Handbook of Supernovae Athem W. Alsabti • Paul Murdin Editors

Handbook of Supernovae

With 850 Figures and 60 Tables

123 Editors Athem W. Alsabti Paul Murdin University College London Observatory Institute of Astronomy University College London University of Cambridge London, UK Cambridge, UK

ISBN 978-3-319-21845-8 ISBN 978-3-319-21846-5 (eBook) ISBN 978-3-319-21847-2 (print and electronic bundle) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-21846-5

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This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland To our host institutions for their tolerant hospitality: University College London Observatory and Institute of Astronomy, Cambridge Preface

The term “supernovae” was first coined and used in 1931 to refer to eruptions of stars more powerful than novae. By 1938, the term “supernovae” was used to refer to a class of explosive stars discovered in many galaxies. Further studies revealed that our own Galaxy was a host of many such events recorded in history such as the Crab Nebula (SN1054 AD), Tycho’s Supernova (SN1572 AD), and Kepler’s Supernova (SN1604 AD), among many others discovered more recently with modern detection methods. With the advance of physics in the 1930s, the way stars synthesize elements beyond hydrogen and helium became increasingly understood; quantum mechanics gave rise to an understanding of white dwarf stars and the prediction of neutron stars and general relativity to black holes. In other words, the fate of the various types of stars was becoming clearer. However, there were still many issues relating to these problems that remained to be solved. Other landmarks related to supernovae worth mentioning include the lecture that Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar gave in 1935 to the Royal Astronomical Society predicting theoretically the possible collapse of white dwarfs of a specific mass into a black hole. Another is the paper of 1957 known as B2FH (referring to its authors, Margret Burbidge, Geoffrey Burbidge, William Fowler, and Fred Hoyle), where the road map was laid out for the mechanism of how stars manufacture the chemical elements. This paper, and subsequent research in explosive astrophysics, pushed our knowledge of how supernovae of a variety of types lead to the nucleosynthesis of heavy elements in the periodic table and in particular those with atomic number higher than iron. Indeed, we probably owe our existence in some way to supernovae for the processes which have influenced the creation and evolution of the solar system, planets, and life. On the observational side, Supernova 1987A, a relatively nearby supernova, even if in a neighbor galaxy, not our own, was close enough to be studied in detail, leading not only to an interest in neutrino astrophysics but also to a refined understanding of the supernova phenomenon, that is, the bright star that appears and fades. On one hand, the observation of neutrinos led to a focus on the crucial role that neutrinos play in supernovae. Additionally, focus on the explosion phenomenon in various types of supernova led to the discovery that the members of a particular class – the

vii viii Preface

Type Ia supernovae – explode in such a way as to be considered a standard candle. The brightness of these objects, visible in galaxies at vast distances, means that they can be used to determine the size and the expansion rate of the Universe. These methods have recently been refined to such a high degree and applied to observations of such accuracy in programs of such statistical scope that they uncovered the accelerating nature of the cosmic expansion. A big influence on our own personal involvement in supernova studies took off in the 1960s when the first pulsar was discovered by Antony Hewish and his student Jocelyn Bell in 1967. At that time, both of us were students, one of us at Manchester University and the other at Oxford University. This event contributed to our choices of research topics as postgraduate students and postdoctoral fellows, at Manchester and at Rochester, NY, and Herstmonceux, respectively. One of us studied evolved supernova remnants (like the Monoceros Loop) and the other pulsars (the Crab and Vela pulsars) and black holes (like Cygnus X-1), all of them the outcome of core- collapse supernovae. Our personal fascination with supernova science has lasted ever since, even if now we get most of our satisfaction by observing what the young people are discovering than discovering new stuff ourselves. It has been a great pleasure to read the articles in this collection as they came in and learn what has happened since we retired from active research. We have been particularly drawn to an interest in a new branch of astronomy – astrochemistry – that indicated that complex molecules are created in space, many of them organic. Evidence has been found on the Earth, on the Moon, and in meteorites of radio isotopes indicative of an impact of direct radiation on the solar system and of the solar system passing through single and multiple remnants of expanding supernovae of various ages. An even newer branch of astronomy, the study of gravitational waves, has combined just one year of observation with a century of theory to add extra impact and relevance to research into supernovae and the black holes which they can create. Astronomy is about natural phenomena studied by whatever science is appro- priate. Nowhere is this more true than in the field of supernova research. It encompasses several scientific fields, some of which seem not at first to be closely related. Supernovae and the phenomena associated with them bring together branches of physics and chemistry, even meteorology and biology, in connected multidisciplinary studies of interest to a wide variety of specialists. For all these reasons, and with our personal interest in supernova research, we set out to edit this major reference work. Our aim was to bring together the advanced work in the many fields connected to supernovae in such a way that one specialist viewing supernovae through the spectacles of his or her own expertise could find the expertise of a specialist in another area to help put together a more complete picture. Nothing would please us more than to learn in the future of a doctoral student finding a connection in this book between his or her own work and some other aspect of supernova research. There have already been published several excellent books about individual branches of this topic. Some are very advanced, while others less so. There are proceedings of conferences on specific elements of the topic. However, to our Preface ix knowledge, this is the first inclusive didactic work on the complete range of supernova science published to date – as complete as we could make it. Both of us are active members of the International Astronomical Union (IAU). It was during IAU General Assembly meetings worldwide that the idea for undertaking this work emerged, encouraged by Maury Solomon, who also attended the IAU General Assembly meetings, tempting authors and editors to publish with Springer. Her direct encouragement to us as we speculated about the book and her subsequent visits to the UK gave us the “push” to go ahead. Once work started on this large reference work, Springer gave us all the support we needed, assembling a team led by Daniela Graf and Kerstin Beckert who took the responsibility of managing the large number of authors and scientific editors to deliver the final papers to production. This book consists of 12 parts. Each part has had a section editor who planned the detail of what was to be covered in each part, selected and contacted the authors to fit into our overall plan, and acted as referees for the contributions. We read and approved every paper ourselves, editing the presentation if necessary. Clearly, the section editors and the authors are the heroes of this work, and we thank them for the support of this project.

