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AUTHOR Speaker, Richard B., Jr., Ed.; Kawada, Louise Myers, Ed. TITLE Japan Studies through the Lenses of Different Disciplines: First Yearbook of the Japan Studies Association. [Papers from the Japan Studies Association Annual Conference (San Diego, California, 1995)]. ISSN ISSN-1530-3527 PUB DATE 1997-00-00 NOTE 90p.; With the editorial assistance of Elizabeth L. Willis. Published biennially. AVAILABLE FROM Japan Studies Association, Inc., Department of History, Northwestern Missouri State University, Maryville, MO 64468. (biennial subscription: institutions, $75; individuals, $25). Web site: http://www.ed.uno.edu/faculty/rspeaker/JSA/JSAWebIndex.html. PUB TYPE Collected Works - Proceedings (021) Collected Works Serials (022) JOURNAL CIT Japan Studies Association Journal; v2 1996 EDRS PRICE MF01/PC04 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS Area Studies; *Asian History; *Asian Studies; Curriculum Enrichment; Foreign Countries; Higher Education; *Interdisciplinary Approach; *Japanese Culture; Seminars IDENTIFIERS *Japan; Japanese People; *Japanese Studies

ABSTRACT This yearbook presents new perspectives and materials on Japan that are engaging, relatively jargon-free, and shaped so that their usefulness in a college classroom is readily apparent. The yearbook represents an example of the potential for genuine scholarship that lies within interdisciplinary studies. Articles are divided among five thematic sections: (1) "Japan Studies and the Arts" ("A Challenge to the Orientalism of Whistler: Hiroshige's Influence on Monet and Van Gogh," Fay Beauchamp; and "Paradigms of Japanese Culture as Reflected through Music and the Related Arts," Stephen R. Fuller); (2) "Inquiry into the Japanese Self" ("The Japanese Self," Sheila Fling; and "Recipe for Self and Soul in Decadent Times: Reflections on the Post-war Japanese Literary Sensibility," Louise Myers Kawada); (3) "Japan Studies and Curriculum" ("An Inquiry Unit on Japan for Undergraduate Methods Students in Elementary Education," Richard B. Speaker, Jr.; and "Infusing Japan Studies into the College Curriculum through Multicultural Literacy Courses," Elizabeth L. Willis); (4) "Japan Studies in International Perspectives" ("Japan and Russia: The Northern Territories Issue in the Post-War Era," Andrew S. Szarka; "Colonial Japan in Micronesia, 1914 to 1944," Dirk Anthony Ballendorf; and "China and Japan: Diverging Paths," Connie Mauney); and (5)"Reports on the Japan Studies Seminar in Japan, 1995" ("Report on the 1995 Seminar in Japan," Richard B. Speaker, Jr.; and "Impressions of a Japan Studies Faculty Development Seminar, Summer, 1995," Louise Myers Kawada). (BT)

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InnCOPY AIIMIAINZ JAPAN STUDIES THROUGH THE LENSES OF DIFFERENT DISCIPLINES

First Yearbook of the Japan Studies Association

Edited by

Richard B. Speaker, Jr. Louise Myers Kawada University of New Orleans Massachusetts College of Art

With the editorial assistance of

ElizabethL.Willis University of Southwestern Louisiana

Published by Japan Studies Association, Inc.

1997 GENERAL INFORMATION: Japan Studies through the Lenses of Different Disciplines, First Yearbook of the Japan Studies Association, Edited by Richard B. Speaker, Jr., and Louise Myers Kawada is published by the Japan Studies Association, Inc., Dr. Thomas Carneal, Department of History, Northwestern Missouri State University, Maryville, MO 64468. 175-PEg 1 P5Vg.. ()WI WI)elF/r/VOL.9, SUBSCRIPTIONS: Institutions: Costf.2 5 tOitelia0hlY n ua s: Cost2 00 Domestic), ernational) includes membership in the Japan Studies Association.

PHOTOCOPIES: Individuals may photocopy single copies without permission for nonprofit one-time classroom or library reserve use in educational institutions.

COPYRIGHT © 1997, Japan Studies Association, Inc. Because the Yearbook of the Japan Studies Association, serves as an open forum, readers should not construe the publishing of the contents as implying advocacy or endorsement of the Japan Studies Association, its officers, or its members. JSA is a not for profit, membership corporation. All business correspondence, including changes of address (include both old and new addresses) and applications for membership should be sent to: Dr. Thomas Carneal, Department of History, Northwestern Missouri State University, Maryville, MO 64468.

Manuscripts accepted for publication in the Yearbook of the Japan Studies Association, undergo an impartial review conducted by the Editorial Board, the Coeditors and their Editorial Assistant. Manuscripts must be original works which have been presented at the Annual Conference of the Japan Studies Association and have not been published elsewhere or submitted simultaneously to other publication outlets.

BEST COPY AVAILABLE OFFICERS AND DIRECTORS OF THE JAPAN STUDIES ASSOCIATION, INC.

Earl F. Schrock, Jr. nt U iversit Joseph L. Overton Vice President Morgan State University Thomas Carneal Treasurer Northwest Missouri State University Richard B. Speaker, Jr. Secretary University of New Orleans

Emmanuel D. Babatunde Member-at-Large Lincoln University Alvin Coox Japan Studies Institute Director San Diego State University

iii JAPAN STUDIES THROUGH THE LENSES OF DIFFERENT DISCIPLINES First Yearbook of the Japan Studies Association

Co-Editors

RichardB.Speaker, Jr. Louise Myers Kawada University of New Orleans Massachusetts College of Art Curriculum & Instruction Critical Studies

EditorialAssistant

ElizabethL.Willis Southwestern Louisiana University Curriculum & Instruction

EditorialBoard

Alvin Coox San Diego State University History

Fay Beauchamp Community College of Philadelphia English

SheilaFling Southwest Texas State University Psychology

Donna M. Schiagheck Wright State University Political Science

iv Table of Contents

FROM THE PRESIDENT OF JSA vi

FROM THE EDITORS vii

I. JAPAN STUDIES AND THE ARTS

A Challenge to the Orientalism of Whistler. Hiroshige's Influence on Monet and Van Gogh 1 Fay Beauchamp

Paradigms of Japanese Culture as Reflected through Music and the Related Arts 9 Stephen R. Fuller

II. INQUIRY INTO THE JAPANESE SELF

The Japanese Self 17 Sheila Fling

Recipe for Self and Soul in Decadent Times: Reflections on the Post-war Japanese Literary Sensibility 25 Louise Myers Kawada

III. JAPAN STUDIES AND CURRICULUM

An Inquiry Unit on Japan for Undergraduate Methods Students in Elementary Education 33 Richard B. Speaker, Jr.

Infusing Japan Studies into the College Curriculum Through Multicultural Literacy Courses 43 Elizabeth L. Willis IV. JAPAN STUDIES IN INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVES

Japan and Russia: The Northern Territories Issue in the Post-War Era 49 Andrew S. Szarka

Colonial Japan in Micronesia, 1914 to 1944 57 Dirk Anthony Ballendorf

China and Japan: Diverging Paths 65 Connie Mauney

V. REPORTS ON THE JAPAN STUDIES SEMINAR IN JAPAN, 1995

Report on the 1995 Seminar in Japan 73 Richard B. Speaker, Jr.

Impressions of a Japan Studies Faculty Development Seminar, Summer, 1995 81 Louise Myers Kawada

vi From the President of JSA

Thanks to the untiring efforts of Dr. Alvin Coox, Head of the Japan Studies Program at San Diego State University, there exists now a fairly large group of Japan Studies enthusiasts in colleges and universities throughout the continental United States and its territories. Almost three hundred have now completed his rigorous Japan Studies Institute in San Diego, some have traveled with him to Japan for Japan On-Site Study Programs, and some have had the good fortune to study with him at a special Japan- Soviet Summit in Sapporo a few years ago. We represent many different disciplines in many different types of institutions throughout the country. Most of our universities do not have formal Japan Studies programs; therefore, we are attempting in various ways to promote the study of Japan through a variety of means. Many of our institutions are now offering Japanese language courses, some through agreements with organizations such as Exchange: Japan We are united in our enthusiasm about Japan but, unfortunately, in most cases, are isolated on our campuses in that we have no colleagues who have had our experiences in Japan Studies. Therefore, we have formed this organization, The Japan Studies Association, through which we can share our ideas, disseminate information about further Japan Studies opportunities, and gather together on an annual basis. Our group is a nucleus which has enormous potential, for we represent American Association of State Colleges and Universities (AASCU) institutions in virtually every state in the united States as well as its territories. Since AASCU institutions are responsible for turning out over 75% of all the college graduates in the United States, we have the potential of affecting more college and university students than any other group of our type. The contents of this first yearbook show the varied interests of our members. I feel certain that, with the support from industry and philanthropic organizations who have an interest in the work that we do, this organization will have a significant impact upon the lives and the futures of a large number of young peoplethroughout out country.

EarlF. Schrock, Jr. President, Japan Studies Association Arkansas Tech University Russellville, Arkansas

vii From the Editors

This volume, Japan Studies through the Lenses of Different Disciplines: First Yearbook of the Japan Studies Association,has been just over a year in development. We wish to thank all of the patient authors who trusted us with their manuscripts and the members of JSA who encouraged us to take on this task. Starting from scratch, it seems, soliciting participation in the Editorial Board, developing editorial standards, mailing manuscripts to reviewers, editing, re-editing, formatting and reformatting, aligning type on the computer, corresponding via e-mail, resetting page numbers as we printed on different qualities of printers, phoning and leaving innumerable messages, discussing the finalization of the manuscripts, we have developed a process and produced a small volume for the Japan Studies Association which presents the best papers from its second annual conference in Honolulu. Though this volume is small, it does fulfill two very important objectives that we had in mind. First, it presents new perspectives and materials on Japan that are engaging, relatively jargon-free and shaped so that their usefulness in a college classroom is readily apparent. Secondly, this yearbook of the Japan Studies Association represents a strong example of the potential for genuine scholarship that lies within interdisciplinary studies. Much is said about the need to break down barriers and meld boundaries between the various academic disciplines, and this volume is a tangible demonstration of what can be achieved. We hope this volume is the first of many published by the Japan Studies Association to meet these objectives. We have divided the papers into five sections: Japan Studies and the Arts, Inquiry into the Japanese Self, Japan Studies and Curriculum, Japan Studies in International Perspectives, and Reports on the Japan Studies Seminar in Japan, 1995. SectionI presents views of teaching art and music with reference to Japan Studies. Fay Beauchamp's "A Challenge to the Orientalism of Whistler. Hiroshige's Influence on Monet and Van Gogh" examines how Japanese the aesthetics influenced the development of the Impressionist Movement in painting while Stephen R. Fuller's "Paradigms of Japanese Culture as Reflected through Music and the Related Arts" guides the reader to understand the interconnections between music and culture. In SectionII, Sheila Fling's "The Japanese Self" and Louise Myers Kawada's "Recipe for Self and Soul in Decadent Times: Reflections on the Post-war Japanese Literary Sensibility" delve into how Japanese define themselves and how others define them from psychological and literary perspectives. In SectionIII, Richard B. Speaker, Jr.'s "An Inquiry Unit on Japan for Undergraduate Methods Students in Elementary Education" provides a taxonomy of integration of Japan studies into the college curriculum and an extended example. Elizabeth L. Willis's "Infusing Japan Studies into the College Curriculum through Multicultural Literacy Courses" takes various narratives about Japan and Japanese- Americans and uses them to build a vision of personal curricular envisionment. In Section IV, Andrew S. Szarka 's "Japan and Russia: The Northern Territories Issue in the Post-War Era," Dirk Anthony Ballendorf's "Colonial Japan in Micronesia," and Connie Mauney's "China and Japan: Diverging Paths" show the relationships Japan has experienced with other countries and points to the future of Japan in Asia and the world.

viii 10 Finally, in Section V, Richard B. Speaker, Jr., and Louise Myers Kawada provide readers with the schedule, participants, evaluation and their impressions of their experience in Japan in 1995 when they attended a faculty development on-site seminar sponsored by the American Association of State Colleges and Universities (AASCU). We wish to thank the following JSA members who have helped in the production of this volume: Elizabeth L. Willis, Fay Beauchamp, Sheila Fling, Donna M. Schlagheck, and, of course, Alvin Coox. We thank Ed Lazzerini, Director of the Center for the Pacific Rim and the Asian Studies Program at the University of New Orleans, for the use of computer equipment and software which made the production of this volume possible and John Barnitz, Chairperson of Curriculum and Instruction at the University of New Orleans, for encouragement. We especially thank Thomas Carneal, Joe Overton, and Earl Schrock for their support in this endeavor and the work they continue to do in the development of the Japan Studies Association.

Richard B. Speaker, Jr. Louise Myers Kawada University of New Orleans Massachusetts College of Art Curriculum & Instruction Critical Studies

ix 11 Japan Studies and the Arts

12 A Challenge to the Orientalism of Whistler: Hiroshige's Influence on Monet and Van Gogh

Fay Beauchamp Community College of Philadelphia

In this paper I want to Victorian didactic art -- were expressed discriminate among the different types of so powerfully that impressionist and influence Japanese woodblock prints, post-impressionist paintings are still ukiyo-e, had upon Western artists in the commonly viewed within an art-for-art- period from 1864 to 1890 when sake framework. A telling sequence begins Impressionism flourished. This influence with the 1864 "Rose and Silver: The is beginning to be routinely recognized in Princess from the Land of Porcelain." The books on Impressionism, for example in year 1864 is early in the Japonisme the popular Eyewitness Art series which movement in Europe; woodblock prints provides excellent material for students began to enter England and France in the (Welton, 1993). Yet I find the emphasis thousands after Perry's forced opening of on color, perspective, design and pattern Japan to the West in 1853; the troubling, because these attributes of International Exhibit in London of 1862 form obscure the attempt to understand drew attention to this art form. This Japanese philosophy and culture which particular painting is on permanent stimulated Western artists such as Monet display in the Freer Gallery of the and Van Gogh. The emphasis on form, Smithsonian in Washington and in 1995- appropriate for some painters such as 96 was the focus of a special exhibit on Whistler, makes the Japanese influence Whistler and Japan; Freer himself was a appear as passive material used by collector who helped give Whistler access innovative Western artists as part of a to Asian prints and other art objects. grand march to new heights in Western This painting, besides being lush art; an exploration of content and meaning with a glowing beauty, is striking because leads us to a greater appreciation of the of its Japanese artifacts: the kimono, the Asian art and helps American students see obi, two fans, the screen with its vertical the relationships between art in different and horizontal lines that restrain the parts of the world in a way that challenges sensual sweep of the woman's body. The the analysis of ethnocentrism made by title is fascinating in its two parts: The Edward Said in his 1978 Orientalism. second part 'The Princess from the Land

In beginning with Whistler,I of Porcelain' is a combination of romantic want to sketch a prototype of the Western orientalism and a consumer's interest in artist who was indeed concerned about goods. She is a Westerner clearly in a form rather than content per se. costume posing as a princess in a fairy Whistler's individual opinions about the tale which is not real; the picture today purposes of modern art -- attacking gazes out over Freer's Peacock Room

J.3 2 full of actual porcelain reflecting an Asia seems trivialized. We are left with interest in art as decoration. The first resemblances of design, balance, line, and part of the title is 'Rose and Silver,' these are considered the important however, and from the beginning, influence, with one hundred years of Whistler was interested in color for its modern and abstract art flowing from this own sake, freed from any symbolic or source. moralistic tenets. This fixation of Western modern In "Caprice in Purple and Gold, art on form has, I believe, in turn No. 2: The Golden Screen" (1864), the influenced how we see Japanese art: subject matter is even more clearly art: primarily as decorative or realistic. the screen appears within the painting as These terms, as they have been applied to art object; the woman is a connoisseur Japanese art by critics such as Sherman gazing at her Japanese woodblock prints; E. Lee, have recently been the subject of yet the emphasis is not on the print's debate, appearing to some to be too content, for we can see only blurred lines, reductive. While for a study of Whistler, dabs of color. The obi has become a flowing the terms "decorative" or "realistic" sash; the clear X of the Western chair may be adequate, for other Western seems to force us to say that the interest artists, they do not begin to encompass the of the screen is not in the oriental complexity of the cross-cultural pavilions it depicts but in the vertical and interactions. I do not believe Whistler was diagonal lines of its borders. By "Blue and interested in Japanese cultural, Gold- -The Rose Azalea" the woman has philosophical, or aesthetic history; yet, become a universalized exotic, almost clearly, artists such as Monet and van Greek in the whiteness of her flowing Gogh did have these interests, and these dress; the boundary lines of the screen two artists lead us to a deeper have softened and the scene upon it appreciation not only of the impact of resembles one of the Thames of Monet- - Japanese art on Western modern art in totally abstract, loose, a blur of general, but of the meaning of Japanese translucent color. art itself. This sequence toward abstraction In moving closer to Japanese art, I leads naturally to the 1871 begin with Utamaro's "Moonlight Revelry "Arrangement in Black and Grey" where at Dozo Sagami," a large hanging scroll the screen has become a wall and the which Whistler possessed and displayed in boundary lines a conventional frame. The London. The content interests me--people artist's mother sits without an at leisure in different groupings, looking occupation, patiently posing for the and not looking at one another, our eye artist, without specific time or culture. directed to a view of horizontal stripes of The canonization of this last picture sea and sky in the background, where makes us consider this sequence of four ships in the horizon are framed by a paintings as one of development away from series of finely defined vertical lines. The a romanticism which is false and toward a Smithsonian exhibit highlights the somber realism which is somehow relationship of this scroll to Whistler's intrinsically, artistically, better. A study "The Balcony." Chronologically we are of Whistler reinforces the idea that back at the beginning of 1864 and the content itself is superficial, and since Japanese referents of fan, dress and saki specifically Japanese referents of fan and are explicit, although the calm sea view kimono disappear, explicit reference to has been replaced by hints of an

14 3 industrialized London river. What I would intensified throughout his life. A visit to like to establish, however, is the Giverny, as it was established as a influence of Japanese scroll and museum in 1980, conveys forcefully Whistler's adaptation on Monet. Monet's passion for Japanese woodblock Monet's 1864 "La Terrasse a St. prints. While one bedroom in Giverny Adresse" is from the beginning of his does have Utamaro's "beauties" on the career. The landscape is full of details that wall complementing the yellow walls, the mark the momentary--of seasonal blues of the living room are more typical flowers, shadows of the time of day, a of the dozens of prints which cover wind that blows the flags, a ship that will Giverny's walls with the blues of inlets, pass the permanence of the vertical harbors, seas, and rivers that dominate flagpole, figures which might either touch Hiroshige. or turn away from one another. I first Hiroshige's Tokaido Road prints read an analysis of it in terms of Japanese were hugely popular in Japan in the artistic principles in Dufwa's 1981 1850's and 60's when export from Japan study, but juxtaposition with Utamaro's to France exploded. Monet owned examples scroll makes the indebtedness clearer. from both the original 1834-35 Tokaido Monet's painting seems closer to series and from the annual variations Utamaro's than does Whistler's: the Hiroshige produced to take advantage of subject matter of people at leisure, the popularity of the first series. interacting and not interacting in Hiroshige's Tokaido #43 "Kuwana Port" subgroups, the framing vertical and is typical of his work -- the two strong horizontal lines, the ocean and boats in the verticals of the masts captured at an background. Monet evokes Utamaro even instant while the sails are being raised, though there are no explicit Japanese the sky ranging from orange to yellow at referents: no kimonos, saki cups, fans. He dawn, the waves reflecting precise degree does not begin, therefore, with romantic and angle of wind. orientalizing--his precise, tightly drawn Hiroshige's Tokaido #29 figures are influenced by the outlined "Mitsuke: Ferry Boats" on the forms of the Japanese, but he begins with Tenryugawa, leads to a more direct no attitude which makes the East comparison with Monet's 1864 paintings. mysterious or alien. Yet this painting, There is a charm in this print which goes with its emphasis on the fleeting moment beyond shape, time, or weather seems profoundly Japanese with a sense of conditions. The ferrymen in the transience, that almost defines foreground demonstrate a companionable Impressionism, in a way that Whistler's focus. While transience is a Buddhist figures, regardless of costume, are not; theme in art, often tinged with melancholy however, the interest in peopled of loss or even the promise of loss as in landscapes with attention to season and budding cherry blossoms, this picture is time of day comes more from Katsushika firmly rooted in the more optimistic, Hokusai (1760-1849) and Ando peaceful but bustling world of Tokugawa Hiroshige (1797-1858) than from Japan. It is fruitful to analyze the content Utamaro. in terms which have often been used in Where Whistler's interest in analyzing Japanese aesthetics, for Japanese culture itself seems to dissolve example by Thomas Kasulis at the 1995 into universal abstraction even by 1871, East-West Institute on Japanese Culture Monet's interest in Japanese aesthetics and Civilization, rather than terms such 4 as perspective which dominate many art sadness" as it is in a Buddhist context, but history classes. I see these terms in pairs what might appear trifling can also be which rather than forming true seen as miraculous, even as it charms or dichotomies offer points in a continuum amuses the viewer. where a unity often replaces perceived With this analysis of Hiroshige in opposition. place, it is possible to summarize these same themes and qualities in Monet's two 1) Humans and the Natural. versions of the "Beach at St. Adresse," In Hiroshige's Tokaido Road series, people painted the same year as La Terrasse, are always present in landscapes, with the 1867. It is as if Monet were distinction between human and the natural experimenting with creating a series of blurred. Man-made items such as boats, geographically related scenes, which bridges, roads and houses are presented as complement one another as the Tokaido objects of beauty in the same way as stops do, but already in 1867, Monet's rivers, trees, hills and mountains are series become those of examining the same presented. Unlike the Western pastoral location at different times. There is one tradition, human objects do not ruin the version where the fishermen stand near view. I would suggest that here the boats, their boats, cut off at the edge very seen with the elevated perspective so that similarly to Hiroshige's Mitsuke, a the inside boards are displayed, have the literal slice of life; in another version a quality of "wabi"--old, used, simple, and leisured couple of man and woman take the beautiful. place of the working men in the 2) Stability and Transience. foreground. In both, people view and are Again it is easy with this picture to viewed, are integrated into the natural identify elements which will change in a landscape of sea, sand and sky, the momentelements of nature such as the landscape as a whole being both ordinary mist, human figures of travelers who will and unique. pass through the scene and not reappear in As I leave Monet, I want to exactly this configuration. But reinforce how he is different from pictorially, these details of the fleeting Whistler in the trajectory of his career. moment are contrasted against the strong In the next fifty years, Monet's interest diagonal lines of the sandbar, and the two in Japanese art and culture intensified. In figures in the forefront seem equally creating the Japanese water garden at timeless. As human and natural elements Giverny, and then painting and repainting are integrated, so are details of continuity the lilies, the water, and the bridge, and change. The result is an atmosphere of Monet went beyond a knowledge of Japan emotional reassurance. acquired with the acquisition of objects, 3) The Ordinary and the including 230 Japanese woodblock prints, Unusual.Attention to detail in to a creation of Japanese landscape in Hiroshige often rewards the viewer with a France. The bridge, with its weather- vignette within the vignette. Here if one beaten planks resembling the parallel stops to think about the horse being lines of Hiroshige's boats, copies those in transported by boat from shoal to shoal, the Kyoto gardens of Kinkakuji and one portion of the picture has a narrative Daitokuji, gardens not portrayed by peculiarity of its own. Hiroshige's art Utamaro, Hokusai or Hiroshige, and while repays sensitivity to things, but again these comparisons of existing gardens go "mono no aware" is not "tinged with beyond the scope of this paper, I

