Distal Turbidite Fan/Lobe Succession of the Late Oligocene Zuberec Fm

Open Geosci. 2017; 9:385–406

Research Article

Dušan Starek* and Tomáš Fuksi Distal turbidite fan/lobe succession of the Late Oligocene Zuberec Fm. – architecture and hierarchy (Central Western Carpathians, Orava–Podhale basin) https://doi.org/10.1515/geo-2017-0030 cesses. Third, a largescale trend documented by generally Received Jun 07, 2016; accepted May 07, 2017 thickening-upward stacking pattern of beds, accompanied by a general increase of the sandstones/mudstones ratio Abstract: A part of the Upper Oligocene sand-rich turbidite and by a gradual change of percentage of individual fa- systems of the Central Carpathian Basin is represented by cies, could be comparable to lobe-system scale. This trend the Zuberec Formation. Sand/mud-mixed deposits of this probably indicates a gradual basinward progradation of formation are well exposed in the northern part of the lobe system controlled by allogenic processes related to basin, allowing us to interpret the turbidite succession as tectonic activity of sources and sea-level fluctuations. terminal lobe deposits of a submarine fan. This interpretation is based on the discrimination of three facies asso- Keywords: Zuberec Formation, submarine lobe deposits, ciations that are comparable to different components of architectural elements, hierarchy, turbidite facies distributive lobe deposits in deep-water fan systems. They correspond to the lobe off-axis, lobe fringe and lobe distal fringe depositional subenvironments, respectively. The in- ferences about the depositional paleoenvironment based 1 Introduction on sedimentological observations are verified by statistical The Upper Oligocene sand-rich turbidite systems, repre- analyses. The bed-thickness frequency distributions and senting an important component of Central Carpathian Pa- vertical organization of the facies associations show cyclic leogene Basin (CCPB), were controlled by fast subsidence trends at different hierarchical levels that enable us tore- in concurrence with the sea-level fluctuationse.g. [ 1–5]. construct architectural elements of a turbidite fan. First, The interpretation of ancient turbidite systems re- small-scale trends correspond with shift in the lobe ele- quires to study architectural elements of the depositional ment centroid between successive elements. Differences system [e.g. 6–11]. A key outcrop-derived characteristic of in the distribution and frequency of sandstone bed thick- submarine fan deposits is the presence of systematic verti- nesses as well as differences in the shape of bed-thickness cal patterns in bed thickness and grain size distribution. In frequency distributions between individual facies associ- general, thickening or coarsening-upward cycles are con- ations reflect a gradual fining and thinning in a down-dip sidered to be a sign of submarine lobe environment and direction. Second, meso-scale trends are identified within thinning or fining cycles may relate to channel and lev- lobes and they generally correspond to the significant pe- ees environment [e.g. 12–16]. The bed thickening- and/or riodicity identified by the time series analysis of the bed coarsening-up packages of lobes were considered to reflect thicknesses. The meso-scale trends demonstrate shifts in progradation [e.g. 11, 13, 17–20]. However, vertical patterns the position of the lobe centroid within the lobe system. in bed thickness may also correspond to compensational Both types of trends have a character of a compensational cycles as a result of the smoothing of the depositional to- stacking pattern and could be linked to autogenic pro- pography associated with lobe abandonment and switching [9, 10, 21–25]. This study is focused on turbidite succession which *Corresponding Author: Dušan Starek: Earth Science Institute we interpret as terminal lobe deposits of a turbidite sys- SAS, Geological Division, Dúbravská cesta 9, 842 36 Bratislava; Email: [email protected] tem. These deposits crop out in the northern part (Orava– Tomáš Fuksi: Earth Science Institute SAS, Geological Division, Podhale Basin) of the CCPB and they are referred to as the Dúbravská cesta 9, 842 36 Bratislava Zuberec Formation [26] or Chochołów beds [sensu 27, 28].

Open Access. © 2017 D. Starek and T. Fuksi, published by De Gruyter Open. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 License 386 Ë D. Starek and T. Fuksi

Figure 1: A - location of study area within the Alpine-Carpathian orogen; B - the Central Carpathians Paleogene Basin system depicting structural sub-basins, basement massifs and surrounding units; C - geological sketch of the Orava region [modified after 33, 100, 101] with situated locality studied. D - location of studied sections (N49∘22´24.01´´, E19∘48´43.27´´).

The Zuberec Formation was defined on the basis of lithol- but these outcrops are often poorly exposed, discontinu- ogy and according to Gross et al. [26], it differs from oth- ous and usually include a rather smaller number of beds, ers “flyschoid” formations in the CCPB mainly by sand- and are mostly too small to be compatible with a modern stone/mudstone ratio and by stratigraphic superposition deepwater turbidite system. However, floods in 2014 exca- (see chapter Geological setting). However, the later re- vated long parts of a turbidite succession in the bedrock of search indicates that many turbidity sequences in Orava Dunajec river in Chocholow, near the Polish–Slovak bor- and Podhale regions are lithologically identical to the def- der (Figure 1D). This turbidite section completely exposed inition of the Zuberec Formation but they are younger and more than 1000 beds, and provided a unique opportunity rather correspond to the Biely Potok Formation that is typ- to study vertical variation in bed thickness and sedimen- ically characterized by massive sandstone sequences [2, 4, tary structures. The study enables to define the sedimen- 29, 30]. This suggests that the simplified model of verti- tary facies and depositional mechanisms that have shaped cal development of the basin fill [c.f. 26] during sequence- them. An occurrence of individual facies, their frequency, stratigraphic development of the CCPB, does not reflect the vertical relationships, the ratio of sandstone and mud- lateral depositional variability of the deep-water deposi- stone,and dominant facies transitions are an important as- tional system. pect for discrimination of the facies associations and the Turbidite sequences of the Zuberec Formation were interpretation of the depositional environment. A vertical studied recently at several outcrops in the Orava region, organization of the facies associations can be described as Distal turbidite fan/lobe succession of the Late Oligocene Zuberec Fm. Ë 387