London, UK Athem W. Alsabti Cambridge, UK Paul Murdin Contents

Volume 1

Part I Supernovae and Supernova Remnants ...... 1 Athem W. Alsabti and Paul Murdin 1 Supernovae and Supernova Remnants: The Big Picture in Low Resolution ...... 3 Athem W. Alsabti and Paul Murdin 2 Discovery, Confirmation, and Designation of Supernovae ...... 29 Hitoshi Yamaoka

Part II Historical Supernovae ...... 35 David A. Green 3 Historical Supernovae in the Galaxy from AD 1006 ...... 37 David A. Green 4 Historical Records of Supernovae ...... 49 F. Richard Stephenson 5 Supernova of 1006 (G327.6C14.6) ...... 63 Satoru Katsuda 6 Supernova of 1054 and its Remnant, the Crab Nebula ...... 83 Roger Blandford and Rolf Bühler 7 Supernova of AD 1181 and its Remnant: 3C 58 ...... 97 Roland Kothes 8 Supernova of 1572, Tycho’s Supernova ...... 117 Anne Decourchelle 9 Supernova 1604, Kepler’s Supernova, and its Remnant ...... 139 Jacco Vink 10 Supernova Remnant Cassiopeia A ...... 161 Bon-Chul Koo and Changbom Park

xi xii Contents

11 Possible and Suggested Historical Supernovae in the Galaxy . . . . . 179 David A. Green and F. Richard Stephenson

Part III Types of Supernovae ...... 193 Mark Sullivan 12 Observational and Physical Classification of Supernovae ...... 195 Avishay Gal-Yam 13 Hydrogen-Rich Core-Collapse Supernovae ...... 239 Iair Arcavi 14 Hydrogen-Poor Core-Collapse Supernovae ...... 277 Elena Pian and Paolo A. Mazzali 15 Type Ia Supernovae ...... 293 Kate Maguire 16 The Extremes of Thermonuclear Supernovae ...... 317 Stefan Taubenberger 17 Type Iax Supernovae ...... 375 Saurabh W. Jha 18 Interacting Supernovae: Types IIn and Ibn ...... 403 Nathan Smith 19 Superluminous Supernovae ...... 431 D. Andrew Howell

Part IV Supernovae and Stellar Evolution ...... 459 Ken’ichi Nomoto 20 Low- and Intermediate-Mass Stars...... 461 Amanda I. Karakas 21 Electron Capture Supernovae from Super Asymptotic Giant Branch Stars ...... 483 Ken’ichi Nomoto and Shing-Chi Leung 22 Supernovae from Massive Stars ...... 513 Marco Limongi 23 Very Massive and Supermassive Stars: Evolution and Fate ...... 567 Raphael Hirschi 24 Supernovae from Rotating Stars ...... 601 Georges Meynet and André Maeder 25 The Progenitor of SN 1987A ...... 635 Philipp Podsiadlowski Contents xiii

26 Close Binary Stellar Evolution and Supernovae ...... 649 Omar G. Benvenuto and Melina C. Bersten 27 Population Synthesis of Massive Close Binary Evolution ...... 671 J. J. Eldridge 28 Supernova Progenitors Observed with HST ...... 693 Schuyler D. Van Dyk

Volume 2

Part V Light Curves and Spectra of Supernovae ...... 721 Stephen Smartt 29 Light Curves of Type I Supernovae ...... 723 Melina C. Bersten and Paolo A. Mazzali 30 Light Curves of Type II Supernovae...... 737 Luca Zampieri 31 Spectra of Supernovae During the Photospheric Phase ...... 769 Stuart A. Sim 32 Spectra of Supernovae in the Nebular Phase ...... 795 Anders Jerkstrand 33 Interacting Supernovae: Spectra and Light Curves ...... 843 Sergei Blinnikov 34 Thermal and Non-thermal Emission from Circumstellar Interaction ...... 875 Roger A. Chevalier and Claes Fransson 35 Unusual Supernovae and Alternative Power Sources ...... 939 Daniel Kasen 36 Shock Breakout Theory ...... 967 Eli Waxman and Boaz Katz 37 Introduction to Supernova Polarimetry ...... 1017 Ferdinando Patat

