1* (( ** ** ** ** bike*too*heavy* 1* (( ** ** ** ** improve*engine*(should*not*fail)* 1* (( ** ** ** ** stronger*engine* 1* (( ** ** ** ** engine*should*not*shut*off*at*25km/h* 2* (( ** ** ** infrastructure* 0* (( ** ** ** ** charging* at* electric* charging* stations* takes* 1* too*long* (( ** ** ** ** no*suggestions/satisfied* 4* (( ** ** attitude*towards*future*exclusive*use*of*e2vehicles* 0* (( ** ** ** imaginable* 2* (( ** ** ** partly*imaginable* 1* (( ** ** ** unimaginable* 2* (( ** ** recommendation*to*friends* 0* (( ** ** ** yes* 4* (( ** ** ** no* 0* (( ** not*pat*of*e2cult* 0* (( ** ** motive* 0* (( ** ** ** have*own*moped* 1* (( ** ** ** insufficiently*informed* 1* (( ** ** ** sportiness*(e2bikes*not*sport)* 1* (( ** ** ** no*driver's*licence* 1*

* * * 132*

* ANNEX!2!

(( ** ** interest*to*test*e2bike*/*e2scooter* 0* (( ** ** ** interested* 5* (( ** ** ** ** motive* 0* (( ** ** ** ** ** charging*is*comfortable* 1* (( ** ** ** ** ** for*free* 1* (( ** ** ** ** ** interesting* to* test/* get* to* 2* know*e2vehicles* (( ** ** ** ** ** e2bikes*are*comfortable* 2* (( ** ** ** not*interested* 2* (( ** ** ** ** circumstances*that*need*to*change* 0* (( ** ** ** ** ** shorter* distances* (e.g.* home* 1* to*school)* (( ** ** ** ** ** receive*e2bike*as*a*present* 1* (( ** ** ** ** motive* 0* (( ** ** ** ** ** too*long*ways* 1* (( ** ** ** ** ** uses*WeizBike* 1* (( ** ** ** ** ** no*demand* 1* (( ** ** ** ** ** already*gets*everywhere* 1* (( ** ** definition*of*e2mobility* 0* (( ** ** ** new*achievement* 1* (( ** ** ** has*to*be*charged* 1* (( ** ** ** comfortable*biking* 2* (( ** ** ** electric*engines* 2* (( ** ** ** possibility*of*mobility* 1* (( ** ** ** environment2friendly* 4* (( ** ** ** low*range* 1* (( ** ** positive*aspects*of*e2mobility* 0* (( ** ** ** comfort*(e2bikes)** 3* (( ** ** ** better*traffic*participant* 1* (( ** ** ** no*fumes* 1* (( ** ** ** charging*is*comfortable* 1* (( ** ** ** less*noise* 2* (( ** ** ** usage*is*cheaper* 1* (( ** ** ** efficiency*/*reliability*regarding*range* 3* (( ** ** ** environment2friendly* 4* (( ** ** negative*aspects*of*e2mobility* 0* (( ** ** ** charging*is*time2consuming* 1*

* * * 133*

* ANNEX!2!

(( ** ** ** dangerous*because*silent* 2* (( ** ** ** sound*is*missing* 1* (( ** ** ** poor*infrastructure* 1* (( ** ** ** investment*costs* 4* (( ** ** ** low*range* 4* (( ** ** ** sustainability*of*electricity*generation* 3* (( end* 0* (( ** car*usage*due*to*laziness* 1* (( ** transport*mode*on*holiday*?* 1* (( ** less*traffic*through*e2bikes/e2mopeds* 1* (( ** electric*charging*station*at*every*gas*station* 1* (( ** electric*planes*?* 1* (( ** projects*to*get*to*know/test*e2vehicles*highly*important* 4* Table!6:!List!of!codes!from!the!MAXQDA!software!program!! (created!by!author)!

* * * 134*

*