16 5 primarily want to emphasize that Madame Chuigat Emum, give a harsh Japanese gardens are not merely journalistic view of merchant life in decorative or interested in the realities of Nagasaki which is neither pastoral, nature. The Japanese gardens are created spiritual nor simple. But just as Van and maintained on temple grounds, their Gogh's letters let us know what he read, contemplation a part of religious practice his paintings let us know what he saw. influenced by Shinto beliefs about nature Hiroshige's 1857 "The Plumtree as well as evolving Buddhist beliefs. As Teahouse at Kameido" certainly depicts Monet became more abstract and more the people coming to view the blossoms, daring with his tactile use of oil paint as a small as the humans are in the substance which evoked color in a way background, as compositionally integral to totally different from woodblock prints, the landscape; Van Gogh's 1887 version in technique his paintings move away with its deeper hues and fiercer air lets from the Japanese models which adorn his us imagine how he contemplated walls. But in Monet's immersion in Hiroshige's landscape in Paris before creating imaginative worlds through art I rushing off to Arles to find his own find him profoundly Japanese, and I would orchards to paint. Similarly Hiroshige's like to be able to explore even more which "Ohashi Bridge Under a Rainstorm" Japanese artists and builders he worked literally immerses the Japanese figures with in rechanneling water, building his in nature. I find the people somewhat bridges and purchasing his Japanese cheerful in their reaction to the rain; the irises directly from Japan. lone figure bent forward in a boat is Even though this paper can only balanced by the pairs coming together sketch out ideas about another painter, I under umbrellas on the bridge. Where in want to turn to Vincent Van Gogh to the "Plumtree" the solidity of the trunk demonstrate that the heuristics I have and branches of the tree is counterpoised developed between the human and the against the transience of the blossoms, in natural, the stability and transience, and the second picture, Van Gogh makes the the ordinary and unusual are not merely bridge shine golden and permanent in useful for one European painter, Monet. In contrast to the flux of river, rain and some ways Van Gogh is easier to track; it cloud. The crafted, geometrical bridge is as if he footnoted the growth of his visually resembles the curving diagonal interest in Japanese prints both through natural branches; symbolically there is his letters and through his paintings, such no separation between the object made by as the 1887 "Le Pere Tanguy" where humans and the object in nature. prints form the background to his When Van Gogh lived in Arles and portrait. There are puzzles; even articles painted his three versions of the Lang lois such as Tsukasa Kodera's "Van Gogh's Bridge, I believe he found the Japanese Utopian Japonisme," which examine the Utopia he was looking for. He conceived publications Van Gogh read about Japan, himself as a bonze, a priest, a person who question how he came to the idea that it is could bring spiritual comfort to those who "almost a true religion which these viewed his pictures. Of the three, the one simple Japanese teach us, who live in in the Kroller-Muller Museum in Otter lo nature as though themselves were is most resonant of Hiroshige. Whistler flowers" (Rappard-Boon, Gulik, & might not approve of this picture with Bremen-Ito, 1991, p. 35). Books Van perhaps a heavy touch of symbolism of the Gogh read, such as Pierre Loti's 1888 deserted water-filled boat suggesting that

1 7 6 the washerwomen, too, are as transient admiration and conversion where as the ripples they create. But it is the profound change occurs in the West either vertical finely drawn lines of the bridge because new ideas have a power of their that keep the picture from sentimentality; own or because they seem to offer the bricks of the bridge shine a deeper solutions to life's basic problems, such as gold than the luminescent lift of the the pursuit of happiness in the face of wooden structure above. The effect is of a death, loss and loneliness. torii with geometry juxtaposed against Whistler's early paintings limitless nature; the parallel framing examined here could certainly be used to lines also hark back to Utamaro's support Said's thesis. They celebrate at "Moonlight Revelry." The blues of this the very least the positive trade balance painting, however, most resemble the that brought Eastern goods, commodities, blues of Hiroshige's prints. Form and to England, where women of leisure could content together create the sense of well- scatter about new playthings of dress, being which is vibrant and alive. My drink and artwork. Said's view that the belief is that Van Gogh sought Japan in East is seen as feminine and weak is born Arles because he was desperate for this out by the exclusively feminine subjects quality, an attitude which resembles that of the Whistlers influenced by ukiyo-e, of Monet in Giverny but far removed from which as a Japanese art form includes Whistler's more arrogant assurance of many male figures. The women as the purposes of art. decorative objects contrast with the view In Orientalisrn, Edward Said of the smokestacks on the Thames which develops his hypothesis that the demonstrate the real power of Western nineteenth century relationships between culture. East and West, and the very conception of On the other hand, the significance that division of the world, can be of Whistler to Western art does not lie characterized by a Western perception with his romantic peacock phase -- that the East is not only different, although this period is essential in tracing strange, or exotic but also inferior, the source of the new vigor he brought to backward, childlike and passive. More Western painting. Whistler's importance than that, the intellectual work of to the history of art lies with his art- Westerners' learning about cultures for-art-sake stance. This stance is most different from their own is part of a clearly a rebellion against art being used process of manipulation, mastery and for Victorian moralities of convention, dominance. But in a way this model repression and duty. The attempt to take flatters the American, English or French art out of the realms of politics and reader, whose nations are the center of religion also is an attempt to keep it from Said's study, into supposing that the serving Empire. By the time Whistler greater military power is indeed paints his mother, symbolic or didactic culturally stronger; Western attitudes, messages are surely not the point. Artistic beliefs, and customs are seen as ideas of space, asymmetry, diagonal lines remaining the same while the colonized and color--the Eastern influence on form countries absorb to varying extents new which is not the heart of this paper but systems of political governance and real nonetheless--do not manipulate or technologies. subjugate the East. Said describes Nowhere in Said's work do we see nineteenth century Western paintings to the relationship of West to East as one of support his thesis, but he has to rely on 18 7 earlier painters such as Delacroix, and he Van Gogh's use of the term "these simple ignores the connections of the Japanese" as part of a long romantic Impressionists with Japan entirely. tradition ascribing primitivism to other In my accounts of the Japanese peoples; one can also say portraying sources of Monet's and Van Gogh's himself as a bonze with little evident inspiration, I have been demonstrating knowledge of Buddhism is arrogant and how European art was Easternized in a highhanded. But such analysis could just way which goes much deeper than color or be reinforcing a Western predilection for form. While in Japan the term wanting to emphasize the superiority- Modernization was used alternatively with even in a superiority complex--of the Westernization, in the West the term Westerner. Monet and Van Gogh were Modernization allowed the culture to students of Japan as surely as any change without recognizing a dominant Japanese artist after the Meiji source for that change. Instead, we ascribe Restoration was attracted to the new ideas imagination and creativity to individual of the West. genius, or even, in Van Gogh's case, insanity. In similar fashion, Ezra Pound is credited with initiating modem poetry without acknowledgment of his profound Endnote: debt to the Japanese poetry he acquired I want to end by thanking the from Fenollosa. It was easier to call Pound organizations which worked together to crazy than a traitor; insane, he is still give me the time to do this research in art clearly in the Western tradition. history; with my graduate work This context does explain how it exclusively in English and American was possible that Monet and Van Gogh literature I am grateful for the chance could become icons in American and that I had to extend my preparation to European consciousness without Japanese teach new interdisciplinary humanities roots ever being mentioned, in the courses at the Community College of 1950's, 60's and early 70's, in such Philadelphia. The time and resources for basic textbooks of the history of art such this research were provided by the 1995 as Jansen's. After more than thirty years Summer Institute on Japanese Culture and of suppression, I believe it is significant Civilization, Thomas Kasulis, the that 1980 saw the restoration of Giverny Community College of Philadelphia, the with the prints being placed back on the Asian Studies Development Program at the walls, the Japanese garden revived, and East-West Center and the University of catalogs being issued. The catalogs, Hawaii, and supported by a grant of the exhibits, and articles on Van Gogh's work National Endowment for the Humanities. demonstrating his apprenticeship copying Hiroshige have also appeared in the last fifteen years. For teachers educated in the References earlier decades, this means there is Berthier, F. (1986) Monet et le significant new material to be learned and Japon. In Les sources Japonaises de l'art passed along. occidental. Paris: Galerie Janette Ostier. As opposed to Said, I primarily see Dufwa, J. (1981). Winds from the interactions between these Western the East: A study in the art of Manet. artists and the Japanese sources as Degas. Monet and Whistler. 1856-86. positive. It is true that one can seize upon Stockholm: Almquist & Wilesell. 8

Lee, S. E. (1983). Reflections of reality in Japanese art Indianapolis: Cleveland Museum of Art/Indiana UP. Levie, S. H. (1978). Japanese prints collected by Vincent Van Gogh. Amsterdam: Rijksmuseum Vincent Van Gogh, 1978. Kasulis, T. (1995). Introduction to Japanese Aesthetics. NEH Summer Institute on Japanese Culture and Civilization. East-West Center and the University of Hawaii. Kodera, T. (1990). Japan as primitivistic utopia: Van Gogh's Japanese portraits. In Vincent Van Gogh: Christianity vs. Nature. (pp. 51-65). Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Narazaki, M. (1969). Masterworks of Ukiyo-e: Hiroshige. the 53 stations of the Tokaido. Tokyo: Kodansha. Oka, I. (1992). Hiroshige: Japan's great landscape artist. Tokyo: Kodansha. Pickvance, R. (1984). Van in Arles. New York: Abrams. Rappard-Boon, C. V., Gulik, W. V., & Bremen-Ito, K. v. (1991). Catalogue of the Van Gogh museum's collection of ,Japanese prints. Zwolle, Neth: Van Gogh Museum Amsterdam. Said, E. (1978). Orientalism. New York Random House. Welton, J. (1993) Eyewitness art: Impressionism. New York: Kindersley. Whitford, F. (1977). Japanese prints and Western painters. New York: MacMillan.

20 PARADIGMS OF JAPANESE CULTURE AS REFLECTED THROUGH MUSIC AND THE RELATED ARTS

STEPHEN R. FULLER St. Cloud State University

Music and the related arts are a their shakuhachi with them and used these reflection of the culture which has flutes not only as a musical instrument, produced them. While the desire to make but also as a club in case they needed to music and participate in dance is a fight. universal phenomenon, the language of The second video example cited is these art forms is not universal. For those of a Nott drama, which began in the late who have never heard Japanese traditional 14th century and formed the basis for music, it may sound strange and perhaps a later dramatic forms such as Bunraku bit weird initially. But when one comes to (puppet theater) and Kabuki, the 18th understand the cultural precepts upon century modernized version designed for which such music is based, then one can the enjoyment of commoners. The third eventually appreciate the music for what example is a performance of Gagaku, the it is - maybe not like it, but at least ancient court music of Japan, performed appreciate it.Shintoism and Buddhism as an integral part of Imperial Household influence every aspect of music, the Shinto ceremonies and at various Shinto related arts and performance in Japanese shrines throughout the country. This is culture. still true today. In the video examples cited, we can These three examples demonstrate see and hear three contextualized slices of the aesthetics created by two major forces Japanese music. The first example in Japanese history: Shinto and Zen features a shakuhachi player. The Buddhism. Shinto, literally meaning "the shakuhachi is a Japanese flute which is way of the gods," the indigenous religion still played frequently, especially in the of the Japanese people, provides the rural areas of Japan. A source of great ethnocentric locus of the Japanese people. pride amongst many rural Japanese is According to Shinto legend, the Japanese their own personal shakuhachi, often islands were procreated through the two hand-made especially for them, or by kami Izanagi and Izanami. The Japanese them, and playing that instrument can be a people are all descended from the sun form of meditation. Shakuhachi were goddessAmaterasu, hence the term "land played by the samurai warriors, and even of the Rising Sun" and the symbol of the after they were stripped of their power red sun on the Japanese flag. The emperor during the Tokugawa era, many became is in the direct line of succession from wandering Buddhist priests who carried Amaterasu, hence his elevated status in 10

Japanese society. dwelling in the glow of beauty which According to Shinto belief, the nature provides. There is a quality of spirits of the kami are found in all objects mono no aware, which some have of nature, and thus nature is to be described as perpetual sadness, but which delighted in and revered. We see this in 1 think is a mood of great reverence the Japanese gardens, and we also see it in reflecting a profound spirituality. The the Japanese sensitivity to nature through cameraman focuses in on various leaves photography and the visual arts. The and branches of surrounding greenery, country of Japan is of course blessed with capturing the spirit of Shinto. an abundance of natural beauty. The Excerpts include the very Japanese know it, and such beauty is beginning of the film, which shows the attributed as a special gift of the kami to shakuhachi player on a stage with a the land. The three main aesthetic values reflecting pool in front of the stage. A tree which come from Shinto - simplicity, is placed on the stage, and the shoji doors purity, and harmony with nature - are are carefully opened while the shakuhachi reflected in every form of artistic player is playing. Also shown are close-up expression in Japan, whether it be flower shots of various greenery and leaves from arranging (ikebana), architecture, trees. The second excerpt is painting, music, drama, the tea ceremony approximately halfway into the film, ( cha-no-yu), or the metaphors present which is a solo performance by the in poetic forms such as haiku. Nature is shakuhachi player. The video image has represented in all of these forms in a the player placed slightly off-center. significant way. Zen Buddhism (or Chan Buddhism as it was known in China) was first VIDEO EXAMPLE #1: introduced to Japan in the 12th century Discovering the Music of Japan by the Buddhist monk Esai (1141- The first video example of the 1215). The principles of Zen when shakuhachi as taken from the film grafted with the ideals of Shinto had a Discovering the Music of Japan (1982). profound influence upon the social fabric This video was produced by the of Japanese society, and are clearly ethnomusicology department of Ohio manifest in the structure of the arts of Wesleyan University and in it we see a medieval Japan. While Shinto focused on great sensitivity to Shinto ideals - the things of this life and the conduct of ritual natural setting of the stage which opens to in various rites of passage in Japanese the outside and a reflecting pool, with the society, Buddhism laid emphasis upon nature objects carefully placed around the death and the escape from the travails of pool and the tree placed on the stage. One life itself, i.e., the "other-worldly" feels a great reverence emanating from conception of human existence. Through the sound of the shakuhachi. You will hear Zen, however, one finds quality in this life ornamentation of the five tones used, through a state of consciousness which which is an enhancement of each note by brings satori, or enlightenment. Life and wavering around the pitch. Ornamentation death are perceived as having no is achieved by the player rotating his distinction, and one acquires an intuitive head. You will notice also the elastic or sense which not only affects the conduct of stretched out rhythm of the music. There everyday affairs, but brings peace of mind is no hurry when one is feeling to the follower of Zen. This is achieved symbiotically united with nature and is through a stream of consciousness which

22 11 is considered the true reality of all life and physical material. focuses on the nothingness, the no-mind. Through satori, this elimination of all VIDEO EXAMPLE #2: The distinctions creates a perception which Tradition of Performing artsin reveals the true reality of existence. One Japan: the artistry of Kabuki, Noh is not distracted by the attachment to and Bunraku--Noh drama excerpt materialism or the problems of everyday In the Noh drama, on-stage props life. are virtually absent. The audience does not One learns to focus through need these props. They can "fill in the meditation and to value those ideals which gaps" with their own minds. The provide utmost meaning and concentration movements are careful, small and in the living of everyday life. This focus minimal. I want to emphasize the upon the here and now puts Zen in "careful" aspect, because in the Noh harmony with Shinto and affects the drama every movement, every gesture of conduct of life itself. The Samurai the actor is carefully choreographed. warriors embraced Zen principles and Nothing is left to chance; nothing is practiced them in the art of improvised. The ideal is to gain the swordsmanship and other martial arts as maximum effect from the minimum well as in the conduct of everyday affairs. amount of movement. Masks are used to Zen ideals of purity include wabi, the internalize emotions and expressions, and reverence of poverty as opposed to to restrain the deviance from the essence material possessions, and sabi, which or "suchness" of that emotional D.T. Suzuki defines as "rustic expression. This is in marked contrast to unpretentiousness or archaic Chinese Peking opera with its acrobatics imperfection, apparent simplicity or and exhibitionism so opposed to Japanese effortlessness in execution...." (Suzuki, Noh drama in every shape and form. 1959, p. 24). Value is put upon the This difference is Zen. In Noh mundane. the older the material used the drama, one sees Zen mixed with Shinto: better. In the tea ceremony, the utensils the Zen ideals of restraint and are old and sometimes crude; some may minimalism, the plainness of the stage think they are even ugly. Even ikebana, which is made out of natural wood, the art of flower-arranging, which has its reflecting both Shinto and Zen, and the three main points of focus representing representation of nature by the painting of heaven, earth, and humankind, builds the pine tree on the back of the stage wall asymmetrical presentation as if the and the real pine tree which is placed flowers were caught in an unbalanced along the stage extension at of the moment. The film clip of the shakuhachi audience. The characters in Noh dramas has the musician placed off-center, are often taken from Shinto myths and especially when he is viewed with the legends. objects of nature around him. Japanese aesthetics uses an VIDEO EXAMPLE #3:Gagaku: economy of means, which is often the court music of Japan-- expressed in modem terminology as "Etenraku" segment "minimalism." Representing the The third video example is of "nothingness" or "no-mind", what is not Gagaku, the imperial court music of there is as important as what is there, an Japan. The type of Gagaku which now artistic expression in the absence of exists was established during the 43 12

Kamakura period (1185-1333). Prior each beat of a gong is slow and deliberate. to this time, court music was basically Indeed as you watch the different imported, being either Togaku, or music instruments being played individually, derived from China and Southeast Asia, or you notice as much effort put into the Komagaku, music derived from Korea. The arms getting ready to play the designated Japanese style of Gagaku as we now know note or beat as the execution of the actual it was set by the year 1233, when a 10- sound itself. A macrocosm is achieved volume treatise on Gagaku was written by from a microcosm, i.e., the maximum Koma Chikazane, a Gagaku dancer from effect is obtained from a minimal amount Nara (Togai, 1971 p. 129). Gagaku fell of material. The effect is slow and out of favor from the Muromachi period deliberate; the result is Zen. (1338-1573) through the Edo period The piece in the video example is (1603-1868), but was restored by the probably the most famous Gagaku piece, Emperor Meiji when he moved into the called "Etenraku", which exists in new Imperial Palace in Edo (now Tokyo). modern Japanese society as a folk-song Gagaku music is heard at special rituals at which school children learn to sing and in the Imperial Palace Grounds, such as a Kabuki version. The narrator on this special ceremonies of state or banquets, video is William Maim who just retired as and at various Shinto shrines when the ethnomusicologist at the University of kami symbols are moved from one Michigan and who is considered to be the building to another. leading expert on Japanese music in All the instruments used in Gagaku America. This excerpt provides an except one are importations of explanation of the Gagaku instruments as instruments from other countries. Most of they appear individually, explained by the instruments have antecedents in China. William Maim, and the first part of a The lute type instrument biwa in China is performance of "Etenraku." The known as the p' ioa. The mouth organ instruments and how they are used are which looks like the Phoenix bird called described below: sho in Japan is called the shenq in China. melodic (horizontal): ryuteki (flute) But the use of these instruments is again and hichiriki (4-reed oboe like markedly different, and show the instrument); influence of Zen upon Japanese melodic (vertical): cordophones: performance ideals. Chinese court wagon, gakuso or koto-like zithers; orchestras were large and favored the use gakubiwa- a pear shaped lute; aerophone: of gongs and cymbals to produce a loud, sho - a multiple-piped aerophone creating noisy sound. Japanese Gagaku is austere a "tone cluster" (this instrument and lean; there may be many instruments represents the phoenix bird); present, but each instrument is played in rhythmic (gongs): shoko - a small a minimalist fashion, which makes that suspended gong; instrument clearly delineated in the sound rhythmic (drums): dadaiko - large fabric. The sound ideal is one of chamber drum, taiko - medium size drum, kakko music. As in the shakuhachi piece, the smaller double-headed drum, the rhythm is elastic and stretched out. The cordophones also serve a rhythmic music is carefully worked out. There is no function. improvisation whatsoever. Every movement is highly choreographedeach Conclusions drum stroke, each plucking of a zither, Culture reflects itself in music and 13 other arts. To understand Japanese Ross, N. W. (1960). The World of culture, the aesthetics of music and its Zen. New York: Vintage Books (Random performance in traditional and modern House). settings must be heard and seen because Suzuki, D. T. (1959). Zen and words cannot convey the layers of cultural Japanese Culture. Princeton: Princeton iconography and behavior adequately. University Press. These arts represent traditions of Japan filtered through centuries of participants Japanese Music from their origins in prehistory for Garfias, R. (1975). Music of a Shintoism and its aesthetics, China for thousand autumns: the Togaku style of instruments and structure and for Japanese court music. Berkeley: Buddhist traditions and minimalism. University of California Press. Kishibe, Shigeo (1966). The References Traditional Music of Japan. Tokyo: Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai. Zen andShinto Centenary Culture Council Earhart, H. B. (1969). Japanese (1969). Japanese culture in the Meiji Religion: Unity and Diversity. Belmont,CA: era. Tokyo: Toyo Bunko. Dickenson Publishing Company. Malm, W. P. (1959). Japanese Fujisawa, Chikao. (1959). Zen and Music and Musical Instruments. Rutland: Shinto. Wesport, CT: Greenwood Press. Charles E. Tuttle. Holtom, D. C. (1965).The Malm, W. P. (1977). Music National Faith of Japan: A Study in Modem Cultures of the Pacific.the Near East. and Shinto. New York: Paragon Book Reprint Asia (2nd edition). Englewood Cliffs: Corporation. Prentice-Hall. Kato, Genchi. (1971). A Study of Malm, W. P. (1971). Practical Shinto. London: Curzon Press. (Original Approaches to Japanese Music. In David P. work published in 1926). McAllester (Ed.), Readings in Kitagawa, J. M. (1987). Ethnomusicology. New York: Johnston Understanding Japanese Religion. Reprint Corporation. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Malm, W. P. (1980). Some of Mason, J. W. T. (1967).The. Japan's Music and Musical Principles. In Meaning of Shinto. Port Washington, N.Y.: Elizabeth May (Ed.), Musics of Many Kennikat Press. (Original work published Cultures. Berkeley: University of in 1935). California Press. Matsunaga, A. (1969). The Togai, Masatoro. (1971). Gagaku: Buddhist Philosophy of Assimilation. Court Music and Dance. New York: Rutland: Charles E. Tuttle. Walker/Weatherhill. Picken, S. D. P. (1980). Shinto: Tsuge, Genrichi. (1986). Japanese Japan's Spiritual Roots. New York: music: an annotated bibliography. New Kodansha International, Ltd. (Harper and York: Garland Publications. Row). Piggot, J. (1982).Japanese Related Arts: Mythology. New York: Peter Bedrick Books Keene, D. (1973). No. The (Harper and Row). Classical Theater of Japan. Tokyo: Ross, F. H. (1965). Shinto: The Kodansha International Ltd. (New York: Way of Japan. Boston: Beacon Press. Harper and Row). 14

Okakura, Kakazo. (1964). The Book of Tea. New York: Dover Publications.

Film: Barr Films. (1982). Discovering the Music of Japan (video-22 minutes). (Available from Encyclopedia Britannica Educational Corporation. Enrico, E., & Smeal, D. (Producers and Directors). (1989). Gagaku: the court music of Japan (video-60 minutes). Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma. Enrico, E., & Smeal, D. (Producers and Directors). (1991). Music of Bunraku (video- 29 minutes). Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma. National Geographic Collector's Edition. (1988). Living Treasures of Japan (video-60 minutes). Stamford, CT: Vestron Video. Shin-el Corporation (Producer), & Funatsu, Hajime. (Director & Author). (1989). The Tradition of performing arts in Japan: the artistry of Kabuki. Noh and Bunraku (video-38 minutes). Tokyo: NCS Video JV.

26 Inquiry into the Japanese Self The Japanese Self

SheilaFling Southwest Texas State University

...the study of the self across time and cultures is an essential topic for psychology... [otherwise] psychologists do not recognize the ethnocentric nature of psychology's discourse about the current Western self... [and] participate in a culturally disrespectful and damaging psychological imperialism....perpetuat[ing] the discourse of [the modern West's] self-contained individualism and its attendant miseries... (Cushman, 1990, p. 699; italics in the original).

