Foreign Policy Notes from the Gordon Global Fellows February 2012 field diplomats Foreign Policy Notes from the Gordon Global Fellows February 2012 field diplomats C o-edited by Arno Kopecky and Natasha Sawh

CONTENTS 01

03 INTRODUCTION

05 Acknowledgements

THEMES

06 ENERGY & SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

10 HUMAN RIGHTS

13 MINING & ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

16 REFUGEES

19 développement international

24 PEACE BUILDING & international JUSTICE

REGIONS

27 AFGHANISTAN & PAKISTAN

29 SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

33 LATIN AMERICA & THE CARIBBEAN

36 EMERGING POWERS

39 ARCTIC

42 CONCLUSION

43 biographies

47 photo credits INTRODUCTION 02 INTRODUCTION 03

introduction

istorically, Canada has played a piv- their first taste of working, living, and learning in those accepted received financial support to otal role on the world stage promoting international contexts. pursue their project and were paired with an H peace, development, and human rights, But after these opportunities, what experienced mentor; the fellows gathered three gaining a reputation as a compassionate member supports do young Canadians intent on times a year to develop their policy skills and of the international community. Canada and Ca- building international careers have? Few partake in networking opportunities. Almost 300 nadians have led a number of critical internation- initiatives exist to transform the passion applications were submitted for six fellowships al policy initiatives in the recent past resulting in and on-the-ground knowledge earned while in the inaugural year—clearly the program hit a concrete measures, such as the Ottawa Treaty to living and working internationally into policy nerve, and we continued to be impressed by the Ban Landmines, the “Responsibility to Protect” development. How is Canada paving the way breadth and depth of the quality of applicants doctrine, the establishment of the International for the next generation of leaders like Louise and their fellowship proposals over the subsequent years. “They personified the ‘guerilla diplomacy’ The Foundation was interested in young Canadians who had not already benefitted from advocated by former diplomat Daryl Copeland: other significant awards and fellowships, and Canadian representatives building vital who had demonstrated their willingness to get international links outside the constraints of “dirt under their fingernails.” Their fellowships took them beyond libraries and into the field, officialdom.” beyond government buildings in capital cities and out to meet the people most affected by Criminal Court and the Kimberley process, and Arbour, Roméo Dallaire, Stephen Lewis, and the policies they were investigating. They the formation of the G20. From drafting the Flora Macdonald? personified the ‘guerilla diplomacy’ advocated UN’s Universal Declaration of Human Rights to by former diplomat Daryl Copeland: Canadian signing free trade agreements to welcoming im- About the Gordon representatives building vital international migrants from every continent, this country has a Global Fellowships links outside the constraints of officialdom. As strong record of internationalism. The Foundation’s Gordon Gordon Global Jennifer Welsh put it in her 2004 book, At Home A 2008 poll conducted on behalf of Canada’s Fellowship program was created in 2006 to in the World, “foreign policy is not something World found that a whopping 85% of young help address this gap. Aimed at early-career others do ‘out there.’ It is the responsibility of Canadians, aged 15-24, were interested in living professionals, aged 24-35, the fellowships all of us, as part of the global commons… In in a foreign country for at least three months to provided an opportunity for a small group of the twenty-first century, it is real intelligence… learn about its culture, language and people. This Canadians to deepen their understanding of a that will allow individuals, organizations, and is a significant finding: the question did not ask specific global policy issue and develop creative countries to thrive. Developing real intelligence about taking a trip to the beach in the Caribbean solutions to help address it. Our long-term requires moving beyond the information or to see the Egyptian pyramids; it did not ask goal was to develop a cadre of Canadians with collected at the government-to-government level about working in a foreign country for monetary a deep understanding of global policy issues and digging deeper to gather knowledge about gain. This question was rooted in the precursors to effective diplomacy and a citizenry with a cosmopolitan outlook and ethic: the desire to As Jennifer Welsh put it in her 2004 book, At Home understand different peoples and parts of the in the World, “foreign policy is not something world for their own sake. others do ‘out there.’ It is the responsibility of Whether through high school or faith-based youth groups, internships funded by the Canadian all of us, as part of the global commons… In the International Development Agency or Foreign twenty-first century, it is real intelligence…that will Affairs, volunteer placements organized by allow individuals, organizations, and countries Canadian non-governmental organizations, or visiting countries and regions their parents or to thrive. Developing real intelligence requires grandparents were born in, many Canadians gained moving beyond the information collected at the their first taste of the world outside Canada’s borders at a young age. For many, that taste has led government-to-government level and digging to a lifelong commitment to work on global issues. deeper to gather knowledge about how other From organizations like Canada World Youth, societies actually work.” which has been providing opportunities for young Canadians to live overseas and in another part of Canada since the 1970s, to newer organizations who will exercise leadership roles whether in how other societies actually work.” like Engineers Without Borders, which provides non-governmental organizations or the private For example, 2007 fellow Surendrini long-term volunteer placements in rural Africa or public sectors. Applicants were asked to Wijeyaratne conducted interviews in for young engineers, there are a number of high propose a year-long project that would place Afghanistan, the Democratic Republic of Congo, quality opportunities for young Canadians to have them in the heart of their chosen policy arena; Northern Uganda and South Sudan to better INTRODUCTION 04

understand how the rights of women and girls closure brought about by the economic downturn Pakistan, sub-Saharan Africa, Latin America are advanced through Canada’s support to and subsequent refocusing of the Foundation’s and the Caribbean, the emerging powers, peacebuilding efforts in those countries. Jessie priorities into two long-standing program areas: and the Arctic. These chapters, drafted in the Thomson, a 2008 fellow, found that creating water and the Arctic. Many of the values and goals winter of 2010-2011, take a broad view of the Home Free, a 20-minute documentary film on of the Gordon Global Fellowship program live on in foreign policy challenges and opportunities protracted refugee situations following three the Foundation’s Jane Glassco Arctic Fellowships, Canada faces. While every effort has been Burundian families, gained more traction with which support Canada’s northerners. made to ensure their accuracy at the time of policymakers than any policy briefs she had Field Diplomats builds on a series of publication, we believe the long-term views previously prepared while working for the roundtable discussions held in the fall of 2010, and perspectives in these pages will remain Department of Foreign Affairs and International when fellows from all four years of the program relevant beyond the immediacy of day-to-day Trade and Citizenship and Immigration came together in Ottawa for a final gathering. policymaking. We have also included a series of Canada. Gavin Gardiner, who worked with These discussions were organized based on short postcards from the field, which give the the Carcross/Tagish First Nation (CTFN) in both thematic and regional lenses that reflected flavour of some of the fellows’ work. In their final gathering, the fellows were asked to think “the fellows – who hail from all parts of broadly about three questions: foreign policy successes and failures, foreign policy issues that Canada and who have lived and worked in every have slipped under the radar, and future foreign continent – provide considerable insight into the policy priorities. That discussion is presented in global challenges we face, from climate change the conclusion. Biographical information for all the fellows to peacebuilding, from resource development to can be found at the end of this, and the human rights, and from economic and social outputs from their fellowship work, including executive summaries, policy research papers, development to effective governance.” and more can be found on our website at www.gordonfoundation.org. the Yukon, investigated the ways the Buganda the fellows’ areas of interest. It is worth noting To be sure, there is great diversity of kingdom in Uganda, the Saami in Norway and that in designing the fellowship program, we perspective and experience amongst the fellows, indigenous Bolivians are interweaving western did not pick themes, but rather invited young and what follows in these pages is not intended and traditional models of governance, leading Canadians to submit applications to us about the to be a definitive canon on the way forward. to mutual exchanges between CTFN and other pressing global issues that most interested them. Rather, we hope that the ideas presented here leading thinkers in indigenous governance. Of course, with 34 fellows over the course of the may spark discussion and debate on Canada’s The fellows’ travels gave them on-the-ground program, we cannot hope to faithfully cover all foreign policy priorities, and provide some fresh knowledge of how local and international of the countries around the world and all of the perspectives on the challenges and opportunities policies shape lives, and gave them unique pressing global issues we face, but the fellows— we face as Canadians in defining our role on the insights into some of the policy changes needed, who hail from all parts of Canada and who have world stage. along with the challenges of implementing lived and worked in every continent—do provide policies. They spoke with officials and with considerable insight into the global challenges everyday citizens and migrants, combining the we face, from climate change to peacebuilding, best of literature reviews with the insights that from resource development to human rights, can only be gained by speaking with people most and from economic and social development to affected by global challenges and the policies in effective governance. Many pressing issues— place (or lack thereof ) to address them. from women’s rights to Canada’s relationship with the United States—are woven throughout ABOUT FIELD DIPLOMATS: the different chapters. FOREIGN POLICY NOTES Field Diplomats consists of 11 short chapters FROM THE GORDON on each of the following six themes: energy GLOBAL FELLOWS and sustainable development, human rights, This publication, written by the fellows and edited mining and economic development, refugees, by 2009 fellow Arno Kopecky, marks the end of the peacebuilding, and development; and on Gordon Global Fellowship program— a reluctant the following five regions: Afghanistan and ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 05

aCknowledgements

his book and the richness of the discus- and the Foundation’s Board, who took a risk in Michael personally championed the program at sions that informed it would not have been developing a new area of programming—one that Foreign Affairs and ensured that many fellows T possible without the experienced chairs continued with the Foundation’s Jane Glassco met with embassy officials in their research who guided those discussions and whose com- Arctic Fellowship program launched in 2010. abroad; Don Hubert and Sean Moore developed ments informed the ideas and recommendations We are grateful to the many volunteers public policy training modules that enriched the in this publication: who had a significant impact on shaping the fellows’ experiences; and Sheherazade developed program. These included those who took on the evaluation framework that informed the Tom Axworthy the difficult but rewarding job of selecting ongoing refinement of the program during each President and CEO, Walter and Duncan fellowship applicants each year: Mary Coyle, of the four cohorts. There were also a number Gordon Foundation Andres Dussan, Don Hubert, Doug Kerr, Desiree of staff and volunteers who worked hard to Andrew Ignatieff McGraw, Betty Plewes, Nidhi Tandon, Ginger ensure that the program ran smoothly—Kalson Consultant Gosnell-Myers, and Yuen Pau Woo, along with Abdi, Dorinne Ah-Kam, Sharon Anderson, Tom Stephanie Irlbacher-Fox fellows Farouk Shamas Jiwa, Michael Wodzicki Axworthy, Wanda Goodwin, Alison Moeller, University of Toronto and University and Jessie Thomson. The exceptional mentors Camille Prashad, and James Stauch. of Alberta who advised the fellows, opening doors to Thanks are due to Rana Shamoon at the Gordon Patrick Johnston contacts and other opportunities, were a key Foundation for her patience and eye for both Principal, Borealis Advisors component of the program: Michael Adams, design and detail in coordinating the publication James Milner Howard Adelman, Erin Baines, Nathalie of this book. Michael Benedict at MCB Strategies Department of Political Science, Barton, Avril Benoît, Kamran Bokhari, Ratana provided detailed and thorough copy editing and Carleton University Chuenpagdee, Catherine Coumans, Roméo we are grateful to Adam Taylor for the original Alex Neve Dallaire, Julia Dicum, Gabriel Eckstein, Stewart design and layout. This publication would not Secretary-General, Amnesty International Elgie, Alan Fowler, Nora Groce, Erik Haites, have been possible without the fellows, including Betty Plewes Andrew Ignatieff, Stephanie Irlbacher-Fox, Gavin Gardiner, Tracy Glynn, Farouk Shamas Jiwa, former head of the Canadian Council for Yudhishthir Raj Isar, Prabhat Jha, Joanna Kerr, Akim Adé Larcher, Bryony Lau, Jessica Oliver, International Cooperation Comfort Lamptey, Carlos Marentes, Margaret Anuradha Rao, Shibil Siddiqi, Myroslava Tataryn, Emmanuel Raufflet (Peggy) Mason, Bert Metz, Alden Meyer, John and Christina Yeung, who drafted the chapters Professeur agrégé, Service de l’enseignement, Packer, Benjamin Perrin, Evon Peter, David that are the backbone of this publication, and many HÉC Montréal Porteous, Marilyn Powell, Emmanuel Raufflet, others who contributed postcards from the field David Runnalls Joseph Rikhoff, Ian Smillie, Jayne Stoyles, Jamie and comments on multiple drafts. Annette Dunlop former President and CEO of the International Watt, Jennifer Welsh, and Winstone Zulu. from Engineers Without Borders also provided Institute for Sustainable Development The fellowship meetings were enriched by significant content for the development chapter, Steven Staples presentations by many of our mentors, along working with fellows Louis Dorval and Guillaume Executive Director, Rideau Institute with other invited guests, including: David Sirois. Finally, my heartfelt thanks to 2009 fellow James Stauch Angell, Alexandra Bugailiskis, Mel Cappe, Arno Kopecky, without whom this publication Vice-President, Walter and Duncan Gordon Carlo Dade, Claire Dansereau, Pearl Eliadis, simply would not have been possible. Arno worked Foundation Graham Flack, Elissa Golberg, Chantal Hébert, with all of the fellows to bring this book together, Jayne Stoyles Sheherazade Hirji, Christine Hogan, Alison cajoling, filling in gaps wherever needed, and deftly Executive Director, Canadian Centre for Loat, Norm MacDonnell, Michael MacMillan, editing the entire publication with skill, grace, and International Justice Elizabeth May, Rohinton Medhora, James a strong dose of patience and good humour. Milner, Sean Moore, Esperanza Moreno, Alex As the publication of Field Diplomats marks Neve, Chi Nguyen, Ben Peterson, David Runnalls, With warmest thanks, the close of the Gordon Global Fellowships, Paul Samson, Hugh Segal, Glenda Simms, Jeffrey we would like to acknowledge and thank many Simpson, Stephen Staples, Janice Gross Stein, of the people who took a keen interest in the Shauna Sylvester, Stephen Wallace, and Ingrid development of the program. In particular, the Walter. fellowship program was launched thanks to the Special thanks are due to Michael Small, Don vision of Patrick Johnston and Betty Plewes, Hubert, Sean Moore and Sheherazade Hirji for Natasha Sawh who first conceived of it; Marjan Montazemi, their ongoing commitment to the fellowship Program Manager, Global Citizenship who laid the foundation of a solid program; program and their imprint on the program. Chapter 1

ENERGY & SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 6

ENERGY & SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

he ecological crisis now confronting our followed the Copenhagen Climate Conference reliance on fossil fuel. For as bad as the oil sands planet presents a greater threat to human- by becoming the first country to actually weaken are in terms of emissions, their greatest impact T ity than any other except nuclear war. its emissions targets, from three per cent below lies not in what they produce, but in what they In a rational world, it would provoke the same 1990 levels by 2020 to two per cent above them. inhibit—the development of alternative energy urgency as the economic crisis on which most And, following the Durban conference, Canada sources that could make Canada a carbon- governments, including Canada’s, are currently gained the dubious notoriety of being the first neutral economy. focused. For most citizens of the developed nation to formally withdraw from the Kyoto world, however, threats to the environment are protocol. Biodiversity less immediate than threats to their jobs and bank The United Nations Framework Convention on For the first time since dinosaurs became extinct, accounts—thus the political inertia on environ- Climate Change (UNFCCC), to which Canada is a species are now disappearing from the earth mental issues, while economic bailouts costing signatory, enshrines the notion that rich countries faster than evolution can replace them, at a rate billions of dollars are rushed through govern- have a responsibility to help poorer ones adapt of up to 1,000 times the historical average. The ments with relative ease. Investing in our eco- to climate change. Above all, this means funding International Union for the Conservation of systems requires long-term planning of the sort research and development of clean new energy Nature estimates that one in five mammals, one few politicians feel they can afford if they wish to infrastructure, because development hinges on in three amphibians and one in seven birds are stay in office. Instilling a minimum level of public energy use. Indeed, the fundamental link between now extinct or globally threatened. The marine environmental literacy is therefore essential, since economic growth and energy consumption is a picture is even grimmer: since 1950, industrial only when voters are awake to the perils of envi- defining dilemma of climate change. Eventually, fishing has eliminated 90 per cent of large fish from the oceans. As with climate change, this “As a wealthy, Arctic nation whose northern is no abstract moral dilemma for Canada or any other country—the Atlantic cod fishery’s collapse sovereignty has long been protected by ice and in the 1990s, for instance, cost some 30,000 jobs. whose agricultural heartland depends on Rocky In 1992, the same Rio Earth Summit that Mountain glaciers for irrigation, Canada should created the UNFCCC also established the UN Convention on Biological Diversity with be in the forward guard of international climate Canada as a signatory. The good news is that negotiations.” this convention has recently enjoyed greater success than its climate change counterpart. ronmental collapse can an enlightened leadership all countries must learn how to develop without In their latest meeting in Nagoya, Japan in take the measures necessary to avoid it. burning fossil fuels. October 2010, 190 nations agreed on a concrete Perhaps the first challenge environmental But the global poor are not going to forgo their 20-point plan to halt the decline in global advocates face is changing the widespread view own development for the sake of the climate. biodiversity during the United Nations decade that our environmental and economic crises They are going to grow at all costs, just as we on biodiversity. Encouragingly, in November 2011 are distinct. In fact, the health of the global did. The argument for helping them to do so in a Canada hosted indigenous leaders and signatory economy is intimately tied to the health of the carbon-free manner is both moral and pragmatic, governments to discuss traditional knowledge global environment, so that the well-being of since the industrialized nations who caused and the implementation of the Nagoya plan. each is mutually reinforcing. Environmentally climate change are the only ones who can afford Chief among the Nagoya resolutions is increasing sound industries will create jobs and money, to make the investments needed to rein it back in. the target area of protected land worldwide especially if nurtured by sound government In 2009, UNFCCC signatories set the modest from 12.5 per cent to 17 per cent and the area policy. The following recommendations focus on goal of raising US$10 billion a year to act on of protected oceans from one per cent to three of the greatest environmental challenges climate change. In 2010, Canada agreed to 10 per cent– targets that are considered too and opportunities facing not just Canada, but contribute C$400 million to the fund, which weak by many environmentalists, but which the world: climate change, biodiversity and appeared at first glance to be our fair share. should nevertheless be vigorously pursued as a freshwater. When the government revealed details of that minimum benchmark by Canada on the world pledge several months later, however, it turned stage. Climate change out that nearly $300 million took the form of As the plight of our domestic fishing industry As a wealthy, Arctic nation whose northern loans, instead of grants as the Copenhagen suggests, advocating on behalf of the world’s sovereignty has long been protected by ice Accord stipulated. This is but one example of the oceans is one area where Canada’s foreign and whose agricultural heartland depends on kind of poor-faith negotiating that has scuttled policy hits especially close to home. Tragically, Rocky Mountain glaciers for irrigation, Canada 20 years of international climate negotiations. this is another area where Canadian influence should be in the forward guard of international Of course, it is hard to push for change has been more obstructive than constructive. climate negotiations. Instead, environmental abroad when we refuse to pursue it at home. By Consider bottom-trawling, a practice described organizations awarded Canada the “Fossil of the subsidizing a massive expansion of one of the as the equivalent of clear cutting, one of the Year” prize at each of the past five international world’s most emissions-intensive developments– single greatest threats to marine biodiversity. In climate change conferences for being the most the oil sands of Alberta and Saskatchewan—the 2006, Canada was one of very few countries to obstructive country at the table. In 2009, Canada Canadian government is actively intensifying its block a proposed global moratorium on bottom- POSTCARDS FROM THE FIELD 07