Figure 2: Descriptive lithostratigraphy of the filling in the western part of the Central-Carpathian Paleogene Basin. Nomenclature ofthe formations according to Gross et al. [26, adapted]. Biostratigraphy is based on the data from Starek [2, 4], Olszewska – Wieczorek [34], Gedl [35], Soták et al. [36] and Garecka [37]. thickening- or thinning-upward units that are helpful in to crustal thinning, either as a result of subcrustal ero- reconstruction of architectural elements and classification sion [e.g. 31], or due to the extensional collapse of the their distality within turbidite fan. Facies associations can overthickened Central Western Carphatians crust and the be interpreted within the framework of a lobe system sug- pull of the retreating subduction of the External Western gested by Prélat et al. [9]. Carpathians oceanic lithosphere [5]. The basin covered most of the Central Western Carpha- tians area (Figures 1A,1B) and is mainly filled up by flysch- 2 Geological setting like deposits, which overlap the substrates of the pre- Senonian nappe units and their thickness reach up to a thousand metres. The age of the sedimentary forma- The CCPB lies inside the Western Carpathian Mountain tions ranges from the Bartonian [e.g. 32, 33] to the lat- chain (Figure 1A) and belongs to the basinal system of est Oligocene [c.f. 3, 34–37] (Figure 2). The sediments of the Peri- and Paratethyan seas. The basin accommodated the CCPB are preserved in many structural sub-basins, in- a forearc position on the destructed Alpine-Carpathian- cluding the Žilina, Rajec, Turiec, Orava, Liptov, Podhale, Pannonian microplate margins and in the hinterland of Poprad, and Hornád Depressions (Figure 1B). In the study the Outer Western Carpathian accretionary prism [e.g. 3]. area, the CCPB sediments are bounded by the Central The opening and evolution of the CCPB probably related 388 Ë D. Starek and T. Fuksi

Carpathian units in the south, while the northern bound- complicated if the bed is thinning out laterally, contains ary is represented by the Pieniny Klippen Belt (Figure 1C). preserved bedforms morphology or has been eroded. In The CCPB deposits (the so-called Podhale Palaeogene these cases, the average was used. Amalgamated sand- in the Poland or the Podtatra Group sensu Gross [26, 38]) stone beds as a result of multiple flows with no obvious are commonly divided into the following formations [26] bed interface are inferred to represent a single bed. Only (Figure 1C, Figure 2) (their equivalents in the Podhale thickness of sandstone was measured for turbidite beds basin sensu Gołąb and Watycha [27, 28] are given in because related mudstones can not be distinguished from brackets). The lowermost, Borové Formation (the so-called overlying pelagic deposits. No correction was made for Tatra Eocene or Nummulitic Eocene) consists of breccias, compaction. conglomerates, polymictic sandstones to siltstones, marl- The vertical variation of bed thicknesses of sandstones stones, organodetrital and organogenic limestones. These shows thickening-upward or thinning-upward trends of represent basal terrestrial and shallow-marine transgres- bed thicknesses. These cyclic intervals were allocated as sive deposits [33, 39–44]. This formation is overlain by individual units and used as a group of data for subse- the Huty Formation (the Zakopane beds) which mainly quent statistical analysis. includes various mud-rich deep marine deposits [e.g. 3, Dataset contains 1015 measured thicknesses of sand- 45, 46] with occurence of sandstone megabed events [47]. stone beds in cm scale. We used modified dataset of lay- The lowermost part of the Huty Formation includes Šam- ers thicker than 1cm (664 beds) for time series analysis bron Beds sensu Chmelik [48] (Szaflary beds in the Pod- (autocorrelation) and original dataset with all thicknesses hale basin) which occure in the northen part of the of sandstones for computation of Hurst coeficient, sim- Podhale-Spiš Magura area and embraced shaly and thin- ple statistical analyses and bed-thickness frequency dis- to medium-rhythmic turbidite deposits with intraforma- tribution. We used simple graphical method – boxplot that tional conglomerates and breccias. The overlying sedi- summary shows variability in thickness of beds in whole ments of the Zuberec Formation (Chochołów beds) and profile and facies associations. We also evaluate the sand- Biely Potok Formation (the Ostrysz beds) consist of rhyth- stones/mudstones ratio within the entire section, individ- mical bedded turbidites and massive sandstones, which ual facies associations as well as allocated units. Similarly, represent the various facies associations of sand-rich sub- we analyzed the percentage of sandstones and siltstones marine fans [1–4, 49–52]. The sand/mud-mixed turbidite facies within different units. deposits of the Zuberec Formation are generally typical We used autocorrelation to determined time se- by a balanced ratio of sandstones to mudstones [e.g. 26]. ries/periodicities. Autocorrelation [53] was carried out These deposits are dated as the end of early Oligocene to on separate column of every sampled layer from modi- the late Oligocene [e.g. 35, 37]. fied dataset. The autocorrelation function is symmetrical The youngest Biely Potok Formation is characterized around zero. A predominantly zero autocorrelation signi- by the marked predominance of sandstones with sporadic fies random data - periodicities turn up as peaks [54]. occurrences of thin mudstones and conglomerates. Sand- The Hurst exponent or coefficient (also „index of de- stone deposits of Biely Potok Formation show the late pence“/ “index of long-term depence“) is used as a mea- Oligocene [e.g. 35] to the Oligocene–early Miocene transi- sure of long-term memory of time series. It relates to the tional interval [2, 37]. autocorrelations of the time series [55–57]. Computation of the Hurst K random shuing of original sequence to generate 300 randomly shued sequences and the assess- 3 Methods ment of the significance of the Hurst K values [57]. This analyses was completed by using R-cran. We ploted recal- culated K to D, number of dimension. The clustering in fi- The research involved sedimentological evaluation of the nal plot indicate depositional environment [57]. section. Eight samples were randomly taken from various We used cumulative distribution function, which typ- parts of the section and evaluated by planimetric analysis ically shows varying degrees of variation from the power- in order to identify petrographic composition. Palaeocur- law (straight-line) distribution. The cumulative thickness rent analysis included measurement of erosive current distribution is calculated and its shape examined on a marks and postdepositional tilt of the directions were re- log plot. Two-dimensional model simulates effects of prox- stored by simple rotation along horizontal axis. Measure- imal (within-channel) vs. distal (non-channelized) envi- ment of bed thicknesses was a key for further statisti- ronment [58]. cal analysis. Determination of the bed thickness becomes Distal turbidite fan/lobe succession of the Late Oligocene Zuberec Fm. Ë 389

Figure 3: Sedimentary facies. A – medium- to fine- grained sandstone with plane-parallel lamination (S3 facies), current ripple lamination (S4 facies) and massive sandstone with erosive base (S1 facies); B – apparently inverse vertical arrangement of “Bouma sequence” and sharp contact with ripple lamination (S4) at the base and parallel lamination above (S3) suggests amalgamation of the beds; C – very thick bed with repeated alternation of medium- grained massive sandstones (S1) and crudely horizontally-stratified, granule coarse-grained sandstones (S2) in the lower part and plane-parallel laminated fine-grained sandstone (S3) above; D – Convolution in hydroplastically- deformed sandstone beds; E – muddy sequence with multiple alternation of Si and M facies; F – current ripple lamination (S4) in fine- grained sandstone; G – convolute sandstone bed. 390 Ë D. Starek and T. Fuksi