An older Webster's Collegiate concept of self versus society is a Western Dictionary (1959) defines self as "an one and that, rather than an isolated individual considered as an identical essence, self has meaning only in person ... abeing in its relations to its relations to other selves, things, and own identity" and then identity as ideas, thus leading to a conceptualization "sameness of essential character ... of multiple and constantly changing unity and persistence of personality; dimensions of self. This article might individuality." "Individual" in turn more aptly be called Japanese Selves or derives from Latin, "not divisible," "of even Japanese Selfing to indicate the one essence;" and individuality refers to a dynamic aspect. Finally, Japanese person separate and distinct from another. spiritual traditions, especially Buddhism Some have argued that Japanese with its "no self," may provide insight have no sense of such a unitary, into Japanese "selfing."Iwill review homogeneous, essential, continuous, and these points and then propose that separate self. Many scholars have Japanese and Western selves may have described "the Japanese self" as more different emphases in what is otherwise interdependent, group-oriented, common to both, that extremes of both relativistic, and situational compared to emphases may become pathological, and the Western self which is more that some apparent movement on each side individualistic, autonomous, and toward the opposite emphasis could lead to consistent. This position has often an integration, balance, and fluidity of included at least an implied judgment that "selfing" that would in turn create a the latter is superior. Others have argued better world. Finally,Iwill offer a few for an inner, hidden, secret self in cautions for studying Japanese and Japanese people that seems to be at least Western selves. relatively essential, separate, and more Nancy Rosenberger (1992) has continuous. More recently, others have reviewed some of the changing views of moved on to say that the dichotomous the Japanese self. Ruth Benedict

40e) 00 18

(1946/1989) was, of course, influential babies, whereas American mothers more in conceptualizing Japanese in terms of a frequently stimulated theirs to activity. tension between poles of self and society British-educated Japanese with "ninjo" or "human feelings" anthropologist Chie Nakane (1970) clearly subordinate to "on" or obligation provided the concept of "ba" or "frame." to others. In Freudian terms, the A Japanese is immersed in a group whose individual's sexual and aggressive cohesion and hierarchically structured instincts were kept in check, not by relationships provide security and group superego's guilt, based on internalized identity. For example, one identifies abstract moral principles, but by ego oneself in a phone call as "Mitsubishi's ideal's shame induced by externally Tanaka." There's no I, no given name, and imposed sanctions from a hierarchical no self-honoring "San." social structure. Thus, in certain Central to Japanese psychoanalyst situations without those external Takeo Doi's (1973/1981) analysis of sanctions, instincts were dangerously Japanese is the important concept of uncontrolled, perhaps implying Japanese "amae," i.e., dependence on the presumed inferiority. passive indulgence of another, and more Later, focusing on impressive fundamentally, the longing to overcome Japanese achievement, psychologist- the separation of existence. He believes anthropologist George DeVos this desire to be universal but to be (1974/1986) retained the self/society especially consciously recognized in Japan dichotomy. A Japanese person maintained as indicated by the existence of a whole the social self by conforming to normative vocabulary associated with it. For Doi, the roles and retreated to a "secret self" of person is not an isolated entity but fantasies more related to the unconscious. develops and finds meaning and even Guilt existed and spurred achievement, freedom in relationship. Initially the but it was induced by the mother-child infant is one with the attentive, indulging intimacy and not by integrated, abstract mother, and then, when "amae" is superego principles. Highly controlled frustrated, the child becomes aware of the Japanese repaid debts by achieving social self but in the sense of "jibun," literally goals but were frustrated and suppressed "self-part" of the whole. as individuals. Doi (1986) also used a linguistic Moving more toward the self-in- approach to the "anatomy of the self" in relationships rather than in conflict with his "two-fold." This Japanese society as a whole, psychoanalyst- consciousness has both "omote" and anthropologist William Caudill "ura" (front and back, which correspond (1974/1986) saw pleasure- to "kao and kokoro" or face and gratification for the Japanese in the heart/mind/soul or public and private), mutual dependency of intimate family "tatemae" and "honne" (loosely, outer relations, bathing, eating, and sleeping conventions and inner intentions), and together. Japanese babies, however, were "soto" and "uchi" (outside and inside, socialized to be interdependent and other- referring to groups and contexts of oriented, emphasizing feeling and distance, formality, restraint, and intuition in contrast with American deference, where omote and tatemae reign, babies' training to be independent and or to those of more intimacy, spontaneity, emphasize the rational. Japanese mothers and indulgence, where ura and honne are more often consoled and quieted their expressed). 29 19

Doi argues well that these pairs "inner self" is a more stable self- are each two sides of one reality and not awareness related to the ura/honne/ninjo inherently contradictory nor of aspect of the self and the himitsu of the differential value or "truthfulness" as kokoro (secrets of the heart). (3) The Westerners have often interpreted them "boundless self" is a transcendent "no to be. Mental health and, one might say, self" symbolically centered in "hara" or mature "selfhood" is to know when each belly instead of kokoro. With non- is appropriate and be able to shift flexibly resistant, passive "emptiness" it merges between them ( "kejime "), even at times with all by becoming part of all and also very subtly in the middle of a sentence. absorbing all into itself. This boundless Lastly, Doi speaks of the importance of self can provide disengagement from a having "himitsu" (secrets), not with a socially entrapped or inwardly obsessed negative connotation but in the Buddhist self sense of that which is too profound to be Lebra ranks these selves in a revealed or cannot be communicated to value hierarchy, which she suggests may anyone, and being able to accept and represent stages of maturation, with the wonder at this gift of one's humanity. This "interactional self" lowest with its "yotori" or "something to spare" presentational self lower than its provides freedom of the interior mind and empathetic self, then the inner self, and reminds one of DeVos's "secret self." Doi then the boundless self. This seemingly also proposes that it may be only in contradicts Benedict's and others' valuing communion and union with nature that one the disciplined, socially regulated self overcomes the separation of existence that over the natural, spontaneous self. Lebra "aurae" seeks to bridge, perhaps argues this seems so only in the context of suggesting a spiritual self being in society rather than in the context A self with some inner, individual of meaningfulness of culture and that nature like this has also been expressed at there is universal order in the apparent times in Japanese literature, especially chaos of the boundless self. Lebra also in journals and the "I-novel." An specified that these selves interrelate and individual self may also be "crafted" and converge in the highest Japanese value of expressed in the Japanese enthusiastic "purity" or that of "sunao," an involvement in aesthetic activities at admixture of all. work or leisure (Kondo, 1992; Roland, Roland (1988), who has practiced 1988). An individual self may also be psychoanalytic therapy in Japan and India exercised in the great capacity for as well as in the United States, provides endurance, discipline, and exertion of will detailed psychological descriptions of the power and "seishin" or spiritual strength experience and dynamics of shifting, (Befu, 1980; Reischauer, 1988; Rah len, multiple Japanese selves. He describes a 1976). very private self with strong, fixed inner Another Japanese-born, Western- ego boundaries but diffuse permeable trained anthropologist Lebra (1992) outer ego boundaries with the inner ones proposes multiple and fluid aspects of self also less open to self-awareness than in both apart from and within relationships: the United States or India. One tends to be (1) Her "interactional self" has both a very sensitive to and empathic with "presentational self" and an "empathetic others ("omoiyari") but not as aware of self," corresponding to Doi's soto and uchi one's own self-feelings. Somewhat like realms of social interaction. (2) The Doi and Lebra, Roland conceptualizes a 30 20 familial and group "we-self," an in the Japanese and Western self do seem individual "I-self," and a spiritual self to exist. Westerners do seem to be realized in aesthetic and meditative relatively more self-expressive and experience. He sees the traditional Japanese more restrained. Strength of Japanese make-up as consisting of more character in the West has been to go of the familial and spiritual self with against convention versus the ability to little of the individual self, whereas the conform and harmonize in Japan. The American has more individual self with a proverbs "The squeaky wheel gets background of family self and very little greased" versus "The peg that sticks up spiritual self. gets hammered down" probably reflect The Japanese Jungian psychologist genuine differences. The Japanese Hayao Kawai (1996) conceptualizes nightmare has been failing to connect and Jung's "self," in contrast with the being excluded from the group versus the Freudian split I -it or ego-id, as standing American one of failing to separate or astride the Occident and Orient. He quotes being controlled by others and losing one's Jung as saying, "At its innermost, the freedom. psyche is the world." Kawai may have Exaggerated versions of such surprised his questioners at his oral final differences may lead to pathologies. In exam in Zurich, however, when asked, Japanese, sharp private/public "What are the symbols of the self?" With separation may lead to anthrophobia and his understanding of Buddhism, he replied "shinkeishitsu" (nervous, sensitive "all created things." Everything is the temperament) with its hypersensitivity self, not just symbols of the self. He to blame. Extreme emotional restraint argues that, as in modern physics, so in may result in somatization, especially Buddhism, nothing has a static, essential, common digestive system problems, or individual nature in and of its own even in depression and suicide. Rigid characteristics. Apparent differences hierarchical structure may lead to emerge out of changing relationships. rebellion, parent abuse, or a transference Using the dharmic word, "Principle" of frustration to one lower in the manifests in phenomena. Instead of "I hierarchy or an outsider as in school am" (or "you are"), the noun and verb bullying. In America, on the other hand, switch to "Being Is" (or "you's"). This struggling for extreme independence and "eachness" or uniqueness differs from individualism may contribute to Western individuality because it ceases to emotionally deprived children, exist when out of relationship. Kawai dependency needs being suppressed maintains that Japanese feel the self as especially in males, sexual and aggressive connected to something transcendent. I instincts being acted out destructively, submit that this awareness, even if in the narcissism, alienation, and chaos in background in most cases, may provide general. security that allows for more freedom in Especially in the light of these the shifting multiple selves more negative possibilities, one might well apparent in Japanese. Interesting in light consider two points. Perhaps apparent of the Buddhist concept of "no self," the differences in Japanese and American Japanese "watashi" for "I" may have selves are primarily differences in degree derived from "wa-tsukushi," which is or emphasis rather than differences in "myself annihilated" (Pennock, 1995). kind. Westerners, too, have some degree Yes, at least relative differences of multiple, shifting selves; and Japanese 31 21 also have some inner sense of individual preschoolers than before (Tobin, et al, self. Furthermore, some movement on 1989). each side toward incorporating more of At the same time, perhaps the the other's emphasis seems to be West is moving toward a more relational occurring, which ideally could lead to a self. Western scholars have certainly healthy balance and integration in each. given more recognition to the social Since the Meiji restoration and construction of the self than Freud's especially since World War II, Japanese intrapsychic focus gave, e.g. Buber, Mead, seem to have included a sense of self in Erikson, Mahler, and Jung. Adolescent their Westernization. Thus, ironically, psychology has deemphasized the need for their tendency to define themselves in separation and noted that it must be relation to the "other" may have led to balanced by connectedness. Like Japan, defining the self more independently. America's geographical and historical Notable for adapting their imports, they factors have also shifted. Americans no may have failed yet to "purify" (sunao) longer need to be rugged individualistic and tame this imported independence with pioneers, and the great vision of the their own reciprocity and unity, so some "melting pot" has become something of a anomie and loss of meaning seem evident. nightmare of intergroup conflict. Anthropologist Ohnuki-Tierney uses the Perhaps a hint that a more popular movie "Tampopo" to illustrate spiritual self is also developing in this (1987, p. 208). Americans can be detected. Although Also, some of the apparently traditional psychoanalysis treated contributing factors to the strongly evidence of any spiritual self reductively, relational Japanese self are changing. as a regression to infantile narcissism and Geographical factors like natural longing for omnipotence and symbiotic disasters and population density still prenatal union with the mother, Japanese make group relatedness adaptive, but psychoanalyst Akihisa Honda introduced world trade makes group cooperation less Karen Homey, Erich Fromm, and Erik essential for sharing limited resources Erikson to Zen Buddhism via D. T. and for agriculture, especially the old Suzuki's work. Jung, Maslow, and many methods of rice farming. Population others have studied the spiritual self and homogeneity is still much greater than formed the field of transpersonal that of America, of course, but relatively psychology, which includes human more colored with different peoples than experience that transcends egoic selfhood. when Japan was isolated. Other Like Jung's "individuation" before sociocultural factors contributing to the transcendence, transpersonal scholars "we-self" like the three generational often stipulate that, unlike the disorders home, mothers for the intensive early of schizophrenia and borderline "amae" socialization, intact families, and personality, one must first have a healthy life-long employment are also changing. sense of self before transcending it in a One sees more independence and healthy experience of the "empty" self individuality, for example, in more choice (e.g., Engler, 1986). Modern physics has allowed young people, especially surely provided a new paradigm for adolescents, in education, occupation, and increasing awareness of a possible non- marriage. Studies find less "kejime" (the dualistic, transcendent "no self" out of shifting consciousness of self according to which multiple, changing selves emerge context as described above) in and then reemerge in interdependence

32 22 with other shifting patterns. This self is suggested earlier in this paper, a also reflected in some New Age "pop" Japanese Westernization of the self may psychology, some revival of Christian and also be following this movement. Judaic mysticism, and deconstruction in One's dictionary may hint at the philosophy, literature, and even the simultaneous Easternization of the somewhat mainstream "constructionist" Western concept of self. In contrast with psychology (Collins, 1993). the 1959 definitions at the beginning of Social constructionists like this article, Webster (1996) still Cushman (1990), Gergen (1991), and retains "essential" and "distinct" in its Sampson (1983,1985) deconstruct, definition of self but makes no mention of decontextualize, and decentralize the self. an individual; and "identity" no longer They caution one to consider it as mentions "sameness of essential constructed and provisional, changing character" nor "unity and persistence of with history, culture, and even situation. personality." One must ask, "Which Western self is one Finally, in accord with Kawai's contrasting to which Japanese self?" For Buddhist conceptualization of reality in example, (a) should one speak of both the terms of "mutual penetration" and "American" and West European self as "interdependent origination", which also "the" Western self? A recent study of recalls to mind the Taoist yin-yang values in 46 nations revealed that both symbol, one might imagine Japanese and the Western European nations and the American "selfing" emerging out of the United States have elements of both field of their opposites in a continually individualism and collectivism and, dynamic process until integration, furthermore, that differences within the balance, and harmony (but not sameness) West on elements comprising this are realized. At least, as Roland (1988) dimension are as large as those between has suggested, one can hope for an the West and East Asia. Historical, "expanding self" going beyond socioeconomic, political, and religious ethnocentricity via enriching cross- variables are then proposed to explain cultural awareness. differences within the West (Schwartz & Ros, 1995). (b) Likewise, does one properly compare the self in ancient References Eastern religions with the modern self of Befu, H. (1980). The group model Western psychology, as does Ho (1995), of Japanese society and an alternative. while overlooking the very similar Rice University studies, 66. Houston: Rice mystical traditions within Judaism and University. Christianity (Western religions, albeit Benedict, R. (1946/1989). The originating in the East)? (c) Similarly, chrysanthemum and the sword: Patterns one might well remember the social Japanese culture. Boston: Houghton constructionists' argument that the Mifflin. bounded, masterful "Western self" was Caudill, W., & Weinstein, H. only historically "constructed" after (1974/1986). Maternal care and infant feudalism collapsed. They see shifts from behavior in Japan and America. In T. S. religion to science, agriculture to Lebra & W. P. Lebra (Eds.), Japanese industry, and rural to urban as culture and behavior, (pp. 201-246). accompanied by a shift from communalism Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. to individualism (Cushman, 1990). As Collins, D. (1993). Unknowing: 33 23

Playing seriously with contemplative University. College Station, TX. deconstruction. Unpublished doctoral Kondo, D. (1990). Crafting dissertation, California School of selves: Power. gender. and discourses of Professional Psychology, identity in a Japanese workplace. Chicago: Berkeley/Alameda, California. University of Chicago Press. Cushman, P. (1990). Why the Lebra, T. (1992). Self in self is empty: Toward a historically Japanese culture. In N. R. Rosenberger situated psychology. American (Ed.) Japanese sense of self. New York: Psychologist, 45, 599-611. Cambridge University Press. DeVos, G. (1974/1986). The Nakane, C. (1970). Japanese relation of guilt towards parents to society. Berkeley: University of achievement and arranged marriage among California Press. the Japanese. In T. S. Lebra & W. P. Lebra Ohnuki-Tierney, E. (1990). The (Eds.), Japanese culture and behavior ambivalent self of the contemporary (pp. 80-101). Honolulu: University of Japanese. Cultural Anthropology, x,19 7- Hawaii Press. 216. DeVos, G. (1985). Dimensions of Pennock, R. T. (1995) Death of self in Japanese culture. In A. Marsella, G. the self: Changing Medical definitions in DeVos, & F. Hsu (Eds.), Culture and self: Japan and the U.S. Obirin Review of Asian and Western perspectives. New International Studies, 7, 109-125. York: Tavistock. Reischauer, E. 0. (1977/1988). Doi, T. (1973/1981) The The Japanese today: Change and continuity. anatomy of dependence: The key analysis of Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Japanese behavior. New York: Kodansha Rohlen, T. (1976) Promises of International. adulthood in Japanese spiritualism. Doi, T. (1985). The anatomy of Daedalus, 105, 125-143. self: The individual versus society. New Roland, A. (1988). in search of York: Kodansha International. self in India and Japan: Toward a cross- Engler, J. (1986). Therapeutic cultural psychology. Princeton: Princeton aims in psychotherapy and meditation. In University Press. K. Wilber, J. Engler & D. P. Brown Rosenberger, N. R. (Ed.). (1992). (Eds.), Transformations of consciousness: Japanese sense of self. New York: Conventional and contemplative Cambridge University Press. perspectives on development (pp. 17- Sampson, E. (1983). 51). Boston: Shambalah. Deconstructing psychology's subject. The Gergen, K. (1991) The saturated Journal of Mind and Behavior, 4, 135- self: Dilemmas of identity in 164. contemporary life. Scranton, PA: Basic Sampson, E. (1986). The Books. decentralization of identity: Toward a Ho, D. Y. F. (1995) Selfhood and revised concept of personal and social identity in Confucianism, Taoism, order. American Psychologist, 40, 1203- Buddhism, and Hinduism: Contrasts with 1211. the West. Journal for the Theory of Social Schwartz, S. H. & Ros, M. (1995) Behavior, zy 2),11 5-1 39. Values in the West: A theoretical and Kawai, H. (1995, March 25-27). empirical challenge to the individualism- Jung and Buddhism. Papers presented at collectivism cultural dimension. World the Annual Fey Lectures at Texas A & M Psychology, 1(2), 91-122.

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Tobin, J., Wu, D., & Davidson, D. (1989). Preschool in three cultures: Japan.China. and the United States. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Webster's new collegiate dictionary. (1951). Springfield, MA.: G. & C. Merriam Co. Webster's new world college dictionary. 3rd ed. (1996). V. Neufeldt (Ed.). New York: Macmillan.

055 RECIPE FOR SELF AND SOUL IN DECADENT TIMES: REFLECTIONS ON THE POST-WAR JAPANESE LITERARY SENSIBILITY

Louise Myers Kawada Massachusetts College of Art

The literary critic, David Pollack, ways in which selt is constructed in their observes at the beginning of his book writings and the motivation that seems to Reading Against Culture: Ideology and impel these writers toward a closer Narrative in the Japanese Novel that examination of subjective interiority during the Meiji Period (1868-1912) within a culture that is reputedly a the Japanese were exposed to the Western "group culture." What is interesting notion of an autonomous self and about these writers is the intensity of "realized, not without misgivings, that their quest for self in so brief a time they were going to have to have one of span--a little over a decade--as well as these too" (Pollack, 1992, p. 3). The goal the diversity of paths chosen: neo- for a self took on a political urgency realism, Romanticism, surrealism, even through a slogan formulated during the the imposition of a (western) Christian Meiji period calling for "national tradition. Unlike other literary or social independence through personal movements that appropriate similar independence" (Pollack, 1992, p. 3). The stylistic modes, this quest for self seems notion of a self, though, is not a fixed to have been directed only by each commodity in any culture; and in the novelist's own proclivities. landscape of postwar Japan, buffeted by forces of defeat, devastation and the MishimaYukio presence of the American Occupation, once The particular path that Mishima again the individual self seemed in need of appears to have taken was a kind of some shoring up and deepening. literary experiment. A student of I shall concentrate here Romantic literatures, Mishima in Spring principally on Mishima Yukio's Spring Snow essentially seems to be asking Snow (1968) with some additional brief whether or not the tropes of Romanticism, remarks on a very different novel, Endo themselves synonymous with the writing Shusaku's The Sea and Poison (1958). In of an interior subjectivity, could be fact, however, this paper only indicates imported and transcribed within Japanese the direction of a far more encompassing cultural discourse. project that could, for example, explore In this novel, arguably the the techniques of writers such as Abe strongest of his tetralogy, The Sea of Kobe, Oe Kenzaburo and Kawabata Fertility, Mishima traces the ill-starred Yasunari to determine and reflect on the romance between Kiyoacki, the son of the

36 26 socially insecure, yet financially stable on the harp. Coleridge describes its power Matsugae tamely, and Satoko, daughter of as: the Count and Countess Ayakura, a family A light in sound, a sound-like that possesses both the manners and social power in light, pre-eminence of the nobility, but also the Rhythm in all thought, and a effeteness, the diminishing funds, and the joyance every where- - traces of decadent behavior of a declining Methinks, it should have been aristocracy. The fact that Mishima places impossible on center stage this romance Not to love all things in a world so beleaguered as it is with adolescent till d; hesitation and misgiving, does not, of Where the breeze warbles, and the course, make him a romantic writer. But mute still air other characteristics do, not the least of Is Music slumbering on her which is his borrowing of certain instrument (Coleridge, 1969, p. 101). Romantic images and habits of thought. To come upon the koto image in In one particular passage Mishima Spring Snow struck me, when I first read describes Kiyo at the beach with three of it, with about the same force I image I his Mends trom Peers School: the two would teel upon seeing a tall Northern Indian princes, Chao P. and Kridsada, and pine in the middle of a desert. I felt both Honda, his long-time friend. It is nightfall pleasure in recognition and shock at the with the constellations brightening the incongruity. Nature in Western Romantic sky and the waves rising and growing tradition was always figured as a vast louder. The narrator observes: imposing force - -on the order of Mont "To be surrounded by such massive Blanc--that could instruct in a profound power was like being shut up within a mantle of quiet or invoke awe and vast koto. sublimity. Nature in Japanese literature, "Indeed, it was precisely that. They on the otherhand, was smaller, defined, themselves were like four grains of sand broken down into specialized parts as that had somehow found their way into its season markers in verse or framed foci base, an enormous world of darkness, for meditation. Nature was always a outside which all was bright. Above them lower-case "n." were stretched thirteen strings from one To adopt such an image and place it end to the other. And fingers of whiteness in a novel that overtly deals with Japanese that were beyond words were touching class and social structure, as well as a these strings, making the koto come alive heavy dose of Buddhist philosophy, was an with the grand and solemn music of the especially daring gesture. Nature, in spheres, the immense vibrations shaking particular Western Nature, is a force of the four grains of sand within" (p. 234). instruction and power available to any and The image of the koto sounding up all who have the capacity to attend and the sympathetic vibrations of the music of receive. In fact, Mishima, trained as he the spheres is a direct orientalizing and was in various Romanticisms, held in his borrowing trom Samuel Taylor own nature certain recognizably Romantic Coleridge's poem "The Aeolian Harp." His precepts. Sounding a little like poem is generally read as his testimony to Wordsworth in his "Intimations Ode," a responsive imagination in all humankind Mishima, in a 1966 diary entry (only that hears and is uplifted by the natural four years before his suicide), wrote the phenomenon of the wind producing music following note: 37 27