Part VI Explosion Mechanisms of Supernovae ...... 1051 Peter Hoeflich 38 Explosion Physics of Core-Collapse Supernovae ...... 1053 Thierry Foglizzo 39 Neutron Star Matter Equation of State ...... 1075 Jorge Piekarewicz xiv Contents

40 Neutrino-Driven Explosions ...... 1095 Hans-Thomas Janka 41 Explosion Physics of Thermonuclear Supernovae and Their Signatures ...... 1151 Peter Hoeflich 42 Combustion in Thermonuclear Supernova Explosions ...... 1185 Friedrich K. Röpke 43 Evolution of Accreting White Dwarfs to the Thermonuclear Runaway ...... 1211 Sumner Starrfield 44 Dynamical Mergers ...... 1237 Enrique García–Berro and Pablo Lorén–Aguilar 45 Violent Mergers ...... 1257 Rüdiger Pakmor 46 Thermonuclear Explosions of Chandrasekhar Mass White Dwarfs ...... 1275 Ken’ichi Nomoto and Shing-Chi Leung

Part VII Stellar Remnants: Neutron Stars and Black Holes...... 1315 Chengmin M. Zhang and Phil Charles 47 The Masses of Neutron Stars ...... 1317 Jorge E. Horvath and Rodolfo Valentim 48 Nuclear Matter in Neutron Stars ...... 1331 Pawel Haensel and Julian L. Zdunik 49 Thermal Evolution of Neutron Stars ...... 1353 Ulrich R. M. E. Geppert 50 Evolution of the Magnetic Field of Neutron Stars ...... 1375 Chengmin M. Zhang 51 X-Ray Pulsars...... 1385 Roland Walter and Carlo Ferrigno 52 Young Neutron Stars with Soft Gamma Ray Emission and Anomalous X-Ray Pulsars ...... 1401 Gennady S. Bisnovatyi-Kogan 53 Strange Quark Matter Inside Neutron Stars ...... 1423 Fridolin Weber 54 Neutron Stars as Probes for General Relativity and Gravitational Waves ...... 1447 Norbert Wex Contents xv

55 Gamma Ray Pulsars: From Radio to Gamma Rays ...... 1471 Jumpei Takata 56 X-Ray Binaries ...... 1499 Jorge Casares, Peter Gustaaf Jonker, and Garik Israelian 57 Supernovae and the Evolution of Close Binary Systems ...... 1527 Edward P. J. van den Heuvel 58 The Core-Collapse Supernova-Black Hole Connection ...... 1555 Evan O’Connor

Part VIII Neutrinos, Gravitational Waves, and Cosmic Rays ...... 1573 Friedrich-Karl Thielemann 59 Neutrino Emission from Supernovae ...... 1575 Hans-Thomas Janka 60 Neutrino Signatures from Young Neutron Stars ...... 1605 Luke F. Roberts and Sanjay Reddy 61 Diffuse Neutrino Flux from Supernovae ...... 1637 Cecilia Lunardini 62 Neutrinos from Core-Collapse Supernovae and Their Detection ...... 1655 Francis Halzen and Kate Scholberg 63 Gravitational Waves from Core-Collapse Supernovae ...... 1671 Kei Kotake and Takami Kuroda 64 Detecting Gravitational Waves from Supernovae with Advanced LIGO ...... 1699 Matthew Evans and Michele Zanolin 65 High-Energy Cosmic Rays from Supernovae ...... 1711 Giovanni Morlino 66 High-Energy Gamma Rays from Supernova Remnants ...... 1737 Stefan Funk

Volume 3

Part IX Nucleosynthesis in Supernovae ...... 1751 Friedrich-Karl Thielemann and David Arnett 67 Nucleosynthesis in Spherical Explosion Models of Core-Collapse Supernovae ...... 1753 Hideyuki Umeda and Takashi Yoshida 68 The Multidimensional Character of Nucleosynthesis in Core-Collapse Supernovae ...... 1771 W. Raphael Hix and J. Austin Harris xvi Contents

69 Influence of Non-spherical Initial Stellar Structure on the Core-Collapse Supernova Mechanism ...... 1791 Sean M. Couch 70 Neutrinos and Their Impact on Core-Collapse Supernova Nucleosynthesis ...... 1805 Gabriel Martínez-Pinedo, Tobias Fischer, Karlheinz Langanke, Andreas Lohs, Andre Sieverding, and Meng-Ru Wu 71 Making the Heaviest Elements in a Rare Class of Supernovae . . . 1843 Friedrich-Karl Thielemann, Marius Eichler, Igor Panov, Marco Pignatari, and Benjamin Wehmeyer 72 Pre-supernova Evolution and Nucleosynthesis in Massive Stars and Their Stellar Wind Contribution ...... 1879 Raphael Hirschi 73 Nucleosynthesis in Hypernovae Associated with Gamma-Ray Bursts ...... 1931 Ken’ichi Nomoto 74 Nucleosynthesis in Thermonuclear Supernovae ...... 1955 Ivo Rolf Seitenzahl and Dean M. Townsley