I had gone to Ghana to see how mangrove forests could be restored as barrier ecosystems to prevent disasters due to climate change. What I learned was how important those forests are for many more reasons, emphasizing the need for their conservation and restoration.

shelter from the storm by Anuradha Rao

The channel narrowed and I felt like restored as barrier ecosystems to pre- innumerable services for humans and Alice, as if I had drunk a potion that vent disasters due to climate change. the broader ecological community. In shrank me to the size of a mouse. What I learned was how important those my research in Newfoundland, I learned Soon we were among roots that kissed forests are for many more reasons, em- about the ecological importance of sea- the sides of the canoe and rose from phasizing the need for their conserva- grass as habitat for juvenile fish, includ- the water like stilts, supporting the tion and restoration. ing Atlantic cod, which was once the solid trunks of a mangrove forest that I also learned about the power of local province’s economic driver, and whose towered over us. These were the trees efforts. The ability of local communities decline contributed to its economic col- whose wood I had previously seen and community leaders to make huge lapse. Other examples are coral reefs, stacked in heap after heap at the mar- differences cannot be overstated. With sand dunes and salt marshes. But most ket, waiting to be purchased for fire- institutional support, a lot of dedication people, including policy makers, are wood, building materials and to smoke and a deep understanding of local com- not aware of their importance even as fish. Here, the living trees held deeper munity dynamics and priorities, even their protective role against the effects secrets. A crab scurried away over the small villages can succeed in restoring of climate change becomes apparent. mud, and hid among the labyrinth of barren areas into the lush coastal forests Coastal communities worldwide face roots. When we emerged into the open, they once were, which provide com- the impacts of an increase in the fre- an elderly couple was standing waist- munities with basic necessities as well quency of extreme weather events, yet deep in the water, holding baskets. The as advanced goods and services. After development on coastlines and degrad- old man held his hand out for me to some villages restored water flow and ation of coastal and marine ecosystems see the shellfish they were gathering. mangrove vegetation, they noticed that continues. The more I asked, the more I found out several animals that had disappeared Canada has the longest coastline how intricately linked the mangroves from their area returned, replenishing the in the world. We should be a leader in are to people’s lives. From fisheries to people’s food sources and increasing coastal and marine sustainability. We paint, these plants serve many funda- local biodiversity. can no longer ignore our dependence mental purposes. I had gone to Ghana Mangrove forests are but one type on a healthy coast and ocean, both at to see how mangrove forests could be of coastal environment that provides home and abroad.

Rising sea levels, and the impact on low-lying countries, such as the Maldives, that risk being completely submerged as a result, is one of the most iconic markers of climate change. Anuradha’s fellowship work, conducted in Newfoundland and Ghana, examined the potential of conserving coastal ecosystem integrity (by restoring the natural coastal barriers—coral reefs, mangrove forests and seagrass—that break waves, block wind, and absorb rising sea levels) for mitigating climate change impacts. Chapter 1

ENERGY & SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 8

trawling, and it is largely thanks to us that the than the key determinant it is. Nothing in the the store and environmental nightmares stay on practice continues today. Canadian officials developing world raises maternal, newborn and the television screen. For this reason, we ought argued at the time that they preferred supporting child mortality rates like dirty water. Turning to work harder to bring the voices of indigenous regional authorities to a blanket ban. To take this around is, in many cases, a relatively simple peoples into environmental policy discussions. a more recent example, Canada was equally matter of digging wells, building rain-storage The traditional knowledge of many First instrumental in preventing a 2010 attempt by tanks or installing basic filtration systems. Nations and other indigenous peoples puts into the UN to impose a global ban on the export of Of course, the world’s freshwater crisis is one practice the accumulated learnings of physical bluefin tuna, perhaps the most emblematic of of quantity as well as quality. Some 80 per cent of dependence on the local environment. large ocean fish and one that is hurtling towards the world’s river systems are imperilled, and we Such world views operate on a profoundly extinction. are draining our aquifers at a rate far higher than empirical recognition that life on earth is Forest conservation is another key component nature can refill them. The obvious problems interconnected with the environment and that of preserving biodiversity, though it could just as presented by such a rapidly dwindling precious land and water have intrinsic value and should easily fall under the heading of climate change. resource are further compounded by the fact that therefore be respected and sustained. Every year in Canada, 50,000 hectares of forest most of the world’s water is shared: some 60 per While policy-makers may not yet be prepared are logged; the environmental effects range cent of global water basins pass through two or to assign such values to our waters and lands, from releasing carbon into the atmosphere that more countries. a more pragmatic approach already underway was formerly locked up in the soil and timber to This means international co-operation is has been to assign dollar values to ecosystems ruining watersheds and to the disappearance of once again essential. Canada has a great deal of based on their direct and indirect effects on crucial habitat for endangered species. Nor is this experience in this field that we could parlay into human well-being. This represents a dynamic a domestic issue alone. International demand leadership on the world stage. In 1909, we signed compromise between “indigenous” and drives most of our logging industry, yet provincial a treaty with the United States that led to the “western” values. One large-scale example can governments have made few moves to subsidize the kinds of value-added technology that would “It would be simplistic to expect any one group or create jobs in the forestry sector at the same time as reducing the Annual Allowable Cut. culture to have all the answers. But it is no less One promising initiative in international naive to ignore, as we have been doing, the voices forestry sector is the UNFCCC proposal for of those who have been observing and adapting to Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation of forests in developing countries, the planet’s ecosystems for as long as indigenous known as REDD+. After several years of peoples have.” negotiations, REDD+ is nearing adoption as a formal UN mechanism that would raise creation of the International Joint Commission be found in Ecuador, one of the most biodiverse and channel funds towards conservation (IJC), a binational institution that has overseen countries in the world and home to numerous and reforestation. This represents a huge water disputes along the 8,850-kilometre border indigenous populations whose Amazon territory international step towards encouraging between our two countries. The IJC was long happens to shelter an estimated 1 billion barrels biodiversity and combating climate change. seen as a model of international co-operation of crude oil. Ecuador’s government and the Canada has thus far supported the initiative— over shared waters; in recent years, however, UN have set up a legally binding trust fund in including a commitment of $40 million to both governments have begun to reduce financial order to prevent exploitation of this oil-rich a major REDD+ program, the World Bank’s and political support for the institution, leading rainforest. The international community is being Forest Carbon Partnership Facility—and should to tensions over water management. Canada asked to contribute $3.6 billion in exchange for continue to see it through. should do its part to ensure that the IJC has a guarantee that the land will not be exploited. all the support it needs. Going beyond our own Monetizing the environment for its own F reshwaTER borders, this would put us in a better position to protection has the advantage that it requires no Of all the world’s environmental problems, the help other regions create similar institutions and restructuring of mainstream economic thinking, freshwater crisis is both the most urgent and guide their conflicts toward peaceful resolution. but simply a widening of those models to include solvable. More than one billion people lack Taking on water cleanliness and water-related environmental variables. It also translates the access to clean drinking water, while 2.6 billion conflict is a win-win situation for Canada. It complex notion of ecosystem services into a more have no access to proper sanitation. Water- would help us achieve our development goals at value-language that everyone understands: cash. borne diseases kill more children around the the same time as contributing to global security, It would be simplistic to expect any one group world each year than HIV/AIDS, malaria and to say nothing of the lives that could be saved. or culture to have all the answers. But it is no war combined. less naive to ignore, as we have been doing, the Yet less than 10 per cent of ODA currently Conclusion voices of those who have been observing and goes to water and sanitation. The issue does get It is worth noting that most western citizens and adapting to the planet’s ecosystems for as long as a nod under the new federal plan to prioritize policy-makers are physically removed from the indigenous peoples have. maternal, newborn and child health, but it ecosystems we depend on. For most of us in the is seen as one among several factors rather global North, water comes out of a tap, food from POSTCARDS FROM THE FIELD 9

Carlos is one of Colombia’s 5 million internally displaced peoples, 200,000 of whom live in Medellin. He’s been helping to organize this beleaguered population since paramilitaries forced his family off their farm in the mid-nineties; like most of Colombia’s IDPs, Carlos wound up moving to the violent slums that surround city, and it was here, in Co- muna 13, that I first met him. He walked me through the hillside barrio and introduced me to family after family, coming at last to his in-laws’ house. Just a week earlier, he said, his wife’s grandmother had died of a heart at- tack when the home was engulfed in a gunfight.

trouble with trade by Arno Kopecky

“Around here, people are dying of fear.” ago.” Indeed, Medellin has managed to ing groups who were once the greatest The words came from Carlos Mario push back the violence that once made it security threat in Colombia. Muñoz, a 36-year-old community leader the most dangerous city on earth; in 1991 And if you place a map of the in Medellin, Colombia. Carlos is one of there were more than 6000 homicides, country’s resources over a map of its Colombia’s 5 million internally displaced a figure that had dropped to less than a displacement, a troubling relationship peoples (IDP), 200,000 of whom live in thousand in 2005. This reflects a national grows abundantly clear. An area the size Medellin. He’s been helping to organize downturn in violence that finally con- of Costa Rica is now open to foreign this beleaguered population since para- vinced Canadian lawmakers to endorse investment—gold mines, oil deposits, militaries forced his family off their farm in the Colombian government to a free trade African palm plantations and more. As the mid-nineties; like most of Colombia’s agreement (FTA) in June of 2010. a world leader in extractive industries, IDPs, Carlos wound up moving to the One troubling statistic keeps going Canada is already Colombia’s greatest violent slums that surround city, and it was up, however, and that’s displacement. foreign investor in the mining sector, a here, in Comuna 13, that I first met him. More than two million people have trend that is set to increase now that our He walked me through the hillside barrio been forced from the countryside over corporations’ rights have been enshrined and introduced me to family after family, the past eight years, a period that cor- by the new FTA. coming at last to his in-laws’ house. Just responds to former president Alvaro In the meantime, people like Carlos a week earlier, he said, his wife’s grand- Uribe’s policy of Democratic Security. Munos keep pushing their government mother had died of a heart attack when This policy—which the new president, to provide displaced populations with a the home was engulfed in a gunfight. former Defense Minister Juan Manuel new home and livelihood. So far, their This was a different Medellin from the Santos, has promised to continue— demands have fallen on deaf ears. And one Canadian parliamentarians visited relied on the country’s paramilitary as their numbers swell, Medellin’s vio- in 2008, back when they were trying to groups to pacify Colombia. Yet ac- lence is once again starting to rise. Me- decide whether to sign a free trade agree- cording to the testimony of internally dellin’s homicide rate has tripled since ment with Colombia. “You can walk today displaced peoples, those same paramil- Mario Silva’s optimistic visit. If he ever in Medellin’s downtown and it’s full of itaries were responsible for more than returns, perhaps Carlos will invite him people,” Liberal MP Mario Silva reported a third of all forced displacements—far to leave downtown and go for a stroll back. “That wasn’t the case ten years more than the guerrilla or narcotraffick- through the slums.

Colombia is one of five countries in Latin America and the Caribbean that have signed free trade agreements with Canada in the past five years. Peru, Chile, Costa Rica and Panama are the others, with negotiations recently concluded with Honduras and currently underway with the Caribbean community (CARCICOM). The federal government has also begun talks and maintains its interest in pursuing agreements with the other three members of the Central America Four (El Salvador, Guate- mala and Nicaragua), the Andean Community (Bolivia and Ecuador), as well as the Dominican Republic. Arno’s fellowship focused on Canada’s Americas Strategy, looking at indigenous rights and the free trade agreements Canada recently signed with Peru and Columbia. Chapter 2

HUMAN RIGHTS 10

HUMAN RIGHTS

decade after the 9/11 attacks, the very foreign policy slides toward a more socially are overwhelmingly placed in countries where notion of human rights has become one conservative agenda—without, it is important to Canada has significant economic investments. A of that day’s final victims. In its place, note, any prior public discourse or consultation. While there’s nothing wrong with linking international security has arisen as the pre-emi- CIDA is Canada’s primary bilateral donor agency economic investments with human rights work nent concern among policy-makers across much and perhaps our most explicitly human rights- (indeed, this can be an effective strategy), the of the developed world. Both in Canada and on oriented government agency. The 2008 federal fact that we have traded one set of embassies for the world stage, security questions are increas- Official Development Assistance Accountability Act another for what seem to be purely economic ingly likely to trump human rights consider- brought some welcome clarity to CIDA’s mandate, reasons may well have other repercussions than ations on a wide range of policy decisions, from including a commitment that all aid be consistent simply the denial of a Security Council seat. border control, refugee determination and im- with international human rights standards. This Canada now has a diplomatic presence migration policy to free trade and international kind of approach—to respect and strengthen in a mere one-third of Africa’s more than 50 development. At the same time, the definition of human rights as a means of advancing development countries. At the same time, we have made human rights has been whittled down to issues goals—has gained currency not only in government exorbitant expenditures on hosting the G8 and of life or death. Anything less pressing—illiteracy, policy, but also in the broadening mandates of G20 summits ($2 billion) and purchasing a new for example, or sexual discrimination—is more long-standing non-governmental organizations fleet of F-35 fighter jets ($9 billion), with the likely than ever to be denied funding and politi- (NGO), who are integrating traditionally siloed Winter Olympics security budget coming in at cal attention in favor of security. development and human rights approaches in their a further $1 billion. Of course, there will always But the fact that human rights are seen as work. Yet, in the case of CIDA, there is little sense be competing claims on a finite federal budget, distinct from, or even at odds with, international of what human rights mean to the organization but here we have $12 billion going to security security is itself a grave misperception. Properly and even less of how they fit into programmatic in the same year as we erase our diplomatic considered, human rights include economic, focus areas. This is at least partly due to the fact presence from seven countries on the most social and cultural rights, such as the right to that CIDA is beholden to the government of the insecure continent on earth. If insecurity were own land, to have access to clean water, and day, constantly reacting to ideological whims rather understood as a symptom, and human rights to speak one’s own language, all of which are than adopting a longer-term view that could apply abuse as one of its causes, perhaps the relative essential components of peace and stability. Indeed, it is precisely when human rights are “But the fact that human rights are seen as distinct suppressed that security issues arise. To trample one in the name of the other is to create the very from, or even at odds with, international security conditions that breed insurrection, terrorism is itself a grave misperception.” and war. Canada has an opportunity to demonstrate consistent pressure in the struggle for universal pittance of maintaining a healthy diplomatic that human rights and security are anything but human rights. The Harper government’s decision presence would be deemed worth spending. To incompatible. Our policies should seek to expand to make a priority of maternal, newborn and fail to do so not only limits our impact on human the concept of human rights so that international child health is but the latest example of a sudden rights, it severely damages Canada’s ability to alarm bells sound before life-or-death situations and massive priority change, which, whatever its leverage its middle-power status and act as an arise. merits, has been thrust upon a bureaucracy that is international mediator. Unfortunately, the rhetoric of security that no doubt far more fed up with such arrivals than Perhaps in part because of Canada’s has gripped Canada continues to erode our the general public. reputational crisis, the current political climate in involvement in the international rights system, In diplomatic circles, the link between human Ottawa has grown increasingly hostile to NGOs while seemingly small changes in government rights and security hit home in October 2010 whose advocacy on human rights comes into language strip “human rights” to their barest when Canada for the first time lost its bid for conflict with government policy (as witnessed by elements. One telling example is the replacement a seat on the UN Security Council. This came the revoking of funding to Kairos for its perceived in 2009 of the phrase “gender equality” with about largely because we were set to lose the support of the Palestinian cause, to name but one “equality between men and women” wherever vote of the African Union, a traditional ally widely criticized example), or who openly critique it appeared in the Canadian International whose support is waning as we pull development that government policy. In light of this trend, Development Agency’s (CIDA) programs and assistance out of the region. By reducing civil society will have little choice but to seek initiatives. This may seem innocuous, but it development assistance, we are taking our new sources of funding and form new alliances effectively narrows the scope of CIDA’s work gaze off human rights; the fact that this has in order to ensure that a progressive analysis of on issues with broader sexuality implications, diminished rather than heightened our influence current events continues to reach the Canadian such as human rights abuses based on sexual over global security vis-a-vis the Security public. For better or worse, NGOs are now orientation and gender identity. “Gender Council seat should come as no surprise. responsible for putting human rights on the same equality” is not limited to equality between In the name of fiscal austerity, the federal political footing as security and the economy. If men and women; it encompasses a broader government has closed many of its embassies, the electorate perceived human rights abuses as range of gender identity issues and involves consulates and consular offices throughout a genuine threat to our safety and our wallets, the acknowledging the reality of gender diversity. Africa, while opening up new embassies in Canadian government would be more likely to It is with subtle word shifts like this that our Latin America and Asia. The new embassies balance its policies accordingly. POSTCARDS FROM THE FIELD 11

In the past, I have advocated for raising awareness amongst health care workers on disability rights. This was based on stories from women with disabilities mistreated by health care workers when seeking routine care. But in Uganda the prejudicial statements and verbal abuse recounted to me by the women I spoke to was most often from other patients, rather than from health care workers. The primary barrier these women faced in trying to access health care services was not abuse from health care workers but rather impaired access to clinics.