"Among my convictions is the finished, a new kind of war has just belief that the old are eternally ugly, the begun; this is the era tor the war of young eternally beautiful. The wisdom of emotion. The kind of war no one can see, the old is eternally murky, the actions of only teela war, therefore, that the dull the young are eternally transparent. The and insensitive won't even notice.... longer people live, the worse they become. "And just as in the old wars, there Human life, in other words, is an up- will be casualties in the war of emotion, I side-down process of decline and fall." think. It's the fate of our age--and you're Unlike Wordsworth's poem with one of our representatives. So what about its deep tones of poignancy and nostalgia it then? You're fully resolved to die in for the infant who enters this world this new war--am Iright?" (p. 198). "trailing clouds of glory," Mishima's Honda' s prophecies are exactly on remarks on the falling away of physical target, and Kiyo is, as the novel beauty and the decline of mental prowess repeatedly foreshadows, a casualty in this suggest the perspective of decadence war. Mishima clearly recognizes a shift rather than that of Romantic nostalgia. away from storytelling narrative and the Repulsion dominates here more so than epic realism of an earlier epoch, but the regret for the passing of a world of lost reader still may question whether or not innocence and wholeness, and I think these he has successfully effected a turn toward darker tones inevitably color any impulse subjective lyricism in this novel (has he toward Romanticism in his works. truly rendered this "war of emotion"), Whether or not Mishima could or has Mishima, like Honda, merely approach Romanticism with-the same prophesied what would take place? sense of visionary wonder as earlier At the opening of Spring Snow, Romantics is hardly the point. What Kiyo, now eighteen, seems willing to matters here in this discussion of the commit himself to his emotions, but Japanese and their development of a "emotion" here translates into passions heightened subjectivity is Mishima's own of the moment, rather than the "emotion awareness of the shift in stance and recollected in tranquility" of the attitude during the Meiji era. Midway introspective soul. As the narrator through the novel, Honda is recalling with observes of Kiyo: Kiyo the memorial photograph celebrating "He wanted to be like a pennant, those who died in the Russo-Japanese War dependent on each gusting wind. The only (1904-1905). Repeatedly, the photo is thing that seemed valid to him was to live described as an art object with figures for the emotions--gratuitous and arranged as if "in a Renaissance unstable, dying only to quicken again, painting." Honda comments on how dwindling and flaring without direction or removed from reality this photo now purpose" (p. 15). appears to him: Throughout the novel, Kiyo does "Today, all the stories of past glory not seem to advance much beyond this wars have sunk to the level of those state of uncontrolled response, and he edifying accounts we hear from middle- commits himself to Satoko only when she aged noncoms in the military science becomes an unreachable object by virtue department or the boasts of farmers of her engagement to a member of the around a hot stove. There isn't much Imperial household. Mishima, himself, chance now to die on the battlefield. moreover, short-circuits a viable "But now that the old wars are subjectivity in his characters by cloaking 38 28 occasions for true self-awareness in the Endo Shusaku veils of courtly manners, ritual form, and Endo Shusaku's novel, The Sea and a hyper-sensitivity that induces self- Poison (1958) is a very different sort of consciousness. Over and over again the book from Spring Snow, and to move word "elegance" is used until it becomes a between them is a little like leaving the heavy perfume, stifling rather than Palace at Versailles to trod off to the army enchanting the senses. At one point, barracks. Endo's novel describes as its elegance is cited as a disease only too key incident a vivisection performed at a capable of diluting the earthy realism of Japanese military hospital on an the samurai traditions that had shaped American P.O.W. The point of the Kiyo's family. As Mishima writes: experiment was to discover how much of "By Kiyo's time, the first traces of both lungs could be removed before the refinement were threatening to take hold patient died. Unlike Mishima with his love in a family that, unlike the court nobility, of the gorgeous and his need for control had enjoyed centuries of immunity to the via an omniscient narrator, Endo relies virus of elegance. And Kiyoacki, like an more on direct dialog as he presents his ant that senses the approaching flood, was situation and characters with experiencing the first intimations of his uncompromising realism. family's rapid collapse" (p. 15). A practicing Catholic imbued with A romantic subjectivity depends a sense of sin and guilt, Endo points an for its vitality on open channels of feeling unnerving finger at Japan's shame- and response--unfettered immediacy of driven culture. What he presents in this emotion without either a judgmental gaze novel is a continuum of conscience--from or the lethargic drain of boredom and a total absence of conscience in some of the ennui that would compromise its military officers who joke about the forcefulness. The characters in Spring vivisection and later demand the patient's Snow, moving about as they do in liver as mocking delicacy to be consumed, Mishima's tableau of Japan at the end of to some senior officers who are clearly the Meiji era, feel both the formal distressed but say nothing, and, finally, to constraints and the boredom brought on by the medical interns who most concretely the decline of an effete aristocracy. explore ideas about conscience, judgment Furthermore, their story is modified to and personal moral standards. The an even greater degree by the fact that it dialectical pull in this novel is between is told by a postwar writer who has the intern Suguro who is the most witnessed his country's suffering and has empathic and hence the most emotionally known the inevitable loss that vulnerable of the medical staff, and the accompanies change. By temperament, intern Toda, who as a schoolboy was historic circumstance, and a marginalized portrayed as one who knew how to curry relation to society, Mishima possessed a the favor of adults and succeed, despite his fascination with and a literary hypocrisy. Suguro, overwhelmed by the understanding of Romanticism but was image of murder going on in front of him wholly unsuited to ever suspend for a in the guise of good medical practice, is moment his distanced awareness and reduced to an emotional shambles. It is up judgment. And so his experiment with to Toda, then, to be the authorial tropes of Romanticism in Spring Snow -- mouthpiece in an exploration of like the Meiji era itself--seems both conscience and remorse. When asked to magnificent and doomed. take part in the experiments (three

39 29

vivisections were scheduled), he wonders relation between a culture and the writing to himself: it produces. Uoes the literature merely "Killing a living human being. Having describe the culture, or does it in some done this most tearful of deeds, will 1 proactive, prophetic sense, actually shape suffer my whole life through?" the culture? Probably the answer to that Then, glancing over at the senior question, in this instance between attending physicians, he remarks: description and prophecy, is a mutuality "These men were, after all, no of exchange -- and out of that mutuality different from me. Even when the day of in this particular era of Japanese judgement comes, they'll tear only the literature has sprung a multiplicity of punishment of the world, of society..." pathways to an articulation of self and (p. 126). identity. Finally, at the close of the book, Toda begins to respond to Suguro's References assertion that "some day, we're going to have to answer for it." Swiftly, Toda puts Coleridge, S. T. (1969). Poetical to rest any external pressure by works. (Ernest Hartley Coleridge (Ed.)). responding: London: Oxford University Press. "Answer for it? To society? If it's Endo, S. (1958). The sea and only society, it's nothing much to get poison. (Michael Gallagher, Trans.). New

worked up about....You and I happened to York: New Directions. be here in this particular hospital in this Mishima, Y. (1972). Spring .particular era, and so we took part in a snow. (Michael Gallagher, Trans.). New vivisection performed on a prisoner. If York: Knopf. those people who are going to judge us had Pollack, D. (1992). Reading been put in the same situation, would they against culture: Ideology and narrative in have done anything different? So much for the Japanese novel. Ithaca: Cornell the punishments of society" (pp. 166- University Press. 167). The words are forceful, but as the narrator indicates, Toda once again feels "an indescribable sense of weariness," the same sort of weariness he felt when he agreed to take part in the vivisection. Despite the hypocrisy, the coolness, even the brashness he has shown earlier in the novel, this feeling of weariness gives silent testimony to his own awakened conscience. Endo's and Mishima's novels are more complex than I have suggested here, and, as I indicated earlier, their experiments and methods of rousing and bringing to light an individuated subjectivity are only two of the potential directions taken by other Japanese fiction writers. One can speculate about the 40 Japan Studies and Curriculum

41 An Inquiry Unit on Japan for Undergraduate Methods StudentsinElementary Education

Richard B. Speaker, Jr. University of New Orleans

This paper has two major goals: 1) Integration, d) Thematic Units, and e) to set forth a categorization system for Extracurricular Design. These are fuzzy integration of Japan Studies into the categories that require some delineation; curriculum and 2) to write about a they are certainly not mutually exclusive particular such integration, a unit on nor are they intended to be. These terms Japan that I have been conducting with are defined below. undergraduate elementary education Course or Curriculum Design is students in their literacy methods course accomplished by adding new courses to over the past three years. Integration has present programs or developing new been a major focus in education practice programs to improve understanding of and theory over the last few years Japan at a particular institution. (Harlin, Lipa, & Lonberger, 1991; Harp, Examples include adding a course on 1993; Hiebert, 1991; Pappas, Kiefer, & Japanese History to a History Program or Levstik, 1995; Routmann, 1991; an Asian Studies Program; developing an Speaker, Levitt, & Speaker, 1992) which interdisciplinary minor, Japan Studies, has generated research on effectiveness using various courses on Japan offered in (Jones, Coombs, & McKinney, 1994; several departments; or finding funds to Thames, & Reeves, 1994) and complex offer Japanese Language instruction to assessment practices (Harp, 1991; students. The disadvantage of this Tiemey, Carter, & Desai, 1991). It has approach to integration at the college level been discussed with respect to various is that faculty must be found to staff the populations: elementary (Grisham, course which implies budgetary 1995), middle school (Willis & Speaker, considerations and the often lengthy 1995), secondary alternative settings approval process required for such (Smagorinsky, & Coppock, 1995), offerings. The great advantage of learning disabled (McArthur, Schwartz, developing this integration structure is & Graham, 1991), and adults that it institutionalizes the offering of the (Thistlethwaite, 1994). It was also a course or program. major topic of the Japan Studies Institute Exogenous Integration can be which many college and university faculty accomplished more easily than designing a members have attended with Al Coox in new course or curriculum. It requires San Diego over the past tew years. that an instructor bring A categorization system for material/activities/topics outside the integration of Japan Studies must consider discipline into the discipline to develop at least five aspects of the content to be wider knowledge bases and academic studied: a) Course or Curriculum Design, excellence through connections between b) Exogenous Integration, c) Endogenous the discipline and other disciplines. For

42 34 example, in comparative literature, an structures and statistics can be used for instructor might incorporate considerable comparison on a variety ot dimensions. culture study on Japan and the Japanese to The disadvantages and advantages of this assist students in interpreting aspects of type of integration are similar to those of Japanese literature and comparing it with exogenous integration; however, an other literatures; in education, an important added advantage is the focus on instructor could develop an extensive the content of the discipline through Japan inquiry unit on Japan to provide students Studies. with the experience of participating in Thematic Units are modular or such a unit betore they are required to stand-alone units on topics which can be plan and implement such units with used at a variety of levels (elementary children (more on this later). The through graduate) to promote disadvantages for this type of integration understanding of the complexity of our are that many disciplines do not allow for global society and its interactions. For the introduction of a sufficient volume of example, a thematic unit, titled, "Rice: material for learners to acquire more Food for the Millions/Feeding the than a taste of Japan Studies, only certain Hungry," could investigate themes such courses allow this type of integration as: 1) the contribution of rice agriculture (integration ot Japan Studies into a course to stable and emerging ecomonies on Milton would be absurd), and there is throughout the world, including Japan as little institutionalization of Japan Studies one historical and modern example; 2) the unless the instructor teaches the culture of rice and its production in Japan particular course to a high volume of and Southern China today, as an example students. The advantage of this type of is of comparative economics; 3) rice as a that it can be done on a small scale and commodity throughout Japan's history; quickly. 4) rice and its use in fertility rituals of gndogenous Integration allows the the Shinto Religion; 5) rice as modern instructor to concentrate on aspects of business -- trade and barriers in the Japan Studies that relate to the particular modern world. Such a unit could tie in discipline being studied. This is the most local culture areas such as Louisiana with common form of integration in the college various global markets and constituencies. curriculum and, of course, occurs with Extracurricular Designs include many other interests of the instructor. It Colloquia, Clubs, Special Activities, involves bringing Advertising/P.R. about Japan Studies material/activities/topics related to Opportunities, linking with community Japan but within the discipline into the organizations and making presentations forefront to develop a stronger knowledge in a variety of classes or forums. For base in the discipline and academic example, instructors and students of excellence through using examples related Japanese may find it advantageous to to Japan, Japanese language or Japanese participate in a local Japan Society or culture. For example, in a linguistics even the Japan Studies Association. I class, where the instructor uses sentences devote the remainder of this paper to an from various languages as examples of example of an exogenous thematic unit syntactic/semantic/pragmatic where the learners generate the themes of structures, the instructor can use their investigations through questions Japanese examples. In a sociology class on which they ask. the family, examples of Japanese family 43 35

An Example brainstorming session where they work The major goal of my unit on Japan in small groups to produce: a) what they is to provide teachers and future teachers know about Japan and the Japanese; b) with a model of integrated instruction. their questions which they will With such a model, they can design a investigate; c) an analysis, organizing flexible, inquiry-based unit on Japan or what they know about Japan in the form of other topics. The unit allows them to a semantic map or web; and d) a brief experience a wide range of multimedia presentation about their map and activities on Japan. This is not a unit questions. They organize and classify the which provides a complete set of questions to form areas of group inquiry. materials for teachers to use in their Some examples of questions generated by classrooms; rather, it points the direction one group of students are: Do the for those who are interested in developing traditional arts get taught with everyone's thematic units by suggesting: a) school day? Are there special schools for Children's and adult books on a wide range traditional arts? Do the Japanese of topics related to Japan; b) Artifacts, incorporate music and art in the school arts, activities and crafts which can be day? Is a child's career decided by other used to develop knowledge and skill, people? How does the school day begin for especially related to Japan and its lower elementary students? Are Japanese peoples; c) Deepening learners' children really superior in intellect to understanding of the Japanese culture American children or are Japanese through potential travel, exchanges and children only trained for the testing? discussion; and d) The process of inquiry Should we follow in the Japanese and its implementation into classrooms educational direction? What is the school (Speaker, Levitt & Speaker, 1992). system like in Japan? Are family values Obviously, any instructor must choose and morals taught treely in Japanese activities that are appropriate for the schools? What is the school system like in ages and abilities of the classroom's Japan? How many hours do children learners; the instructor can modify attend school in Japan? What are some activities or create new ones which meet teaching strategies used in Japanese specific learner/disciplinary needs (a classrooms? At what age do children first list of some activities is in Appendix A). learn to read? Do children read literature My current unit has 86 potential topics in the classroom or basal readers? What or centers on which learners may focus are things you can do for tun in Japan? their investigations. Generally the time What do the Japanese do for allotted for the unit is about eight hours of entertainment? What do children do in class time spread over three days in this their free time? What are the Japanese six semester hour undergraduate literacy traditions for bringing up young methods course with practicum. children? How do Japanese people feel The basic opening activities of the about their aging society? What is the size unit involve developing questions to guide of the average family? What is the climate inquiry of the learners as they investigate of Japan like? How does gender-ditterent Japanese culture and flooding the language effect modem society? What classroom with as wide a rage of materials kinds of food do the Japanese eat? What and artifacts as possible. I like to have are the people of Japan like? How do you students write their questions about Japan learn to use chopsticks? Are there any on 3 X 5 cards during an extensive really good Japanese restaurants in New 44 36

Orleans? What is home life like for the quickly. I close it by asking students to do Japanese? What are Japanese customs one of the following: look for something like? How do Japanese people view Japanese at home and bring it to the next Americans? How did the custom of bowing class meeting to share; go to a Japanese originate? What is the current rate of restaurant, have a meal and report back to plane flights to Tokyo? What are some us about it at the next meeting; read a international or foreign exchange book, or use some multimedia resource or programs with Japan? Students in the internet to learn more about Japan; or elementary education program rarely rent a Japanese film and talk about it at know much about Japan so they need the the next class meeting. interaction of a group to generate prior The major assignment comes at the knowledge and questions for their next meeting. After students share their investigations. homework, they receive a set of portfolio Flooding the classroom with guidelines. Now they must focus on materials and books about Japan is the developing their knowledge and answering second major activity of the unit. I have their questions; they now know I will collected materials from each of my trips grade the portfolio. The search through to Japan (1952-53, 1994, 1995). On materials becomes more focused and the first day, I usually take a library cart purposeful; students take responsibility full of books about Japan (in English and for their own learning rather than just Japanese), books for children and adults playing with the material. They develop in English and Japanese, magazines and specific projects to use as part of their manga (Japanese comic books); a portfolio; for example, one group of videotape player with large monitor and students decided to examine the portrayal about six video tapes; a slide projector of women in manga while another group with carrousels of slides on Japan and the called travel agents to find out about computerized index of topics; calligraphy current costs of packages to Japan. They materials; origami materials; two ask for specific materials after meeting in computers with Japanese word processors groups to divide the search for and information files (see Appendix B for information, to discuss what they have a list), including a CD encyclopedia and an found, and to answer each others extensive bibliography; taped and printed questions. They have conferences with me music and a keyboard so we can practice about problems they have encountered, Japanese songs; and maps, artifacts and a what they are preparing, what they have variety of handouts. The students play found, and the organization of their with this material for about an hour, portfolios. Some try origami and looking through it, sorting it, organizing calligraphy more seriously, increasing it with only the assignment to play and the effort to do something better than take notes of what they examine for their their first attempts. They plan their log. I show slides and talk about Japanese presentations for the final day and language and literacy, but try not to construct their portfolios. To end this answer questions which have been meeting, I like to have a Japanese friend generated during the brainstorming. I or student attend the class and answer introduce simple greetings and some questions. Japanese calligraphy. You can generate interest by helping learners write their Results and Conclusions names in Japanese. This period goes Student's presentations are short, 45 37 some individual, some in groups--each at the 45th annual meeting of the National different. Some changes in affect can be Reading Conference, New Orleans. noted from their logs; some students are Harlin, R., Lipa, S. E., & Lonberger, not very interested in Japan and write R. (1991). The whole language journey. things like "we're doing Japan because Markham, Ontario: Pippin. the instructor's got a thing about it." Harp, B. (Ed.). (1991). Assessment Later reflections show surprise about and evaluation in whole language "getting into it" and an increasing programs. Norwood, MA: Christopher- interest in learning more about Japan. Gordon. Some complain that they did not have Harp, B.(1993). Bringing enough time to study their topics. Some go Children to Literacy: Classrooms at work. in search of more experiences relating to Norwood, MA: Christopher-Gordon. Japan (workshops, restaurants, the Japan Hiebert, E. H. (ed.), (1991). Society, language classes), but I have not Literacy for a diverse society: heard of any who have scheduled a trip- - Perspectives. practices. and policies. New maybe some will in the future. Two have York: Teachers College Press. asked me to visit their classes with my Jones, H. J., Coombs, W. T., & materials, and I have presented to a group McKinney, C. W. (1994). A themed of first through sixth grade children. literature unit versus a textbook: A The power of this model of comparison of the effects on content integration is tested when these students acquisition and attitudes in elementary begin working with children in a school social studies. Reading Research and several weeks later. They discuss with Instruction, 34, 85-96. classroom teachers the topics that must be McArthur, C. A., Schwartz, S. S., & covered as part of the curriculum, and Graham, S. (1991). A model for writing then they develop their own units. They instruction: Integrating word processing use a variety of topics and techniques, but and strategy instruction into a process invariably the children brainstorm about approach to writing. Learning Disability the topics, ask questions about them and Research & Practice, 230-236. search through a variety of materials to Pappas, C. C., Kiefer, B. Z., & answer their own questions. The power of Levstik. L. S. (1995). An integrated inquiry cannot be underestimated. language perspective in the elementary Through a short integrated unit, students school: Theory into action (2nd ed.). New can see how to take control of their York: Longman. learning and how to direct other learners Routman, R. (1991). Invitations: to become more involved in learning. Not Changing as teachers and learners. K-12. knowing all the answers is a normal state Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann Educational for humans; we should all be inquirers Books. and learners throughout our lives. This Ruddell, R. B., & Speaker, R. B., Jr. model of integrating Japan Studies (1985). The Interactive Reading Process: provides one avenue to foster inquiring A Model. In H. Singer & R. B. Ruddell minds. (Eds.), Theoretical Models and Processes of Reading (3rd Edition) (pp. 751-793). References Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum and Newark, Grisham, D. (1995, December). Delaware: International Reading Literacy learning in integrated Association. curriculum: A case study. Paper presented Seely, A. (1995). Theoretical

46 38 perspectives on assessment of integrated curriculum. Paper presented at the 45th annual meeting of the National Reading Conference, New Orleans, December, 1995. Smagorinsky, P., & Coppock, J. (1995). The readers, the text, the context: An exploration of a choreographed response to literature. Journal of Reading Behavior, 2/, 271-298. Speaker, R. B., Jr., Levitt, G. A., & Speaker, P. R. (1992). Columbus and the Exploration of the Americas: Ideas for Thematic Units in the Elementary Grades. SociI Studies and the Young Learner, 56, 18-21. Thames, D. G., & Reeves, C. K. (1994). Poor readers' attitudes: Effects of using interests and trade books in an integrated language arts approach. Reading Research and Instruction, 33, 293-308. Thistlethwaite, L. (1994). Literature for all ages in the adult education program. Reading Research and Instruction, 14, 136-148. Tierney, R. J., Carter, M. A., & Desai, L. E. (1991). Portfolios in the reading-writing classroom. Norwood, MA: Christopher-Gordon. Willis, E.I., & Speaker, R. B., Jr. (1995, December). Novel approach: Collaboratively bridging integrated literacy instruction and educational technology. Paper presented at the 45th annual meeting of the National Reading Conference, New Orleans

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Appendix A: Selected Activities for a Japan Unit

1. Sort questions you (and other members of your group) have into categories to simplify your investigation. Add other questions as you think of them. 2. Categorize materials available so that you can identify possible sources of information for answering your questions. 3. Spend time in each of the centers which the class members have constructed to find out what your classmates have been discovering about Japan. 4. When you find information which answers your questions, take notes and then write up the answer. Post the answer in a center or a computer file. 5. What are the following: Kyoto, Matsue, Osaka, Himeji, Izumo? What is important about each? 6. Add something to one of the following centers: Language, Art, History, Music, Travel, Sport, Religion, Women, Calligraphy, Money, Cultural Artifacts, Personal Artifacts, Literature. Dictionaries, Manga, Geography, Jobs, People, Origami, Computer, Slide, Mathematics, Writing, Video. 7. What are the following: Hokkaidoo, Honshuu, Kyuushuu, Shikoku. What is important about each? [Construct your own puzzle like this and post it for others to investigate.] 8. Investigate someone important in Japanese history and prepare a short report. 9. Do each of the following go together: Joomon, Yayoi, Kofun, Yamato, Nara, Heian, Kamakura, Muromachi, Momoyama, Tokugawa, Meiji Restoration, Showa? Why? What are they? Why are they important? 10.Build a timeline. 11.Learn a few phrases of Japanese such as greetings. 12.Learn to count in Japanese. 13. What is the typical diet of the Japanese people? What nutrients does it contain? How many calories per day are usual? Compare this with the American diet. 14.Choose an area in Japan and investigate its ecosystem. Develop a project to test or display some aspect of this. 15.Read a Japanese children's story. Post your reaction to it. 16.Read part or all of a Japanese novel or play. Post your reaction to it. 17.Write a Japanese restaurant review and post it. 18.Examine artifacts in a center and write about your observations. 19.Use computers to search for answers to your questions. 20.Read to search for answers to your questions. 21.Share your findings with an individual or a group. 22.Plan a performance with a group. 23.Plan a trip to Japan. 24. Do an art project. 25.Make hanko (name stamps) out of bars of soap or linoleum blocks. 26.Make screens using classroom made-paper and artwork. 27.Learn to write you name in katakana. 28.Paint a scroll for your takanoma. 29.Study a martial art or bring a Japanese martial artist into your classroom. 30.Examine tea bowls and other implements for the tea ceremony (chanoyu).