Part X Evolution of Supernovae and the Interstellar Medium ...... 1979 Robert A. Fesen 75 Dynamical Evolution and Radiative Processes of Supernova Remnants ...... 1981 Stephen P. Reynolds 76 Galactic and Extragalactic Samples of Supernova Remnants: How They Are Identified and What They Tell Us ...... 2005 Knox S. Long 77 Radio Emission from Supernova Remnants ...... 2041 Gloria Dubner 78 X-Ray Emission Properties of Supernova Remnants ...... 2063 Jacco Vink 79 Ultraviolet and Optical Insights into Supernova Remnant Shocks ...... 2087 William P. Blair and John C. Raymond 80 Infrared Emission from Supernova Remnants: Formation and Destruction of Dust ...... 2105 Brian J. Williams and Tea Temim Contents xvii

81 Dust and Molecular Formation in Supernovae ...... 2125 Mikako Matsuura 82 Pulsar Wind Nebulae ...... 2159 Patrick Slane 83 The Physics of Supernova 1987A ...... 2181 Richard McCray 84 The Supernova – Supernova Remnant Connection ...... 2211 Dan Milisavljevic and Robert A. Fesen 85 Supernova Remnants as Clues to Their Progenitors ...... 2233 Daniel Patnaude and Carles Badenes

Part XI Supernovae and the Environment of the Solar System ...... 2251 Athem W. Alsabti 86 Effect of Supernovae on the Local Interstellar Material ...... 2253 Priscilla Frisch and Vikram V. Dwarkadas 87 Structures in the Interstellar Medium Caused by Supernovae: The Local Bubble ...... 2287 Jonathan D. Slavin 88 Gould’s Belt: Local Large-Scale Structure in the Milky Way ...... 2301 Jan Palouš and Sonaˇ Ehlerová 89 The Effects of Supernovae on the Dynamical Evolution of Binary Stars and Star Clusters ...... 2313 Richard J. Parker 90 Isotope Variations in the Solar System: Supernova Fingerprints ...... 2331 Ulrich Ott 91 Impact of Supernovae on the Interstellar Medium and the Heliosphere ...... 2359 D. Breitschwerdt, R. C. Tautz, and M. A. de Avillez 92 Determining Amino Acid Chirality in the Supernova Neutrino Processing Model ...... 2383 Michael A. Famiano and Richard N. Boyd 93 Supernovae and the Formation of Planetary Systems ...... 2401 Alan P. Boss 94 Mass Extinctions and Supernova Explosions ...... 2419 Gunther Korschinek xviii Contents

95 Galactic Winds and the Role Played by Massive Stars ...... 2431 Timothy M. Heckman and Todd A. Thompson 96 Supernovae and the Chemical Evolution of Galaxies ...... 2455 Mike G. Edmunds 97 Stardust from Supernovae and Its Isotopes ...... 2473 Peter Hoppe 98 Supernovae, Our Solar System, and Life on Earth ...... 2489 Arnold Hanslmeier 99 The Moon as a Recorder of Nearby Supernovae ...... 2507 Ian A. Crawford

Part XII Cosmology from Supernovae ...... 2523 Mario Hamuy 100 History of Supernovae as Distance Indicators ...... 2525 Bruno Leibundgut 101 The Peak Luminosity–Decline Rate Relationship for Type Ia Supernovae ...... 2543 Mark M. Phillips and Christopher R. Burns 102 Low-z Type Ia Supernova Calibration ...... 2563 Mario Hamuy 103 The Hubble Constant from Supernovae ...... 2577 Abhijit Saha and Lucas M. Macri 104 The Infrared Hubble Diagram of Type Ia Supernovae ...... 2593 Kevin Krisciunas 105 Discovery of Cosmic Acceleration ...... 2605 Peter Garnavich 106 Confirming Cosmic Acceleration in the Decade That Followed from SNe Ia at z >1...... 2615 Adam G. Riess 107 Characterizing Dark Energy Through Supernovae ...... 2623 Tamara M. Davis and David Parkinson 108 Supernova Cosmology in the Big Data Era ...... 2647 Richard Kessler 109 Cosmology with Type IIP Supernovae ...... 2671 Peter Nugent and Mario Hamuy

Index of Supernovae, Supernova Remnants and Compact Stellar Remnants ...... 2689

Index ...... 2697 About the Editors

Born in Iraq in 1945, Athem W. Alsabti moved to the UK on a scholarship to the University of Manchester. He obtained his BSc in mathematical physics in 1967, his MSc in 1968 (astrophysics, supernovae), and his PhD in 1970 (“Investigating very faint nebulosities associated with non-thermal galactic radio sources”). He now works at University College London, in the Department of Physics and Astronomy. Dr. Alsabti’s research interests are in the origin and evolution of supernovae and interstellar matter. Dr. Alsabti was also a professor of physics at Baghdad University and founded the Baghdad Planetarium and Iraqi National Observatory. He has been an active member of the International Astronomical Union (IAU) since 1973 and is a fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society (RAS). In the IAU, he is a member of the Advanced Development Projects Group. Dr. Alsabti is also a member of the World Space Observatory Committee and a consultant to the Cornwall Observatory and Planetarium Project.