Reaching the Doctor by Myroslava Tataryn

When speaking to women with dis- But in Uganda the prejudicial state- people are expected to walk 9 to 12 abilities throughout Uganda about ments and verbal abuse recounted to kilometers to reach a clinic. For many access to health care, their concerns me by the women I spoke to was most of the women I spoke to, finding family differed from what I had expected to often from other patients, rather than members or other villagers to assist hear. Their concerns, though not sur- from health care workers. The primary them is a great challenge, especially prising, suggest that in my policy and barrier these women faced in trying to when most hands are required for daily advocacy work to date, I may not have access health care services was not subsistence farming tasks. focused on the most pressing issues. abuse from health care workers but Ultimately, it seems that once a In the past, I have advocated for raising rather impaired access to clinics. Dis- woman sits in front of the health care awareness amongst health care work- tance, and a lack of access to viable workers in the clinic she is just as likely ers on disability rights. This was based means of transportation, discouraged to be treated well, as not. The biggest on stories from women with disabilities most women from visiting health clinics, challenge is managing to get to that mistreated by health care workers especially in rural areas. Poverty is also seat in the first place. when seeking routine care. I had often a commonly cited challenge, although This revelation highlights the need for heard women with disabilities in vari- as one woman in Bugiri District put it, health-policy makers to conceptualize ous countries speaking about their “even if you have money you also need “access to health care” in the broadest experiences of being chastised by a guide to stop the vehicle, help you framework possible. Charting an ac- health care workers in antenatal clinics in, help you in the queue at the Health cessible path to health care begins far for getting pregnant in the first place, Centre….” For many women, even beyond the front doors of the clinic. rather than receive the basic antenatal finding a vehicle/taxi is a challenge and care they had come to receive. in many of the communities I visited,

The UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, which came into force in 2008, included provisions that persons with disabilities have access to the “same range, quality and standard or free or affordable healthcare…including in the area of sexual and reproductive health”. Through her fellowship, Myroslava investigated the extent to which these provi- sions were implemented “on the ground” by interviewing women with disabilities in Canada and Uganda. Chapter 2

HUMAN RIGHTS 12

Another human rights related issue is climate change. Canada’s reputation in this arena has also spiralled downwards rapidly over the last decade. Meanwhile, the consequences of climate change are already beginning to be felt, particularly in the global South and in the Arctic. Natural disasters, rising sea levels and desertification are contributing to mass population movements, with major implications for human rights. Access to potable water and agriculturally viable land, adequate housing and health care will become more critical amid the rising tide of climate refugees that we can expect in the coming decades. Yet questions surrounding climate change have to date been framed in strictly environmental and economic terms—a full accounting of Alberta’s oil sands, for instance, would include the impact of their contribution to climate change and on human livelihoods around the world. Tyhe wa forward One positive example of Canada-led action on human rights was the creation in 2006 of the UN’s Universal Periodic Review (UPR), a process spearheaded by Canadian and former UN High have poverty reduction strategies, but even they UPR’s suggestions, such as ensuring the right Commissioner for Human Rights, Louise Arbour. say they need federal support in order for those to adequate housing for vulnerable groups Under the UPR, each of the UN’s 192 member strategies to succeed. Meanwhile, despite a and continuing “to address socio-economic states must undergo a review of its human marginal reduction in national poverty since the disparities and inequalities that persist across the rights records every four years. This is a crucial mid-1990s (a period of unprecedented economic country.” We should be moving on each of these international review mechanism and the only one growth, the recent recession notwithstanding), suggestions for two very good reasons: above of its kind. In repeating the UPR every four years, we are no better off today than we were 30 years all to get our own house in order, but in doing countries’ progress on human rights is revisited ago. Indeed, Canada’s child poverty rates are so we stand to win back some credibility on the and documented for the entire world to see. virtually unchanged from 1989, when the federal world stage. The next UPR, due in 2013, will be a Out of the review’s 68 recommendations for government pledged to eliminate the problem critical test of Canada’s human rights leadership. Canada in 2009, our government rejected 14 and altogether. On the international stage, much work remains in advancing basic human rights. Those “By integrating human rights into our development, who face significant discrimination in the developing world, such as migrants, indigenous defence, and foreign policy goals, and by fostering communities, sexual minorities, women and human rights awareness in our NGOs and people with disabilities, are all in need of corporations working overseas, Canada would be support. By integrating human rights into our development, defence, and foreign policy goals, investing in a safer, more prosperous world.” and by fostering human rights awareness in our NGOs and corporations working overseas, only partially accepted another 15. Among the Still, there have been successes that deserve Canada would be investing in a safer, more rejected recommendations was #17: Develop to be mentioned and built upon. Poverty among prosperous world. a national strategy to eliminate poverty, to seniors has dropped significantly over the which our government responded by insisting past 20 years, suggesting that much can be that poverty reduction falls under provincial accomplished when the political will exists. jurisdiction. It is true that four provinces already And, the government did accept 39 of the Chapter 3

MINING & ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT 13

MINING & ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

esource extraction companies have been rights standards. The Canadian mining industry’s As the resource curse theory suggests, and will continue to be at the heart of largest players launched a successful campaign despite—or perhaps, because of—the profits R debates over our growing, global desire against the proposed legislation, arguing that they generate, the expansion of natural resource for energy and minerals on the one hand, and the the Bill would reduce Canada’s competitiveness. extraction has intensified social conflicts around havoc that extraction wreaks on our environ- Bill C-300, a focal point in the campaign to reign the world. Peru, for example, has identified ment and on the communities in which these in Canadian mining companies by social justice over 50 ongoing conflicts linked to the mining companies operate, despite the potential for groups, was narrowly defeated by six votes in industry alone. These are characterized by strikes development. With 60 per cent of the world’s its third reading. Any hopes of our government and highway blockades that too often lead to mining companies registered here, Canada has regulating our mining companies overseas violence and death. In many instances, the mines a huge opportunity to play a leadership role remained with Bill C-354, the International in question are Canadian-owned. This is true in regulating the impact of the industry on the Protection and Promotion of Human Rights Act. throughout the region, and it is thanks primarily (often indigenous) communities whose lands This Bill would have allowed people who have to our mining companies that Canada is Latin are appropriated for speculation. In 2009, the been harmed by Canadian companies in other America’s third greatest source of foreign direct Toronto Star reported that “allegations of human countries to seek redress in a Canadian court. investment. But to the extent that they generate rights abuses come from at least 30 of the world’s Unfortunately, the May 2011 election curtailed conflict, the financial boon our companies poorest countries and have named [Canadian any hopes of this Bill being debated, let alone provide is constantly overshadowed by the mining] companies of all sizes, from giant corpo- passed. threat of civil upheaval. Widespread civil unrest rations to junior mining companies.”1 Meanwhile, according to the World Bank against foreign exploitation of national resources Unfortunately, the Canadian government Group’s Extractive Industry Review, more than 10 is now spreading throughout Latin America, in continues to resist international or domestic million people are forcefully displaced each year particular, but also in other parts of the world. regulation and oversight of its corporations; for development projects. Yet publicly funded A closer look at the supposed profits flowing instead, our government actively represents and export credit agencies, like Export Development into public coffers as a result of mining goes a defends these companies through our embassies, Canada, provide financing and insurance for long way to explaining this unrest. Backed by a while many of the free trade agreements Canada similar mega-development projects operating in Canadian government that has aggressively acted is pursuing (particularly in Latin America) have as their principal purpose the protection of mining “Even in developed countries like Canada and the investments. United States, mining rights supercede property Any discussion of mining must first take into account the massive sums of money the rights—a province or state can take land away industry generates. Together with oil and gas from an owner for mineral development.” extraction, mining pours nearly $60 billion into the Canadian economy each year, accounting conflict areas or risky environments. And many in their interests, Canadian mining companies for 3.5 per cent of our GDP and employing international financial institutions to which operate in countries with some of the lowest an estimated 350,000 Canadians. In many Canada subscribes, most importantly the World royalty rates in the world. For example, Canadian developing countries, mining is the single greatest Bank and the International Monetary Fund, have companies pay one per cent in gold royalties to source of foreign direct investment. There is a pressured governments in developing nations the Government of Guatemala. In comparison, strong argument to be made for the potential of to rewrite their mining laws to encourage more Newfoundland and Labrador charges 53 per mining profits to be reinvested in social spending, foreign investment. For example, such countries cent in royalties with 21 per cent for the federal infrastructure, and other routes to alleviate are pushed to lower royalties, to abandon government and 32 per cent for the province. If poverty. However, imposing strict regulations public control over mineral wealth in favour developing countries are to truly benefit from over the industry’s behaviour is necessary to of privatizing the sector, and to grant foreign the minerals beneath their soil and the foreign accrue these benefits. Yet at the same time, in the companies title over untitled state lands or investment needed to extract them, they ought to global market, domestic regulation alone runs collectively-owned lands, in particular with regard apply similar royalty regimes. Host governments the risk of encouraging companies to relocate to indigenous claims. Together, these policies could also consider state ownership over the their businesses elsewhere with less oversight—a have enabled private companies to gain enormous mining sector. bad outcome both for the communities in which access to land and rich mineral resources with Another mechanism for ensuring communities these companies conduct exploration, and for the very few corresponding obligations to local benefit from exploration on their lands are Canadian economy. populations. Even in developed countries like impact and benefit agreements (also called access In October 2010, Canada’s Parliament Canada and the United States, mining rights agreements): such agreements between resource defeated Bill C-300, An Act Respecting Corporate supercede property rights—a province or state extraction firms and communities stipulate Accountability for the Activities of Mining, Oil or Gas can take land away from an owner for mineral specific benefits that will flow to the community, Corporations in Developing Countries. This private development. And in too many countries in the for example in terms of employment, investments member’s bill aimed to provide a complaints global south, people are regularly incarcerated, in infrastructure, education, and environmental mechanism for communities abroad affected beaten and even killed for protesting protection. Nunavut, for example, requires such by Canadian mining companies and impose expropriations deemed by the authorities to be in agreements before licenses are granted for sanctions on those that violate certain human the national interest. exploration.

1 Popplewell, B. (2009). Canadian mining firms face abuse allegations. The Toronto Star. Nov. 22, 2009. Chapter 3

MINING & ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT 14

Sadly, many developing regions of the world, ethics. Under CSR, mining and other resource Canada’s international mining investments are in having shed their colonial past, now find companies commit themselves to upholding the Latin America and the Caribbean). The second is themselves re-colonized by mining companies. best labour, environmental and human rights Canada’s recent signing of the UN’s Declaration Host countries that lack the money and expertise practices, in many cases building hospitals, roads, on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, which to exploit a resource themselves hand the land schools, along with other infrastructure and social (among other terms) requires free and informed over to multinationals for paltry royalties, often investments in local communities for as long as consent prior to development projects affecting at the expense of the indigenous and local the mine is in operation. But with the death of indigenous lands and territories. populations who live on the staked lands. The Bills C-300 and C-354, mining companies are Canada should pass legislation, whether role of host country governments has been guaranteed full discretion over how thoroughly along the lines of Bill C-354 or something like to encourage mining capital through mining- to apply their CSR codes. In the event that profits it, that will put legal teeth into voluntary CSR friendly legislation, weakening environmental, decline, they can do away with CSR altogether codes. At the same time, our government should labour and health standards and privatizing with no legal repercussions. As all too many consider working with mining companies and natural resources in the name of foreign direct catastrophes have recently demonstrated—from civil society organizations to develop a parallel investment. Because local populations frequently the global recession to the Gulf of Mexico oil strategy for the creation of international norms protest when they are left out of the benefits, spill—voluntary measures and self-regulation and regulations to standardize practices in violence is all too often exercised on behalf of are no substitutes for government oversight. No the industry and mitigate the risk of capital mining interests by state police, military and matter how much money is saved in the name of flight. On this front, there are some promising paramilitary networks, and private security efficiency and competitiveness, in the long term initiatives that could be scaled up: Peru’s Grupo guards. the costs of deregulation outweigh the benefits. de diálogo minería y desarollo sostenible, for As ever, it is women who are usually the most example, brings together governments, mining affected. Some of the documented impacts of What should be companies, community representatives and civil mining on women include: restricted access Canada’s foreign policy society organizations to promote dialogue and to sources of livelihood; increased workload response to Canadian action on CSR and sustainable development. As (for example as a result of men moving from mining companies well, our government should pressure volatile sharing household tasks to faraway mining- operating abroad? developing countries to cease the use of state related employment); increased dependency The Harper government has taken two key security apparatus to suppress civil society on men; marginalized labour; and prostitution, steps that lay the groundwork for ensuring that groups and inflict violence on individuals with its accompanying increase in sexually Canada’s mining companies have a more positive critical of mining projects. Anti-terrorist transmitted diseases. Sexual harassment and impact on the communities in which they laws and policies that attempt to criminalize gender discrimination at the worksites of mining operate. The first is a shift in focus towards the people protesting mining should likewise be repealed. Legal and social programs, including “The Harper government has taken two key steps sexual and reproductive health strategies that give women and girls greater protection from that lay the groundwork for ensuring that violence and sexual harassment, ought also to be Canada’s mining companies have a more positive implemented. impact on the communities in which they operate: Finally and perhaps most importantly, the Canadian government needs to respect shifting our focus to the Americas, where half indigenous rights to free, prior and informed of Canada’s mining investments reside, and consent for mining projects, and the right of signing the UN’s Declaration on the Rights of communities to reject exploration and mining in their community and traditional territory. In this Indigenous Peoples.” regard, Canada should ratify International Labour Organization Convention No. 169 supporting operations is widespread, if not the norm. Americas—while this shift may well be lamentable broad rights for indigenous peoples. The Canadian government and industry alike for our impact in Africa, it represents a significant have responded to these criticisms by developing opportunity for Canada to focus on the impact a Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) code of of the mining sector on development (half of POSTCARDS FROM THE FIELD 15

Plusieurs pays dans le monde, riches en minéraux, vivent un nouveau boum minier qui coïncide avec une hausse sans précédents des besoins en métaux des économies émergentes d’Asie. Les enjeux de cette nouvelle expansion de l’industrie minière soulèvent inévitablement des questionnements con- cernant la répartition des richesses, le développement local durable du territoire et la relation avec les populations autochtones. Et surtout, le boom minier permet de constater que les problèmes sociaux et environnementaux qui découlent de l’industrie minière sont des problèmes globaux, subis par des populations aux quatre coins du monde.