We used the ABC index after Walker [59] for evalua- fine-grained. Medium- to coarse-grained sandy fraction is tion of proximality or distality of lobe systems. The sand mostly present only at the bases of the layers where it fraction of turbidites was splited to A, B, C division. This forms thin graded intervals (Figure 3A). The study of gran- divisions cover gradient from graded division (A) to cur- ularity shows that the grain size is generally independent rent rippled division (C). We use a numbers of beds in each from the bed thickness and the fine-grained sandy fraction group (A, B, C), ABC index or P is an equivalent of proxi- often forms entire beds which are tens of cm thick. mality and it is calculated as A (and all groups started with division A) to C ratio: A 4.2 Sedimentary facies P = × 100 (1) A + C The description and classification of the sedimentary suc- P express percentage of distance from A to C (percentual cession near Chocholow is mainly based on lithology and values of proximality). It means small percentual value primary sedimentary structure. The sandstones are re- correspond with higher distality of environment. ABC inferred to as lithofacies S, the siltstones as lithofacies Si, dex was calculated separately for whole section and in- and mudstones as lithofacies M. The deposits of the Zu- dividual units. Point of percentage of beds belonging to berec Formation near Chocholow are classified into 8 indi- group A, B or C in triangular diagram reflects flow regime. vidual facies with their possible hydrodynamic interpreta- Plotted values of A,B,C division fall to four defined areas tion. in diagram [60].

S1 facies: Ungraded- to graded coarse- to fine-grained 4 Results sandstone (Figures 3A,3C)

4.1 Sedimentary description Description: Poorly sorted, usually ungraded, sometimes with normal grading, fine- to coarse-grained sandstones Sedimentary succession of the Zuberec Formation exposed sometimes with dispersed granule up to 2 mm. S1 facies in the studied section represents rythmic-bedded deposits, ranges in thickness from a few cm to 80 cm. In the up- similarly as at other localities in the Podhale and Orava per part of S1 facies there may be signs of crude horizontal region [e.g. 4, 27, 33, 61]. The succession is formed by laminations. sandstone–mudstone sets of beds (Figure 4) which are Interpretation: A rapid accumulation of sand from bi- by their textural and structural features largely remi- parite turbulent flow in which the basal part dominated niscent deposits of high- to low-density turbidites and by a near-bed high-density suspension (S3 flow type after hemipelagic mudstones. The 199,5 m long section near Lowe [62]; Ta division after Bouma [63]; or F5 and F8 facies Chocholow is disturbed by several faults but only with after Mutti [64, 65]). maximum 1.5 m offset which allowed a complete reconstruction of vertical succession of the beds. The dominant lithological components are mudstones which form 65,8% S2 facies: Stratified, inverselly graded coarse-grained of the full section. The sandstones and siltstones form sandstone (Figure 3C) 34.2% of the overall lithology of the studied section. Con- glomerates are not present. Petrographic analysis shows Description: Poorly- to moderately sorted, crudely that all sandstones are lithic greywackes. The beds contain horizontally-stratified, granule coarse-grained sand- locally large amounts of plant and wood debris as well as stones which form up to 25cm thick beds. coal fragments. Interpretation: This facies indicates traction-carpet Thickness of sandstones varies from less than 1 cm up deposition (S2 flow type after Lowe [62]). S2 facies may be to 1.4 m. However, the thickest beds are usually amalga- interpreted as the deposit of the dense sandy to gravely mated of several layers. The average thickness is 6.7 cm flow [64, 66]. (Figure 7B). The succession is dominated markedly by the thin beds up to 10 cm (Figure 7D), that makes up 83.94% of all measured beds. Medium-thick beds (10–30 cm) occupy 11.62% and thick beds (>30 cm) form 4.43% of all measured beds. Most of the sandstones are fine- to very Distal turbidite fan/lobe succession of the Late Oligocene Zuberec Fm. Ë 391

Figure 4: A – distinguished facies associations; B – schematic model for the facies associations of the Chocholow section. Individual facies associations represent different components of distributive lobe deposits (model after [9], modified). C – thinning-upward and D,E – thickening-upward trend of sandstone bed thickness; F – several meters thick mudstone dominated unit (contains facies typical for FA4) with isolated thick sandstone beds. No trend can be identified.

S3 facies: Parallel-laminated medium – to fine grained ally, centimetre thick laminated muddy sandstone inter- sandstone (Figures 3A–3C) vals (S3m) occure within S3 facies (Figure 3A). Interpretation: The plane-parallel stratified sandstone Description: This facies is formed by a medium- to fine- could represent the deposit of a near-bed suspension gen- grained sandstone laminae. S3 facies ranges in thickness erated by progressive turbulent mixing at the head of a from a few centimetres up to some decimetres. Occasion- sandy dense flow with relatively low rates of decelera- tion [67]. Each lamina can be considered to represent a 392 Ë D. Starek and T. Fuksi

traction carpet that is driven by basal shearing of an over- Si1 facies: Laminated siltstone (Figure 3E) lying turbulent flow. (S3 flow type after Lowe [62]; Tb division after Bouma [63]; F7 and F9 facies after Mutti [64]). Description: This facies is composed of coarse-grained to The repetitive occurrence of muddy sandstones within fine-grained laminated siltstone. The laminae of this fa- clean laminated sandstones of S3 facies would be inter- cies are thinner, and finer than those of facies S2. Si1 facies preted as a result of fluctuations in supply of sediment and forms a few centimetres up to decimetre thick beds. speed of the flow. Interpretation: The depositional mechanism of siltstone laminae reflects traction plus fallout processes associated with deposition from suspension during weak tur- S4 facies: Sandstone with asymmetrical bulent motion in low-density turbidity currents [79]. Si1 cross-lamination (Figures 3A,3B,3F) facies can be considered equivalent to Bouma Td interval [63]. Description: This facies is made up of fine- to very fine grained sandstones showing small-cross-lamination corresponding to current ripple bedding. The height of indi- Si2 facies: Laminated muddy siltstone (Figure 3E) vidual ripples is less than 5 cm (usually up to 2 cm) and the length is less than 20 cm. Ripples may be developed in the Description: Siltstones with an increased clay content, form of climbing-ripple lamination occasionally. S4 facies which are characterized by fine, sometimes discontinuous ranges in thickness from a few centimetres up to 20 cm. wispy lamination. Si2 facies forms up to decimetres thick Interpretation: Lower flow regime; traction movement beds. with fallout processes from waning turbidity currents [e.g. Interpretation: Suspension fall-out during final depo- 68, 69]; Tc division after Bouma [63]; F9 facies after sition from a dilute sediment gravity flow [80]. The repeti- Mutti [64]). Climbing-ripple lamination is a typical traction tive alternation of clayey and silty laminae would be inter- plus fallout structure in which the interaction between rate preted as a result of fluctuations in supply of sediment and of fallout and bedforms migration allows the formation of speed of the flow. climbing sets of ripples [68, 70].