Educated at the Universities of Oxford and Rochester, NY, Paul Murdin has worked as an astronomer in the USA, Australia, England, Scotland, and Spain, where he led the operation of the Anglo-Dutch Isaac Newton Group of telescopes in the Canary Islands. He has been a research scientist (studying supernovae, neutron stars, and black holes – in 1972 Paul discovered the nature of the first black hole known in our galaxy, Cygnus X-1) and a science administrator for the UK government and the Royal Astronomical Society. He works at the Institute of Astronomy at the Univer- sity of Cambridge, England, and is visiting professor at John Moores University, Liverpool. He has a secondary career as a broadcaster and commentator for the BBC and CNN, as well as a lecturer and writer on astronomy, including repeat appearances

xix xx About the Editors on BBC Radio 4’s In Our Time and at a number of literary and science festivals, like those at Hay-on-Wye and Edinburgh, and on the Cunard Liner Queen Elizabeth 2. His most recent books include Secrets of the Universe: How We Discovered the Universe (Thames and Hudson 2009), Mapping the Universe (Carlton 2011), and Are We Being Watched? The Search for Life in the Cosmos (Thames and Hudson 2013). Section Editors

Part I: Supernovae and Supernova Remnants

Athem W. Alsabti University College London Observatory, University College London, London, UK Paul Murdin Institute of Astronomy, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK

Part II: Historical Supernovae

David A. Green Cavendish Laboratory, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK

Part III: Types of Supernovae

Mark Sullivan School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Southampton, Highfield, Southampton, UK

Part IV: Supernovae and Stellar Evolution

Ken’ichi Nomoto Kavli Institute for the Physics and Mathematics of the Universe (WPI), The University of Tokyo, Kashiwa, Chiba, Japan

Part V: Light Curves and Spectra of Supernovae

Stephen Smart Astrophysics Research Centre, Queen’s University, Belfast, North- ern Ireland, UK

Part VI: Explosion Mechanisms of Supernovae

Peter Hoeflich Department of Physics, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, USA

xxi xxii Section Editors

Part VII: Stellar Remnants: Neutron Stars and Black Holes

Chengmin M. Zhang National Astronomical Observatories, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China Key Laboratory of Radio Astronomy, CAS, Beijing, China School of Physical Science, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China Phil Charles School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Southampton, Southampton, UK

Part VIII: Neutrinos, Gravitational Waves and Cosmic Rays

Friedrich-Karl Thielemann Department of Physics, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland

Part IX: Nucleosynthesis in Supernovae

Friedrich-Karl Thielemann Department of Physics, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland David Arnett Steward Observatory, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA

Part X: Evolution of Supernovae and the Interstellar Medium

Robert A. Fesen Department of Physics and Astronomy, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH, USA

Part XI: Supernovae and the Environment of the Solar System

Athem W. Alsabti University College London Observatory, University College London, London, UK

Part XII: Cosmology from Supernovae

Mario Hamuy Astronomy Department, University of Chile, Santiago, Chile Millennium Institute of Astrophysics, Santiago, Chile Contributors

Athem W. Alsabti University College London Observatory, University College London, London, UK Iair Arcavi Department of Physics, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, USA Las Cumbres Observatory Global Telescope Network, Goleta, CA, USA Carles Badenes Department of Physics and Astronomy, Pittsburgh Particle Physics, Astrophysics, and Cosmology Center (PITT-PACC), University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA Omar G. Benvenuto Institute of Astrophysics La Plata (IALP), CCT-CONICET- UNLP, La Plata, Argentina Faculty of Astronomical and Geophysical Sciences, National University of La Plata, La Plata, Argentina Kavli Institute for the Physics and Mathematics of the Universe (WPI), The University of Tokyo, Kashiwa, Chiba, Japan Melina C. Bersten Member of the Carrera del Investigador Científico de la Comisión de Investigaciones Científicas de la Provincia de Buenos Aires (CIC), La Plata (Bs A), Argentina Institute of Astrophysics La Plata (IALP), CCT-CONICET-UNLP, La Plata, Argentina Faculty of Astronomical and Geophysical Sciences, National University of La Plata, La Plata, Argentina Kavli Institute for the Physics and Mathematics of the Universe (WPI), The University of Tokyo, Kashiwa, Chiba, Japan Gennady S. Bisnovatyi-Kogan Space Research Institute of Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia Moscow Engineering Physics Institute (MEPhI), National Research Nuclear University, Moscow, Russia