Les droits autochtones ne sont pas un obstacle au développement économique par Émilie Lemieux

Plusieurs pays dans le monde, riches de décision. Ainsi, la population Pessamit sur la Côte-Nord, mentionnait en minéraux, vivent un nouveau n’a pas seulement le droit d’être récemment que « les communautés boum minier qui coïncide avec informée, mais qu’elle a aussi le autochtones sont prêtes à contribuer une hausse sans précédents des droit d’émettre son opinion pour au développement du territoire besoins en métaux des économies permettre d’influencer la réalisation lorsqu’il se fait de façon respectueuse émergentes d’Asie. Les enjeux de des projets miniers. De cette façon, de l’environnement et des droits cette nouvelle expansion de l’industrie la participation citoyenne ne peut ancestraux des populations ». minière soulèvent inévitablement des se limiter à approuver ce qui est Même son de cloche au Pérou, questionnements concernant déjà décidé ; elle doit aussi servir où les populations autochtones la répartition des richesses, le à négocier les bénéfices mutuels revendiquent leur droit à être consulté développement local durable du qui seront obtenus grâce à l’activité avant l’implantation de projets miniers territoire et la relation avec les minière. Ceci est particulièrement vrai sur leurs territoires ancestraux. En populations autochtones. Et surtout, pour les populations autochtones, trop Amazonie, les populations indigènes le boom minier permet de constater souvent écartées quand il est question se préoccupent du fragile équilibre des que les problèmes sociaux et de tirer profit du potentiel économique écosystèmes alors que des entreprises environnementaux qui découlent de du territoire. minières y réalisent des activités l’industrie minière sont des problèmes Les droits autochtones ne sont d’exploration sans leur consentement. globaux, subis par des populations aux pas un obstacle au développement Que ce soit au Québec ou au Pérou, quatre coins du monde. économique, et les communautés sont les promoteurs miniers devraient Les citoyens expriment de plus en souvent dépeintes à tort comme étant donner une importance capitale au plus leur opinion sur l’exploitation des opposées aux projets d’exploration consentement des communautés ressources naturelles et énergétiques, et d’exploitation de ressources autochtones et à leur implication dans et les gouvernements doivent trouver naturelles. Au Québec, Raphaël le développement de leur territoire. les moyens de les associer à la prise Picard, chef du Conseil des Innus de

L’accord de libre-échange Canada-Pérou, entré en vigueur en août 2009, s’agit d’un de cinq tels accords qui ont été signé avec des pays latino-américains et des Caraïbes dans les dernières années. On estime qu’il y a une centaine d’entreprises canadiens dans le secteur minière qui sont actives au Pérou, tandis que la récente Projet de loi C-300, qui visait à encadrer les actions de tels entreprises minières canadiennes à l’étranger, a récemment été annulé. À travers son fellowship, Émilie a entamé les questions de l’efficacité de la responsabilité sociale des entreprises dans le contexte des accords de libre- échange bilatéraux, utilisant le Pérou comme étude de cas. Chapter 4

REFUGEES 16

REFUGEES

he year 2011 marked the 60th anniversary of the most refugees as a result of geography range from “states in exile,” like Palestine, to the Geneva Refugee Convention. This docu- ought to be assisted by wealthier states through those fleeing generalized violence in unstable T ment contin ues to inform the United Na- resettlement programs and financial support. countries, such as the Afghan population in tions High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), With such support lacking, however, millions of Pakistan and Iran. non-governmental organizations and govern- people now find themselves living in protracted As well, the UNHCR faces considerable ments alike in their efforts to protect the 10 refugee situations. These refugees have been challenges in ensuring states uphold the million refugees in the world today. Yet the dy- displaced for over five years and have little or principles of the Refugee Convention. Different namics of forced displacement have shifted dra- no prospects for integration into their host regions have responded to refugee flows in matically in the past six decades. Implementing state, nor of a safe return to their home country, different ways, and this fragmented approach refugee rights today calls for a global approach in nor even for resettlement in a third country. has hindered efforts to implement refugee which Canada, historically an important player It should therefore come as no surprise that rights. Many African and Latin American with regard to refugee resettlement, could once again play a significant role. “millions of people now find themselves living Like many institutions of global governance created after the upheaval of the Second World in protracted refugee situations: displaced for War, the drafters of the Refugee Convention over five years, they have little or no prospects made certain assumptions about the identity for integration into their host state, nor of a of the people it was designed to protect. In the early years of the Cold War, states in the safe return to their home country, nor even for West accepted as refugees those fleeing the resettlement in a third country.” communist regimes of the Eastern bloc. But as refugee flows changed direction—no longer east countries from the global South now dominate states, for instance, have adopted additional to west, but rather south to north—the notion the UNHCR executive committee, which in legislation on refugees that actually widened of the “refugee” gradually began to change. As a December 2009 passed a “conclusion” stressing the 1951 definition to include those fleeing result, many nations now question the legitimacy the need to address protracted refugee situations. war or other violence. On the other hand, of asylum seekers, perceiving such individuals as Canada actively promoted that decision. many countries in Asia—notably Pakistan and queue jumpers or economic migrants rather than Meanwhile, host states increasingly perceive Thailand, each host to hundreds of thousands as genuine refugees. refugees as a security risk, in terms of the threat of refugees—refuse to sign the convention. Nor Unfortunately, Canada is no exception. Faced they pose to the native population through have regional institutions in Asia sought to with a severe backlog of refugee claims and terrorism, disease, and illegal activities, not to create alternative guidelines and frameworks. a spike in asylum seekers from Mexico, the mention potential damage to bilateral relations In other words, there simply is no globally Czech Republic and Hungary—all deemed “safe between host and sending states. While some coherent refugee regime despite the UNHCR’s countries” by our Immigration Ministry—the refugee communities, such as the Palestinians, best efforts. Instead, tremendous variations in government in June 2010 passed Bill C-11. have rapidly become an organized political force, implementation and adherence to the convention Although the Bill should provide a faster and others have not. In cases where the communities across regions means that refugees continue to fairer process, the government sought to limit are politicized and armed, refugees can quickly live in precarious situations, utterly dependent appeals from refugees from countries deemed affect the geopolitics of a region. In one well- on the response of local communities and “safe”, relying on rhetoric of “bogus claimants” known example, camps set up in eastern Zaire governments. and Canada being inundated by a “flood of (now Congo) after the 1994 Rwandan genocide refugees.” The discovery of 492 Sri Lankan ended up being controlled by the perpetrators of A role for Canada Tamils aboard a cargo vessel off Canada’s that atrocity, prompting a cycle of conflict and Canadian foreign policy has often been Pacific coast in the summer of 2010 reignited violence in the eastern Congo that continues to underpinned by a notion of being an honest the debate. The government emphasized the this day. broker that promotes the values of a liberal, human smuggling side of the story and played up The UNHCR has limited capacity to analyze democratic and multicultural society. These possible security risks. The fact that the group these growing complexities. From small values are reflected in Canada’s willingness represented a tiny fraction of the total number beginnings in 1951, the agency has become an to grant refugees a permanent home through of refugee claimants Canada receives each year, institution that provides humanitarian relief to resettlement, an option for those who are and that many could be eligible for refugee status displaced populations all across the world, with unable to return to their homes or to stay in given appalling human rights violations in Sri an annual budget of over US$3 billion. But this the country to which they have fled. During Lanka, was largely overlooked. growth has focused on providing services and the 1990s, Canada promoted the human Most of the world’s refugees, however, are support to the vulnerable, without any parallel security agenda, which sought to refocus not to be found in North America or Europe, but enhancement of research capacity. A highly international attention on the security of in the global South. This is where the Refugee donor-dependent organization, the UNHCR individuals and their communities rather than Convention’s founding notion of burden-sharing has little time, money or staff to devote to the state. Endorsed by the United Nations remains most relevant: host states who receive understanding the populations it serves—who Development Programme’s (UNDP) 1994 POSTCARDS FROM THE FIELD 17

Sitting under a tree in Katumba Refugee Settlement in Tanzania with Lepista, I was amazed by her determina- tion to go home. Born outside of her homeland and hardly speaking her native language, she was clear: it was time to go home. Lepista explained simply that, “your home is your home and anywhere else you are a servant.”

NO PLACE LIKE HOME by Jessie Thompson

It is hard for me to imagine what it speaking her native language, she was and in places of refuge; however, it would be like not to know the place clear: it was time to go home. Lepista does emphasize for me the importance that I come from, or to understand explained simply that, “your home is of bringing an end to protracted how it feels to be stuck waiting in exile your home and anywhere else you are displacement and to the feeling of without the same rights and freedoms a servant.” Days later, as I watched limbo that comes without a right to go as my neighbours. I was born in Lepista, her husband and their 10 home, without a legal status in your Kincardine, Ontario and grew up just children climb down from the UNHCR new country or without the space to 30 minutes from the house that my truck in Ramonge, Burundi, waving restart your life. father, my grandmother and my great to family and embracing relatives Bearing witness to this incredible grandmother lived in for decades. I that had returned home in the weeks moment, I thought fondly of my own have since found myself in many and months before, I wondered how home, the stretch of sandy beach in wonderful corners of the world, but at strange it must be for her to finally be front of the house I grew up in, the the end of the day, there is no place ‘home’ in a place she had never seen echo of bagpipes at the Saturday night like home. before, in a village she never knew, and parade and the smell of a roast turkey Sitting under a tree in Katumba in a house that was never hers. Yet, in the oven in my Mum’s kitchen. Refugee Settlement in Tanzania the joy she felt was palpable. She was Half way around the world I thought, with Lepista, I was amazed by her no longer an outsider. She was home. Lepista is right—your home is indeed determination to go home. Born This isn’t to say that people cannot your home. outside of her homeland and hardly find and create homes in new places

An estimated 6 million of the world’s 11.4 million refugees are living in a protracted refugee situation, displaced for an average of 17 years. Jessie’s short documentary, Home Free, followed three Burundian families in Tanzania. Each family, including Lepista’s, opted for one of three durable solutions to protracted refugee situations—Tanzanian citizenship, return to Burundi, and resettlement in a third country (Canada). Chapter 4

REFUGEES 18

Human Development report, human security has since emerged as a central component of development and security policy. Refugees, as individuals who are unable to avail themselves of the protection of their state, are an excellent example of the relevance of the human security paradigm. If Canada wishes to promote a rights-based international system, then promoting durable and sustainable solutions for refugees should be central to our foreign policy. There are four concrete ways in which Canada could become a leader on refugee issues. None would be expensive or difficult to implement. On the contrary, promoting refugee issues in innovative ways could be a low-cost and high- profile component of our foreign policy. Prioritizing refugees within geographic areas of focus In the countries and regions where Canada is most active, addressing refugee issues should have a high priority. Given Canada’s extensive involvement in Afghanistan since 2001, efforts to improve the situation of Afghan refugees in Iran and Pakistan would be a natural complement to our existing military engagement. The UNHCR has already recognized Afghan refugees as a population of focus for its own efforts on protracted refugee situations. Mainstreaming refugee issues within existing G8 by the G20 underscore the flattening of the regions in which it operates. institutions international arena. Canada should welcome A more progressive stance on refugees in Refugees have often remained within a policy “silo,” this development by encouraging countries that our foreign policy should be matched with meaning they have been dealt with in isolation are gaining prominence internationally—Brazil, changes at the domestic level. There has from other complementary or interconnected Nigeria, South Africa, Indonesia -- to engage on been a discouraging trend in recent years for problems. The UNHCR, for example, does not refugee issues and thereby lessen the North- wealthy states such as Canada to attempt to always co-ordinate as effectively as it could with South divisions that currently plague exchanges contain refugees in host states, which are often its counterparts at the UNDP or the United among concerned states. impoverished and unstable themselves. This Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF). Canada could runs contrary to the spirit that underpins the counter this trend by promoting refugee issues in Promoting the work of Refugee Convention. It also makes it difficult for various multilateral institutions, such as the UN Canadian civil society countries like Canada to criticize governments Peacebuilding Commission. and researchers who resort to forced repatriation and other Canada has researchers and practitioners methods to try to reduce the size of the displaced Encouraging emerging with expertise on refugee issues that could population they host. Forced displacement and regional powers be seconded from their home institutions, happens all too frequently and will continue to engage on refugee organizations or government departments to to do so. Canada should ensure that our own questions the UNHCR. Such placements would help the asylum policies and leadership on refugee issues Debates around the membership of the UN agency deepen its expertise and ensure improved globally set an example for others. Security Council and the replacement of the analysis of the populations it serves and the Chapter 5

Développement international 19

Développement international

Que ce soit dans le domaine politique, qu’il supprimerait les conditions attachées à la manière dont les fonds canadiens d’aide économique, social ou culturel, l’aide l’aide internationale dès 2012. Cette décision est au développement sont gérés. De plus, cette internationale au développement est, depuis une étape primordiale pour renforcer l’efficacité loi garantit que l’aide au développement sera des décennies, l’un des outils fondamentaux de l’aide internationale canadienne. gérée « d’une manière conforme aux valeurs de la politique étrangère des pays développés. D’autre part, il est difficile d’ignorer la canadiennes, à la politique étrangère du Canada, Aujourd’hui pourtant, de nombreuses voix fragmentation de l’instance décisionnelle aux principes de la Déclaration de Paris sur s’élèvent pour questionner les moyens canadienne. En effet, outre l’Agence canadienne l’efficacité de l’aide au développement... », mis en place par ces pays pour favoriser le de développement international (ACDI), c’est étouffant toute politique de développement développement des pays moins favorisés, les aussi le ministère des Affaires étrangères et du qui pourrait interférer avec les stratégies motifs réels et la gouvernance nationale et Commerce international (MAECI), le ministère commerciales ou géopolitique du pays. Il n’est internationale de cette aide au développement. des Finances et près d’une dizaine d’autres donc pas surprenant que le Canada occupe la Cette discussion n’est pas nouvelle puisque agences fédérales qui entrent dans la gestion 29e place sur les 38 pays donateurs sondés par la plusieurs des critiques aujourd’hui formulées de l’aide internationale canadienne. Devant Banque Mondiale sur l’efficacité de l’aide2. ont été articulées il y a de cela plusieurs une telle cacophonie, il n’est pas surprenant années. Ce chapitre fournit une vue d’ensemble de constater les difficultés chroniques de nos Plus les acteurs du du large contexte de l’aide internationale dirigeants à définir les priorités de l’aide au développement sont au développement et ces défis, suivi de développement. nombreux, plus la recommandations pour améliorer la contribution Si de telles difficultés se rencontrent au plus situation devient canadienne au développement des pays moins haut niveau décisionnel, cela n’est sans doute complexe favorisés. pas étranger au fait que la question retient très Il faut premièrement relever la multiplication peu l’attention du grand public. Si une majorité des acteurs étatiques ou privés sur la scène Contexte et problèmes de Canadiens (56 %) se prononcent en faveur de du développement international au cours des récurrents l’engagement de leur pays dans le développement dernières années. Le groupe de pays donateurs Autrefois très présent sur la scène de l’aide international, un pourcentage équivalent reconnaît qui se composait traditionnellement de pays au développement et profondément respecté avoir très peu de connaissances sur le sujet. industrialisés a vu son cercle s’élargir avec pour son approche pragmatique, le Canada est l’arrivée de certaines économies émergentes aujourd’hui considéré comme un joueur de Tendances actuelles comme le Brésil, la Russie, l’Inde et la Chine seconde ligue. La contribution du Canada aux Vers une aide au (BRIC). efforts de développement en pourcentage de son développement plus La transition rapide des économies du BRIC revenu national brut, n’a eu de cesse de décroître efficace vers un statut de donateurs a révolutionné leur au cours des trente dernières années, passant La tendance internationale vers une aide au relation avec l’Afrique. À titre d’exemple, le de 0,5 % du RNB dans les années quatre-vingt à développement plus efficace est incarnée par financement de l’infrastructure par l’Inde et 0,3 % du RNB dans le milieu des années quatre- la Déclaration de Paris sur l’efficacité de l’aide la Chine est désormais semblable à celui des vingt-dix, pour finalement être gelée en 2010. au développement entérinée en 2005, suivie en bailleurs de fonds traditionnels. Toutefois, en se L’inefficacité de l’aide publique canadienne 2008, du Programme d’action d’Accra. Les pays concentrant sur des secteurs d’activité différents, au développement qui se chiffrait à environ donateurs comme le Canada s’étaient engagés l’assistance du BRIC s’est révélé être assez 4,5 milliards de dollars en 2010 est d’autant à mettre en œuvre l’ensemble des mesures complémentaire de l’aide traditionnelles. Bien plus embarrassante. Le dernier exemple en de la déclaration de Paris et du plan d’action qu’il soit impossible de mesurer précisément date a voir suscité quelques inquiétudes, fut la d’Accra. Pourtant, la plupart des pays donateurs l’impact de cette nouvelle relation entre l’Afrique décision soudaine du gouvernement canadien sont aujourd’hui très loin d’une mise en œuvre et les pays du BRIC, il ne fait aucun doute qu’elle de réorienter ses programmes d’aide au compréhensive de ces mesures, et bien que ces a changé le visage des économies africaines. développement de l’Afrique subsaharienne à accords internationaux permettent généralement Par ailleurs, le secteur du développement l’Amérique latine, mettant fin à ses programmes de poser les bonnes questions, ils ne parviennent international peut aussi désormais compter sur d’aide bilatérale avec certains des pays les pas à répondre aux incitations divergentes qui l’apport de nombreux acteurs non étatiques. plus pauvres du monde comme le Malawi et empêchent les bonnes idées de se concrétiser. Notons particulièrement les contributions le Rwanda. Plus grave encore, c’est en lisant Dans le cas du Canada, le morcellement de substantielles de certaines fondations privées le Globe and Mail que les responsables du l’aide et l’architecture actuelle du développement comme la Fondation Bill & Melinda Gates. À gouvernement rwandais ont appris le retrait entravent sa capacité à obtenir un impact réel. elle seule, cette fondation investit plus d’argent des investissements canadiens. Ce manque de Arrêtons-nous un instant sur la Loi sur la que certains pays traditionnellement reconnus prévisibilité est estimé avoir déprécié de 15 à responsabilité en matière d’aide publique au comme de généreux donateurs. Plusieurs de 50 % la valeur de l’aide au développement, selon développement : alors que ce texte de loi visait ces fondations ont d’ailleurs une influence une récente étude de la Brookings Institution1. à doter l’ACDI d’un mandant clair, fondé sans considérable sur le développement des En revanche, après de nombreuses années de équivoque sur la réduction de la pauvreté, il n’a programmes d’aide au développement, puisque pression, le gouvernement Harper a annoncé pas réussi à modifier de manière significative plusieurs États et organisations de la société