M facies: Massive dark mudstone (Figure 3E) S5 facies: Soft-sediment deformation of medium- to fine grained sandstone (Figures 3D,3G) Description: This facies is composed of massive mudstones. Although some parts reveal an increased contents Description: Sandstone deformations vary from gentle to of silt (graded mudstones), the mudstones are mostly de- moderately strong upwardly-concave dish structures to void of structure. M lithofacies shows the sedimentary convolute lamination. Dish structures mainly affect the characteristics of the Bouma turbidite division Te or Stow lower parts of parallel laminated sandstones (facies S2) in division T6 and T7 (graded and ungraded turbidite muds close overlying of massive sandstone intervals. Convolu- respectively). tion affects mainly fine-grained sandstone intervals with Interpretation: Suspension fall-out from static or slow- ripple bedding (facies S3). Soft-sediment deformations of moving mud cloud. Final deposition from a sediment grav- the contacting bedding plane with flame structures may ity flow event [e.g. 81, 82]. occure rarely (Figure 5A). Interpretation: Dish structure formation is connected with compaction and dewatering of unconsolidated sed- 4.3 Facies association iments [71] and they are related to upward movement of water and fluidized particles that cutting and deforming Three facies associations were distinguished based on the overlying sediments [72, 73]. The generating mechanism predominant facies, sandstone bed thickness (Figure 4A), of convolute structures is linked to fluidization processes, and proportion of mudstone facies. These facies associ- which create gravitational instabilities [73–75]. The trigger- ations (FA) are comparable to different components of ing mechanism of these structures is often related to pro- distributive lobe deposits in deep-water fan system and cesses of sediment gravity flows, overloading of sandstone within the classification in the sense of Prélat et al. [9] cor- beds [e.g. 71, 76, 77], or they should be induced by seismic- responding to the lobe off-axis (FA2), lobe fringe (FA3) and ity [75, 78]. lobe distal fringe/inter-lobe (FA4) (Figure 4B) [cf. 10, 25]. Distal turbidite fan/lobe succession of the Late Oligocene Zuberec Fm. Ë 393

Figure 5: Structures on bedding planes. A – flame structures below severly deformed beds; B – load structures on the sole of thick sandstone beds; C – coalified plant detritus in sandstone; D – pebble size mudstone intraclasts in thick-bedded sandstone. The intraclasts are commonly preserved as sandstone molds because of recessive weathering of the mudstone. E – frondescent marks; F – tool marks.

For easier comparison we denote the related facies associ- Facies association 2 (FA2): lobe off-axis (Figure 4A) ations identically as So et al. [10]. Within the studied section the facies association corresponding to the lobe axis The FA2 may consists all defined facies, but sandstone (FA1) sensu Prélat & Hodgson [25] can not be identified lithofacies is predominant and occupy more than 60% of therefore, the following description begins with FA2. total measured thickness of the FA2. The medium-thick and thick sandstone beds are main component of this facies association. The average thickness of turbidite sandstone facies within FA2 is 34.5 cm and 50% of all measured 394 Ë D. Starek and T. Fuksi

bed thicknesses falls within the range 7 to 52.5 cm (Fig- mainly comprises S3,S4, Si1,2 and M facies. S1 facies usu- ure 7B). ally builds the rare thicker beds (up to 15–20 cm) or low- The lower sides of the beds within FA2 are mostly ermost part of the thiner turbidites. However, the S1 fa- plain, with common small-size erosional current marks cies is less common as in the FA2. The beds have a good (Figures 5F; 6A–6D). However, the lower bedding planes lateral continuity. The lower bed interfaces are sharp with of some beds are slightly modified by load structures common small-size erosional current marks (Figures 6A– (Figure 5B) and are uneven. In thicker sandstone beds 6C). The beds are graded and often show complete devel- (>10cm), massive bedding is the most common (S1 facies). oped Bouma sequences (Ta-e, sensu Bouma [63]). Espe- At the base of massive sandy interval, thin gradation inter- cially thin, very fine-grained, up to 5 cm thick turbidites val is developed locally. S1 or S2 facies within thick beds consist only of S4, Si and M facies. is commonly overlain by S3 facies or may fining upwards A regularly thin-bedded, rhytmic, some metres thick with relatively sharp transition to siltstone and mudstone sequence with a high proportion of mudstone, thin- facies. The ripple bedding (S4 facies) is rather sparse in bedded finely-structured sandstone with good lateral con- thick sandstone beds and is poorly developed. They form tinuity supported interpretation of FA3 as lobe fringe de- only thin intervals at the top of the beds, near the transi- posits [10, 25]. tions to siltstones. Thick beds locally contain claystone intraclasts and coalified plant detritus (Figures 5C,5D). Soft- sediment deformations (S5 facies) are relativelly common Facies association 4 (FA4): lobe distal fringe and and may affect all the bed (usually up to 20 cm thick) (Fig- inter-lobe (Figure 4A) ure 3G) or may occure as the thinner interval, usually in the upper parts of thick beds. Geometry of each bed is tab- The main component of FA4 is bed configuration with thin- ular or sheet-like. Within FA2, thick sandstone beds may bedded fine to very fine-grained sandstones, siltstones, occure in association with thin- to medium- rythmic bed- and medium- to thick-bedded mudstones. In this facies as- sets (up to 1m thick) which contain thin beds of sandstone- sociation, mudstone beds (M facies) are in a strong domi- mudstone couples with well developed S3,S4, Si1, Si2 and nance and often take up more than 80% of total thickness M facies. This facies association occurs in the whole sec- of FA4. The average thickness of turbidite sandstone facies tion studied near Chocholow and it is commonly underlain within FA4 is 2.6 cm and 50% of all measured bed thick- and overlain by FA3 and less commonly FA4 (Figure 9). nesses falls within the range 1–3 cm (Figure 7B). The S4, The relative abundance of amalgamation within thick Si1,2 facies are frequent, the S1,S2,S3,S5 facies are very sandstone beds, the medium- to fine grain sizes of the sporadic. FA4 generally ranges in thickness from 1m up to most of sandstones, small amount of mudstone turbidite, 7m. This facies association occurs in the whole section but occurence thin- to medium-bedded sandstone turbidites, a maximum thickness reaches at the lower part of studied tabular geometry of beds, absence of both - large scours succession near Chocholow. The FA4 is most often a part and evidences for channels suggest deposition within de- of a gradual transition between the FA 2-3-4, but especially positional lobe [e.g. 6, 9, 83]. Absence of some metres to in the lowermost part of the succession this facies associa- tens metres thick bedseds of massive, frequently amalga- tion underlain and overlain isolated, some decimetres up mated thick sandstones; intercalation of thin- to medium- to 1 metres thick beds which contain facies typical for FA2 bedded turbidites with abundant S3,S4, and Si facies (Figure 4F). might indicate deposition in lobe off-axis environment [9, A regularly thin-bedded, fine- to very fine- grained tur- 10, 25]. bidites with good lateral continuity and hight contents of relative thick mudstone facies supported interpretation of FA4 as lobe distal fringe and inter-lobe with the deposi- Facies association 3 (FA3): lobe fringe (Figure 4A) tion of dilute low concentration turbidity currents or basin plain with slow hemipelagic deposition [80]. In this facies association, mudstone beds are predominant (60–80%). The main component of FA3 is rhythmic thin- bedded sequence with sandstone and mudstone beds that 4.4 Sole marks and palaeocurrent analyse are generally range in thickness from several cm to tens cm. The average thickness of turbidite sandstone facies A typical feature of the thin- to medium-bedded, fine- within FA3 is 5.7 cm and 50% of all measured bed thick- grained turbidity sequences are palaeocurrent indicators nesses falls within the range 1 to 6 cm (Figure 7B). FA3 such as frondescent marks (Figure 5E), flute marks (Fig- Distal turbidite fan/lobe succession of the Late Oligocene Zuberec Fm. Ë 395