xxiii xxiv Contributors

William P. Blair Department of Physics and Astronomy, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA Roger Blandford Kavli Institute for Particle Astrophysics and Cosmology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA Sergei Blinnikov Institute for Theoretical and Experimental Physics (ITEP), Moscow, Russia Kavli Institute for the Physics and Mathematics of the Universe (Kavli IPMU), Kashiwa, Chiba, Japan Alan P. Boss Department of Terrestrial Magnetism (DTM), Carnegie Institution for Science, Washington, DC, USA Richard N. Boyd Department of Physics, Department of Astronomy, Ohio State University (Emeritus), Columbus, OH, USA D. Breitschwerdt Department of Astronomy and Astrophysics, Berlin Institute of Technology, Berlin, Germany Rolf Bühler Deutsches Elektronen Synchrotron (DESY), Zeuthen, Germany Christopher R. Burns Carnegie Observatories, Pasadena, CA, USA Jorge Casares Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias, La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain Departamento de Astrofísica, Universidad de La Laguna, La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain Department of Physics, Astrophysics, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK Roger A. Chevalier Department of Astronomy, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, USA Sean M. Couch Department of Physics and Astronomy, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA Ian A. Crawford Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Birkbeck College, University of London, London, UK Tamara M. Davis ARC Centre of Excellence for All-sky Astrophysics (CAASTRO), Brisbane, QLD, Australia School of Mathematics and Physics, University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia M. A. de Avillez Department of Mathematics, University of Évora, Évora, Portugal Anne Decourchelle Laboratoire AIM-Paris-Saclay (CEA/DRF/Irfu, CNRS/INSU, University Paris Diderot), CEA Saclay, Gif sur Yvette, Paris, France Gloria Dubner Institute of Astronomy and Space Physics (IAFE), CONICET, University of Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina Contributors xxv

Vikram V. Dwarkadas Department of Astronomy and Astrophysics, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA Mike G. Edmunds School of Physics and Astronomy, Cardiff University, Wales, UK Sonaˇ Ehlerová Department of Galaxies and Planetary Systems, Astronomical Institute, Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague, Czech Republic Marius Eichler Institute for Nuclear Physics, Technische Universität Darmstadt, Darmstadt, Germany J. J. Eldridge The Department of Physics, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand Matthew Evans Department of Physics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA Michael A. Famiano Department of Physics, Western Michigan University, Kalamazoo, MI, USA Carlo Ferrigno ISDC, Geneva Observatory, University of Geneva, Versoix, Switzerland Robert A. Fesen Department of Physics and Astronomy, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH, USA Tobias Fischer Institute for Theoretical Physics, University of Wrocław, Wrocław, Poland Thierry Foglizzo Laboratoire AIM (CEA/Irfu, CNRS/INSU, University Paris Diderot), CEA Saclay, Gif sur Yvette, Paris, France Claes Fransson Department of Astronomy and Oskar Klein Centre, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden Priscilla Frisch Department of Astronomy and Astrophysics, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA Stefan Funk ECAP (Erlangen Centre for Astroparticle Physics), University Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany Avishay Gal-Yam Department of Particle Physics and Astrophysics, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel Enrique García–Berro Departament de Física, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, Castelldefels, Spain Institute for Space Studies of Catalonia, Barcelona, Spain Peter Garnavich Physics Department, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN, USA xxvi Contributors

Ulrich R. M. E. Geppert Janusz Gil Institute of Astronomy, University of Zielona Góra, Zielona Góra, Poland Institute for Space Systems, German Aerospace Center (DLR), Bremen, Germany David A. Green Cavendish Laboratory, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK Pawel Haensel N. Copernicus Astronomical Center, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warszawa, Poland Francis Halzen Department of Physics, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA Mario Hamuy Astronomy Department, University of Chile, Santiago, Chile Millennium Institute of Astrophysics, Santiago, Chile Arnold Hanslmeier Institute of Physics, University of Graz, Graz, Austria J. Austin Harris Nuclear Science Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, USA Timothy M. Heckman Department of Physics and Astronomy, and Center for Astrophysical Sciences, The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA Raphael Hirschi Astrophysics Group, School of Chemical and Physical Sciences, Keele University, Staffordshire, UK Kavli Institute for the Physics and Mathematics of the Universe (WPI), University of Tokyo, Kashiwa, Chiba, Japan UK Network for Bridging Disciplines of Galactic Chemical Evolution (BRIDGCE), Staffordshire, UK W. Raphael Hix Physics Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, USA Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, USA Peter Hoeflich Department of Physics, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, USA Peter Hoppe Particle Chemistry Department, Max Planck Institute for Chemistry, Mainz, Germany Jorge E. Horvath Departmento de Astronomia, Universidade de São Paulo (USP), São Paulo, SP, Brazil Instituto de Astronomia, Geofísica e Ciências Atmosféricas USP, Cidade Univer- sitária São Paulo, SP, Brazil D. Andrew Howell Las Cumbres Observatory, Goleta, CA, USA University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, USA Contributors xxvii