48 40

31.Study the tea ceremony (chanoyu) and set aside a section of your classroom to be a tea ceremony room. Decorate the tea ceremony room with screens and art work from your class projects. Invite a Japanese tea ceremony expert to your classroom to demonstrate the tea ceremony. 32. Make o-mochi (flavored rice candy) and try different flavorings. 33.Communicate with a class of similar age children on the Internet. 34.Write letters to various Chambers of Commerce in Japan. 35.Write letters to the nearest Consulate General of Japan 36.Listen to Japanese music.Write a report. 37.Rent a Japanese video and watch it. Discuss it with your family, friends or classmates. Write a movie review column for your classroom newspaper. 38.Study Japanese animation and TV shows which have been based on Japanese characters. Produce some of your own Japanese style comic books (manga). 39.Invite several people who have been to Japan or who are Japanese to your classroom to discuss their experiences. Have them bring in artifacts from Japan which they have collected. 40.Find out about the types of games Japanese children play. Learn to play them and teach other members of your class to play them. 41.Learn some origami. 42.Learn how to make vegetable sushi. 43.Learn to use chopsticks (hashi). 44. Go to a Japanese restaurant. Eat different types of Japanese food. 45.Find someone with a futon and try sleeping on the floor. 46.Read Japanese folktales. Retell them to a partner. 47.Read a Japanese play such as kabuki or bunraku. Adapt it for performance in you classroom or school. 48.Investigate favorite Japanese sports like baseball and sumo. How are they similar to American sports? How are they different? 49.Try reading a Japanese train schedule. 50.Develop your own version of wood block printing. 51.Study Japanese flower arranging (ikebana). Practice it with some flowers you have grown. 52.Build a model of a suit of Japanese-style armor to wear. 53.Study traditional and modern Japanese clothing. Discuss its similarities and differences. Design some clothing following a Japanese pattern. 54.Identify 10 items in your house which were made in Japan. 55.Read the Japanese Constitution of 1947. Compare how their system of government works with the American and British systems. 56.Read about famous Japanese historical and literary figures. Write a short biography about your favorite person and present it to the class. 57.Study about women's life in ancient and modern Japan. Report on their lives and options. 58.Compare and contrast the US Constitution and the Japanese Constitution of 1947 (the MacArthur Constitution). 59.Investigate Japanese attitudes about sex, dating and marriage and then compare these with US attitudes. 60.Read about religion in Japan. What are the attitudes of the Japanese towards

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religion? How do these attitudes compare to attitudes in the U.S. historically or currently? 61.Examine a number of Japanese manga or films for how women and/or foreigners are treated. What types of violence are depicted? What attitudes do you infer from these images?

Appendix B: Information for Unit in Computer Files

Information related to this unit is in the following files: 1. Unit.lntro (this is basically what you're reading now!); 2. J.Unit.Activities.1 (general activities you can use with your unit); 3. J.Shogun.Activities (a set of brainstorming activities for students interested in the Tokugawa shogunate); 4. J.Historic.Names (a list of famous Japanese, historical and mythical for students to investigate); 5. J.Math.1 (some ideas for incorporating mathamatics in your unit); 6. J.Science.1 (some ideas for incorporating science in your unit); 7. J.Center.Database (list of possible centers which you could construct for a unit); 8. J.Schedule.2.Day (a schedule for two days of introductory activities for a unit); 9. J.Questions.1 (a set of questions generated by undergraduates about Japan, formatted and categorized in a database); 10.J.Center.Labels (a set of large font titles for centers in J.Center.Database); 11. THEMUNT2.doc (a thematic unit in IBM format, developed for elementary use by a group of teachers in one of my courses); 12. J.THEMUNT.Wd1 (a version of THEMUNT2.doc in Mac Word format with some editing); 13.J.Child.Bib (a bibliography of books and useful materials for children and adolescents); 14.J.Grand.Bib (an extensive bibliography of works on Japan and the Japanese); 15.J.Bib..DB.1 (an extensive database of works on Japan mostly the same as in J.Grand.Bib).

Above all, enjoy your study of Japan and the Japanese! These files (Macintosh Microsoft Works 4.0) are available to those who send a 3.5 inch computer disk to me at Department of C&I, ED 342, UNO, New Orleans, LA, 70148.

50 Infusing Japan Studies into the College Curriculum Through Multicultural Literacy Courses

ElizabethWillis University of Southwestern Louisiana

Introduction-- Why include experience. Beyond that, he wanted other Japan studies? literacy colleagues to infuse their Several times, I have taught a literacy courses with thematic teaching; literacy course that focussed on his curricula mission pushed him to offer multicultural education, teaching diverse assistance through suggested readings, cultural and linguistic populations for thematic planning, and an exhilaration undergraduate and graduate students for including such study. Through many preparing to become teachers. Many of conversations with Richard, I discovered the readings and young adult literature that I had acquired literature selections selections designated for this course are that could be useful in bringing Japan chosen with awareness of the class Studies to my students. To honor what I membership's student population. My believed to be the necessary elements of a students often requested reading selections multicultural literacy course and to be from Asian cultures, particularly respectful of an emerging curricular Vietnamese, Korean and Chinese, because discourse between Richard and me, I these backgrounds were common in the began my own autobiographical inquiry community. However, my students' into including Japan Studies within my literature requests were made based on a university courses. need to understand others, students they Clearly I felt compelled to examine taught or might teach. Unexpectedly, in those episodes that support the initial the Spring 1995 and Summer 1995 class integration and substantiate continued memberships, Japanese-American investment in Japan Studies and the students enrolled in each of the recognition of multiple voices which has multicultural courses. The literature helped me move beyond the seductive hold requests demanded that I search for of the personal viewpoint. I wish to offer selections that resonated personally for three short narratives--essential particular course members, rather than stories--that point to, more than they for students they would teach. tell, what it means to see in a way that Designing the initial multicultural allows the essence of teaching to reveal course, a colleague's curricula request, itself to us. and reading a Japanese tale course signaled a synchronous beginning. Richard A Look That Hears Speaker, returning from JSI, decided that In feudal Japan, there lived a monk, within his literacy courses his students famed for his temple garden of morning would begin exploring Japan via his lived glories, and a lord in his nearby castle. 44

The lord, upon hearing of the develop. This Japanese story focuses on bountifulness and beauty of the garden, the Zen pedagogue rather than the verbal sent forth to the temple a message that on competition pedagogy which so often the day following the full moon, he would characterizes Western teaching. arrive in early morning to view the My own reading of ancient stories garden. often fills me with interest and the On that appointed day, the monk upon glimmer of pedagogical understanding. early rising, went directly to the garden Such is the case when I read Ted Aoki's and plucked all the morning glories but chapter containing the narrative above. one. When the lord arrived the monk Through Aoki's offering I begin to see how guided him to the garden, fresh-laden with unexpectedly each of us moves between morning dew, beckoning him to savor to the roles of monk and noble person in our the fullest what his eyes could behold. profession education endeavors. The mass of foliage denuded of the multitude of flowers he had imaged She is the Teaching beckoned the lord to break the silence to In Spring, 1994, I taught a reading ask of the monk, "Where are the morning course entitled "Teaching Literacy glories for which you have gained Within a Culturally and Linguistically renown?" Different Environment." This was my The monk, gesturing to the lord to first experience teaching a multicultural savor the lone flower, said softly, so as course; I was delighted with the not to tread upon the silence unduly, "My opportunity.I planned the course to lord, if you but allow the morning glory to include strong components of speak, the flower will disclose to you the autobiographical inquiry ( writing essence of the being of the morning glory activities titled: your reading that it is." autobiography, your writing The lord paused, allowing his eyes to autobiography and your reconceptualized rest upon the flower, and listened with autobiography), information on language care to the speaking of the morning glory. acquisition and development, useful Then he turned to the monk, bowed a little literacy strategies for teaching and more deeply than a lord typically is wont learning in diverse classroom settings, to bow, and said quietly, "I know better and a wide range of multicultural now what it is to hear when I look." With children's literature to engage and enrich that he left upon his lips a faint smile students' meaning making. (Aoki, 1992, pp. 21-22). About six weeks into the course I In a true sense, our monk was a Zen brought in Grandfather's Journey by pedagogue, a person who leads. He asked Allen Say.Bringing in this illustrated his lord to push aside the seductive hold of children's text was for enjoyment, not those understandings that claim for jogging painful memories. After all, correctness and to approach with bowed my intention was to encourage thinking humility, with an attitude of surrender to about Japan and America "through the sound of the voice that calls. What compelling reminiscences of Say's yielded to him was a deep insight, that if grandfather's life in both countries. The he is properly oriented and if he listens author/illustrator warmly conveys his carefully--that is, a listening filled with own love for his two countries and care, the care that brought the lord and describes the strong and constant desire the flower together--understanding will to be in both places at once: When in one

52 45

country, he invariably misses the other. book out for the weekend?"I was amazed His grandfather, he tells us, would that this student did not have access to understand. volumes of Japanese literature in her Angela wiped away her tears at the home. Her literature response revealed conclusion of the story. She wrote. Her her personal and deep connection with response was painful to write she claimed. this story written from the perspective At only one time in her life did she want to of a young girl during her imprisonment be Japanese, and she was denied the status. in a World War II resettlement camp. At the age of fourteen Angela accompanied Surprisingly,Lisele revealed that her her Japanese mother and her sixteen year parents were second generation old sister to her mother's birthplace in Japanese-Americans who had themselves Tokyo. They were to become acquainted experienced internment during the second with her mother's family for the first World War. A telephone call home time. Upon arrival in Japan they were became an interview with people she had greeted by only one sister. The two other never really known existed, the young siblings, another sister and a brother children who lived Uchido's story refused to meet with the long-departed firsthand. sister if she was in the company of her children who were part American. Watchful Thoughtfulness Angela's encounter with racism burned in What is the voice of teaching that her and needed an outlet; Grandfather's these stories speak? Surely it is more, Journey helped her communicate about much more than a recording of a minor her experiences. historical event in the lives of a teacher and a few students. Why are these New Student particular stories of single moments The Summer 1994 multicultural worth remarking? course brought Lisele Hirata, a graduate I have had to go through a process of student in elementary education. Her reflection to see these stories in light of reading autobiography described her my developing teaching. So now I examine average American lifeworld in Seattle. a teacher's learning of watchfulness and Lisele recounted her early literacy thoughtfulness on a continuum occurring development as ordinary and usual. across time: Without question she always fit into her I. Developing a Scheme--Period of wide social group. She was determined to orientation and information gathering for make learning a meaningful experience a multicultural education stance. With for her future students in Seattle. Each Richard Speaker's return from JSI,I was new multicultural literature selection developing a scheme for a Japanese broadened her understanding of affirming Theme. The period of curriculum diversity in the classroom. discourse orientation and information One evening I brought in a wide gathering to introduce Japan Studies selection of illustrated books and novels within multicultural literacy course. for students to read during Readers' II. Imitating Modeled Behaviors - - I Workshop -- a reading respite -- sit focused on my own behaviors, relied on back and read for your pleasure. Lisele imitation to intervene with students in noticed Uchido's novel Journey to Topaz. multicultural context, using my own "I have never before read a book about reading of Aoki's tale to focus on Japanese-Americans. May I check this teaching /4ea,ing behaviors and to 3 46 intervene with my students in a college advantage that reflection grants is the context. accumulation of insights from one story III. Establishing Joint FocusInteractions to the next. The knowledge I gained by between me and my students gradually placing myself into the protagonist role became goal oriented, with primary focus and, of course, as an omniscient narrator on the use of multicultural materials to do offer an irresistible position of teach concept and personal discovery of influence. I trust that these use of these the reader's heritage. Some students began characterizations will not be construed as recovering memories and sharing misuse, impertinence or arrogance, but, experiences through reading and writing to the contrary, as one teacher seeking autobiographies. deeper understanding of what motivates IV.Responding Indiscriminantly- - I and sustains meaningful academic responded to students' initiation and environments for pre-service and students began to focus their attention on in-service teachers. each other, but statically without Imposing order on the complex layers of personalizing the response or applying to learning that have accrued over time future teaching. I began to observe what while the allegory was in process (and students can or cannot do. continues to be), I have constructed a V. Ordinarily There or Responding type of time line-continuum that Discriminantly--I respond to students' represents how the developing allegory initiations dynamically, adding was represented in my teaching and information to students' interest, and curriculum development. eliciting longer in-depth study. Students' initiations of literary and personal Conclusions inquiry expand dynamically, adding These three short narratives point information to students' interest, and to, more than they tell, what it means to eliciting longer in-depth study. be oriented in a way that allows the VI. Facilitating Thematic Organization and essence of teaching to reveal itself to us Dynamic Interactions Within Groups of through the lives of the our students and Others--Students participate in outward their responses to literature. Since we communication with potential students. I teach in a multicultural society, Japanese respond by focussing students' attention Studies, integrated into the curriculum, on interactions with others, supporting allows some of our students to express ongoing and outward focus toward their voices and respond to literature communication with potential students. with aspects of their lives. The teacher's Why were these stories the basis ears and eyes must be attuned to follow for the allegory that now serves as the the development of learners inside and impetus for continuous reflection? outside the classroom. Looking through these stories I have seen myself in turn in the allegory as the monk Reference and the noble person, the rejected child Aoki, T. T. (1992). Layered and the usual one. Because I yearned to voices of teaching: The uncannily correct understand through sight and sound and and the elusively true. In W. F. Pinar and language, I ventured into these roles long W. M. Reynolds (Eds.), Understanding after each tale was spent. Reflecting on curriculum as phenomenological and the power of others' stories bestowed me deconstructed text (pp. 17-27). New with certain power.Unquestionably the York: Teachers College Press. I v

Japan Studies inInternational Perspectives

55 Japan and Russia: The Northern Territories Issue in the Post-War Era

Andrew S. Szarka University of Texas at Tyler

Fifty years ago the guns of World Russo-Japanese War of 1904-05, gave War II fell silent. To this day the shortest Japan control of southern Sakhalin and conflict of the war, that between the recognized Japan's special interest in Soviet Union and Japan, awaits the closure Manchuria. The Russian Revolution of a formal peace treaty. The bar to a precipitated Japan's Siberian peace treaty is the dispute over four tiny intervention of 1917-22, followed by (1,928 total square miles) islands brief but violent clashes with the more directly off the northeast coast of powerful Soviet Union in Manchuria in Hokkaido. To the Japanese these four 1938 and 1939 (Coox, 1977,1985). islands, Habomais (six tiny islets grouped Joseph Stalin coveted the Kuriles together under the term "Habomais"), even before the Pacific War. When Shikotan, Kunashiri and Etorofu, are the importuned by the Allies to fight against "Northern Territories." The Kurile Japan, he sought revenge for the Japanese Islands, a chain of eighteen islands arcing preemptive strike of 1904, the Siberian northward of these four are not in dispute intervention and Manchurian conflicts. (Allcock, 1992; Stephan, 1974). His genius was to portray the Kuriles as Since the Russo-Japanese encounter Russian territory and insist upon their in the northeast Pacific has been explored "return" to the Soviet Union (Has lam, by several western historians ( Allcock, 1993; Rees, 1985; Stephan, 1974). His 1992; Hasegawa, Has lam & Kuchins, coup of couching his quest for the 1993; Jain, 1981; Lensen, 1959,1972; strategic chain in the guise of their Rees, 1985, Stephan, 1974; Swearingen, legitimate return to Russia, and the 1978), this paper neither examines that acceptance of his claim by the Allies, the history nor argues the merits of claims United States in particular, is one of the and counter-claims. Some background, wonders of the diplomatic history of the however, will put the contemporary issue war. in historical perspective. The Cairo Declaration of November The Northern Territory dispute 27, 1943, proclaimed that, "The Three dates at least as far back as the 1855 Great Allies are fighting this war to Treaty of Shimoda, when Russia and Japan restrain and punish the aggression of agreed on a border between the islands of Japan....Japan will be expelled from Etorofu and Uruppu (the most southerly all other territories which she has taken of the Kurile chain). For sole rights to by violence and greed" (Jain, 1991, p. Sakhalin Island Russia ceded all of the 212). In February, 1945, Stalin agreed Kuriles to Japan by the Treaty of St. at Yalta to enter the war against Japan two Petersburg of 1875. The Treaty of to three months after the surrender of Portsmouth of 1905, which ended the Germany and the end of the war in Europe. 56 50

There is a consensus among In November, 1945, the mayor of historians (Jain, 1991; Nimmo, 1994; Nemuro, the northern Hokkaido city Rees, 1985; Stephen, 1974; Swearingen, where most of the displaced Japanese from 1978) that President Franklin D. the Kuriles landed, and remain to this day, Roosevelt believed that the Kuriles had reported to the Japanese authorities in been seized by Japanese aggression. Tokyo that the Soviets were cutting off Unaware of a Department of State position communications with and access to the paper which outlined the history of the southern Kuriles, traditionally Kuriles and recommended that they be administered as part of Nemuro-gun. retained by Japan (the so-called Tokyo, ignorant of Yalta, requested help "Blakeslee Memorandum" of December from the Supreme Commander of the 28, 1944) Roosevelt agreed that the Allied Powers (SCAP). SCAP, also Kuriles and southern Sakhalin would be unaware of the Yalta agreement (which "returned " to the Soviet Union. would become public only on February The Soviets declared war on Japan on 11, 1946), requested guidance from August 8, 1945, and invaded the Kuriles Washington. The State Department sent its on August 18. Japan surrendered to the opinion on the matter to SCAP on Allied Powers on September 2, 1945, and November 12,1945, stating that the Soviet occupation of the islands was "In view of the uncertain basis for a completed on September 5. Within a year claim which would seek to establish that Soviet citizens were moving to the any one of the Kurile Islands was more a islands, Soviet currency replaced part administratively or politically, of Japanese, and all resources, property and Hokkaido, than any other of those islands, businesses were appropriated by the the department is of the opinion that it Soviet state. Japanese place names were would be well not to raise at this time the replaced by Russian names, and on question of the boundary between the February 25, 1947, the Soviet Kurile Islands and Hokkaido. The question constitution was amended to annex the of eventual sovereignty is not involved in entire Kurile Island chain (including the this occupation. That question will Northern Territories) as part of the presumably be dealt with in the peace Russian Soviet Federated Socialist treaty. ...If the question is raised by Republic. During the winter of 1947-48 another party, any action should be the last of a total of about 17,000 avoided which commits the United States Japanese residents (most of them from at this time to any particular boundary the Northern Territories islands) were line" (Nimmo, 1994, p. 31). expelled from the Kuriles, the greatest On January 29, 1945, SCAP number of them settling in Hokkaido instructed the Imperial Japanese (Nimmo, 1994; Rees, 1985). Soviet Government to cease attempts to exercise possession was swift, complete, and authority over all but the four main unlike the Allied occupation of Japan, Japanese islands and specified minor permanent. Stalin's victory declaration of islands. The Northern Territories were September 2, 1945, that "We waited described as beyond Japanese forty years, the people of the old jurisdiction, with a disclaimer that this generation, for this day" to avenge the in no way indicated ultimate loss of "stain" of 1904-1905 was no idle boast sovereignty. SCAP recognized the Russian (Has lam, 1993, pp. 7-8). The occupation of the Kuriles and believed that territorial dispute was born. they would revert to Japanese control

57 51 once a peace treaty was signed (Nimmo, Union. The new Prime Minister, Ichiro 1994). Still ignorant of the Yalta grant, Hatoyama, wanted all of the Kuriles and SCAP could not foresee that the problem of southern Sakhalin returned, but would a peace treaty would be perhaps settle for Shikotan and the Habomais, perennial. home of most of the displaced Japanese and In December, 1945, the mayor of the islands nearest to Hokkaido. Kunashiri Nemuro forwarded to SCAP a petition of and Etorofu, while not essential to peace, 30,000 signatures of Hokkaido residents could be claimed for historical reasons, calling for the return of the Kuriles. As leaving the northern Kuriles and southern the Yalta concessions became public Sakhalin as bargaining points. knowledge early in 1946, the "Northern Remarkably, the Soviets seemed willing to Territories Problem" (HoppoRyodo return Shikotan and the Habomais and a Mondai) took shape. The Japanese shifted peace settlement was possible in August, their focus from the entire Kurile chain 1956 (Jain, 1981). But only for a to the four islands, which had been home moment to most of the Japanese residents, and not The Japanese abruptly demanded only historically under Japanese Etorofu and Kunashiri, too, and insisted administration from Hokkaido but also that the northern Kuriles be referred to never under Russian control. This policy, an international conference for final expressed in the 1946 motion of the disposition. Jain (1981) says that Donald Hokkaido Prefectural Assembly calling for Hellman (1962) suggests that this the return of Etorofu, Kunashiri, turnaround was due to the merger of the Shikotan and the Habomais (Rees, 1985) Democratic and Liberal parties in July, endures to the present. with Hatoyama adopting the more In the 1951 San Francisco Peace uncompromising position of the Liberal Treaty signed by Japan and forty-seven Party as part of the deal. Both sides other nations, including the United States, became more intransigent, especially the Japan renounced all rights and title to the Soviets, who were stung by preconditions Kuriles. Both Japan and the United States from the losing side (Has lam, 1993). claimed that permanent Soviet possession More significant might be pressure was not implied--the Soviet Union did not from the new United States Secretary of sign the treaty--and that the final State, John Foster Dulles, who supported disposition of the territory would be the Japanese claim to the four islands and settled as part of the peace treaty between felt that the Yalta grant was "simply a Japan and the Soviet Union. The United statement of common purpose by the then States-Japanese Joint Security Treaty heads of the participating powers, and not signed the day after the peace treaty, along a final determination by those powers or with the Korean and Cold War, kept Japan of any legal effect in transferring in the United States camp and hindered any territories" (Jain, 1981, p. 233). He rapprochement with the Russians until refused any territorial concessions to the 1956. Soviets and threatened the Japanese that if In the negotiations leading to the they failed to pursue their claim to all Joint Declaration of October, 1956, Japan four islands the United States would annex and Russia were as close to a settlement of Okinawa (Nimmo, 1994). the territorial issue and a peace treaty as The Japanese and the Russians could they have ever been, even since the end of agree only to end the state of war and to the Cold War and the breakup of the Soviet continue negotiations for a definitive

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peace treaty. The Soviets promised to rumblings of the Russian Parliament, return Shikotan and the Habomais upon which, democratic or not, is very the signing of a peace treaty, to support nationalistic (Goncharov & Kutchins, Japan's application for membership in 1993). Public opinion is opposed to any the United Nations and to waive war territorial concessions to Japan, as is the reparations. This is essentially where governor of the region. The Russian matters stand at the present. One might military resist any loss of strategic contend that only two islands, Kunashiri territory. New elites may control Russian and Etorofu, prevent the Japanese from foreign policy, but their perception of agreeing to a definitive peace settlement. basic national interest is the same as that If so, why are prospects for a peace treaty of the old regime (Scalipino, 1993). The not so much more imminent now that the unstated assumptions of the Soviet era are Cold War is over and the Soviet Union has now post-perestroika popular pressures. broken up? Thus Japan loses with the old and the new Domestic political considerations in regime (Has lam, 1993). Japan and the Russian Federation prevent A territorial settlement and peace the realization of what was so near in treaty appeared possible in 1992, after 1956. The Russian government, beset Japan recognized the new Russian with almost insurmountable economic, Federation and Russia in turn reaffirmed political and social problems, dares not the principles of the 1956 Joint inflame Russian nationalism by "giving Declaration (Russia to return Shikotan away" Russian territory to Japan. The and the Habomais upon conclusion of a Japanese refuse to budge from their 1956 treaty and negotiate the fate of Kunashiri position. A succession of weak, scandal- and Etorofu). But a prosperous Japan, ridden and unpopular governments have free of Cold War constraints, instead of been reluctant to concede what a strong recognizing Russian possession of all of and popular government might do. the Kuriles save Shikotan and the Prospects for a territorial Habomais, again raised the ante. They settlement and peace treaty grew with the would accept Russian administration over changes in Soviet domestic politics and the Northern Territories, but Russia foreign policy after Gorbachev's rise to must recognize Japan's "residual power in 1985. But current studies of sovereignty" over all four islands. those prospects (Hasegawa et at., 1993) Russian nationalist sentiment was aroused take a pessimistic view. The focus of the and has prevented any territorial transfer new political thinking in Russia is on the to this day (Hasegawa, 1993, pp. 430- United States and westem Europe; 49). traditional hatred of Japan is When Japan states that "law and undiminished. The election of Boris justice" guide its dealings with the Yeltsin and the failed coup attempt of Russian Federation, it means that after August 19-22, 1991, and the dissolution the transfer of the territory to Japan, of the Soviet Union, has not affected the Russian residents will not be summarily traditional pattern of Russo-Japanese removed, as were the Japanese residents relations. In fact, Russian antipathy in 1945-46, and that "on condition that towards Japan is more potent now that Japanese sovereignty over Etorofu, Russian public opinion is a political Kunashiri, Shikotan and Habomai Islands factor (Has lam, 1993, p. 36). are recognized, we will be flexible in Yeltsin must heed the patriotic terms of the timing and modalities of the