Figure 6: Mechanical and biological sole marks. A – flute casts; B – doubly ruffled groove; C – a small scale of tool markings; D – mould of brush mark produced by impact of smaller pieces of mudstone eroded from the bottom; E – general paleoflow orientation and paleotrans- port direction in studied turbidite succession of the Zuberec Formation (black arrows on the pictures indicate the direction/orientation of paleoflows); F–H – ichnofossils, Thalasinoides isp. (F,G), Scolicia isp. (H). 396 Ë D. Starek and T. Fuksi

Figure 7: A – time series analysis (autocorrelation coeflcient) with significant periodicity on 45-th bed cauculated from modified dataset (bed thickness more than 1 cm). ACF - autocorrelation, Lag - the time lags; B – sandstone bed-thickness frequency distribution among full section and discriminated facies associations; C – cumulative distribution of the sandstone thicknesses from complete dataset (all measurements of sandstone thicknesses within the Chocholow succession) and from datasets corresponding with defined facies associations. The shape of line of cumulative distribution within the complete dataset best corresponds with middle fan environment [cf. 58]. D – Fre- quency analysis of thicknesses of sandstone beds within the full section as well as individual facies associations. Distal turbidite fan/lobe succession of the Late Oligocene Zuberec Fm. Ë 397 ure 6A), longitudinal furrows, ridges and tool marks (Fig- We tested the cumulative distribution of the complete ures 5F, 6B–6D). Paleocurrent data derived from these dataset covering all measurements of sandstone thick- indicators provide general flow orientation SW–NE with nesses within the entire succession near Chocholow, as transport direction to NE. Currents show only a relatively well as datasets of sandstone thicknesses corresponding small variance (Figure 6E) and an orientation remains con- with defined facies associations (Figure 7C). The shape stant throughout the studied section. We have not iden- of cumulative bed-thickness frequency distributions de- tified any contradirectional measurements which could pends on the number of thick beds (and its amalgama- occur in confined basins bounded by tectonic slopes or tion). The strong curve of line in FA2 reflects an occurrence which would indicate feeding of depositional lobes from of thick sandstone beds with common amalgamation. Con- several sources. On the lower planes of some fine-grained versely, the shape of line in FA4 corresponds with frequent sandstone beds was also identified relatively poor as- occurrence of thin, well deffined turbidites in FA4. The semblage of ichnofossils inclusive Thalasinoides, Scolicia, shape of line of cumulative distribution within the com- Artrophycus. (Figures 66F–6E). These softground traces plete dataset of Chocholow section best corresponds with occur in relatively well-oxygenated environments and be- middle fan environment [58]. long to ecological cathegories of domichnia and pascich- Calculated P values (ABC index) of whole section and nia [84]. all units show a small percentual values of proximality (1.9–20.7%) (Figure 8B), i.e. high values of distality (79.3– 98.1%). 4.5 Statistical analysis

The large dataset of the bed thicknesses allows us to use autocorrelation for determination of time series/periodicities. We compare determined periodicity with the boundaries of individual units identified on the base of documented meso-scale trends of bed thickness (see chapter Hierarchy, units and trends). Time series analysis (autocorrelation coefficient) shows significant periodicity on 45-th bed (Figure 7A) from modified dataset (bed thickness more than 1 cm). Mean of numbers of beds within unit is 44.3, which generally corresponds well with time series analysis. However, considerable variability in the number of beds within individual units occurs (see chapter Hierarchy, units and trends). We used the Hurst coefficient to verify the assumed interpretation of depositional palaeoenvironment based on identified facies and facies associations. Hurst K computed from original dataset is 0.77. Deviation D from the mean K for randomly shued series, and significance levels for the sandstone thicknesses was computed as 5.71. This section of Zuberec Formation passed the Hurst K test for sandstone thicknesses at a significance level a=0.15. After plotting K to D the locality was placed to cluster of lobe–inter-lobe environment [57] that corresponds with our prediction on the basis of grain-sizes and identified facies associations, Figure 8: A – Ternary plot of percentages of beds belong to A,B and and fit with results of other statistical analysis. C division. Red points represent intersection of percentage lines Boxplots show distribution of sandstone bed thick- of Units 1-15, Black point represent whole section of Chocholow outcrop. All points are located in Field 1, which correspond with nesses among full section and assigned facies associations lower flow regime; B – P or ABC index values show small percentual st rd (Figure 7B). Differences between 1 and 3 quantile, me- values of proximality. Values range between 1.9 and 20.7 with mean dian and mean are obvious and correlate with the defini- 12.2 which corresponds with percentual value for whole section. tion of individual facies associations. 398 Ë D. Starek and T. Fuksi

Figure 9: Sedimentary log of rhythmical bedded, sand/mud-mixed turbidite succession of the Zuberec Fm. studied in outcrop near Cho- cholow. The chard depicts vertical distribution of the lithology, facies associations (FA), identified units and meso- to small-scale trends.