Garik Israelian Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias, La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain Departamento de Astrofísica, Universidad de La Laguna, La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain Hans-Thomas Janka Max Planck Institute for Astrophysics, Garching, Germany Anders Jerkstrand Astrophysics Research Centre (ARC), Queen’s University Belfast, Belfast, UK Max-Planck Institute for Astrophysics, Garching, Germany Saurabh W. Jha Department of Physics and Astronomy, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, NJ, USA Peter Gustaaf Jonker SRON, Netherlands Institute for Space Research, Utrecht, The Netherlands Department of Astrophysics/IMAPP, Radboud University Nijmegen, Nijmegen, The Netherlands Amanda I. Karakas School of Physics and Astronomy, Monash Centre for Astrophysics (MoCA), Monash University, Clayton, VIC, Australia Daniel Kasen Department of Astronomy, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA Satoru Katsuda Faculty of Science and Engineering, Department of Physics, Chuo University, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, Japan Boaz Katz Department of Particle Physics and Astrophysics, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel Richard Kessler Department of Astronomy and Astrophysics, Kavli Institute for Cosmological Physics, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA Bon-Chul Koo Department of Physics and Astronomy, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea Gunther Korschinek Physik-Department, Technische Universität München, Garching, Germany Kei Kotake Department of Applied Physics, Fukuoka University, Fukuoka, Japan Roland Kothes Dominion Radio Astrophysical Observatory, National Research Council Canada, Herzberg Programs in Astronomy and Astrophysics, Penticton, BC, Canada Kevin Krisciunas Department of Physics and Astronomy, George P. and Cynthia Woods Mitchell Institute for Fundamental Physics and Astronomy, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA Takami Kuroda Department of Physics, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland xxviii Contributors

Karlheinz Langanke Institute for Nuclear Physics (Theory Center), Technische Universität Darmstadt, Darmstadt, Germany GSI Helmholtz Center for Heavy Ion Research, Darmstadt, Germany Bruno Leibundgut European Southern Observatory, Garching, Germany Excellence Cluster Universe, Technical University München, Garching, Germany Shing-Chi Leung Kavli Institute for the Physics and Mathematics of the Universe (WPI), The University of Tokyo, Kashiwa, Chiba, Japan Marco Limongi INAF – Osservatorio Astronomico di Roma, Monteporzio Catone (Roma), Italy Kavli Institute for the Physics and Mathematics of the Universe (WPI), The University of Tokyo, Kashiwa, Chiba, Japan Andreas Lohs Department of Physics, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland Knox S. Long Space Telescope Science Institute, Baltimore, MD, USA Eureka Scientific, Inc., Oakland, CA, USA Pablo Lorén–Aguilar School of Physics, University of Exeter, Exeter, UK Cecilia Lunardini Department of Physics, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA Lucas M. Macri Department of Physics and Astronomy, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA André Maeder Geneva Observatory of Geneva University, Versoix, Geneva, Switzerland Kate Maguire Astrophysics Research Centre, School of Mathematics and Physics, Queen’s University Belfast, Belfast, UK Gabriel Martínez-Pinedo Institute for Nuclear Physics (Theory Center), Technische Universität Darmstadt, Darmstadt, Germany GSI Helmholtz Center for Heavy Ion Research, Darmstadt, Germany Mikako Matsuura School of Physics and Astronomy, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK Paolo A. Mazzali Astrophysics Research Institute, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK Richard McCray Department of Astronomy, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA Georges Meynet Geneva Observatory of Geneva University, Versoix, Geneva, Switzerland Contributors xxix

Dan Milisavljevic High Energy Astrophysics, Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, Cambridge, MA, USA Giovanni Morlino Gran Sasso Science Institute, National Institute for Nuclear Physics (INFN), L’Aquila, Italy Paul Murdin Institute of Astronomy, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK Ken’ichi Nomoto Kavli Institute for the Physics and Mathematics of the Universe (WPI), The University of Tokyo, Kashiwa, Chiba, Japan Peter Nugent Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory and UC Berkeley Depart- ment of Astronomy, Berkeley, CA, USA Evan O’Connor Department of Physics, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA Ulrich Ott Department of Natural Sciences, University of West Hungary, Szombathely, Hungary Max Planck Institute for Chemistry, Mainz, Germany Rüdiger Pakmor Theoretical Astrophysics Group, Heidelberg Institute for Theoretical Studies, Heidelberg, Germany Jan Palouš Department of Galaxies and Planetary Systems, Astronomical Institute, Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague, Czech Republic Igor Panov Institute for Theoretical and Experimental Physics of NRC Kurchatov Institute, National Research Center (NRC) Kurchatov Institute, Moscow, Russia Sternberg Astronomical Institute, M.V. Lomonosov State University, Moscow, Russia Changbom Park School of Physics, Korea Institute for Advanced Study, Seoul, South Korea Richard J. Parker Department of Physics and Astronomy, Royal Society Dorothy Hodgkin Fellow, The University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK David Parkinson School of Mathematics and Physics, University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia ARC Centre of Excellence for All-sky Astrophysics (CAASTRO), Brisbane, QLD, Australia Ferdinando Patat European Southern Observatory (ESO), Garching, Germany Daniel Patnaude High Energy Astrophysics, Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, Cambridge, MA, USA Mark M. Phillips Carnegie Observatories, Las Campanas Observatory, La Serena, Chile xxx Contributors