59 53 actual return of the islands" (Japan, have been solved one way or another, just Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 1992). as the United States was able to conclude In October, 1993, Yeltsin and Prime an arms control agreement with the Minister Morihiro Hosokawa signed the Soviets during a period of hostile "Tokyo Declaration." In it they recognized relations (Hasegawa, 1993). that Russia was the successor of the Soviet Russian hostility towards Japan is Union and that all treaties and agreements deep-seated and grounded in the past. So continued to be valid. Both pledged to seek too is Japanese distrust and abhorrence of a solution of the territorial issue and a things Russian. The prewar "enemy peace treaty. To that end they sanctioned a image" of the Russians focused on the Peace Treaty Working Group which was military and economic rivalry in already engaged in constructive dialogue Manchuria and China. In the post-war era and working to compile documentation Russia was the seedbed and exporter of (Japan, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, communism. Now, with the Cold War past 1993). Yet a settlement is still remote. and communism bankrupt, the Japanese If the Russians will not relinquish view themselves as the victims of a territory and the Japanese must accept blatant Russian opportunism which cost the return of only Shikotan and the them part of their homeland (Rozman, Habomais, the territorial issue may not 1992, p. 82). Japanese consensus here is be the only problem. To the Japanese the complete, and voices of dissent on the end of the Cold War and detente do not question are silent as stones. Russian apply to East Asia; in their eyes Russia is possession of the Northern Territories still a military threat (Mochizuki, keeps alive Japanese memories of the 1993). humiliation of defeat, invasion and The Japanese are prisoners of the occupation. Economic strength counts for Cold War. They see themselves as victims little as long as their self-image of of Russian duplicity and opportunism in complete post-war independence hinges on the final days of the Pacific War and are the Northern Territories (Hasegawa, unable to reassess their Russian policy 1993). and the role of the Northern Territories Is the Northern Territories issue (Hasegawa, 1993). The Northern more symbolic than territorial? Territories syndrome, "an affliction akin Seemingly a bilateral contest over four to a mental block that paralyzes Japan's tiny islands, is it really about Japan's ability to see and comprehend rationally place in a confusing world order its own interests, which go beyond a precipitated by the end of the Cold War fixation on the Northern Territories," and the breakup of the Soviet Union immobilizes them (Hasegawa, 1993). (Rozman, 1992)? Russia, not Japan, has Japan became a post-war world a history of territorial expansion and power without having to confront the loss. Japanese history, in contrast to Soviet Union. Their Russian trade was Russian, is insular and linear. The (and is) insignificant and their 1951 Russian invasion and occupation of even a security treaty allowed the United States tiny portion of this closed world disquiets to treat with Russia for them. The the Japanese. They might expect the Northern Territories are not vital to Russians to return the Northern Japan; no Japanese live there and they are Territories without qualms or concern not essential to Japan's economy. If they over national strength or reputation, as were indispensable the problem would did the United States when it returned 60 54

Okinawa to Japan (Rozman, 1992). Foreign Minister Yohei Kono was on the Symbol or not, the Northern mark when he observed, as recently as Territories dispute pushes Japan out of January 20, 1995, that "While there is step with the United States and western growing breadth in relations between Europe as they forge strong new ties with Japan and the Russian Federation, an the former Soviet Union (Hasegawa, extremely unnatural situation continues, 1993). Japan's vision is clouded by the in which the territorial issue has still not past. The Northern Territories are to been resolved and in which a peace treaty them as much a symbol of the "Yalta has not been completed" (Japan, Ministry order" as the Berlin Wall was to the of Foreign Affairs, 1995). Fifty years and West. The Wall is down and Japan's counting. symbol of the old order must be overturned (Rozman, 1992, p. 307). The References Confucian world view stressing Al !cock, J. B. (1992). Border and hierarchy, harmony and long memory territorial disputes (3rd ed., rev.). slows the pace of change. The Tokugawa Detroit: Gayle Publishers. Rank-Order Syndrome of hierarchy and Coox, A. D. (1977). The anatomy of ritualized conduct reinforces the view a small war: The Soviet-Japanese struggle that Russia is in decline, while Japan, for Changhufeng/Khasan. Westport, CT: although on the rise, sees its political Greenwood Press. status lagging behind its economic Coox, A. D. (1985). Nomonhan; achievement. Perhaps the Japanese are Japan against Russia. 1939. Stanford, CA: not motivated by old attitudes and Stanford University Press territorial claims, but are implementing Goncharov, S. & Kuchins, A. their own "new thinking," born not out of (1993). The domestic sources of Russian desperation--as was Russia's--but out of foreign policy. In T. Hasegawa, J. Haslam confidence (Rozman, 1992, pp. 6-11). & A. Kuchins (Eds.), Russia and Japan: An Nowhere can one find an optimistic unresolved dilemma between distant prognosis for a settlement of the neighbors (pp. 363-67). Berkeley: territorial issue and conclusion of a peace University of California Press. treaty. There is no indication that either Hasegawa, T. (1993). Conclusion: Russia or Japan will give in to the other. Russo-Japanese relations in the new Nothing has changed since the end of the environment--implications of continuing war. Russia's economy collapses into stalemate. In T. Hasegawa, J. Haslam & A. chaos and the Federation fights to remain Kuchins (Eds.), Russia and Japan; An intact; and all the while the democratic unresolved dilemma between distant movement hears the grumble of old-line neighbors (pp. 418-50). Berkeley: communists and strident nationalists. In University of California Press. Japan, one cabinet after another struggles Hasegawa, T., Haslam, J. & Kuchins, to establish a national consensus and A. (Eds.). (1993). Russia and Japan:An restore confidence in the central unresolved dilemma between distant government. Neither government enjoys neighbors. Berkeley: University of the strong support of the populace. Both California Press. the Russian and the Japanese people see Haslam, J. (1993). The pattern of any territorial concession as betrayal of Soviet Japanese relations since World the nation, views validated by strong War II. In T. Hasegawa, J. Haslam & A. prejudices against the other. Perhaps Kuchins (Eds.) Russia and Japan: An

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Unresolved Dilemma Between Distant unresolved dilemma between distant Neighbors (pp. 3-48). Berkeley: neighbors. Berkeley: University of University of California Press. California Press. Hellman, D. C. (1962). Jaganese Nimmo, W. F. (1994). Japan and foreign policy and domestic politics: The Russia: A reevaluation in the post-Soviet peace agreement with the Soviet Union. era. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Berkeley: University of California Press. Rees, D. (1985). The Soviet seizure Jain, R. K. (1981). The USSR and of the Kuriles. New York: Praeger. ,Japan. 1945-1980. Atlantic Highlands, Rozman, G. (1992). Japan's New Jersey: Humanities Press. response to the Gorbachev era. 1985- Japanese Ministry of Foreign 1991: A rising superpower views a Affairs. (1995). Japan's foreign policy declining one. Princeton: Princeton on CD-ROM. January. 1992 - March. University Press. 1995. Tokyo, Japan: Toppan Printing Co. Scalapino, R. A. (1993). Russia's Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs role in Asia: Trends and prospects. In T. (1992). Japan's northern territories. In Hasegawa, J. Haslam & A. Kuchins (Eds.). Japan Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Russia and Japan: An unresolved dilemma ,Japanese Foreign Policy on CD-ROM. between distant neighbors. Berkeley: January. 1992 -March. 1995. Tokyo, University of California Press. Japan: Toppan Printing Co. Stephan, J. J. (1974). The Kurile Japanese Ministry of Foreign Jslands: Russo-Japanese frontier in the Affairs. (1993). Tokyo declaration on Pacific. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Japanese-Russian relations, October Swearingen, R. (1978). The Soviet 13,1993. In Japanese Ministry of Union and post-war Japan: Escalating Foreign Affairs. Japan's foreign policy on challenge and response. Stanford: Hoover CD-ROM. January. 1992 - March. 1995. Institution Press. Tokyo, Japan: Toppan Printing Co. Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs. (1995). Foreign policy speech by foreign minister Yohei Kono to the 132nd Session of the Diet., January 20, 1995. In Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs,, Japan's foreign policy on CD-ROM. January. 1992 - March. 1995. Tokyo, Japan: Toppan Printing Co. Lensen, G. A. (1959). The Russian push toward Japan: Russo-Japanese relations 1697-1875. Princeton, Princeton University Press. Lensen, G. A. (1972). The strange neutrality: Soviet-Japanese relations during the Second World War. 1941- 1945. Tallahassee: Diplomatic Press. Mochizuki, Mike M. (1993). The Soviet /Russian factor in Japanese security policy. In T. Hasegawa, J. Haslam & A. Kuchins (Eds.). Russia and Japan: An 62 Colonial Japan inMicronesia

Dirk Anthony Ballendorf University of Guam

The colonial power of Japan stronger in the future. It could be that strongly influenced the development of Japan's past colonial presence in Micronesia, a collection of islands lying in Micronesia was but a prelude of a far the western Pacific Ocean roughly different, and greater presence in the between 130 and 160 degrees east future. longitude, and from four to fourteen degrees north latitude. The region has Early Japanese Presence and experienced four successive colonial Interest administrations: Spain, 1521 to 1899; Japan had an interest in Germany, 1899 to 1914; Japan, 1914 to Micronesia long before her colonial period 1944; and, the United States, 1944 to there actually began. Aside from the 1986 and 1994 (Cockrum, 1970). Each prehistoric contacts, Japan's meaningful of these administrations has left its mark modern contact with the islands started on the islands, but the subject of this around the time of the American Civil War paper is the colonial period of Japan with in the 1860's (Hezel & Berg, 1979). At mention of the others only as incidentally that time, a group of retired samurai important to the central discussion. formed a company to deal with shells and Japan's colonial experience in other ocean resources which could be Micronesia bears special noting these days developed in Micronesia. This company for several reasons. First, Japan made worked for a while and then failed. economic use of the islands to a far Occasionally there were other ventures in greater extent than either Spain or Micronesia from Japan, and some Germany had previously. Second, Japan adventurers also came. A number of small intended to remain in the islands for a businesses, called mini-shosha, very long time, and so imposed her established themselves in Micronesia culture and education to a far greater during the latter part of the nineteenth extent than either colonial predecessor century (Purcell, 1978). These were (Lockwood, 1554; Peattie, 1988). individual entrepreneurs who set up Japan's colonial presence was an retail stores on the beaches of many important growth and development period islands in Micronesia and sold sundry for the Micronesian people, and today goods to the islanders, who began to many of those living during the colonial become dependent upon outside products period, although now quite elderly, have (Shuster, 1978). very warm memories of their former In the 1890's, a young Japanese, colonial masters, and they can speak Mod Koben, came to Micronesia and Japanese to a remarkable degree established himself in a trading business (Ballendorf, 1986). Third, Japan's in the central Caro lines at Truk (Chuuk). economic influence is strong in the islands He married an island woman, started a today and will undoubtedly become much family, and prospered in his business 63 58 when many others failed. When Mori During the first decade or the Koben first came to Micronesia, the twentieth century, Japan made great islands were under Spanish control. Spain strides in its modernization. Japan traced her claim from the time of developed a major merchant marine and Magellan who discovered Guam for the shipbuilding industry, with many orders western world in 1521 during the from various parts or the world. Two circumnavigation. Spain, however, never schools of thought developed within the developed the region beyond the Marianas Japanese Diet. One school, nanshin-ron, and after 1850 experienced determined held that Japan's future lay in expansion competition from Germany which had towards the south and into the Pacific established trading stations and a Ocean. The other school of thought, Protectorate over the Marshall Islands in hokshin-ron, held that Japan's future lay 1885 (Clyde, 1935). After the Germans in expansion toward the west and into took control of the islands, as a result of China and Russia. Those members of the the Spanish-American War of 1898, they Diet who subscribed to hokshin-ron, moved to establish trading monopolies for favored the development of a strong army, themselves and prohibited other nationals and saw the future enemies of Japan as from trading in the area (Hezel & Berg, being on the Asian land mass. Those 1979). At the time, besides the mini- members subscribing to nanshin-ron saw shosha of Japan, there were also Chinese, the development of a strong navy as being Australian, and a scattering of other important and perceived the United States traders in the region. Mod Koben as being the future enemy or Japan. Both survived these ousters by the Germans philosophies were developed as Japan and became the largest and most well- continued to prosper (Myers & Peattie, known Japanese trader in Micronesia 1984). prior to the arrival of Japan as a As a result of Japan's victory over colonizer. China in the Sino-Japanese War of 1895, Besides the trading interests, the island of Taiwan was transferred to fishing and shell gathering were Japan. With the victory over Russia in the important. Trepang, or sea cucumber, a Russo-Japanese War of 1904-05, Japan much sought after delicacy, brought a high gained Manchuria and the southern part of price in the markets of Japan and China. Sakhalin Island. Finally, Korea was added During this time, a writer by the name of in 1910 (Price, 1944). By these Shiga Shigetaka came and later wrote a successive steps, Japan had expanded her book, Nan'yo jiji (Conditions in the South empire before World War I broke out in Seas). This book, published in 1887, 1914. The British, recognizing Japan's became very popular, and brought other strength and importance in the Far East, writers to Micronesia who returned to concluded secret memoranda with her in Japan to write and publish adventure 1902 and 1905 to help protect British stories of the south seas which fascinated colonies at Singapore and Hong Kong in the many Japanese. Early images of event of war (Miwa, 1970). Micronesia which the Japanese received were adventures and romances, World War I and the Period perpetuating the myths of the south seas between the Wars filled with sleepy lagoons, swaying palm When the war broke out in Europe, trees, and beautiful people (Peattie, Great Britain lost no time in enlisting 1988). Japan's aid to chase Germany out of the

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Pacific. During three weeks in October, place in the community of nations at that 1914, the Imperial Navy swept through time. The mandates were supervised from all the German centers in the Marshall, the Hague in Holland, but only an annual Mariana and Caroline Islands and occupied report was made and no on-site them. Great Britain agreed to support inspections were allowed. In 1920, Japan Japanese claims to this region after the decided to remain, and a civil government war in return for this help and also for under the Imperial Navy was established, providing some further naval assistance followed by a colonial office branch in in the Mediterranean. These moves 1922, called the Nan'yo-cho (South Seas infuriated the Americans who suddenly Bureau). In summary, three general found Japan, an unfriendly power, to be periods of Japanese administration prior athwart their trade and communications to World War II, and four altogether links to the Philippines. When the Treaty (Wright, 1930) can be designated: of Versailles was signed in 1919, ending I.Micronesia as war spoil of Japan, World War I,Japan was awarded all the 1914-1919; former German lands north of the equator II. Micronesia under Imperial Naval (Spinks, 1948). The United States administration, 1919-1922; insisted that Japan administer the islands III.Micronesia under the Nan'yo-cho, of Micronesia under the terms of the 1922-1942; League of Nations Mandates System (Wood, IV.Micronesia under Imperial Naval 1950). Japan was delighted to agree to administration, 1942-1944. such an arrangement since it meant that During the early years of the the most powerful nations of the world Japanese administration, a number of were recognizing that Japan was capable very useful activities took place which and strong enough to have mandated were designed to improve and enhance responsibility (Inkie,1947). conditions in Micronesia. Since the When Japan moved into Micronesia Japanese viewed the Micronesian people and captured the islands from the Germans as uncivilized and inferior people, they in 1914, it was the Imperial Navy that believed only continued exposure to was in charge. Since Japan was uncertain Japanese culture could civilize them. whether or not she would keep the islands, Schools and hospitals were built, and a naval administration was established staffed with Japanese contract personnel. under the League of Nations Mandate The school system, called Kogakko (native System. This was an organization within public school), provided a minimum of the League which provided for the three years of school for all Micronesians. administration of areas, nations, and Promising students were given an extra countries of the world which were unable two years of work, and later on as to care for themselves, or which were not conditions continued to improve, two yet ready to enter the community of specialized schools were established, one independent nations. The Mandate of at Saipan in the Marianas, and another at Micronesia for administration by Japan Koror in the Palau Islands. Hospitals were was insisted upon by President Woodrow established in each district: Saipan, Yap, Wilson as a way of trying to ensure the Palau, Truk, Ponape, and the Marshalls. non-fortification of the area (Blakeslee, Micronesians were trained as teachers' 1937). However, the mandate virtually aides and hospital orderlies. Some transferred the islands to Japan, since Micronesians were also trained in legal Micronesians were unable to take their studies and served as minor judges in

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local courts. The general development in Palauans and intermarried with them. In the islands exceeded what the Spanish and the meantime, many of the commercial Germans had attempted previously people also intermarried with Palauans, (Yanaihara, 1938). or in some cases, simply took Micronesian Under the mandate terms, the mistresses. The Nan'yo-cho insisted that administering power was to protect the Japanese men could take Micronesian people and their resources with a view to wives, but Japanese women could not take their becoming self-sufficient and Micronesian husbands. After the independent in the future. Ensuring that homesteading program, a fourth group of the Micronesians would not be alienated Micronesian society was added to the from their land was a primary concern of earlier three: farmers and homesteaders. the mandates system within the League, This fourth group was further divided into and for the early years of the Japanese sub-classes by the Japanese, and this administration, this was adhered to. division had the effect of rendering the However, as time passed, and as more and Micronesians as the lowest members of more Micronesians became indebted to the the social order in Micronesia which was Japanese, there mounted greater pressure precisely the opposite of the intent of the on the government in the islands to allow League of Nations. The sub-classifications for Japanese land acquisition (Clyde, looked like this (Ballendorf, 1986): 1935). 1. Chinese, By the mid-1920's there were, 2. Taiwanese, essentially, three groups of Japanese in 3. Koreans, Micronesia: government personnel of the 4. Okinawans, and Nan'yo-cho, military advisors, and 5. Micronesians. business people. As these people grew in The Japanese made annual reports number, and pressure to acquire land to the League at the Hague; however, since increased, the government instituted a there were no on-site inspections in the land survey policy which called for the islands, the League could not check on, division of land into public and private prevent, or change what was happening in categories. Micronesian traditional lands the Micronesian mandate. Moreover, which were not developed by the Japan closed the mandate to outside visits, Micronesians themselves were surveyed and prevented the Micronesians from and classified as public lands. As these traveling outside their home lands public land surveys were completed in the (Wilds, 1952). They, in effect, lowered a mid to late 1920's, the Nan'yo-cho bamboo curtain around the islands. This instituted the first of several was particularly upsetting to the British homesteading programs which relocated who had supported Japan after World War Okinawans and poor farmers from I in her acquisition of the islands. Traders Hokkaido, into a series of farm from Austria and New Zealand, as well as settlements in Palau. These farm families from the United States, were prohibited, were brought to Palau and given tools, or severely restricted, from entering the seeds, and building materials, and then Micronesia. In fact, the Japanese followed parcels of the land. In the short order they the same policy as did the Germans before constructed homes, cultivated the soil and them: they made an exclusive trading zone produced crops (Ballendorf, 1986). for the Japanese.Economically this was In general, these poor farmer understandable, but it soon had the effect homesteaders were friendly with the of alienating the British (Dingman,

(p 61

1976). sixty-six percent of all the revenues of Koror, Palau, became the capital Micronesia. A statue of Matsue, nicknamed of the Nan'yo-cho, and twelve governors "the sugar king Y" still stands today at were appointed during the Japanese Saipan, and Matsue's heirs and relatives colonial period. Saipan became the often visit the islands. commercial center as a large sugar In 1933, the Japanese delegation industry was developed throughout the walked out of the League of Nations Marianas, except Guam which remained an meetings at The Hague because of the American territory. In Koror, the scarce western powers' continuing questions land soon resulted in the Micronesians about Japan's performance in Micronesia. being pushed out of the urban areas and The Japanese would simply give the having to retreat to rural areas nearby. A routine, bureaucratic answers to variety of businesses grew in Palau that questions which were posed especially by were connected to agriculture and fishing, Australia and Great Britain concerning the and then, in the early 1930's, an possible fortifications of the mandates in important phosphate, bauxite, and Micronesia. Then, in 1935, Japan manganese mining activity grew at Angaur withdrew from the League altogether. In and on Babelthuap. Mining was conducted 1937 several military missions came to elsewhere in Micronesia as well (Ehrlich, the islands from Japan to help divide the 1984). area into military group sectors, and Full employment prevailed in Japan girded for war in the West. Micronesia. Every Micronesian who Truk, the world's largest lagoon wanted a job could have one; however, the and one of the most protected island economic development was for the groups in all of Micronesia, was fitted as a Japanese, not the Micronesians. naval base. The U. S. Office of Naval Micronesians were educated to take orders Intelligence had been watching the from and to obey the Japanese. They were Japanese in Micronesia for years; by the not educated to become self-sufficient and time the war actually broke out in independent (Fischer, 1953). December, 1941, the Americans had The development of the sugar already selected targets and had a industry was especially noteworthy as an partially-plotted strategy for the economic development. A young man by the reduction of Japanese military bases in name of Matsue Haruji came to Saipan and Micronesia. The Micronesian people, worked diligently to establish his however, were largely unaware of these business of growing and refining sugar. He international tensions of the time. At the had been educated in America at Louisiana start of the Pacific War, the Japanese State University and then worked for a population in the islands exceeded time for the Spreckles Company in 62,000, while the total Micronesian Hawaii. To implement his business, he population was less than 32,000. brought many American machines to the islands. By 1930, Matsue had convinced World War II and the Aftermath the government to subsidize a special In 1942, the Imperial Navy took company for the purpose of development over the administration of Micronesia and this was called the Nan'yo Kohatsu once again and began the program of Kaisha, or Nam-po Y for short. By the eve extensive fortifications construction. The of the Pacific War this company's sugar- Japanese side of the Pacific War was producing division accounted for some conducted largely from Micronesian bases.