Percentual values of A, B, C divisions are clustered af- 4.6 Hierarchy, units and trends ter ploting in Field 1 (Figure 8A) which provide opportunity to interrpret whole section and all units from Chocholow The fundamental building element in a distributive system section as sediment deposited mostly in lower flow regime. is the ‘bed’ that consists of one or more facies. Sets of beds Only one entry (Unit 9) is located on the border between with similar facies, bed thicknesses, proportion of mud- Filed 1 and mixture zone. stones and a certain pattern of vertical arrangement are grouped into facies associations (FA) representing different components of lobe elements (Figure 4A,B; Figure 10). Each flow tends to fill topographical lows, thus turbidity Distal turbidite fan/lobe succession of the Late Oligocene Zuberec Fm. Ë 399

Figure 10: Architectural hierarchy of lobe deposits ranging from lobe beds, lobe elements, lobes and interlobes up to lobe system (modified after [9 and 10]). The different scale trends and comparable hierarchical classification of turbidites based on the physical scalesofthe various units [6] are depicted at particular level of the scheme. currents incline laterally down to the slightly sloping sur- beds towards the upper part of the section (Figure 10). face of the lobes [e.g. 21, 83]. Therefore, bed thicknesses However, this trend can not be applied to the thickest, of- preserved in distal depositional lobes form cyclic com- ten amalgamated beds which are appear more or less regu- pensational pattern of bed arangement. Compensational larly over the entire section. The thickening-upward trend cycles identified within lobe element are smaller-scale, of beds is accompanied also by the general increase of the they are formed usually by 3 to 9 turbidite beds, stack ratio of sandstones/mudstones (Figures 11A,11B) in the up- up to a few metres thick series and they are represented per part of the section in comparison with the lovermost by thickening-upward and thinning-upward trends of bed part, where the ratio is about 1:5. Similarly, the percent- thicknesses (Figures 4C–4E, 9, 10). age of individual facies in sandstone-siltstone parts of tur- One or more genetically related lobe elements stack to bidites changes upwards the section (Figure 11C). S1–S3 form a ‘lobe’ (Figure 10). Depositional lobes are bounded facies occure more frequently in the upper part, while S4 by thicker (usually up to several metres thick) units of and Si lithofacies strongly dominate in the lower part of predominantly thick-bedded mudstones and thin-bedded the section. fine- to very fine-grained sandstone turbidites (FA4) rep- The cyclicity of the upward-thickening or upward- resenting inter-lobe and basin plain environments. Verti- thinning units of any scale cannot be correlated with cal alignment of the facies associations within lobe dis- the grain-size changes of the sediment, and the relative tributary and inter-distributary areas is accompanied by monotonous and narrow grain-size range reduces the util- vertical variations in bed thickness. This variation reflects ity of coarsening- or fining-upward trends in architecture an occurrence of meso-scale intervals with thickening- interpretation. upward or thinning-upward trends of bed thickness and also intervals where it was not possible to clearly identify any trend (Figure 9). These meso-scale trends (or 5 Discussion no trends) are documented within 7–30m thick intervals (Units 1–15), each comprising about 30–115 beds. The different scale trends in stacking pattern of beds Well-developed trend was recognized in units comprising are demonstrated within turbidite succession near Cho- medium- to thick beds. The thickest beds (> 70 cm) usually cholow. Two of them resemble a compensational stacking separate individual units. pattern. First, small-scale lobe element stacking patterns, Throughout the studied section, one more large-scale stack up to a few metres thick series (Figures 9, 10), could trend – generally thickening-upward trend of bed thick- demonstrate a small-scale shift in the lobe element cen- nesses involving hundreds of beds with a total thickness troid between successive elements (Figure 12) and could up to 175m can be identified. This trend is doccumented be linked to autogenic compensation processes and migra- by gradual increase of medium thick and thick sandstone tion of small-scale distributive channels [9, 21]. 400 Ë D. Starek and T. Fuksi