1 Homi Kharas, “Measuring the Cost of Aid Volatility,” Wolfenson Center for Development Working Paper Series 3 (Washington: Brookings Institution, July 2008), http://www.brookings.edu/papers/2008/07_aid_volatility_kharas.aspx 2 Stephen Knack, F. Halsey Rogers and Nicholas Eubank, “Aid Quality and Donor Rankings,” Policy Research Working Paper 5920 (Washington: World Bank, May 2010), http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/IW3P/IB /2010/05/04/000158349_20100504103946/Rendered/PDF/WPS5290.pdf. Chapter 5

Développement international 20

civile alignent désormais leurs priorités sur politique robuste. Ce rapport met également en d’immigrants, renferme un potentiel énorme celles de ces fondations. avant des pays comme le Kenya, la Tanzanie, dans ce pays bâti sur le multiculturalisme. le Sénégal et le Ghana qui ont connu des Cette mesure pourrait d’une part contribuer Santé évolutions politiques tout aussi significatives, à établir des liens avec les pays bénéficiaires L’amélioration des résultats en matière de santé bien que moins extrêmes. de l’aide canadienne et d’autre part contribuer est au cœur des activités de développement. Les printemps arabes de 2011 ont permis à l’intégration des immigrants dans la vie Trois des huit Objectifs du Millénaire pour le l’éviction de dirigeants autoritaires en Tunisie et publique du pays. Développement sont axés exclusivement sur en Égypte, et furent suivis par une guerre civile la santé, et trois autres objectifs, à savoir la en Libye et d’importantes manifestations et des Susciter un large réduction de la faim, l’accès à l’eau potable et soulèvements à Bahreïn, en Syrie, au Yémen, et intérêt pour à l’assainissement, et l’accès aux médicaments dans de nombreux autres pays du Moyen Orient la question du essentiels à prix abordable lui sont intimement lié. et d’Afrique du Nord. Sans oublier les difficultés développement En 2009, 781 millions de personnes sont rencontrées par les pays dont les gouvernements international mortes du paludisme et pourtant, nous continuent de réprimer la liberté d’expression, L’un des problèmes chroniques de l’aide au consacrons toujours 10 fois plus de ressources de refuser la transparence et l’ouverture, et d’agir développement au Canada semble être le peu pour trouver un remède contre la calvitie que de manière incompatible avec l’état de droit, il d’intérêt que ces questions suscitent dans la contre le paludisme. En Afrique, les maladies existe aujourd’hui une tendance exaltante et population en général et dans les médias en transmissibles sont les maladies les plus infectieuse en faveur de la démocratie dans le particulier. Il convient donc de s’employer à communes; le sida, le paludisme, la tuberculose, monde arabe et au-delà. bâtir une large coalition d’intérêts de manière la pneumonie, les maladies diarrhéiques et la à accroître la visibilité des enjeux de l’aide au rougeole sont actuellement responsables de 90 Recommandations développement sur la place publique et sur pour cent des décès. La négligence chronique des L’amélioration du secteur du développement la scène politique du pays, car tant que ces « maladies des pauvres », comme le paludisme, international passe par l’habilitation des questions demeureront ignorées du grand public, est un excellent exemple de distorsion des bénéficiaires à demander des comptes elles resteront vulnérables. mesures d’incitation qui se trouve d’autant aux donateurs, aux gouvernements et aux plus renforcée par notre système international fournisseurs de services. Le combat des Bâtir un consensus des droits à la propriété intellectuelle. Il existe Égyptiens pour leur liberté en est l’illustration pluraliste autour cependant des programmes innovants comme frappante, et la Libye, le Soudan, et de nombreux du développement le Grand Challenges in Global Health qui tentent autres pays du Moyen-Orient, d’Afrique et international de lutter contre cette distorsion des mesures d’ailleurs sont sur la bonne voie pour amener La fragmentation de la structure décisionnelle, d’incitation. Ce programme récompense des un changement similaire dans leur propre tout comme les changements de priorités en scientifiques, des entrepreneurs et des acteurs pays. Néanmoins, il existe un certain nombre fonction des intérêts politiques du moment ont du changement qui s’efforcent de résoudre les de mesures que le Canada et d’autres pays eu des effets néfastes sur le dossier de l’aide au « problèmes des pauvres ». En associant des « développés » peuvent prendre pour lutter développement au Canada. Aussi, des efforts subventions généreuses à des résultats précis, contre la pauvreté et les inégalités et contribuer à de représentation doivent être entrepris afin ces programmes ont créé un nouveau marché, l’efficacité du développement. de bâtir un large consensus parmi les élus et favorisé l’innovation et la concurrence et ont fait s’assurer qu’ils aient une bonne connaissance entrer en scène des acteurs traditionnellement Établir des priorités des enjeux liés au développement afin qu’un désengagés de la recherche en santé. Ce mode fondées sur les forces leadership fort soit exercé par l’ensemble de la de financement est révolutionnaire en ce qu’il du Canada classe politique. évalue et récompense un impact réel plutôt que Avec des moyens limités, il est nécessaire de soutenir un processus prédéterminé capable d’établir des priorités. Tout comme le nombre Réformer l’agence d’engloutir des ressources faramineuses. croissant d’organisations qui se spécialisent dans canadienne de un secteur donné, le Canada doit également développement Démocratisation définir ses priorités en fonction de ses expertises. international La capacité des citoyens à exiger à ce que Bien que les analyses sur les points forts du La réforme structurelle de l’aide au leur gouvernement leur rende des comptes Canada sont rares, la question de genre et l’aide développement canadien connaît une popularité constitue un autre facteur déterminant au développement à l’agriculture semblent se croissante. Ce plébiscite n’est pas sans rappeler pour garantir l’efficacité du développement détacher du reste des réussites canadiennes. la vie politique britannique, qui, il n’y a pas si international. Un rapport récent de Freedom longtemps, demandait la création d’un ministère House qui évaluait les droits politiques et Mettre à contribution indépendant responsable du développement les libertés civiles constatait que l’Afrique les communautés international. La création d’un tel ministère subsaharienne de 2007 présente quelques- diasporiques qui aurait pour mandat de définir les politiques uns des exemples les plus prometteurs de Le Canada est une terre d’immigration de l’aide au développement tout en ayant la nouvelles démocraties dans le monde. Le Mali, depuis sa création et compte donc sur son responsabilité d’assurer leur cohérences au sein le Bénin, le Niger et le Cap-Vert sont présentés territoire de larges communautés diasporiques. du gouvernement signifierait tout simplement comme d’anciens états socialistes à parti L’engagement des nouveaux arrivants, mais que la question du développement international unique ayant réussi à développer un système aussi de la deuxième et troisième génération ne se ferait plus dans l’ombre du MAECI et du POSTCARDS FROM THE FIELD 21

Les chefs d’état n’auront pas la possibilité, comme moi, de conduire jusqu’à Maracas Bay par les routes étroites et boueuses, et cer- tainement pas non plus l’occasion de déguster les fameux rotis de la rue St James. Leur expérience ne sera pas la mienne. Ils ne sont pas venus dans lîle comme moi pour rencontrer ses artistes. Ils ne connaîtront pas l’histoire de cette jeune femme qui a lutté pendant près de dix ans pour son centre d’art contemporain.

Rêve ou réalité ? Un séjour à Port of Spain, Trinidad PAR Guillaume Sirois

Port of Spain est une ville qui rêve. Qui temps glorieux où cette petite île faisait de rentrer dans son île. Ils ne connaîtront se rêve, plus grande que nature. Qui partie d’un empire sur lequel le soleil ne pas l’histoire de cette jeune femme qui regarde vers sa grande sœur du nord et se couchait jamais. Assis sur la terrasse a lutté pendant près de dix ans pour qui se compare, et qui espère. « Miami ! du tout nouvel hôtel qui était bâti pour son centre d’art contemporain. Ils ne Ici, maintenant ils veulent ressembler à eux, toutes ces têtes couronnées, visiteront pas la cour de cette vieille Miami. » C’est ce que m’a dit un vieux les nouvelles tout autant que les plus maison traditionnelle qu’un groupe de Trini peu de temps après mon arrivée à anciennes, auront tout le loisir de laisser jeunes artistes transforment peu à peu Port of Spain. Il faut dire qu’au moment leur regard s’attarder sur la couleur en centre d’art et d’essai. Ils n’auront où je débarque dans l’île, il y a de quoi turquoise de la mer des Caraïbes, en pas cette longue conversation avec ce s’activer, de quoi se farder un peu. Dans ignorant la chaleur, en ignorant les vieil acteur qui se souvient du temps l’année qui vient, la ville accueillera odeurs et les bruits de la ville. où Derek Walcott écrivait pour lui un les chefs d’État des Amériques, parmi Toutefois, ils n’auront pas la rôle. Si leur regard se pose sur des lesquels la nouvelle star de la politique possibilité, comme moi, de conduire œuvres à Trinidad, ce sera sans doute américaine, le premier président noir, jusqu’à Maracas Bay par les routes celles qui ornent la grande palissade celui qui déclenche les plus grands étroites et boueuses, et certainement autour du stade. Quelques images enthousiasmes des Trinis, celui pour pas non plus l’occasion de déguster les de palmiers et d’oiseaux exotiques, si qui on a même composé une chanson, fameux rotis de la rue St James. Leur attendues qu’elles retiendront à peine qui m’accompagne pendant tout mon expérience ne sera pas la mienne. Ils ne leur regard, comme celui de tant de séjour. Et ce n’est pas tout. Plus tard sont pas venus dans l’île comme moi touristes. Il faut du temps pour découvrir dans l’année, ce seront encore les pour rencontrer ses artistes. Comme une culture, mais le sommet est déjà chefs d’État du Commonwealth qui moi, ils ne parcourront sans doute pas fini, les vacances sont finies. Il faut voir séjourneront dans l’île, le temps d’un les allées du marché à l’aube pour aux affaires… Il restera sans doute sommet. La star de l’événement, cette acheter un poisson avant d’entamer une quand même une image. Celle que l’on fois, sera celle qui, dans l’espace de conversation avec un Trini qui s’est fait attendait avant même le départ. quelques jours, peut encore rêver au artiste contemporain à New York avant

Les expressions culturelles produites dans les différentes régions du monde se retrouvent désormais en compétition sur la scène internationale, une réalité qui a entraîné la crainte d’une homogénéisation de la culture qui ne verrait survivre que les expressions culturelles issues des payes dotés des plus grands moyens de production et de distribution. Pour son fellowship, Guillaume Sirois a examiné quels sont les besoins des milieux artistiques des pays en voie de développement, pour contribuer à l’établissement d’une réelle coopération internationale dans le domaine de la culture. Chapter 5 développement international 22

MDN. La politique d’aide au développement ne impossible sans reconnaître que de nombreux par ses réserves de DTS » et pourrait générer serait plus limitée par les priorités opportunistes facteurs déterminants échappent totalement plus de « 75 milliards de dollars avec un de la politique étrangère canadienne. Au au contrôle du secteur de la santé. Le premier coût budgétaire presque inexistant pour les contraire, la version canadienne du Department rapport de l’OMS sur les maladies tropicales gouvernements participants. »1 for International Development (DFID) du négligées révélait que le principal obstacle au Royaume-Uni travaillerait avec le MAECI et le progrès était le manque général d’expertise. Il Approfondir nos ministère de la Défense nationale pour trouver s’agit là d’une défaillance du marché classique connaissances sur des solutions holistiques et développer des pour résoudre « les problèmes des populations le développement politiques cohérentes. pauvres ». Grand Challenges in Global Health international est un exemple d’initiative qui combat cette Au Canada, seul un petit nombre d’universitaires Rendre l’aide étrangère distorsion des mesures d’incitation en offrant et de chercheurs s’intéressent de près aux plus transparente des prix pour récompenser des solutions qui questions liées au développement international. En attendant, les décisions canadiennes en matière fonctionnent. Nous devons fournir les mêmes Il en résulte une difficulté à tirer les d’aide au développement gagneraient à être plus incitations en offrant, par exemple, des bourses enseignements des expériences canadiennes responsables et plus transparentes. Premièrement, de recherche pour que les étudiants ou les en la matière et d’intégrer celles-ci dans un maintenant que le Canada a souscrit à l’Initiative professeurs se spécialisent dans des domaines de ensemble cohérent. Si le Canada souhaite aller pour la transparence de l’aide internationale recherche négligés. au-delà d’une série d’initiatives ponctuelles, il est (IITA) en Novembre 2011, il faut s’assurer impératif qu’il développe sa capacité à adopter que l’information au sujet des programmes, Faire preuve un regard critique sur ses propres pratiques. priorités et dépenses de l’ACDI sont à la fois plus d’innovation dans le transparentes et plus accessibles à la publique financement des biens Canadienne, ainsi qu’aux récipiendaires de l’aide et publics mondiaux aux autres donateurs. Deuxièmement, le Canada pour dépasser la doit créer un nouveau portail web d’accès libre logique obsolète d’une aux données et à l’information concernant l’APD programmation par qui serait inspiré de portail du gouvernement pays des États-Unis www.foreignassistance.gov et de La prise de conscience sur l’ampleur la Banque mondiale www.data.worldbank.org. internationale des problèmes que pose l’action Enfin, le Canada devrait établir une Commission collective, exige qu’une plus grande attention indépendante, dirigée par des experts, pour évaluer soit accordée à l’investissement dans les biens l’impact de l’aide au développement et présenter publics mondiaux. Une approche raisonnable un rapport annuel factuel devant le Parlement. serait de créer un mécanisme de financement Il ne fait aucun doute que le Canada serait plus gouvernemental qui permettrait aux pays à même d’apporter une réponse efficace à la d’utiliser un petit pourcentage de leurs droits pauvreté et aux inégalités s’il mettait en œuvre ces de triage spéciaux (DTS) du Fonds monétaire recommandations ainsi que celles entérinées par international (FMI) pour apporter des capitaux le Réseau pour la réforme de l’Aide internationale à une entité de financement qui investirait dans (Foreign Assistance Reform Network). des problématiques sous-financées, comme par exemple des projets destinés à atténuer les Créer des incitations de effets du changement climatique dans les pays marché pour répondre en développement. Selon le Center for Global aux défis mondiaux de Development, une telle entité de financement la santé permettrait d’« offrir des obligations sur les S’attaquer aux problèmes de santé du Sud est marchés internationaux de capitaux soutenus

1 Find me the money: Financing climate and other global public goods,” Working Paper 248 (Washington: Center for Global Development, April 2011), http://www.cgdev.org/content/publications/detail/1424979. POSTCARDS FROM THE FIELD 23

Amid the chaos something wonderful was achieved: a broad international movement for food sovereignty was born. It is within this movement that Canadian farmers work in solidarity with Mexican migrant farmworkers to build a food system based on justice, equality and dignity.