67 62

At Truk, the huge Japanese battleship time, they developed the islands Yamato, the largest in the world, was economically to a far greater extent than berthed on several occasions. Micronesia had any of their colonial predecessors. was considered the outer perimeter of the World War II rendered this colonial home islands and large amounts of experiment a failure, but socially all was supplies were sent to centers in the not lost. The Palauans, upon whose Marshalls, Truk, Palau, and Saipan. The territory the Japanese capital was Micronesians were used as labor for the established, profited a great deal from the Japanese war effort. Charcoal industries Japanese presence, and many Palauans were started in each district. Some today credit their energy and modernity to Micronesians were taken aboard ships to their exposure to the Japanese. Similarly, work, and some were taken to other places the Saipanese also credit Japanese such as New Guinea to serve the Japanese examples for their energy and industry. military. Today, Japan had returned to As the war progressed, and things Micronesia, but with order forms and turned poorly for Japan, American forces credit vouchers. Japan is economically began to encroach on Micronesian dominant in the area, with China and territory, beginning in the Marshall Taiwan not far behind. American interest Islands with the battle for Kwajalein in has fallen off since the end of the 1943. In February, 1944, carrier-based Trusteeship in 1986 and 1994. Guam, planes bombed and strafed Palau, Ponape, where some of the war's fiercest fighting Kosrae, Saipan, and Guam. Guam, although took place, is now known as the Japanese still an American territory, had been Riviera. And many of today's young captured by the Japanese just after the Micronesians aspire to learn the Japanese Pearl Harbor attack in December, 1941. language. No U. S. landings were made in the eastern and central Carolines, but the Marianas References and Palau were taken in a series of bloody Aoyagi Machiko. (1985). battles in June, July, September and Modekngei: A new religion in Palau. October, 1944. By January, 1945, the Micronesia. Tokyo: Shinsensha. last Japanese garrison surrendered on Ballendorf, D. A. (1985). Secrets Fais Island in Yap. without substance: U.S. Intelligence in the World War II went on in the Japanese Mandates, 1915-1935, Journal Pacific until the atom bombs dropped on of Pacific History, la (2), 83-99. Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August, 1945, Ballendorf, D. A., et.al., (1986a). brought all hostilities to an end. The An oral historiography of the Japanese Americans set up a naval administration administration in Palau. Micronesian Area in the islands, and schools and hospitals Research Center Monograph, University were reopened. In 1947, President Harry of Guam. S. Truman signed a Trusteeship Agreement Ballendorf, D. A., et.al., with the United Nations, and Micronesia (1986b). An oral historiography of the was established as a strategic trust. Japanese schooling experience of Chamorros in the Northern Mariana Conclusion Islands. American Association of State and Japan's presence in Micronesia Local History Monograph. Micronesian covered a period of, roughly, thirty years Area Research Center, University of from 1914 to 1944, and during this Guam.

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Blakeslee, G. H. The mandates of history of an island people, Rutland. the Pacific. Foreign Affairs, 1 (1),98- Vermont: Charles Tuttle. 115. Lockwood, W. (1954). The Braisted, W. R.,(1971). The economic development of Japan: Growth United States Navy in the Pacific. 1909- and structural change. 1868-1938. 1922. Austin: University of Texas Press. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Burns, R. D.Inspection of the Press. Mandates, 1919-1941. Pacific Historical Matsue, Haruji (Harutsugu) Review, 37 (4), 445-462. (1932). A record of ten years of Clyde, P. H. (1935).Japan's development in the south seas. Tokyo: Nan' Pacific mandate. New York: Macmillan. yo Kohatsu K.K. Cockrum, E. E. (1970).The Miwa, Kimitada (1970). Shiqa emergence of modem Micronesia. Ph.D. Shigetaku (1863-1927). A Meiji dissertation, University of Colorado. Japanist's view of and actions in Dingman, R.(1976).Power in international relations. Research Papers. the Pacific: The origins of naval arms Series A-3. Tokyo: Institute of limitation. 1914-1922. Chicago: International Relations, Sophia University of Chicago Press. University. Ehrlich, P. M.(1984).Koror: A Myers, R. H., & M. R. Peattie, center of power. commerce and colonial (Eds.).(1984). The Japanese colonial administration. Micronesian empire. 1.895-1945. Princeton, NJ : Archaeological Survey Report. no. 11. Princeton University Press. Saipan, Trust Territory of the Pacific Peattie, M. R. (1988). Nan'yo: Islands: Historic Preservation Office. The rise and fall of the Japanese in Fischer, J. L. The Japanese Micronesia. 1895-1945, Pacific schools for the natives of Truk, Caroline Monograph Series, 4, Honolulu: Islands. Human Organization,2_Q,83-88. University of Hawaii Press. Frank, B., & H. I. Shaw, Jr. Price, W. (1944). Japan's (1968).History of the U.S. Marine islands of mystery. New York: John Day. Corps operations in World War II. vol.5. Purcell, D. C., Jr. The economics Victory and occupation. Historical branch, of exploitation: The Japanese in the G-3 Division Headquarters. Washington, Mariana, Caroline and Marshall Islands, DC: U.S. Marine Corps. 1915-1940. Journal of the Pacific Greenberger, A. J.Japan as a History, 11(3), 189-211. colonial power: The Micronesian example. Shuster, D. R.(1978). Major Asian Profile, 2. (2), 151-164. patterns of social change instituted in Hezel, F. X., & Berg, M.L. Micronesia during colonial rule. 1914- (1979).Winds of change: A book of 1940. Master's Thesis, University of readings on Micronesian history. Saipan, Hawaii. Trust territory of the Pacific Islands: Spinks, C. N. Japan's entrance Education Department. into the World War. Pacific Historical Inkle, F.K. Japanese-German Review,.(4): 297-311. peace negotiations during World Wart. Toland, J. (1970).The rising American Historical Review, 71: 62-76. sun: The decline and fall of the Japanese Kawakami, K.K.(1919). Japan empire. 1936-1945. New York: Random and World Peace. New York: Macmillan,. House. Kerr, G.(1958). Okinawa: The Vidich, A. J.(1980). The

69 64 political impact of colonial administration. New York: Arno Press. Wilds, T. How Japan fortified the mandates. U.S. Naval Institute Proceedings, 81 (4), 401-407. Wood, J. Japan' s mandate in the Pacific.Asia, 21,747-753. Wright, Q. (1930) Mandates under the League of Nations. Chicago : University of Chicago Press. Yanaihara, Tadao (1938). Pacific islands under Japanese mandate. London: Oxford University.

70 China and Japan: Diverging Paths

Connie Mauney Emporia State University

Twentieth century conflicts government, established in the third between China and Japan do not reflect century (Reischauer & Jansen, 1995). earlier positive relationships between the Among other influences, China left its two Asian giants. At first their paths often mark on the Japanese language which converged with China the dominant today has 2000 Chinese characters that influence in language, philosophy, are part of modern written Japanese; religion, culture, architecture, and there are more words of Chinese origin technology. In the twentieth century their than Japanese origin in Japan's language paths dramatically diverged until the late today (Reischauer & Jansen). 1980's and 1990's when China needed Confucianism and Buddhism, well Japan's expertise to accommodated its entrenched in China by the sixth century move towards a free market system. A.D., found followers in Japan. Confucius' Examining the past, considering the philosophy about morality and the values present, and forecasting the future may of education and ethics, particularly in leave a distinct impression that in the government, not only influenced Chinese twenty-first century, their paths may politics but also was introduced into again diverge to the point that Japan may Japanese thought and practice, beginning regret assisting China's move toward in the sixth century. Confucianism more prosperitya move that could thrived under the Tokugawa government upset the Japan's own goals in in the seventeenth-century Japan. international trade and politics. Although Confucian influence was diluted under subsequent governments, much of Prehistoricaland EarlyHistorical the philosophy persists in both Japan and Influences China today. Buddhism with its roots in While it is controversial when India swept through China and from there migration occurred, early migrants to moved to Japan. Buddhist temples remain Japan possibly remained, adding to its accessible to the public while monks go culture. Starting in the fifth century A. about their daily routine and perform D., Chinese research and development traditional rituals in both countries. impressed Japanese travelers with Japanese tend to combine Shintoism (the luxuries enjoyed by elites:palaces, earliest religion in Japan) and Buddhism script, roads, dams, a monetary system, without contradiction or criticism. and canals (Shanor & Shanor, 1995). The Although they were dissimilar in Chinese recorded information about early many ways, imperial and feudal systems developments in Japan such as: its were important in the developing political organization into tribes with class systems in China and Japan. Emperors divisions between farmers and fishermen; reigned in each country but under its military skills to defend their country different policies and practices. Japanese against Korean invasion; and its unified

71 66 emperors enjoyed religious authority From the beginning of the post-war era, through Shintoism and through an the Japanese people and their leaders inherited right to sit on the throne. through vision and hard work started Chinese emperors were called sons of toward a path marked with remarkable heaven, but when they became corrupt or success. ineffective, they were ousted, and new China abandoned its emperor in imperial lines gained control of 1912 when it established a parliamentary government. Religious and birth rights form of government that was eventually were not controlling factors for headed by General Chiang Kai-shek whose determining who sat on the throne in interests and power were centered in China (Shanor & Shanor, 1995; urban areas. In the early 1900's, Chinese Reischauer & Jansen, 1995). Chinese dominance in Asia quickly receded. With feudal lords never attained the amount of its hard-to-protect borders, mounting power accorded feudal lords in Japan with dissatisfaction, and natural resources its history of warriors and shoguns. attracting the interest of imperialist China's heritage of centralized nations, China was on the brink of government and Japan's desire for unity disaster in both the political and economic did not lead to the same political and arenas. By 1935, Mao Tse-tung had economic outcome in the twentieth attained sufficient power to permit him to century. Neither country encouraged work with the leaders of the Republic of democracy. In the nineteenth century, China in their efforts to defeat Japan's China, considered the dominant power in invasion of the mainland. When the Asia, felt superior to the rest of the world Japanese were routed, the concerted effort while Japan felt considerable pressure was abandoned, and Mao led a powerful from western powers and envisioned a revolution that overthrew the General and need to make political changes for his party (Shanor & Shanor, 1995). survival sake. Japan moved toward Under the new regime, one-party democracy while retaining the emperor as elections, and punishment for suspected head of government, but China overthrew disloyalty, speech that criticized the imperial system to install, first a government and its policies, and close republic, and then a communist governmental control of individual government. behavior including familial relationships were reported to a world that had little or The Modern Period no influence on Chinese leaders.During Although the economy, physical the Cultural Revolution in 1966 resources, and morale of the Japanese suspicion of intellectuals led to people were devastated by World War II, punishment of politically loyal professors the government was reorganized under a and students, often members of the new constitution, ratified under strict Communist Party. supervision of the American occupation While the years after World War military forces.Multiple party elections II were dedicated to reestablishing stable and constitutionally protected liberties governments, China's and Japan's including freedom of expression served as political philosophies and governmental the foundation of the new government. The structures were poles apart. Based on emperor retained his throne, but lost his distrust of capitalism, China turned claim of state power under the Shinto toward the Soviet Union for resources and religion (Reischauer & Jansen, 1995). advice. In stark contrast Japan entered

",2 67 the western world with gusto. After a foreigners might dilute the influence of cautious beginning, rapid economic Japan's centuries-old culture. recovery astounded and confounded countries whose products and trade CurrentDirections policies were challenged by stiff After Mao's death, Deng Xiaoping competition. assumed control of the one-party Japan experienced political government with a widely publicized tremors throughout the twentieth movement toward reestablishing relations century. For instance, communist and with the West. Dealing with extreme radical socialist parties attempted to gain poverty of the masses, technological political power in the early 1920's.In backwardness, lack of markets, and response, government banned the deterioration of relationships with the Communist Party in 1924. After the Soviet Union and later Russia, Deng made war, communist supporters organized the dramatic changes by authorizing an Socialist Party and won 19% and 26% of entirely different kind of market system, the vote in the 1946 and 1947 elections. one long ridiculed by communist leaders. Following splits in the Socialist Party, a Among developed countries, China looked more moderate party, the Democratic to Japan for technology, goods, and advice. Socialist Party, was organized in 1960. Japan responded to Chinese overtures by The Communist Party backed away from entering agreements for establishing joint doctrinaire Marxist doctrine. Yet enterprises. ideological divisions between the Deng retained long-established communists and socialists remained principles of stifling civil rights and strong with Marxist enthusiasts among liberties. An incident that caught world some university faculty. attention was government response with In 1949, the communists in Japan cruel retaliation at Tiananmen Square. moved away from Soviet domination and With tanks and guns, the Chinese received 10% of the votes in the next communist dictatorship prevailed in its election. When the communists again bloody "patriotic triumph" (Harding, moved toward the Soviet Union and China, 1995a). Several thousand students were votes for party candidates dropped to 1%. exiled while others were drafted into the They quickly dropped public connection military. By 1996 police and party with the two major communist countries faithful continued their role as monitors and returned to its traditional 10% on campuses to make certain that returns in Japanese elections. Student intellectuals did not plant seeds of groups from time to time fought battles in political unrest. Yet unrest remains in the streets. Eventually movements known China. University students and professors as the Zengakuren, Trotskyites, the Red have risked lives and faced threat of jail Army and the Nucleus Faction lost by speaking out and by signing petitions popularity (Reischauer & Jansen, 1995). that are sent to Jian Zemin, President and Other major obstacles facing politicians General Secretary of the Communist Party in power were the corruption scandals and Chairman of the National People's which have shaken several Japanese Congress. Nine political activists were governments. A less politically oriented arrested Spring, 1995. For example, problem was the fear that younger Wei Jingsheng who openly dissented generations had lost respect for its governmental policies was sentenced to 14 heritage and culture. Copying lifestyles of years in prison December 1995 on a

73 68 charge of subversion ("Reporter Linked who appeared six years and younger were to Wei Firm," 1995).In 1995, frail, on the streets and in stores and schools. ninety-year-old Deng remained a Very few little girls were seen.In powerful political factor in China Beijing, Guilin, and Quangzhou, only one (Hutting, 1995b).Immediately pregnant woman was observed by following Wei's arrest, American interest members of the group. The delegation groups pressured President Clinton to talked with Chinese respondents who take immediate action in securing the worried about the future of China under release of the "father of China's the one-child policy.Later where will democracy movement." At the same time young men find wives with so few young Japan and other Asian countries did not women in China? The respondents said officially comment on the tragedy. Their that with only one son, parents and both "heads were down and their lips were sets of grandparents spoil the little boy sealed," an indication that they were who becomes self-centered, usually gets afraid of China and that these countries his way, is coddled, and does not learn to had apparently split with the West on the share. Thus a generation of single males protection of human rights. Clinton and reared under these conditions most likely his administration ignored pleas to impose will affect the fate of China later when as economic sanctions on China ("Rights adults the men assume roles of leaders and Groups Press U.S. Over Wei's Release," followers in the communist country. 1995). Fears expressed by Chinese respondents Both China and Japan are faced in 1995 are shared by Japanese who feel with problems associated with the same concern about the ever- overpopulation. Japanese are free to increasing number of young people reared decide the size of families. Urban couples without siblings. tend to prefer two children while rural Chinese priorities are reflected in couples have fewer children (Reischauer an extraordinary large number of cranes & Jansen, 1995). China mandated and construction equipment, modern couples to limit families to one child. buildings rising among old deteriorated Exceptions in the one-baby policy are housing. Within the past ten years, applied to minorities and rural families Chinese construction far exceeded that who may choose to bear a second child. The undertaken in other countries. By 1996, one-child policy causes difficulties.In if plans go accordingly, European China, a son is traditionally more valued. countries, the United States, Singapore, Thus if the first child is a girl, serious Malaysia, Australia, and New Zealand choices must be made: destroying the enterprises will invest in Sino Securities new-born; sending the girl in an International with an expected 15% to orphanage; hiding the birth from 19% profit after tax return. British and authorities with plans to bear another United States bankers will serve on the child; or deciding to keep the little girl fund board. One billion American dollars child. After a child is kept, the solution is were allocated to build, operate, and either birth control or abortion during transfer construction projects in China subsequent pregnancies. A small ("Sino Securities Moving on China Fund delegation of Americans traveling Plan," 1995). A journalist reported: throughout China in December 1995 "Accounting for 70 to 80 percent of found that results of the severe policy foreign investment in China, overseas were strikingly evident. Many little boys Chinese who were once persecuted for

7 4 69 their foreign ties are now wooed by 1995). New construction projects central and local officials across China" destroy valuable farmland, a scarce (Tefft, 1994). Big business in American resource for about 1.2 billion people. and European countries, Japan, and South Demand for energy has exceeded supply; Korea vie for manufacturing and trade brown-outs are commonplace. An uneven opportunities China offers. The situation flow of electricity destroys effectiveness can be awkward for Americans. Chinese of computers and other technology. The manufacturers infringe on copyright and list of obstacles seems endless. patent laws (Tefft, 1995a). After China China does not intend to depend established stock markets in Shanghai and entirely on foreign expertise. New Shenzhen, the Chinese communist research centers, an increase in students government owned 50% of all company enrolled in science and technology listed shares. Despite a fairly decent courses, and training produced 1.2 beginning, by mid-1995, the two million technicians. Of those workers, markets listed only 300 firms. Loss of 445,000 have attended college. About trust was due to, among other things, 30,000 types of new technologies were unwillingness to follow corporate developed by 1995 ("Move to Increase disclosure rules and to submit credible Technology Output," 1995). Cities in annual reports. Inaccuracy in accounting China issued policies governing size of was another factor (Tefft, 1995b). population when peasants in droves Japan has an entirely different migrated to urban areas in search of jobs. record in the free market system. Certificates proving birth in a city Relying on sophisticated technology automatically now grant permanent Japanese experts improved products residence, but peasants-turned-laborers developed in foreign countries and in turn may work in a city until the construction became a leader in world trade. Capital is project is completed. readily available from Japanese citizens Despite denials by government and who "save more of their income than any university respondents in 1995 other people on the planet" (Barr 1995). interviews, China may experience Scandals made international news and inflation when it assumes control over toppled governments in power. A strong wealthy Hong Kong in 1997. China must survival instinct played a key role in also deal with the Hong Kong population recoveries. For example, after major long accustomed to freedom of speech and fraud was uncovered in Daiwa, Sumitomo other rights under British rule. Equally initiated steps to merge with Daiwa. A important in challenging communism is successful merger will make Sumitomo interaction between mainland Chinese the largest bank in the world business men and factory managers with ("Sumitomo Moves To Buy Daiwa foreign counterparts. Under Deng's Branches," 1995). Japan is equally economic reforms, Chinese travel for aggressive in other enterprises. Japan's business reasons and/or to enroll in Sony entered a joint venture with China universities overseas. Ordinary Chinese (410 million American dollars) to citizens increasingly own television sets, construct a plant in Shanghai that will household cellular phones, and computers manufacture color television sets. The with e-mail capability. Fax machines also two countries also participate in other make it possible for individuals to connect joint enterprises elsewhere ("Sony with the outside world. Governing a Focuses On TV Venture in Shanghai," formerly closed society will challenge the 70

most loyal government officials, for on References the horizon looms ways that Chinese can Barr, C. W. (1995). "The spread absorb new ideas and philosophies. of people's capitalism: Japan." The For centuries the paths of China Christian Science Monitor. July 5: 10. and Japan for centuries often converged. "China politics" (1996). USA During the twentieth century, conflict Today. January 25: 17A. erupted between the two countries and at Crowley, J. B. (1966). Japan's the conclusion of World War II, diverging quest for autonomy. Princeton,NJ: political and economic policies led the two Princeton Press. countries in different directions. Toward Hartling, J.(, 1995a). "Fresh the end of this century, however, their dissent in China." The Chronicle of Higher paths based on their own national goals Education. June 2: A37. converged again. Japan for profit sake Hartling, J. (1995b)."Wang Dan, agreed to tutor China through cooperative 1989. Student leaders among newly agreements and exportation of goods and detained activists." The Chronicle of services. To accommodate China's Higher Education. June 2:A38. immediate need for consumer goods and "Move to increase technology capital and to assist in the development of output" (1995). Hong KongStandard. technological expertise Japan, tentatively December 15:1. at first, responded to China's requests. Reischauer, E. 0. & Jansen, M. B. China quickly became a willing student (1995). The Japanese today. Cambridge, and eager importer. Japan with its MA: The Belknap Press. economic woes during recent years chose "Rights groups press U. S. over short-range goals based on strong profit Wei's release" (1995). HongKong motive and on establishment of better Standard. December 15: 6. relations with its former adversary. "Sino securities moving on China China should be stronger economically find plan" (1995). Hong Kong Financial when joint agreements are fulfilled or Review. December 15:1. terminated. After China completes the Shanor, D., & Shanor, C. (1995). first stage of reform and operates new China today. New York: St. Martin's Press. enterprises unaided in a free market "Sony focuses on TV venture in system, China with its large pool of cheap Shanghai" (1995). Hong Kong Standard. labor and natural resources available December 15:4. within its large territory could very well "Sumitomo moves to buy Daiwa become a major competitor of Japan in the branches" (1995). Hong Kong Standard. world economy. There are risks within December 15: 5. present-day converging paths that very Tefft, S. (1994). "Repatriates well may abruptly end when national transform economy." The Christian interests clash, and trade and political Science Monitor. March 30:11. barriers are re-established between the Tefft, S. (1995a). "China's trade two Asian giants. ace: Deny U. S. big three access to car market." The Christian Science Monitor. January 18: 9. Tefft, S. (1995b). "The spread of people's capitalism: China." The Christian Science Monitor. July 5: 9. V

Reports on the Japan Studies Seminar in Japan

Summer, 1995

77 Report on the 1995 Seminar in Japan: AASCU/CIEE Funded through Fulbright-Hayes

Richard B. Speaker, Jr. University of New Orleans

With news about Japan touching us and accompanied the group throughout the almost daily, many faculty and students program. She is Resident Director for are interested in discussing information CIEE's academic programs in Tokyo, about Japan and seeing recent images of supervising and administering all aspects the country and its people. Since I of program curricula and logistics. received UNO funding to participate in an AASCU Fellowship in Japanese Studies in The Program 1993, I was able to travel to Japan for The program visited three major the AASCU Seminar in Japan in 1995. sites. From July 1-8, we stayed in This paper sets out the scope of the Niigata at the International University of seminar in Japan and provides some Japan (IUJ). From July 9-23, we were evaluation of the seminar. in Central Tokyo at Waseda Hoshien Guest House, the site of CIEE's Study Center in The Participants Tokyo. From July 23-30, we stayed at the The participants in the seminar in Kyoto: Traveler's Inn and had meetings at Japan were: Cheryl E. Drout, S.U.N.Y., Notre Dame Women's University. Fredonia, Psychology; Eva S. George, IUJ is a private graduate school NCA&T State University, French; Gregory with about 250 students, founded to Ference, Salisbury State University, advance graduate study for Japan's History; Joel Gottlieb, Florida financial-industrial base. It offers International University, Political extensive English language instruction to Science; Louise Kawada, Massachusetts a multinational student population which College of Art, Critical Studies; Celeste is required to be only 40% Japanese. Loughman, Westfield State College, Because of its international focus, all English; Chris Jeffries, Jackson State courses are taught in English. Dr. Bruce University, Political Science; Walter J. Stronach, Dean of the Graduate School of Redmond, Jr., University of the District International Relations at IUJ led the of Columbia, Sociology; Jin Wang, sessions and excursions. The sessions University of Wisconsin - Stevens Point, covered contemporary Japan, regionalism Business and Economics; George F. Stine, in Japan, agriculture in rural Japan, Millersville University, Sociology and local economy and how people live. Anthropology; Hui-Chu Ying, University Excursions included visiting a farm, city of Akron, Art; and Richard B. Speaker, hall and local government offices, an auto Jr., University of New Orleans, part factory, Urasa Ski Tourism Curriculum and Instruction.Stephanie Corporation, a dam, and dinner in a Forman Morimura served as temple (soba with wild mountain Administrative Director of the Seminar vegetable tempura).