Figure 11: A – distribution of the sandstones / mudstones ratio Figure 12: The conceptual model of stacking styles of beds and lobe within studied turbidity succession (calculated from individual elements within lobes (after [25], slightly adapted). Triangle indi- units); B – thicknesses of the individual units and thicknesses of cates bed thickness trends at a point in the lobe. A – disorganized sandstones and mudstones within allocated units; C – the percent- (non trend) shifts of successive lobe elements; B – organized lat- age of sandstone (S) and siltstone (Si) lithofacies within the units eral shift with lateral migration (thickening and thinning upward and they distribution within entire succession. trends); C – organized lateral shift with landward stacking (thinning upward trend); D – organized lateral shift with basinward stacking (thickening upward trend). Second, meso-scale trends in stacking pattern of beds are identified within lobes and correspond with units of which thickness usually up to several metres (Figures 9, cesses seem to be likely to cause random shifting of archi- 10). Units that include a markedly smaller number of beds tectural elements and sedimentary facies. compared to significant periodicity in time series analysis The last, a large-scale generally thickening-upward (Units 6, 7 or Unit 12) could be in fact linked to a larger bed- trend in stacking pattern of beds, accompanied with the sets. Conversely, the units which contain markedly larger general increase of the sandstones – mudstones ratio number of the beds (Units 10, 13) may include several (Figures 11A,11B) and gradual increase of the percent- unrecognized, genetically unrelated bedsets. At the lobe age of sandstone (S1,2,3 facies) and decrease of siltstone scale, stacking patterns could demonstrate shifts in the (Si) lithofacies (Figure 11C), is documented within nearly position of the lobe centroid within the lobe complex. The entire studied section. This large-scale stacking pattern position of a lobe, which tends to fill subtle topographic could represent a part of an architectural element compa- lows, is influenced by a sea floor relief, formed byele- rable to lobe system scale (Figure 10) and could indicate vations (the upward-convex form of lobes) and depres- gradual basinward progradation (growth stages) of lobe sions (inter-lobe area), both inherited from the underlying system. The increasing volumes and efficiency could be lobes [e.g. 25]. This effect could indicate an autogenic con- interpreted as a result of relative sea-level fall and/or in- trol on lobe stacking and shape. Intrabasinal factors such creased sediment supply from the hinterland and would as depositional topography, fan-channel switching, chan- therefore indicate allogenic control on lobe system devel- nel bifurcation and avulsion, lobe shifting and other pro- opment. The fine-grained sediments with mature silici- Distal turbidite fan/lobe succession of the Late Oligocene Zuberec Fm. Ë 401 clastic composition documented in Chocholow section ap- calization of their sources in the north-west (Rhenodanu- pear to be accummulated formerly by rivers, which fed bian and Magura units) and from the Iňačovce-Kričevo and the basin from tectonically active sources [cf. 85]. Numer- Szolnok zones in the south-east [85]. ous sandy turbidites are generated during falling sea-level Given the different hierarchical level of identified ar- stages which result in progradation and cannibalization chitectural building elements in Chocholow succession we of the deltas [e.g. 86]. The large amount of plant debris, tried to classify them within a spatial and temporal hier- coal fragments and wood fragments in sandstone- to silt- archy for deep-water deposits proposed by [6] (Figure 10). stone facies of the Chocholow section could also indicate The smallest scale building units we compare with fifth a source in the delta deposits or riverine input of sediment- order turbidite beds, the lobe elements could represent laden flows seaward of high bedload deltase.g. [ 69, 87, 88]. fourth order turbidite sub-stage, the lobes could corre- Riverine input of hyperconcentrated bedload during catas- spond to the third order turbidite stage. The large-scale trophic floods that flow seaward due to inertia could gen- thickening-upward trend of bed thickness could represent erate voluminous flows (hyperpycnites) which deposited a part of lobe system comparable to second order turbidite sandstone-siltstone beds [e.g. 67, 89–91] and could form system sensu Mutti and Normark [6; cf. 10]. hyperpycnal-fed turbidite lobe [e.g. 24]. Exposure in the Dunajec river near Chocholow al- The beginning of siliciclastic turbidite deposition in low accurate measurement of single bed thicknesses, and the CCPB well corresponds with major glaciation in Antar- therefore allow an insight into bed thickness patterns at tica at around 30 Ma [92–94] accompanied by a decrease different scales of the hierarchy. A long vertical succession of global sea-level. The subsequent formation of sand-rich enabled to obtain enough dataset which is used success- submarine fans of the Zuberec and Biely Potok Formations fully in statistical analyses. These represent an appropri- was influenced both by tectonic activity of sources as well ate tool for the verification of assumed depositional en- as transgressive-regressive cycles during Oligocene (late vironment identified by the determination on the grain- Rupelian and Chattian) [1, 2, 85, 95]. The forming sand- size, lithology, vertical arrangement of beds and facies, rich depositional system gradually progressed through the the shape of individual beds, sedimentary structures or rhythmical thin- and medium-bedded turbidite succes- palaeotransport analysis. However, the lateral scale of the sions of the lower fan (growth stages; Zuberec Fm.) to architectural elements is far greater than the studied out- medium- and thick-bedded sandstone lithosomes, which crop and these studies lack information on the lateral de- coalescing lobes grade up to form the mid-fan lobe com- velopment of individual facies associations and architec- plex [3, 4] (growth and build stages; Biely Potok Fm.). De- tonical elements, their lateral stability, changes in thick- posional lobes of the Orava-Podhale basin does not show nesses or estimated volumes. Therefore some of our inter- a direct connection to channel-leeve complex, resembling pretations are only prediction based on a comparison with the submarine fans of the Hecho basin [e.g. 20, 96]. A sim- published model of submarine fan lobes [e.g. 9–11, 25]. ilar model as Hecho-type of lobe stacking was suggested The studied section is situated in distal parts of the by Westwalewicz-Mogilska [49] or Wieczorek [50] in the lobe system which is also demonstrated by the ABC in- CCPB. dex sensu Walker [59] and result positions of the division These proposed depositional models placed source percentage in triangular diagram which correspond with area of clastic material and location of channel-leeve com- location in field of lower flow regime [60] (Figure 8).The plexes which fed the Oligocene submarine fans of the result is that sets of thick-bedded sandstones correspond- Orava-Podhale basin (Zuberec & Biely Potok Fms) to the ing to the lobe axis facies association (FA1 sensu [10]) can south, in the Liptov basin (hypothetical “Sliače channel” not be identified within the Chocholow succession. The sensu Westwalewicz-Mogilska [49] which does not corre- lobe-axis sandstones in the sections of the lobe center spond with the paleocurrent data (generally from W to the form a distinct contrast with thin-bedded and mudstone- E); respectively to the south-west, in the Orava region near predominant facies associations surrounding them [e.g. Dolný Kubín (hypothetical “Pucov channel” sensu Wiec- 9]. On the other hand, more distal (we mean the radial zorek [50]) which does not correspond with stratigraphic distance from the lobe center) sections of the lobes (Cho- position of the Pucov conglomerates [e.g. 36] as well as cholow section) are represented only by less thick sets of with depositional model of these conglomerates [97]. thick-bedded sandstones, intercalated by thin- to medium- The Orava-Podhale basin was filled probably mostly bedded turbidites, which are related better to the lobe off- from the raised Outer Carpathian accretionary wedge com- axis