A Farm of One’s Own by Martha Robbins

“Not by coincidence, Mexican migrants 77% and over 63,000 farmers left the labelled with the same number, which are the cheap labour that is needed by land. Canadian family farmers were made keeping track of keys virtually industrial agriculture in the United States. faced with dwindling rural communities impossible. So it is like a system that is creating its and subsequent labour shortages, while Despite the difficult circumstances, own supply of labour by destroying and larger industrial operations became more close to 700 delegates from every disrupting the rural communities, the common and required more inexpensive region of the world representing farmers, peasant communities, of Mexico.” Car- labour. peasants, pastoralists, fisher folk, mi- los Marentes, head of the Border Agricul- I wasn’t convinced that the outcomes grants and rural workers, women, indige- tural Workers Project in El Paso, Texas, of this perfect storm were inevitable. nous people and labour, environmental, tells me this as he leans over a table There must be a way for both Mexicans and non-governmental organizations covered in a bright Mexican blanket. and Canadians to make a living farming came together to globalize the struggle And so begins my exploration of how their own land and for a more just rela- for food sovereignty. Food sovereignty, millions of Mexican peasants are being tionship between our two countries to initially articulated by the international forced off of their own land to search for emerge. peasant movement La Via Campesina, work instead on American and Canadian It was February 2007, unbearably calls for the right of countries to define farms as migrant farmworkers. hot—over 40°C, and dry. So dry that their own agricultural and food policies. In 1992, Article 27 of the Mexican nosebleeds and cracked feet were a It includes a focus on localizing and de- constitution was amended allowing for regular occurrence among those of us mocratizing food systems, ensuring eco- the privatization of the ejido, the collec- not acclimatized to the region. We were nomic and social viability for rural people tive landownership system enshrined an international team working alongside and rural communities and, providing after the Mexican Revolution. Then, in a local team to pull off the first internatio- safe, healthy, culturally appropriate and 1994, the North American Free Trade nal conference on food sovereignty. sustainably produced food for all. Agreement (NAFTA) came into effect The challenge was that the confe- Amid the chaos something wonderful and close to four million people in rural rence was in rural Mali, just outside a was achieved: a broad international Mexico were directly affected. Approxi- town called Selingue, in a traditional movement for food sovereignty was mately two million of those lost their land. village that was being constructed for born. It is within this movement that In Canada, agri-food exports tripled the purpose and was far from complete. Canadian farmers work in solidarity with between 1988 (when Canada signed And we had been denied access to the Mexican migrant farmworkers to build a a free trade agreement with the United only potable water source. And the foam food system based on justice, equality States) and 2007. Yet, during the same mattresses and mosquito nets hadn’t and dignity. period, net farm income decreased by arrived yet. And there were multiple huts

The Declaration of Nyéléni of the Forum for Food Sovereignty held in Mali in 2007 provides a holistic definition of the concept: Food sovereignty is the right of peoples to healthy and culturally appropriate food produced through ecologically sound and sustainable methods, and their right to define their own food and agriculture systems. It puts the aspirations and needs of those who produce, distribute and consume food at the heart of food systems and policies rather than the de- mands of markets and corporations. Through her fellowship, Martha used the principles of food sovereignty to inform policy recommendations on Canada’s migrant farm worker program, focusing specifically on Mexican farm workers in Canada. Chapter 6

PEACE BULIDING & INTERNATIONAL JUSTICE 24

PEACE BULIDING & INTERNATIONAL JUSTICE

s the global economic crisis compounds the short term to stand idly by, but ultimately in- Nevertheless, it was the Canadian government the impacts of climate change, develop- action is a costly gamble with lethal consequences after the genocide in Rwanda that tasked a com- A ing countries are increasingly vulnerable for international peace and security. mission of 14 international experts with answer- to conflict. To date, Canada’s response to global Indeed, conflict prevention is cheap when ing a simple yet profound question: Are there conflict has focused on disputes that have already compared to the vast sums spent on peacebuild- limits to state sovereignty? Limits that would broken out, in places like Somalia, the Democratic ing, peacekeeping and humanitarian operations mandate the international community to respond Republic of Congo and Iraq. These countries are after situations have escalated into war. Recent when the lives of citizens are threatened by the high on the international radar and are currently studies suggest the cost of armed conflict in Africa state meant to protect them? The experts’ solution the focus of major multilateral peacekeeping ef- is equivalent to or exceeds the amount of money was novel: if a state is either unable or unwilling forts (primarily through the United Nations, but the continent receives in international aid. Had to protect the lives of its citizens, then the inter- also via NATO and other organizations) to which that money not been lost as a result of armed con- national community not only has the right, but Canada contributes money and personnel. In terms of bilateral peace building, Canada has “Canada, a peacekeeping pioneer, should build on focused its efforts on Afghanistan and Sudan. Im- its progressive reputation by focusing on conflict portant as these initiatives are, many other coun- tries that have suffered recent disasters (whether prevention in the 21st century.” political or natural) such as Guatemala, Honduras and Nigeria deserve attention before they, too, flict, it could have been used to address Africa’s the responsibility to intervene. What followed erupt into violence. Preventing such conflicts goes substantial development and humanitarian needs. was a three-year battle to get the commission’s beyond altruism, for they rarely stay inside their Conflict prevention is thus imperative for achiev- Responsibility to Protect (R2P) principle accepted borders. Canada, a peacekeeping pioneer, should ing the UN Millennium Development Goals. in a UN document. Despite significant opposition, build on its progressive reputation by focusing on In some areas, Canada’s record is positive. the Canadian-born principle was unanimously conflict prevention in the 21st century. We have responded to contemporary threats recognized at the High-level Plenary Meeting of Preventing armed conflict means taking po- to international peace and security with stra- the General Assembly in September 2005. This litical, humanitarian, development and other tegic investments in combatting terrorism and international statement puts human rights before measures to tackle the root causes of conflict organized crime, eliminating weapons of mass power politics, at least on paper; in 2011 R2P was and addressing the opportunity structures for destruction and implementing the Ottawa enacted for the first time in history with respect to violence before fighting erupts. One critical tool Landmine Ban Treaty. the Libyan crisis. The aftermath of that conflict’s is the development of early warning mechanisms Meanwhile, Canada’s Stabilization and Recon- eventual outcome will determine whether R2P is such as the Early Warning and Response Network struction Task Force (START) has raised the bar seen as a legitimate mechanism that does in prac- (ECOWARN) observation and monitoring tool for wholistic responses to conflicts and natural tice what it promises in theory. currently used by the Economic Community of disasters in fragile states such as Afghanistan, West African States for conflict prevention and Haiti and Sudan. These initiatives deserve credit, A role for Canada in decision-making. Conflict prevention may also yet they are largely traditional strategies that react conflict prevention include offering sustained, high-level mediation, after the fact. Despite the Department of Foreign One of Canada’s top foreign policy priorities in providing humanitarian aid, instituting measures Affairs and International Trade’s (DFAIT) formal 2011-2012 is to “contribute to effective global to protect civilians, imposing arms embargoes and recognition that “building international human governance and international security and stabil- enforcing targeted sanctions against individuals or rights norms and standards, especially those ity,” including “promot[ing] Canada’s interests in groups that provoke armed violence. pertaining to minority rights, are essential to evolving summitry and renewed efforts to reform Unfortunately, Canada and other UN member developing effective international conflict preven- global institutions” and “contribut[ing] to address- states too often gamble that crises will resolve tion strategies,”1 Canada has failed to place a high ing emerging security challenges.” What should themselves or will result in limited violence when priority on conflict prevention and to push for we be doing in terms of conflict prevention? There we should be implementing a comprehensive inclusion of conflict prevention on the peace and are three ways Canada can assert leadership. conflict-prevention strategy. It may be cheaper in security agenda in international fora.

1 “Glynn Berry Program for Peace and Security,” Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade, last modified December 9, 2011, http://www.international.gc.ca/glynberry/index.aspx?view=d. POSTCARDS FROM THE FIELD 25

Speaking with Liberian women in the security sector was a reality check for all of my research on UN Security Council Resolution 1325 and the international community’s ef- forts to ensure that women have an equal and significant role in peace-building and peacekeeping. I spoke directly with Liberian women, some of whom served as combat- ants on all sides of the brutal conflict, some voluntarily and many under coercion. Thousands of women also suf- fered from the kinds of gender-based violence that have become signature weapons of war in contemporary armed conflict. Even now, rape is Liberia’s most common serious crime. These same Liberian women were instrumental in bringing the armed hostilities to an end

Voice of the Women by Nuala Lawlor

“At some point, you know that you hostilities to an end, and the 2003 UN they can shift policy to address some will be asked for sex if you want to be resolution authorizing the peacekeeping of the challenges facing women in the promoted. It’s changing, but for most mission in Liberia provided for a Gender sector and seek better benefits for their women, this is still the reality.” For Advisor with a mandate of mainstream- members. Another non-governmental the majority of women working in the ing gender in its mission. organization, the Ghana-based Woman, security sector in Liberia, coping with “During the failed coup in ’85, my Peace and Security Network Africa discrimination and sexual harassment father—who was in the military—was (WIPSEN-Africa), is collaborating with or even abuse is simply an additional killed by Samuel Doe,” one woman told key partners on the issue of gender challenge in a male-dominated, post- me. “I worked in the sector to provide and security sector reform in Liberia. conflict environment. for my family. During the war, we were LIFLEA’s members are directly benefiting Speaking with Liberian women in the harassed and abused by the rebels, but through training course and workshops security sector was a reality check for all we stayed. At the end of the conflict, I to improve their strategic planning and to of my research on UN Security Council continued working in the sector in the strengthen their organization. Resolution 1325 and the international seaport police. I was forcibly retired Liberia is not the only country making community’s efforts to ensure that during the restructuring process under strides for women in the security sector. women have an equal and significant the peace agreement, with no benefits. Ghana’s National Action Plan on UNSCR role in peace-building and peacekeep- Now, at the age of 45, I have had to re- 1325 is underway, and the Kofi Annan ing. I spoke directly with Liberian women, join the security sector by qualifying for International Peacekeeping Training some of whom served as combatants the Armed Forces. It’s the only way to Centre, based in Accra, launched the on all sides of the brutal conflict, some support my family.” Women, Peace and Security Institute in voluntarily and many under coercion. The women sharing their narratives October 2010. Thousands of women also suffered from about being female in Liberia’s secur- “I am extremely grateful to these or- the kinds of gender-based violence that ity sector are members of the Female ganizations for the opportunity to attend have become signature weapons of war Law Enforcement Officers’ Association training, to learn, and to improve my in contemporary armed conflict. Even (LIFLEA). LIFLEA was established in own standing,” another woman told me. now, rape is Liberia’s most common ser- 2000 to give a voice to the numerous “They have opened our eyes to other ious crime. These same Liberian women women working in the security sector in possibilities. It is important for all of us were instrumental in bringing the armed hopes that through their united numbers to be seen. And heard!”

UNSCR 1325, adopted unanimously in October 2000, requires parties in a conflict to ensure women’s participation in peace negotiations and post-conflict reconstruction. Through her fellowship, Nuala worked with WIPSEN-Africa and the Kofi Annan Peacekeeping Training Center to develop training materials to improve mainstreaming of gender perspectives in peace operations. Chapter 6

PEACE BULIDING & INTERNATIONAL JUSTICE 26

Institutionalize form conflict mapping to understand the spread of erbating the conflict. conflict prevention conflict. Canada can also support these institutions Canada could link with NGOs to create and Conflict prevention should be given a high prior- in their support of democratic institutions, the rule support appropriate capacity-building programs. ity in those countries and regions where Canada of law, good governance and human rights. In Colombia, for instance, World Vision has cre- has strategic investments. A Conflict Prevention Civil society—non governmental organizations ated a movement known as Gestores de Paz (Peace Directorate should be created within the Stabi- (NGO), think tanks, journalists and universities—of- Managers) that has given thousands of children a lization and Reconstruction Task Force to incor- fer a pool of knowledge that our government ignores platform from which to advocate for peace, mak- porate conflict prevention into START programs. at its peril. Research on Canada’s extractive sector is ing a substantial contribution to the search for Political officers in the field should receive train- particularly important in this regard—the potential stability in this war-torn nation. By encouraging ing on conflict prevention and early warning indi- of mining companies to exacerbate conflict abroad such efforts, the Canadian government would cators so that this information can be relayed back and the role of corporate social responsibility merit capitalize on the work and expertise of Canadian to headquarters to promote early action. closer study and should inform the development of a NGOs while also assisting NGOs in conflict and comprehensive conflict-prevention strategy. post-conflict zones. Engage with governments while Mobilize marginalized drawing on the groups in developing expertise of civil society strategies for conflict Many governments lack the resources to imple- prevention ment national conflict prevention strategies. With The groups most affected by conflict are often our growing experience in START, Canada has an those with the greatest expertise in prevention opportunity to promote not only whole-of-gov- activities such as civic dialogue and the media- ernment action on conflict prevention, but also to tion of disputes. For example, women’s groups embrace international and regional organizations have developed innovative conflict prevention in the search for holistic solutions. For instance, strategies in northern Uganda, yet they tend to be Canada can build on its relationship with the Afri- excluded from formal peace talks. When this hap- can Union and sub-regional organizations by sup- pens, as with children, internally displaced people porting these institutions in their efforts to prevent and refugees, the victims all too often become the conflict, gather early warning information and per- perpetrators, taking up arms themselves and exac- Chapter 7

Afghanistan & Pakistan 27

Afghanistan & Pakistan

decade into the US-led international health; 2) advancing security, the rule of law and build durable peace among Afghans through a intervention in Afghanistan, violence human rights, including through the provision public truth-seeking process. In other words, A throughout the country is at an all-time of up to 950 trainers for Afghan security forces; reconciliation does not mean total impunity high. The majority of the population remains im- 3) promoting regional diplomacy; and 4) helping for the worst criminals, as some fear; it means poverished and unemployed, women in particular, deliver humanitarian assistance. not automatically branding all insurgents as while security and the rule of law remains elusive While there is much to applaud in these goals, criminals. in many parts of the country. The Afghan govern- two other areas—reconciliation and refugee Unfortunately, just as the international ment is widely considered inept, corrupt and protection—are also in need of urgent attention. community and the Afghan government are incapable of meeting the needs of its people. De- Both are within Canada’s realm of expertise, turning to reconciliation and transitional spite such challenges, however, ordinary Afghans and both are crucial to the long-term stability of justice in an effort to end hostilities, Canada are rebuilding their lives; young citizens have Afghanistan and the entire region. has abandoned its reconciliation priority access to education, public institutions are able to in Afghanistan. At the beginning of our provide basic, albeit limited, services and the once Reconciliation engagement, reconciliation had been high on our non-existent private sector is gaining a foothold The plan for Afghanistan is to gradually replace agenda. Indeed, DFAIT declared in 2009 that with economic and trading opportunities. international security forces with domestic only an “Afghan-led, internationally supported Some of these limited successes are due to the authorities by 2014. In order for that to work, reconciliation process can serve to weaken efforts of Canada, which, in making Afghanistan a growing consensus (both inside the country the insurgency, heal communal divisions and our largest recipient of bilateral aid, has poured and out) sees reconciliation of the country’s foster sustainable peace.” And in 2008, Canada $1.2 billion in development and reconstruction warring factions as an essential prerequisite. backed reconciliation with a pledge to support funds into the country in less than a decade. The This means not only opening dialogue with the Afghan-led mechanisms that encourage dialogue, improve the Afghan government’s capacity to “Since 2002, more Canadian defense, diplomacy communicate with its citizens and strengthen Afghan civil society’s capacity to promote and development dollars have been allocated to rapprochement. Our government earmarked $14 Afghanistan than any other country over that million to achieve those goals, a relatively modest sum when set against our other expenditures time. As Canada retreats from its combat role, a in the country, but an important contribution holistic approach to the challenges faced in the nonetheless. region, including a focus on reconciliation and What happened to that money and the impetus behind it? Both have disappeared support for the world’s two largest protracted without explanation. In November 2010, refugee situations, is sorely needed.” when the government outlined Canada’s “new role” and its achievements in Afghanistan to Department of Foreign Affairs and International Taliban and other insurgent groups, but also date, there was no mention of any progress Trade (DFAIT) has acknowledged the need to reintegrating them into all levels of society, on reconciliation or why it might have been address root causes of the conflict, stating in including government. This principle was dropped from our list of priorities. In 2011 2008 that “Afghanistan cannot secure peace affirmed at the first National Consultative Peace quarterly reports to Parliament on Canada’s or realize its governance and development Jirga in Kabul last year that formally pledged engagement in Afghanistan, there is little objectives by military means alone.” That opinion to support Afghan government reconciliation mention of the political reconciliation priority, was echoed by the UN Security Council, which efforts. At the same time, hundreds of Afghan and it is unclear what support, if any, Canada in March of 2010 proclaimed that “there is no elders, community leaders and women’s groups might have provided to support either the High purely military solution to ensure the stability of adopted a declaration that mandates the Council for Peace (the Afghan body responsible Afghanistan.” Afghan government to engage in the peace and for reconciliation) or the Afghanistan Peace and It was against this backdrop in November reconciliation process. Reintegration Program (an Afghan-led initiative 2010 that Canada announced its continued To this end, the Afghan government launched to reintegrate insurgents). engagement in Afghanistan. Dubbed Canada’s a Peace and Reintegration Plan aimed at It remains unclear if Canadian policy-makers “new role,” the post-2011 commitment reaffirms reconciling and reintegrating Taliban and now consider reconciliation as a lost cause or an our longstanding goal of contributing to “a more other insurgents with guarantees of personal unsavoury one. The latter seems probable, given secure, stable and self-sufficient Afghanistan security, grievance resolution and economic that the likely outcome of the process is the that is no longer a safe haven for terrorists.” But incentives. The Afghan government also pledged inclusion of the “enemy” into the government. unlike the 2008-2011 period with its military to revise and re-launch its 2006 Transitional But if fear of that result is what drove our focus on Kandahar province, Canada’s post-2011 Justice Action Plan with the support of civil government to abandon its pursuit, then it engagement will be non-combat and centred in society and the international community. This must be pointed out that the Taliban and other Kabul, with four stated priorities: 1) investing in plan, initially drafted with Canadian support in insurgents are not the only human rights abusers the future of Afghan children and youth through 2004-2005, aims to eliminate impunity, address in Afghanistan—former warlords, organized development programming in education and serious human rights violations and seeks to crime bosses and alleged war criminals are Chapter 7