78 74

In Tokyo, the program consisted of Evaluation lectures, visits to government offices and My major goal, as stated in my business firms, cultural activities and a application, was to "develop considerable home stay. Lectures covered survival additional expertise" through the AASCU Japanese (2 hours), politics (2.5 hrs. Faculty Seminar. The experience in Japan with Keikichi Honda, Economic Avisor to provided a major opportunity for the President, Bank of Tokyo), continuing my education related to Japan International Relations (1 hr. with Modj- and to build the perception of my ta-ba Sadria at Chuo University), expertise among colleagues and education (1 hr.), religion (1 hr.), administrators at the University of New history (2 hrs.), popular culture (3 Orleans. hrs.); and the Japanese family (2 hrs.). The overall organization of the Excursions included visits to: the Prime seminar was excellent. Getting all the Minister's Office of Women's Affairs; speakers and visits scheduled into the KEIDANREN, the Japan Federation of month we had in Japan was a major Economic Organizations; the American accomplishment. There was considerable Chamber of Commerce in Japan for opportunity to ask questions and to hold Breakfast Meeting with Ambassador follow-up discussions. The idea of getting Walter Mondale and a Briefing on Current the group to coalesce at IUJ was an U.S.-Japan Relations; Nissan Automobile excellent one. Perhaps a final group Factory at Oppama; GLOCOM (IUJ's debriefing would have been a good idea, Information Resource Think Tank ); before leaving Japan; it might have Sasakawa Foundation Headquarters; and generated some questions for further ltochu Corporation. Cultural activities research which might enhance future included a visit to Asakusa Bazaar and faculty projects and communication. Temple, the Diet building, Chuo The overall content of the seminar University; Musashi Municipal High was fair. The lectures were uneven, School (a Tokyo Public School), a Kabuki ranging from excellent to atrocious. Performance at Kabukiza, the Ginza and a Stronach kicked everything off well. Since home stay. I also was able to visit the Edo- he is a political scientist, I do not trust Tokyo Museum, and a local children's his discussion of linguistic matters, but festival. During free time I went to his review of Tokugawa history and its Kamakura, Enoshima, and the National influences on contemporary Japan went Museum. well. The interaction improved as we In Kyoto, sessions covered the recovered from jet lag; participants began following topics: regional contrasts, asking some interesting questions. I Shinto and Traditional Culture by referred to my electronic copy of the Elizabeth Kenney, traditional culture, Japanese Constitution several time, contemporary "washi" art, and the tea realizing that I also needed an electronic ceremony. Visits included a traditional copy of the US Constitution and its candy-making factory, a pottery factory, amendments for easy reference and Fushiminari Shrine and a home stay. I comparison. We discussed the conformity also visited the Imperial Palace, Nijo and the uniformity of the Japanese, but I Castle, the Temple of the Silver Pavillion, think that these are dangerous stereotypes the Heian Shrine in Kyoto; and the cities which Bruce seems to buy into -- of Nara, Tanabe, and Uji, south of Kyoto. perhaps he should be a little more critical of the traditional Western view of Japan

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in light of some of the movements for Kyoto) did not because we were all very individualism which I have read about in tired and needed time for discussion and the newspaper, but then possibly these reflection among ourselves to see what can be viewed as the exceptions which questions we have answered and what prove the rule. Our first visit was on a needs further investigation. Both rainy afternoon to a nearby farm. The homestays allowed me access into areas of rain dampened this considerably, but I Japanese culture which would be difficult could have listened to the oral patterns of in any other circumstance. The high level the farmer who spoke to us for hours. His of English fluency of the husband-and- talk outstripped the abilities of our wife teams made communication easy; translators. even with the least proficient members of In Tokyo, the kaleidoscope of the family, I found that I could activities moved much faster. Two hours communicate with only a little work and of language instruction was of little use, my dictionary (of course, I have been although the instructor used .a wide studying some Japanese since my seminar variety of language instruction in San Diego in 1993). techniques to keep things moving very I would like to see future seminars well. Asakusa Bazaar and Temple put us which advance understanding of Japanese into the Tokyo crowds and started culture and language organized around the familiarizing us with the subway and following topics: 1) A program focusing train systems. The trip to Chuo on contemporary Japan through University showed us that some open multimedia and image, maybe with a little spaces still exist not far from downtown language development (both oral and Tokyo; Sadria's lecture was exciting, but written); 2) A program focusing on the time didn't allow much depth. Many of the Japanese female and male throughout the lectures on business and culture retreated ages and in contemporary society; 3) A into platitudes and stereotypes whenever program focusing on acculturation, the questions were a bit challenging.The schooling and the various views of Japan lectures on family and education were internationally; 4) A program focusing on sophomoric; we learned more talking to Japanese language, contemporary culture each other about what we had read since and literature (in translation). Overall I JSI. The visit to Sasakawa Foundation would like a stronger academic content - Headquarters suggested many possibilities - all of the participants have advanced to explore for future development of more degrees so the content should be more in topical and intensive learning about Japan tune with high-level graduate work. for those who want to go beyond the initial level offered at JSI and with this seminar. PersonalReflections In Kyoto, we had the single best I was able to benefit from my lecture and visit. "Shinto and Traditional experiences by expanding my encounters Culture" by Elizabeth Kenney was with Japanese culture and with excellent. She provided plenty of detailed participants interested in Japanese information on topics I had only Studies (both in the U.S. and in Japan) and scratched, the right visuals, and an with several Japanese. I believe that many excellent tie in with visit to Fushiminari of the contacts will prove to be enduring Shrine. ones as I continue to study and write. The The first homestay (in Tokyo) activities added to my perceptions of enhanced the program; the second (in Japanese culture as a set of complex 76 phenomena which should not be easily stereotyped. Consensus, conformity, community and collaboration are important aspects of Japanese culture partially because, like any people, the Japanese must work to achieve these ideals. These ideals also force me to reflect on the nature of individualism and diversity in the U.S. and in Japan complex issues which need further discussion. I made a presentation at a faculty colloquium during the semester on my experiences with Thematic Teaching and Japan Studies. Several school groups have already asked if I would be available as a resource on Japan for their schools. I have already begun using slides (I took nearly 1000 during the 4 weeks) and artifacts with undergraduate students at UNO. Students are fascinated by the crowds and the costs. My rolls of film taken in the supermarkets and of drink machines generate many questions:, they were worth taking. The range of videos amazes my students; classical Japanese music, animation, comedies, soft rock video, baseball, and TV commercials provide opportunities to see similarities and differences which they hadn't imagined. But I'm beginning to find holes... There's more I need to collect. There's much more I need to learn.

Appendix: Complete Schedule of the AASCU Faculty Development Seminar In Japan, July, 1995

June 30 Departure from Los Angeles (LAX), 12:35 p.m., United #897, check in 10:35 a.m. Arrive Tokyo, Narita, July 1, 4:00 p.m. Transfer to Tokyo Station and to Bullet Train to International University of Japan, Urasa, Niigata Prefecture.

July 1-8 International University of Japan (Niigata) 7/1 9:00 p.m. arrive IUJ

7/2 10:00 a.m. Brief Program Orientation 2:00 p.m. Walk into Urasa

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6:00 p.m. Welcome Reception 7/3'9:00 a.m. "An Overview of Contemporary Japan" - Dean Bruce Stronach

1:30 Library Tour 2:00 p.m. Overview continued

7/4 9:00 am. "Regionalism in Contemporary Japan: The View from Yamatomachi" - Dean Bruce Stronach 2:00 p.m. A Look at Yamatomachi 7:30 p.m. Party with Language Class

7/5 9:00 a.m. "Japan as an Agricultural Society " - Dean Stronach p.m. Farm visit 7:30 p.m. Film

7/6 "The Role and Function of Local Government" - Dean Stronach 1:00 p.m. Yamatomachi City Hall and Local Government Offices

7/7 "How People Live: Examining the Local Economy" - Dean Stronach 1:00 p.m. Factory Visit - JIDECO Niigata Factory (Auto Parts) 2:30 p.m. Tourist Industry - Urasa Ski Tourism Corporation (Urasa Ski Resort) 6:00 p.m. Dinner Reservation near Temple

7/8 Free

7/9 Free in a.m. 1:45 p.m. Leave from IUJ for Train Station 2:23 p.m. Depart for Tokyo via Bullet Train 3:52 p.m. Arrive Tokyo

July 9-23 Tokyo 7/10 9:30 a.m. Orientation to Tokyo 10:00 a.m. Survival Japanese -- Yuriko Suzuki 2:00 p.m. Edo-Tokyo Museum Museum closed went to Asakusa Bazaar and Temple

7/119:30 a.m. "The Contemporary Japanese Political Scene"-- Professor Kosaku Dairokuno, Meiji University 1:00 p.m. Visit to the National Diet Building 2:30 p.m. Prime Minister's Office of Women's Affairs, "The Status of Women"

7/12 9:30 a.m. "Japan's Business and Economy" -- Mr. Keikichi Honda, Economic Avisor to the President, Bank of Tokyo 1:00 p.m. To Chuo University, School of Policy Studies 82 78

2:00 p.m. "Japan's International Relations"-- Dr. Modj-ta-ba Sadria 4:00 p.m. Campus Tour 5:00 p.m. Reception

7/13 10:30 a.m. "Education in Japan" Professor Mitsuhiro Umezu, Keio University 12:45 Leave for Otemachi 1:30 p.m. Visit to KEIDANREN, Japan Federation of Economic Organizations Shopping

7/14 9:00 a.m. Meet 10:00 a.m. Visit to Musashi Municipal High School, a Tokyo Public School 3:30 p.m. Group leaves Guest House 4:15 p.m. Meet at Kabukiza 4:30 p.m. Kabuki Performance at Kabukiza, Ginza

7/15 &16 Free Time

7/17 6:45 a.m. Meet 7:45 a.m. American Chamber of Commerce in Japan Breakfast Meeting, Briefing on Current U.S.-Japan Relations, Ambassador Walter Mondale 10:30 a.m. Nissan Automobile Factory Visit 2:00 p.m. "Religion in Japan" Professor Umezu

7/18 10:00 a.m. "Accessing Information on Japan" Visit to GLOCOM, IUJ's Information Resource Think Tank 3:00 p.m. "Marking the 50th Anniversary of World War II: A Look at Iwo Jima" Professor John Bisazza, Meiji Gakuin University

7/19 10:00 a.m. Visit to Sasakawa Foundation Headquarters 7:00 p.m. Reception in Takadanobaba

7/20 9:30 Visit to Itochu Corporation, "Japan's Trading Companies" 1:00 p.m. "Japanese Popular Culture: Imitators or Creators" Professor Bisazza, lecture followed by visit to Ginza Coffee Shops to participate in a "coffee ceremony"

7/219:00 a.m. Bags to Kyoto 10:00 a.m. "The Japanese Family" -- Professor Umezu 3:00 p.m. Meet Host Families, depart for homestays

7/22 Free Time with Host Families

7/23 Free Time with Host Families 2:00 p.m. Transfer to Kyoto via Bullet Train

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4:36 p.m. Arrive Kyoto

July 23-30 Kyoto 7/24 10:00 a.m. "Regional Contrasts: Kanto and Kansai" Tetsuzo Abe, Professor, Notre Dame Women's University 1:00 p.m. Contemporary Art: The use of washi -- Kaname Arase, Washi artist 3:00 p.m. Traditional Japanese Sweets Factory - Tsuruya Yoshinobu

7/25 9:30 a.m. "Shinto and Traditional Culture" -- Elizabeth Kenney, Associate Professor, Kansai Foreign Language University Visit to Fushiminari Shrine

7/26 10:00 a.m. "The Cult of Tea" 11:00 a.m. Tea Ceremony p.m. Visit to Pottery Factory

7/27 Free Time to explore Kyoto, Nara, Osaka or Kobe

7/28 Free Time to explore 4:00 p.m. Meet host families, depart for homestay

7/29 Free Time with host families

7/30 2:00 p.m. Return to Hotel -- Farewell Dinner

7/311:46 p.m. Depart Kyoto for Kansai International Airport

July 31 Depart Kyoto for Kansai International Airport, depart 4:50 p.m., United #818. Arrive LA 11:25 a.m. (July 31).

84 Impressions on a Japan Studies Faculty Development Seminar, Summer, 1995

Louise Myers Kawada Massachusetts College of Art

If ever you want to set aside jet Here in carefully terraced geometrics of lag and stereotypes about Japan in one different shades of green, we saw the swift blow, I suggest then that your trip brilliant green of the stalky young rice to Japan begin in Niigata at the plants, the darker colorations of squash, International University of Japan with or beans, lettuce, daikon, lotus, Bruce Stronach, Dean of Students, as your punctuated by the brightness of daisies, guide. My first afternoon in Japan zinnias, hollyhocks. Farmers in coolie featured a "walk" up a mountain path in hats and rain gear woven of straw were the Dewa mountains surrounding the often seen tending their fields, a retro- campus. Later (when enough oxygen had image of postcard Japan. And beyond this returned to my brain),I would dub this the lush green conifers were rising up on the "Stronach Sonic Tour," for Bruce the mountain side in the humid air--in a with his lanky, six-foot plus frame tended region that gets between twelve and more to sprint than to stroll, and I as a eighteen feet of snow per winter. Looking newcomer to a new land was hell-bent on upward I saw the tracery of ski runs on keeping up. And up it was we went, finding the mountain slopes, as though Chrysto our way through a fairly densely forested had been let loose to practice area, picking over rocks slick with the environmental sumi. soft rain that seemed perpetually to fall, I admit a part of me had written trying not to slide on the muddy areas that off the week spent in Niigata as a sort of almost seemed a part of the heavy humid holding pattern while jet lag and air. Welcome to Japan and its Alpine rain strangeness wore off. But, in retrospect, I forest on the vertical- -and welcome to realize that Niigata exemplifies the heart the land of paradox that counters every and soul of Japan, recalling traditions and stereotype. The Dewa mountains may not ritual patterns that go back centuries, be the Alps or the Sierra Nevadas, but while employing technology that is very they possess a sizable, palpable much of this century. The coolie hats are ruggedness that disabuses you quickly of a part of the landscape, but talk to a any diminutive notions of Japan as an farmer (as we did), and you will learn island with flat terrain interrupted only about his use of very modern agricultural by Mt. Fuji, rising on cue like some photo technologies to produce higher yields. op. Many people still use bicycles as a form of The mountains contrast sharply transportation, but down the road you will with the rice paddies and vegetable find an auto parts factory that--like the gardens being cultivated at their base. Oppoma Nissan factory near Tokyo 82

(another site on the tour)--uses robotics two general impressions struck me, and other highly advanced technologies. impressions that would take on the Education is important here too, greater weight of formative concepts over and this area is proud of its magnet high the next three weeks. First of all, as I took school. But beyond all these advancements, in the street images--movie posters, what I recall most clearly and urgently is neon signs, ads for the latest skin cream what I term "the spirit of the place:" the or shampoo, I was startled by the local pride in the rice, celebrated as the Caucasian features of many of the men and best rice in Japan; the Shinto shrines women in the ads: the rounded eyes of appearing with nonchalance along a barely determinate brown, lighter skin mountain path or near a rice-paddy, their tones, hair bleached to a golden, henna- stone image bedecked with some humble toned chestnut. As a feminist, I was only offering of orange or apple; the quietness too aware of how media representations of the air surrounding the shrine where constructed notions of ideal feminine we went one evening for soba and beauty, often to the detriment of women's mountain vegetables; the earthy strength health and self-esteem. To find the same and health I saw in some of the faces of the insidious constructions working villagers that I looked at closely; and, transracially was both shocking and finally, the innocence. In this community, ironic, given the number of ads in the locks on doors were prudent conveniences, United States that now feature Asians. but not necessities, and "Aum" was a My second "first impression" was news item, a monstrous syllable, but not a a tremendous sense of déjà-vu as though I fact of life. So, after a week in this had walked down the same street sometime mountain-rimmed idyll, it was on to before in my life. All this was puzzling, Tokyo bright lights, big city--where, we disconcerting until I figured out the all suspected, the real culture shock was analog: Tokyo was a lot like Paris! Many about to set. sections of Paris have the same small Travel shares a great deal with the bookstores, clothing boutiques, dry goods birthing process: the womb of boat or jet stores, neighborhood restaurants of or train, the long tunneled routes, the different national cuisines. Waseda even emergence into new territoryand, not had its own model gun store, a quirky least of all, the fatigue. After bullet trains rather un-Parisian touch. and subways and a walk that with luggage The French influence was, in fact, seemed long, we arrived at the Waseda to become a kind of leit-motif over the (Don't tell Arthur Fromer about this one) course of the trip. At Chuo University Guest House. Literally minutes later we after his lecture on politics and culture were on our way out again trekking along relations, we chatted with Professor Waseda Avenue toward a restaurant near Sadria in a mixture of French and English, the next subway stop, Takadanobabaa and later, at Notre Dame University for name that still strikes me as somehow Women, we listened to Professor Abe, more African that Asian, but decidedly whose English came through a strong exotic. Our guide throughout the entire filter of French-inflected nuance. While trip but especially in Tokyo and Kyoto was in Tokyo, we stopped along the elegant Stephanie Morimura: indefatigable, Omotesando, deliberately modeled after knowledgeable, generous, the kaname the Champs Elysees and complete with a (rivet) in the fan of our Japanese Dome-inspired cafe. If imitation is the experience. On the way to the restaurant, sincerest form of flattery, then the

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Japanese with a parodic sense of Japanese TV programs have a kind of economics flatter with a vengeance. They kitschy-cuteness about them that one up the ante on a sandwich jambon to ten wishes were self-parodic in their hyped dollars and serve coffee in their newly enthusiasm. The Japanese, alas, have yet chic cafes for eight to twelve dollars for to discover "cool." But, after all, this is a the demitasse. In all areas, the Japanese country that has bought into the idea that have exceeded the limits of Gallic pizza must be served up with tabasco pre ciosite making the price of the sauce. ordinary a difficult reach ($2.50 for an As for vices, everyone smokes, apple) and the more unusual or specialty everywhere; I have never breathed in item rarely affordable. more second-hand smoke. Apparently, too, And so, in sum, my culture shock a good deal of alcohol is consumed. In the did not derive so much from difference as mornings along Waseda, crates upon from an unanticipated sameness with what crates of empty Sapporo or Asahi or I had brought with me from my own Suntory bottles would appear curbside. At culture. As I was to observe over the next nightfall, the subways exuded the sweetish few weeks, western influences were not stale tinge of alcoholic breath, the red- only evident-- but, more accurately, eyed patrons clinging to the hand- epidemic in Japanese culture. Possibly as supports, half-sleeping yet still managing a counter-intuitive response to to wake up for their stop. This ability to recollections of the U.S. Occupation, the sleep in precise intervals, by the way, is Japanese have adopted the policy of "to shared among the entire Tokyo population assimilate is to conquer." And assimilate day or night. The phenomenon might be they do--only in a somewhat time-warp studied as a way of conserving human fashion. They play American music of the energy. In fact, though, one senses in `forties, venture into the fifties and Tokyo a frenetic, yet fatigued expenditure sixties with Chuck Berry, Dion, the of diminishing energy--the weariness of Eisely Brothers, and the King, enshrine a people tiring of the treadmill of Marilyn Monroe, deploy Madonna as a progress and beginning to ask deeper (less handy substitute, and develop certain survival dictated) questions about merchandise temples around Harajuku to meaning in their lives. All this is to say honor the Beatles and Coca-Cola. No self- that Japan is on a profound level becoming respecting Tokyo teenager would go more westernized as it pursues a more through adolescence without a handful of individuated consciousnessand it is American Tee-shirts and baseball caps, beginning to emerge out of its own advertising the Chicago Cubs, Calvin adolescence--with the oh-so-typical Klein, Nine-Inch Nails, or what have you. vices of smoking and drinking--as it From what I can see, Japanese housewives turns inward and examines its own self- need to know English in order to go awareness, or so I would like to think. shopping at the supermarket; and As for high tech, here too in ways Japanese women, in general, or the that surprised me, the Japanese defied "office girls," well-heeled (and often stereotypes and seemed a bit behind the high-heeled), go about sporting DNKY, times. There in Mitsubishi land the TV Salvatore Ferragamo, Hermes, and enough reception came through with shadows, Louis Vuitton handbags to make me glad like some faint ironic ghost. Domestic that those little gold "V's" weren't from appliances also tag behind the U.S. in the hide of some endangered species. efficiency. Perhaps because of space

87 84 considerations, only one of the three Kyoto was Florence in its extraordinary households I visited in Japan owned a richness of artistic treasures. Contrary to dishwasher. Typically too, laundry is our anticipation, Kyoto was a larger city hung up to dry on wash lines, and dryers than we had imagined, less accessible by can be small and very slow. The most public transport, and possibly more surprising tech-lag, though, was in the expensive than Tokyo. My memories of area of computers and their application. Kyoto are more fragmented, less thematic; The Japanese are proud of their computer but I recall, for example, a lecture and facilities, and on visits to Chuo University visit to the lnari Shrine, beautiful in Tokyo or Notre Dame University in pottery, gracious candy makers, the Kyoto, the supposed highlight of the tour finely wrought expressions on the was the obligatory survey of the computer puppets' faces at Bunraku in Osaka, the rooms. At a high school in Tokyo, seated figurine of Murasaki Shikibu however, they were only beginning to use where she wrote The Tale of Genji, the language lab facilities and computers in placid tranquility at Ryonji, the neon their instruction. On a visit to GLOCOM, bustle of the Gion area after dark, with we were told the interesting story of how the fleeting sight of a geisha's face, the earthquake disaster at Kobe pushed strikingly pale, framed in the window of a ahead computer use in Japan. Prior to darkened limo, aggressively, silently Kobe, the director explained, the Japanese defiant as she returned my gaze in her were not accustomed to using the artificed maquillage. Internetor even computers. Throughout One of the most significant the quake and its aftermath, however, experiences, though, occurred during my students began publishing a Home Page to homestay visit in Kyoto. On the second describe the damage, list the names of the evening the family took me to a deceased, and indicate what supplies were neighborhood party where both Americans needed in different areas affected by the living in Kyoto and Japanese were quake. Many Japanese began to turn to the gathered. The host was Dr. Hosoya of Kyoto Internet to augment the slow or inadequate University in policy studies, who was information supplied by the government. extremely familiar with the work of Al As a lighter note to this issue of Coox and pronounced him a "shogun." This technology, the Japanese have managed to was a highlight, of course, but what most apply low-end technologya conveyor impressed me was something much beltto high-class cuisine sushi (if that quieter. My host family had brought along is an applicable term to Japanese their 12-year-old daughter and 1 9- "cookery." The principle is simple and year-old son, both of whom seemed to very tourist friendly. Upon entering the have no objections to going to a party with sushi bar, you sit down somewhere along their parents. The older brother, along the sushi-laden belt, grab what you like, with other young adults at the party, also eat, then count up your price-coded seemed quite open to being with his kid dishes, pay--and you're out the door. sister and, in fact, interacted with her Richard Speaker and I became experienced throughout the entire evening. By and aficionados of this ultimate form of fast large the Japanese adolescents I did meet food. were without exception disingenuous, The last week of our Japan stay extremely unaffected and yet still poised. was spent in Kyoto: hot, humid,culturally Their culture had not pressured them into magnificent. If Tokyo was like Paris, then growing up too quickly. As the principal of 85 a Tokyo high school told us, truancy and tardiness were the major discipline problems he faced. I also witnessed in both my homestays fathers who were especially caring and solicitous of their children. In the first home, the father was the principal of an elementary school, and he readily admitted that neither of his daughters (13 and 1 9) especially liked school. Instead of reading this situation as a compromise of his standards, even his career, he seemed merely to accept his own observation as a statement of fact and blithely dubbed his younger daughter "a festival girl," since she enjoyed very much taking part in the outside activities at festival time. In both Kyoto and Tokyo, the stereotype of the absent father or the stern taskmaster never presented itself, and instead I saw caring, acceptance and love. In sum, it should not have surprised me that Japan, despite its ethnic homogeneity, was so paradoxical and difficult to define. Complex entities resist categorization, and Japan is a land that mixes Noh and Manga, politeness and pornography, the timeless and the impermanent, like the shrine at Ise that is rebuilt every twenty years. The only certain thing that can be said of Japan is that it is in a process of constant Heraclitean flux, it is truly "postmodern;" and if I were to return to Japan five years from now, I would not see the same country. My deepest hope, as a foreigner, an outside observer, is that Japan in its embrace of the modern will not lose its Japaneseness or that special unreflective pure innocence (and strength) I found so apparent in the more rural Niigata and in Japan's children.

89

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