facies association (FA2). Within the distal parts of the plexes and late Oligocene turbidite systems, which later- lobes or more distant laterally from distributaries, the thin- ally prograded from opposite sides of the basin suggest lo- bedded turbidites and mudstone-predominant facies as- 402 Ë D. Starek and T. Fuksi sociations (FA3, FA4) occure generally more frequently in the inicial stage of fan development – type II of outer fan comparison with their proximal and central parts. Obvi- lobes (fan fringe & basin plain, sensu Pickering [18]). Such ous diferences in distribution and frequency analysis of a system shows no or only a weak trend in the bed thick- sandstone bed thicknesses between defined facies asso- ness (Figure 9). ciations (Figures 7B,7D) probably reflect a gradual fining Less significant mudstone intervals, mainly charac- and thinning in a down-dip direction. The thinning trend terized of FA4, are also in the higher parts of the stud- of bed thicknesses outwards the lobe axis as well as the ied sections. However, we suppose that these intervals changes in depositional mechanisms are documented also rather represent an inter-lobe environment, away from the by the degree of line curvatures in cumulative distribu- main input of sandy lobe elements, and FA4 is laterally tions of single facies associations (Figure 7C). A power-law in direct connection with the FA2 and FA3. Therefore, the shape of line in FA4 can be diagnostic as deposits far from thickness and lateral reach of these facies associations are source [58]. limited by lateral shifting of lobe elements documented High-frequency variability, relatively small lithologi- by thickening-upward and thinning-upward trends (Fig- cal contrasts as well as occurrence of similar facies in the ure 9). distal part of lobe system could partially misted the interfaces between architectural elements and it makes difficult to interpret the vertical changes in turbidite succession. 6 Conclusions Therefore, the interpretation of the geometry and migration of depositional lobes following the vertical stacking Sedimentary succession of the Zuberec Formation exposed pattern of beds would be complicated, particularly when in the bedrock of Dunajec river near Chocholow in the the interaction between allogenic and autogenic controls northern part of the CCPB well corresponds to lobe de- occurs [e.g. 98]. For example, in outcrop scale, we can not posits of submarine fan. This interpretation is based on clearly recognize if thickening-upward sequences indicate the recognition of the facies associations that indicate basinward progradation of the lobes or if they are the re- different components of the distributive lobe deposits in sult of the gradual filling of interlobe topographic lows deep-water fan system corresponding to (1) lobe off-axis, connected to lateral shift of lobe elements. Conversely, the (2) lobe fringe and (3) lobe distal fringe/inter-lobe deposi- thinning-upward trends/sequences do not necessarily im- tional environments. The depositional environment iden- ply landward retrogradation but they can be the result of tified by the determination of grain-size, lithology, verti- the lateral migration when successive lobe elements stack cal arrangement of beds and facies, shape of individual away from a fixed point (Figure 12). beds, and sedimentary structures or palaeotransport anal- The meso- to large scale boundaries between each ysis was supported by statistical analyses. The shape of lobe system or lobe complex are generally identified by the cumulative bed-thickness frequency distribution best distinct mudstone intervals which show large lateral con- corresponds to the middle fan environment and the value tinuity (ranging kilometers) indicate starvation of clastic of the Hurst coefficient indicates lobe-interlobe environ- sediment to the deeper part of the basin, probably related ment. The calculation of the percentage of Bouma divi- with relative sea-level rise [9, 11, 99]. sions in turbidite sandstones and ABC index, together with Such thick, mudstone predominanted facies associa- bed-thickness frequency distributions and vertical orga- tions could be identified in a Unit 1 and Unit 2, where thick nization of the facies associations, that show thickening- mudstones intervals (2–4.5 m thick) with minor abun- upward and thinning-upward cyclic trends, enable us to dance of siltstones and scarce thin sandstones (> 80% reconstruct architectural elements of turbidite fan and of mudstones) occur. However, in outcrop scale, we can classify their distality and flow regime. Trends at three not recognize the lateral continuity of these intervals over different hierarchical levels in vertical stacking pattern of more than tens of metres and therefore can not clearly ex- beds are demonstrated within turbidite succession. First, clude the possibility that mudstone facies association of a small-scale trend corresponds to shifts in the lobe el- the Unit 1 and 2 corresponds to the interlobe environment ement centroid between successive elements. Statistical in the outher fan lobes. In this case, the mudstone facies analysis of bed thickness confirmed the expected differ- association should be passed laterally into lobe fringe and ences in distribution and frequency of sandstone bed lobe axis facies associations. The thick individual sand- thickness between individual facies associations, proba- stone beds, directly surrounded with mudstones of FA 4, bly reflecting a gradual fining and thinning in a down-dip which are documented within Unit 1 may represent iso- direction. The thinning trend of bed thickness outwards lated lobes reaching more distal parts of outer fan during Distal turbidite fan/lobe succession of the Late Oligocene Zuberec Fm. Ë 403 the lobe axis as well as the changes in depositional mech- [6] Mutti E., Normark W.R., Comparing examples of modern and an- anisms are documented also by the shape of cumulative cient turbidite systems: Problems and Concepts. In: Legget J.K., bed-thickness frequency distributions of individual facies Zuffa G.G. (Eds.), Marine Clastic Sedimentology: Concepts and associations. Case Studies. Graham and Trotman, 1987, 1–38 [7] Pickering K.T., Clark J.D., Smith R.D.A., Hiscott R.N., Ricci Lucchi Second, meso-scale trends are identified within lobes F., Kenyon N.H., Architectural element analysis of turbidite sys- and they generally correspond to the significant periodic- tems, and selected topical problems for sand-prone deep-water ity identified by the time series analysis of the bed thick- systems. In: Pickering K.T., Hiscott R.N., Kenyon N.H., Ricci Luc- ness. The meso-scale trends could demonstrate shifts in chi F., Smith R.D.A. (Eds.), Atlas of deepwater environments, ar- the position of the lobe centroid within the lobe system. chitectural styles in turbidite systems. Chapman and Hall, New York, 1995, 1–10 Both scale of these trends have a character of a compen- [8] Mutti E., Tinterri R., Remacha E., Mavilla N., Angella S., Fava L., sational stacking pattern and could be linked to autogenic An Introduction to the Analysis of Ancient Turbidite Basins from processes. an Outcrop Perspective. AAPG Course Notes, 1999, 39, 93 Third, a large-scale trend documented by generally [9] Prélat A., Hodgson D.M., Flint S.S., Evolution, architecture and thickening-upward stacking pattern of beds, accompanied hierarchy of distributary deep-water deposits: a high-resolution with the general increase of the sandstones – mudstones outcrop investigation from the Permian Karoo Basin, South Africa. Sedimentology, 2009, 56, 2132–2154 ratio and gradual change of percentage of individual fa- [10] So Y.S.,Rhee Ch.W., Choi P.-Y.,Kee W.-S., Seo J.Y.,Lee E.-J., Distal cies, could represents a part of an architectural element turbidite fan/lobe succession of the Late Paleozoic Taean For- comparable to lobe system scale. This trend probably in- mation, western Korea. Geosciences Journal, 2013, 17, 1, 9–25 dicate gradual basinward progradation (growth stages) of [11] Grundvag S.A., Johannessen E.P., Helland-Hansen W., Plink- lobe system controlled by allogenic processes related to Björklund P., Depositional architecture and evolution of progra- dationally stacked lobe complexes in the Eocene Central Basin tectonic activity of sources and sea-level fluctuations. of Spitsbergen. 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