Afghanistan & Pakistan 28 already part of the Afghan government, placed there by the international community. It is naive and counterproductive to suddenly balk at reconciliation efforts on the grounds that insurgents are human rights abusers. So long as justice and accountability are also on the table, the key to Afghanistan’s long-term stability lies in everyone sitting at it. Refugee Protection Migration from Afghanistan into neighbouring territories predates the formation of modern states with distinct boundaries. Cross-border migration has been facilitated through commercial, ethnic, tribal and kinship ties between the peoples of Afghanistan and their neighbours to the north in Central Asia, west in Iran and east in Pakistan. Longstanding social networks have historically absorbed and cared for the needs of migrating Afghans. But this delicate historic balance has been grossly distorted by the current war. Over three million Afghans have been forced to flee the growing conflict, making them the single greatest policy initiatives. It has been said that relative to words, there is a growing dissatisfaction in the refugee population in the world. Their presence other refugee-receiving states, Canada has been region with the uneven distribution of burdens in neighbouring states has in turn created a generous in its commitment to the resettlement and an emerging consensus that we need to regional disturbance as dangerous as the conflict of Afghan refugees, thereby contributing shift from a paradigm of “burden sharing,” itself. to global burden sharing. Yet our global which in practice has been heavily skewed in The Canadian government, therefore, has commitment is limited to 20,000 refugees per favour of the interests of advanced states, to good reason to formulate a policy response year, only a fraction of which consist of Afghans. one of “responsibility sharing.” In this regard, to refugees fleeing war and persecution. In Canada has endorsed the 2004 UN Multilateral Canada must assume its full share of those doing so, it will be crucial to employ a regional Framework of Understandings on Resettlement responsibilities by significantly increasing approach; above all, this means fully engaging that advances the principle of resettling refugees resettlement quotas and redoubling aid Iran, along with Pakistan, the major recipients as a strategic tool to alleviate the burden on host contributions to host states, given the immense of Afghan refugees and migrants. In the past, states in protracted refugee situations. Yet when developmental challenges posed by the mass Canada has engaged Iran within the context Canada’s 20,000-per-year quota is compared influx of refugees as well as irregular migration. of the UN Refugee Agency, but this has largely with the nearly three million registered refugees Since 2002, Afghanistan has been the single been done through back channels. There is languishing in Pakistan and Iran alone (a most important foreign policy priority of the room for a more open process. In this regard, it figure that would easily double if adjusted to Canadian government. More Canadian defence, is worth noting that the Obama administration include unregistered refugees and unauthorized diplomacy and development dollars have expressed no objections to Iran taking part in migrants), it becomes clear that we are nowhere been allocated to Afghanistan than any other a high-level summit regarding Afghanistan in near where we should be in terms of burden country over that time. As Canada retreats October 2010 to discuss ways to end the war. sharing. from its combat role but continues to provide This “contact group” included the Afghan Conflict-induced displacement surely creates development and training assistance, a holistic government, NATO, the EU, UN and other a moral imperative, if not legal obligation, on the approach to the challenges faced in the region, stakeholders, demonstrating that it is possible to warring parties to care for the needs of those including a focus on reconciliation and support engage the Iranian government on some discrete civilians dislocated by their actions. Yet it should for the world’s two largest protracted refugee policy issues while still expressing disagreement not result in the warehousing of refugees in situations, is sorely needed. and exerting pressure on others. Canada’s host states while Canada seeks to implement status as a relatively neutral middle power increasingly restrictive policies for asylum puts us in a special position to draw Iran into a seekers that reach our shores. collaborative approach on Afghan refugees that In this regard, it was telling that Pakistani would benefit all parties—most obviously the opposition, academic and civil society refugees themselves, but also the international representatives recently stated at a forum community (which can only gain from any act organized by the independent Pakistan Institute of co-operation with Iran) and Canada, whose for Policy Studies that their government should credibility as an international bridge-builder not have signed on to the extension of the would be reaffirmed. Tripartite Agreement (allowing Afghans to It is equally important for Canada to align remain in Pakistan until 2012) without NATO domestic asylum policies with our foreign also being a party to the agreement. In other Chapter 8

Sub-Saharan Africa 29

Sub-Saharan Africa

anada is limiting its engagement with Af- cannot do everything, and may well have been area of education in crisis or conflict situations, rica just when the continent appears set spread too thin in the past. But any realignment because education is perceived as a development C to rise in strategic importance. Despite should never take place in an ad hoc manner that tool solely for peaceful environments. major ongoing problems—a continent with 14 catches our aid partners off guard. Canada would Meanwhile, the loss of opportunity for a whole per cent of the world’s population provides 88 earn more trust and develop better international generation of children—as is happening in per cent of its conflict deaths—the longer view relations if it maintained a consistent and a number of protracted African conflicts— suggests that conditions in Africa are improving transparent approach. In doing so, it will be continues to lay the foundation for new violent overall. Where virtually the entire continent was crucial to discern the dynamics of individual outbreaks. Furthermore, addressing the overrun by dictatorships following the indepen- African countries while accounting for patterns recruitment and use of child soldiers requires dence wave of the 1960s, democracy is today the that affect the continent as a whole. The a frank discussion of causal factors to dismiss rule, proven by a handful of notable exceptions. recommendations that follow have this balance the myth that all child soldiers are forced into Apartheid is gone. According to The Economist, as their guiding principle, while pursuing two service. The provision of education and, with during the past decade, African countries ac- broad themes—promoting peace and security it, the possibility of a peaceful livelihood, is a counted for six of the world’s ten fastest-growing on the one hand, as well as aid and economic crucial next step. economies. And in eight of those years, Africa’s development on the other. While Canadian organizations and individuals growth rates surpassed those of East Asia. The are active in community-level peacebuilding International Monetary Fund (IMF) has also Peace and security activities and projects, government efforts to noted that sub-Saharan Africa was one of the Canada, largely through G8 summit commitments, support peace and security in Africa concentrate fastest regions in the world to bounce back from has long been active in addressing African peace primarily on large-scale institutions and the global economic crisis—and not because it and security issues. The list of our involvements projects. This official approach simplifies the was disconnected from world markets in the includes, but is not limited to: peacekeeper disbursement of funds to a small number of first place (previous global recessions have had training, police capacity building, support for recipients whom we generally trust and can sharper effects), but because governments were the African Peace and Security Architecture easily report on. But it also means a trade- able to strengthen their policy frameworks in (under the African Union), widespread financing off in our ability to stay flexible as conflicts the run-up to the crisis. Twenty of sub-Saharan for reconstruction needs (largely in the area of develop. Grassroots initiatives often have a Africa’s 29 low-income countries increased disarmament, demobilization and reintegration) more immediate impact at the individual and community-level. In Southern Sudan, for “The fact that we are losing influence on the example, very little is being done to address continent at precisely the same time that many the psychosocial trauma of the civil war on individuals and local communities. This lack emerging powers are establishing their presence of effort directly harms these communities’ only heightens our overall loss.” economic development and keeps them vulnerable to future outbreaks of armed conflict. health and education spending in 2009, and the and combating the role of conflict resources A more balanced approach between funding IMF predicts the region’s economy will grow such as oil, diamonds and timber in financing large institutional recipients and community- by nearly six per cent in 2012, matching 2011’s bloodshed. We have also participated in the level initiatives (through mechanisms such as the growth. And then, of course, there are Africa’s majority of African UN peace support operations. Canada Fund for Local Initiatives) would help resources, the least tapped of any continent. But while our involvement in such operations local communities in places like Southern Sudan Anyone who views Africa simply as a drain on and post-conflict situations deserves credit, our heal properly. Given the priority Canada has our foreign aid budget is missing a great number work on preventing conflict and addressing its placed on Sudan (our third largest aid recipient), of opportunities. root causes could be greatly improved. Despite there are clear opportunities for Canada to have Nevertheless, the refocusing of Canada’s being an early proponent of the ‘Responsibility a significant impact in this area. foreign policy has involved a net withdrawal of to Protect’ principle, Canada lacks early warning diplomats, trade and aid missions, development systems that would help us address signs Aid and economic funding, and peace initiatives from the continent. of imminent violent conflict—forewarnings development The damage this has done to our relationship such as rapid economic, social and political With the proliferation of donors, including non- with several African nations (and therefore, to deterioration, as well as controversy over traditional donor states and private foundations, Canada) is already being felt on the world stage. natural resources. Like many in the international there is an ever greater need to collaborate It was a major reason behind our failure to win community, our tendency is to react to conflict and specialize. Non-traditional donors to a seat on the UN Security Council in October after it breaks out—preventive measures are few Africa, such as Saudi Arabia, India, Brazil and 2010. The fact that we are losing influence on the and far between. China, and private organizations, like the Bill continent at precisely the same time that many For instance, we now know that the & Melinda Gates Foundation, are only going to emerging powers are establishing their presence international community shouldn’t aspire to increase their activity on the continent. China, only heightens our overall loss. peacebuilding and statebuilding initiatives for one, recently provided Ghana with a credit There are good arguments to be made for without first establishing long-term civil facility of US$9 billion. Canada should build strategic refocusing. The Government of Canada institutions. Yet Canada does not program in the on the expertise we have already developed in Chapter 8

Sub-Saharan Africa 30 a few key areas, such as education, agriculture potential to enrich both parties, particularly problem and its solution have their roots in the and promoting gender equality. We should when a benevolent government facilitates the loss of livelihoods of Somali fishermen. Similarly, also endeavour to work in contexts where our transaction. By valuing externalities and taxing throwing food aid at countries affected by expertise matches the priorities of the recipient goods and services that fail to produce social famine will not address food insecurity caused countries. This level of predictability would help welfare, we can help create a market for ethical by unsustainable agriculture practices, unstable other donors to create a complementary offer products such as fairly traded commodities or weather patterns due to climate change or and increase the overall effectiveness of aid. organic agriculture. We could also do more to exploitive trade agreements. The Government of Unfortunately, the quality of Canada’s aid subsidize innovations that serve the poor, such Canada cannot be present everywhere and on all delivery is in the doldrums. In a recent World as the “biosand” water filters created at the issues, but we need to take a more strategic and Bank study, “Aid Quality and Donor Rankings,” University of Calgary that have the potential to holistic approach on those areas where we do Canada ranked 29th out of 38 major donors save millions of lives across this continent and choose to act. surveyed. The obstacles to our aid delivery range elsewhere. Unfortunately, the political climate in Ottawa from the average 43 months it takes a proposal So-called twinning is another powerful appears to be increasingly hostile toward to go through the Canadian International development model. Canada’s aid should look to civil society groups who publicly critique our Development Agency’s (CIDA) approval process strengthen partnerships in Africa among Canadian disengagement from Africa, both at home and to the rapidly changing aid priorities advocated and international schools, hospitals, farming co- on that continent. In practical terms, this has by rotating leadership at the agency. This operatives, municipalities, non-governmental translated into a clear preference for NGOs who phenomenon is not limited to Africa, of course, and a more thorough analysis can be found in the “Recent developments in the Sahel, Niger Delta, development section of this publication. Suffice to say that a radical overhaul of CIDA has been African Great Lakes and Madagascar demonstrate needed for some time. how weak governance and instability can pose a CIDA is currently choosing development partners based on “their real needs, their threat to Canadian citizens and our commercial capacity to benefit from aid and their alignment interests through terrorism, unresolved political with Canadian foreign policy priorities.” In and economic grievances, protracted civil wars practice, this often translates into coupling aid with trade and favouring Canada’s economic and undemocratic transitions of power.” partners as aid recipients. This is not necessarily a bad approach, so long as other criteria (such organizations (NGOs), universities and more. are solely involved in service delivery rather as respect for human rights and accountability) Such relationships allow for lasting bilateral than complementary advocacy work and a are also taken into consideration. Such an aid exchanges of expertise among practitioners and worrying trend of stepping away from programs policy should also be made more explicit— make expensive consultants unnecessary. They and organizations that promote women’s rights finding synergies with Canadian international also encourage southern nations to exchange or conduct policy analysis and development. investors can indeed yield tangible results, but capacities and experiences among each other, Groups who have been publicly critical of the the perception that we are doing so on the sly is precisely the kind of independence that is the goal government’s aid policy or who no longer fit hurting our credibility. of development work. with CIDA’s list of ever-changing priorities In fact, we should be anything but shy when (such as KAIROS, Match International and it comes to leveraging market forces. The Conclusion the Canadian Council for International Co- Canadian government should be thinking and Instead of withdrawing, now is the time for operation) have seen their federal funding cut planning how to assist Canadian businesses, Canada to re-engage with Africa. The continent drastically. But in a healthy democracy, civil organizations and citizens to engage responsibly is, among other things, a growing consumer debate and oversight of government policy is and effectively with their counterparts in market and supplier of strategic natural crucial for accountability and the generation Africa. After all, Canadian corporations, resources. We should be fostering positive of new ideas. In the longer term, these groups particularly in the extractive sector, have a investments that benefit all parties. In terms of play a vital role in engaging the public and much greater footprint in Africa than does the security, our interests in building or maintaining influencing the aid policy agenda. Canadian government, yet they receive far less peace on the continent are equally vital. Recent Building on our previous experience—in public attention and virtually no government developments in the Sahel, Niger Delta, African peacekeeping, education, gender mainstreaming regulation. With that caveat in mind, we should Great Lakes and Madagascar demonstrate how and civil society strengthening, to name a few— look at this dynamic continent as a source of new weak governance and instability can pose a governments in Canada and abroad, working trading and investment opportunities, not only threat to Canadian citizens and our commercial with civil society organizations on the ground, as aid recipients or the source of humanitarian interests through terrorism, unresolved political should develop a holistic policy framework for crises. and economic grievances, protracted civil wars Africa that builds synergies across Canadian However, there are few indications and undemocratic transitions of power. government departments (trade, aid and that Canada’s trade and foreign policy is We should be wary of reducing the continent’s defence), countries in the region and common addressing the growing reality of Africa as a challenges to single issues such as famine, piracy challenges. It isn’t just Africa that will benefit consumer market and supplier of strategic or conflict-diamonds—problems that, ultimately, from such an approach. Canada will, too. natural resources. As the BRIC countries well are but manifestations of deeper system failures. know, there is money to be made in Africa. Somalia’s piracy will not be resolved solely by Open and honest business dealings have the interdiction and maritime patrols. Both the POSTCARDS FROM THE FIELD 31

I eventually realized that my camera and my presence in the village had only brought to the surface existing tensions. I like to think that I had merely been a catalyst. But there are many questions I still reflect on. What is the meaning and consequences of “our” presence in developing countries? Do developing countries tend to rely on our aid because of how history has shaped our relationship?

Li ke waTER for gold by Alexandra Sicotte-Levesque

“The white woman with the test results The water indeed had high contents hoped I would bring solutions to their is here to talk to you,” announced of manganese from the village pipes problems. People were now fighting. Francis Kwesi Blay, Assemblyman for and other contaminants in nearby As Joanna put it then, “youth are the town of Prestea, in Western Ghana. streams. I felt the villagers had the right fighting with the leaders, the leaders I was the white woman. About fifty to be made aware of the results, but are fighting with the people working people had gathered in the outdoor I didn’t want to create any confusion. with the white people, everyone is town hall to listen to me despite the Many of them asked me to announce fighting.” That day, I left the village with excruciating heat. The camera was the results in a public meeting. I a heavy heart. What had I done? rolling. Standing there, looking at these hesitated for a long time, and asked When I returned some months men and women who seemed full of Joanna Nkrumah, the main character later, everything in the village had hope, I wondered if I was creating false of my film and a local activist, for returned to normal. Joanna and expectations. some advice. “Thank you, you care others were happy to see me again. I had come to the village of Dumasi for us,” she said. Joanna, passionate I eventually realized that my camera to make a film which would document and determined, encouraged me to and my presence in the village had the community’s struggle against the speak publicly about the results. But only brought to the surface existing impacts of Golden Star Resources, she warned me, “the local leaders are tensions. I like to think that I had a Canadian gold mining company. being bribed by the company, and they merely been a catalyst. But there are Environmental degradation, loss of don’t want you here. The company will many questions I still reflect on. What farmlands, unemployment and water know what you said because some of is the meaning and consequences pollution were some of the many the leaders will tell them.” of “our” presence in developing problems faced by the community. The day after my so-called public countries? Do developing countries There were many controversies announcement, rumours were already tend to rely on our aid because of how surrounding the quality of the drinking going around the village. One of the history has shaped our relationship? water provided by the company in the local leaders confronted me, asking While I ponder on these questions, I village and the surrounding streams. me about the water that could “kill by think of Joanna welcoming me into her I had decided to carry some water causing boils and tuberculosis.” My home with open arms, eager to tell me samples to the UK for testing, and a few worst fears had been confirmed. What her story. I feel lucky I had the chance months later, I had returned to Ghana I had said had been misunderstood to meet such an extraordinary woman. with a piece of paper in my hands. and perhaps even twisted. People had

It is estimated that 60% of the world’s exploration companies are Canadian, and in 2008 these companies held over $20 billion in mining assets in Africa, leading one commentator to dub Canada “the quiet powerhouse” in mining on the continent. For more information about Alexandra’s film,When Silence is Golden, about the activities of one Canadian mining company in Western Ghana, visit www.when-silence-is-golden.org. POSTCARDS FROM THE FIELD 32

I put on my protective gear and walked into the cleared area marked by red tape in the middle of the minefield. While the de-miners were working, I watched in horror as two women with baskets full of clothing crossed over the red tape from the safe area into the minefield, heading for a large puddle of rainwater. I was shocked that no one stopped them before I realized that they had nowhere else to bathe and wash their clothes—something that mine-risk education cannot solve.