Elena Pian Institute of Space Astrophysics and Cosmic Physics, INAF-IASF, Bologna, Italy Scuola Normale Superiore, Pisa, Italy Jorge Piekarewicz Department of Physics, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, USA Marco Pignatari Milne Center for Astrophysics, University of Hull, Hull, UK Philipp Podsiadlowski Department of Physics, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK John C. Raymond Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory, Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, Cambridge, MA, USA Sanjay Reddy Institute for Nuclear Theory, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA Stephen P. Reynolds Department of Physics, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA Adam G. Riess Space Telescope Science Institute, AURA, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA Luke F. Roberts Theoretical AstroPhysics Including Relativity and Cosmology (TAPIR), California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA Friedrich K. Röpke Heidelberg Institute for Theoretical Studies, Heidelberg, Germany Zentrum für Astronomie der Universität Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany Abhijit Saha Kitt Peak National Observatory, National Optical Astronomy Observatory (NOAO), Tucson, AZ, USA Kate Scholberg Department of Physics, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA Ivo Rolf Seitenzahl School of Physical, Environmental, and Mathematical Sciences, University of New South Wales (UNSW) Canberra, Australian Defense Force Academy, Canberra, ACT, Australia Andre Sieverding Institute for Nuclear Physics (Theory Center), Technische Universität Darmstadt, Darmstadt, Germany Stuart A. Sim School of Mathematics and Physics, Queen’s University Belfast, Belfast, UK Patrick Slane High Energy Astrophysics, Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, Cambridge, MA, USA Jonathan D. Slavin High Energy Astrophysics Division, Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, Cambridge, MA, USA Nathan Smith Steward Observatory, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA Contributors xxxi

Sumner Starrfield Earth and Space Exploration, Arizona State University (ASU), Tempe, AZ, USA F. Richard Stephenson Department of Physics, Durham University, Durham, UK Jumpei Takata School of Physics, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China Stefan Taubenberger European Southern Observatory, Garching, Germany Max-Planck-Institut für Astrophysik, Garching, Germany R. C. Tautz Department of Astronomy and Astrophysics, Berlin Institute of Technology, Berlin, Germany Tea Temim Space Telescope Science Institute, Instruments Division, Baltimore, MD, USA Friedrich-Karl Thielemann Department of Physics, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland Todd A. Thompson Department of Astronomy and Center for Cosmology and Astro-Particle Physics, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA Dean M. Townsley Department of Physics and Astronomy, The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL, USA Hideyuki Umeda Department of Astronomy, University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan Rodolfo Valentim Departamento de Ciências Exatas e da Terra, Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP), Diadema, SP, Brazil Edward P. J. van den Heuvel Anton Pannekoek Institute of Astronomy, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands Schuyler D. Van Dyk Infrared Processing and Analysis Center, California Institute of Technology Caltech/IPAC, Pasadena, CA, USA Jacco Vink Anton Pannekoek Institute and GRAPPA, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands Roland Walter ISDC, Geneva Observatory, University of Geneva, Versoix, Switzerland Eli Waxman Department of Particle Physics and Astrophysics, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel Fridolin Weber Department of Physics, San Diego State University, San Diego, CA, USA Center for Astrophysics and Space Sciences, University of California, San Diego, CA, USA xxxii Contributors

Benjamin Wehmeyer Department of Physics, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland Norbert Wex Fundamental Physics in Radio Astronomy, Max Planck Institute for Radio Astronomy, Bonn, Germany Brian J. Williams CRESST/USRA and X-ray Astrophysics Laboratory, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC), Greenbelt, MD, USA Meng-Ru Wu Institute for Nuclear Physics (Theory Center), Technische Universität Darmstadt, Darmstadt, Germany Niels Bohr International Academy, Niels Bohr Institute, Copenhagen, Denmark Hitoshi Yamaoka Public Relations Center, National Astronomical Observatory of Japan, Tokyo, Japan Takashi Yoshida Department of Astronomy, University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan Luca Zampieri INAF-Astronomical Observatory of Padova, Padova, Italy Michele Zanolin Embry Riddle Aeronautical University, Prescott, AZ, USA Julian L. Zdunik N. Copernicus Astronomical Center, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warszawa, Poland Chengmin M. Zhang National Astronomical Observatories, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China Key Laboratory of Radio Astronomy, CAS, Beijing, China School of Physical Science, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China