A Treacherous Road by Jessica Oliver

I have arrived safely in Juba, southern flipped near Pabbo IDP camp. We took Resistance Army. These landmines, Sudan. The distance from Gulu, the driver to hospital, but tragically, he RPGs, and UXOs line the road to Juba northern Uganda overland is only 400 severed his spinal cord and is paralyzed and threaten the lives and livelihoods of kilometres but the treacherous journey from the neck down. I still haven’t men, women, and children from nearby took two full days. I was warned by processed this. villages. I put on my protective gear and friends in Gulu not to fly from Kampala Juba is a dusty town with green jebel walked into the cleared area marked by to Juba because there have been trees against the skyline and mango red tape in the middle of the minefield. terrorist threats on the airplanes during trees lining the gorgeous river Nile. I While the de-miners were working, I the April 2010 election. I was warned walk to my interviews with education watched in horror as two women with not to take the bus from Gulu to Juba stakeholders in full African dress and baskets full of clothing crossed over because it leaves at 4 am from the passersby call out “You are Sudanese!” the red tape from the safe area into the front of a brothel and it flies over the or “You have beautiful kitenge, kawaja minefield, heading for a large puddle mountain passes at Nimule, crashing mama!” I want to take pictures, but of rainwater. I was shocked that no one frequently. So, I managed to get a lift it’s illegal here and there are Sudan stopped them before I realized that they with a 5-car convoy of Zimbabwean People’s Liberation Army soldiers had nowhere else to bathe and wash de-miners who were moving equipment everywhere. their clothes—something that mine-risk from Congo to their base in Sudan. I am staying at the de-miners education cannot solve. The road from Gulu to Juba is deadly. compound here in Juba and they I came to learn about education in While rebel groups like the Lord’s invited me to go to Jebelen to see post-conflict southern Sudan, but I Resistance Army (LRA) no longer carry them work: destroying the landmines, ended up learning as much about the out ambushes here, the road is barely rocket propelled grenades (RPG), and hazards that the southern Sudanese passable due to huge potholes which other unexploded ordnances (UXO) face everyday, most of whom have are filled with water in the rainy season. that are left over from decades of civil never had the chance to go to school. We crawled at 20 kms an hour, but war between northern and southern even so, one of the cars in the convoy Sudan, and battles with the Lord’s

According to the Canada Landmine Foundation, it is estimated that there are 45-50 million landmines in the ground in 70 countries, which kill or maim 10,000 people every year. In 1999, spearheaded by Canada, the Ottawa treaty to ban landmines came into force. Aimed not only to stop production and deployment of anti-personnel mines, but also to clear all mined areas and provide assistance to mine-affected persons. Jessica’s fellowship work, focused on implementing mini- mum education standards in post-conflict settings, is a perfect example of the many ways the legacies of conflict undermine reconstruction and development. Chapter 9

Latin America & the Caribbean 33

Latin America & the Caribbean

hen Stephen Harper proclaimed negotiations with the 15 countries that form and Colombia (where Canadian gold mining in the 2007 Throne Speech that the Caribbean Community, and it will no doubt juniors are the biggest players in the field), it is W “engagement in the Americas is play a role in the other negotiations playing out the extractive sector. According to the Canadian a critical international priority,” he ushered in simultaneously in Central and South America. Council for International Co-operation, the a series of foreign policy shifts that have seen There are good arguments for coupling aid Canada-Colombia FTA “provides what is Latin America and the Caribbean move quietly with trade, but the ghost of tied aid lingers arguably the most effective enforcement regime to the centre of Canada’s international gaze. Our over them all. It was only in 2008 that Canada ever incorporated into trade agreements because involvement in Afghanistan remains our single officially agreed to untie all of its official it can be invoked by countless third-party private largest foreign expenditure of cash and diplo- development assistance (ODA) by 2012, making investors who may recover substantial damages matic energy, but as that commitment winds us one of the last donor countries in the world for their efforts.” As an important corollary, the same council concluded that “there are no “Free trade agreements, indigenous partnerships, concomitant obligations in relation to investor conduct.” development programs and foreign investment While it is generally true that ordinary citizens into resource extraction all represent huge have a legal right to sue a multinational, the opportunities for Canada to enjoy a mutually financial clout and political connections enjoyed by the extractive industry ensure that the process beneficial relationship with the Americas.” is tilted against the overwhelmingly poor and rural demographic it most often clashes with. fitfully down, Canada’s investments in our own to do so. Just as tied aid had the potential to turn This amounts to an infraction of minority rights hemisphere are clearly on the rise. Free trade help into harm—for instance, by forcing recipient that all too easily leads to violent conflict. Seen in agreements, indigenous partnerships, develop- nations to buy Canadian wheat rather than invest this light, unfettered foreign investment—which ment programs and foreign investment into in their own agriculture—the new emphasis on we increasingly demand in exchange for aid resource extraction all represent huge opportu- combining trade and aid should be examined for dollars—runs the risk of hindering the quest for nities for Canada to enjoy a mutually beneficial effect as well as intent. security. If Latin America’s newfound stability is relationship with the Americas. We should keep a particularly close watch to take root, Canada should try harder to include Our government has elaborated three pillars on Canada’s mining, oil and gas interests, minority groups in its definition of prosperity. of the Americas Strategy on which to manage which now make up the third biggest source of We must regulate industry so that it does indeed these investments: good governance, prosperity, foreign direct investment in Latin America and bring the wealth it promises, with no conflicting and security. A closer look at what is actually the Caribbean. Canadian mining and energy side effects. happening on the ground, however, suggests companies spend far more than the $500 million three different categories where Canada’s CIDA distributes throughout the region each Indigenous rights footprint in the Americas either does, or could, year, and it is fair to say that their CEOs enjoy Indigenous peoples comprise the most obvious truly make a different: trade, indigenous rights, greater access to Canadian diplomats and foreign minority group in much of Latin America and development. politicians alike than the average citizen of and the Caribbean. Indeed, the indigenous either country. Given the many documented character underpinning much of Latin American Trade and aid cases of environmental and human rights abuses society reflects many aspects of the Canadian Ever since the proposed Free Trade Area of committed by Canadian extractives throughout experience. In terms of both need and expertise, the Americas collapsed in 2005, Canada has not just Latin America but the world, all efforts then, this a key area where Canada could been aggressively pursuing bilateral trade deals should be made to put an effective regulatory increase its strategic involvement. Given that the across the region, with access to development structure in place that could enforce responsible resource companies often represent significant assistance being one of our key bargaining corporate behavior. threats to and opportunities for these cultures, chips. This link between trade and aid is one Unfortunately, the one piece of legislation Canada’s chance to demonstrate leadership is of the most tangible characteristics of our that sought to do exactly that—Bill C-300, An also a responsibility to carry out our part of the heightened “engagement” in Latin America and Act Respecting Corporate Accountability for the bargain. the Caribbean. Peru and Colombia, with whom Activities of Mining, Oil or Gas Corporations Canada’s presence in Bolivia, though limited, we implemented Free Trade Agreements in 2009 in Developing Countries—was defeated in deserves mention in this regard. Bolivia, whose and 2010 respectively, were both added to the Parliament in October 2010. Corporate Social government takes a stern view of foreign Canadian International Development Agency’s Responsibility, the code of ethics promoted by investment and refuses even to discuss free (CIDA) “countries-of-focus” list at the beginning industry and government alike as the answer to trade, recently drafted a new constitution of 2009 amid an overall reduction that saw six environmental and human rights abuses, thus mandating the creation of autonomous regions African nations struck from the same list. In remains a voluntary philosophy rather than a set for each of its indigenous peoples. The logistical 2011, we concluded negotiations for an FTA of laws. implications of such a task are a major challenge, with Honduras, also on CIDA’s list of priority Meanwhile, if there is one lobby that benefits and Canada has offered to lend the Bolivians countries. Increased development assistance from free trade agreements (FTA) like those some of our administrative expertise. We are is also an explicit aspect of current free trade we have with resource-rich countries like Peru certainly in a unique position to do so among Chapter 9

Latin America & the Caribbean 34

major western powers—American relations with consent before any development takes place on and consumption are by no means universally Bolivia are almost hostile, while the European or affecting their lands. This right continues applicable. To the contrary, they are already Union has virtually no indigenous experience to be trampled, often with the collusion of the unsustainable at current levels. Throughout of its own. Canada’s own history of negotiating Canadian government that, it must be said, faces Latin America and the Caribbean, distant, autonomy with First Nations is checkered to say similar charges on its own soil. If Canada were to insatiable markets are threatening traditional the least, often including stonewalling tactics pursue indigenous rights with the same attention lifestyles that have adapted over centuries of that have delayed negotiations for decades. But to detail as we pursue corporate rights in our interaction with the local environment. We there have been some successes, and so long as FTA framework, such deals could eventually should consider the alternative societies that our own indigenous leadership is included in become part of the solution. remain, however poor, as one of the continent’s the process, we stand to play a positive role in Instead, CIDA has a multinational project greatest resources. A proper foreign policy would seek to nurture these societies through, “If Canada were to pursue indigenous rights with for example, a more enlightened version of the same attention to detail as we pursue corporate the Indigenous People’s Partnership Program and treat projects with them as collaborations, rights in our FTA framework, such deals could rather than the assimilation efforts they so often eventually become part of the solution.” resemble today. Finally, no discussion of the Americas would Bolivia’s autonomy project. It would be hard called the Indigenous Peoples Partnership be complete without mentioning Brazil, the to imagine a better opportunity to act on our Program that aims to establish networks rising power of our hemisphere. Brazil has stated priority of encouraging good governance. between indigenous communities in Canada benefitted hugely from the fact that it only holds Incidentally, it would also buy us some influence and Latin America through a wide range of elections once every 7 years, freeing the country with one of the most influential countries in programs such as student exchange, professional somewhat from the relentless election cycle the hemisphere after the United States, for workshops and craft schools. Sub-statal without divorcing it from democracy. Stability Venezuela is a close ally to Bolivia. partnerships like these are indeed crucial to and progressive governance have enabled Brazil Unfortunately, our attention to indigenous the growth of civil society among indigenous to harness its large population and enormous peoples has been less rigorous in other peoples and other groups. Unfortunately, the resource base, placing it among the top four regions, as indigenous leaders continue to program has recently narrowed its recipient list emerging powers alongside China, India and suffer persecution from Mexico to Argentina. to those groups that include entrepreneurship or Russia. Canada can and should put more effort Together with union leaders, they are the group resource extraction in their project. into engaging this dynamo through trade at highest risk of assassination for opposing missions, diplomatic overtures, and development free trade agreements, resource extraction and Development agreements. This is all the more important in the the “development” of traditional territories. Such pro-business decisions raise some basic context of a US decline in political and economic In 2009, for example, a months-long protest questions about our approach to development clout. Moving into the 21st century, a strong against oil and gold extraction in Peru’s northern work in places like Latin America. Too often, relationship with Brazil will help fill that partial Amazon region exploded in violence when Canada and other donor countries have failed to vacuum and ensure Canada’s good standing with government soldiers opened fire on unarmed listen to our partners to learn their priorities, a our Latin American neighbours. native protesters. At issue was the question of key component of the 2005 Paris Declaration on informed consent. According to Convention 169 Aid Effectiveness. Our development programs of the International Labor Organization—ratified have assumed that, with minor variations, by every country in the region, if not yet by ours is the only model to pursue. But the Canada—indigenous populations must give their western emphasis on wealth, convenience POSTCARDS FROM THE FIELD 35

Mamani and his charges accompanied me on foot to the border. They had no vehicle and just the staples they brought in for their two month rotation. The Sergeant showed me a small pool stocked with trout he was raising to supplement their paltry rations. He was beam- ing, but they weren’t bigger than six inches long and only underscored the desperation of his situation.

Sergeant Mamani by Brendan Mulligan

I negotiated vicuña (a wild relative three sides, cabbage-sized cobbles on have demonstrated significant efforts of the llama) droppings and was the fourth. I couldn’t imagine the barrier to cooperate on the issue of Silala. In careful not let cactus spines puncture protecting the soldiers from anything 2004, their Ministries of Foreign Affairs my soles as I walked the sinuous other than wind. I snapped a picture of struck a working group on Silala, Silala basin in Bolivia’s portion of the the red letters, SENTINELS OF SILALA, which would meet several times in the Atacama Desert. I was approaching the painted below the eaves before I was ensuing years and eventually yield a Silala Advanced Military Post, a mere spotted and a soldier scolded me to draft preliminary bilateral agreement on stone’s throw from where the waters lower my camera. the use of the waters. The construction of Silala flow across the Bolivian- Sargeant Mamani and his seven- of the Advanced Military Post appeared Chilean border. An international man platoon came to greet me and to be serious saber-rattling but, upon dispute over the rights to the waters I promptly handed them some dried closer inspection, was a little more than has been unfolding since 1997, when spaghetti and a box of tea, thinking this a harmless way to establish a Bolivian the Bolivian government revoked a is just what the isolated bunch would presence in the watershed. concession awarded to a Chilean be craving. “Got any reading material?” Mamani and his charges company a hundred years prior. barked Mamani. “We finished the Bible accompanied me on foot to the border. In 2006, Bolivian president Evo long ago.” They had no vehicle and just the Morales inaugurated the military base in He wasn’t kidding; when not in basic staples they brought in for their two the watershed and publicly discussed training, baking bread in their adobe month rotation. The Sergeant showed a plan to bottle the water and sell it oven, or off hunting vicuña, Mamani’s me a small pool stocked with trout he with the slogan “Drink Silala water crew had been engaged in bible was raising to supplement their paltry for sovereignty”. It was a decidedly studies. “We’ve got to keep busy out rations. He was beaming, but they provocative action and I wanted to see here.” weren’t bigger than six inches long and if the base was as threatening as it Despite sensationalist reports (the only underscored the desperation of appeared from afar. watershed has been called the only his situation. I spotted an empty soda What looked like a red-brick “high risk” basin in South America bottle discarded in Bolivian territory: schoolhouse with a corrugated metal by the United Nations Environment PRODUCTO CHILENO. Mamani looked roof came into view. The building was Programme) and a lack of official at me, unworried. “They’ve been on our surrounded by a perimeter of brick on diplomatic relations, Bolivia and Chile side.”

Transboundary aquifers account for 60% of the world’s freshwater resources. Managing them in an era of increasing water scarcity—in which it has been said that the next wars will be fought over water—is one of the most pressing global chal- lenges we face. Brendan’s fellowship work sought to better understand the legal, political, social, historical and scientific context of one such watershed, the Silala/Siloli basin straddling Bolivia and Chile, and he found significant evidence of cooperation, despite much political posturing. Chapter 10

Emerging Powers 36

Emerging Powers

ow that dialogue on the world economy occurred precisely because emerging states agreements that most investors are more likely has shifted from the hands of eight selectively adapted best-practice policy to sign when tempted by huge market potential. N leading nations to the G20, a new in- advice emanating from western nations such And in those countries where China is the ternational balance is coming into focus that will as Canada and the institutions of the global investor, it has the strength to drive an equally force Canadians to re-examine many dearly-held North. The West’s Washington Consensus- hard bargain. notions. Canada’s economy, already down to 10th based approach, with its focus on economic and On the other hand, there are ways around place by the time the G20 first met in 2008, can financial deregulation, privatization and reduced size. Regional agreements like South America’s be expected to slip further to 17th by 2050 as the government spending, was designed to eliminate Mercosur or Asia’s Association of Southeast Asian newcomers surpass it. Rather than perceive this the very policy tools that many emerging Nations (ASEAN) can give smaller countries more as a threat, we should consider the opportuni- economies used to stave off contagion. In our heft since they bring an economic bloc to the ties presented by the emergence of countries rush to plug everyone into the global economy, table. Taking it one step further, now that China like China, India, Brazil and others onto the we overlooked the long-term consequences of and ASEAN have signed a free trade agreement, world stage. The fact that Canada spearheaded removing government resources and influence ASEAN has given itself another negotiating the G20’s creation is itself a hopeful sign, for in from national economies, leaving it instead chip vis-à-vis foreign investors. Moreover, poor doing so we ensured our continued presence at to the magic of the market. As usual, actions countries of any size with natural resources, one of the principal fora where global policy and speak louder than words—the United States, strategic geographies and politics, and/or local development issues (to date the domain of the for instance, adopted the exact reverse of fiscal knowledge can leverage such investments G8) will be discussed. The new voices should be retrenchment rather than face its own crisis- to advance other national objectives, such as welcomed. As the global financial crisis suggests, induced structural-adjustment medicine. industrial diversification. This is the very tactic we ignore them at our peril. Of course, emerging powers are not all the China has used to foster homegrown industries The shift toward a multipolar world order same, and these distinctions deserve closer from finance to renewable energy technologies to comes amid pressing global challenges. attention. In economic terms, China is already trains, planes and automobiles. Addressing issues such as climate change, employment, poverty and inequality are hard “The shift toward a multipolar world order comes enough as it is. Under the backdrop of already amid pressing global challenges.” sensitive conditions of economic slowdown in advanced industrialized nations, these the world’s second largest economy after the To some extent, growing resource demands challenges are truly unprecedented. Given that United States, whom it is projected to eclipse and outward investment flows from emerging one-third of the G20 nations are Asian, it’s worth by 2050, with India and Brazil also in the top countries, particularly China, have already raised considering the Hindu proverb, Bandar kya jaane five at that time. These countries’ presence will flags in other developing countries to utilize this adrak ka swad—“What does a monkey know of increasingly be felt in regions where Canada new source of leverage. By all means, maximum the taste of ginger?”—meaning that those who plies its trade. China has already surpassed leverage should be applied to these new global do not understand, cannot appreciate. How, for us as a source of U.S. imports, accounting for players to get the best deal for investment and instance, did so many emerging economies avoid 18.5 per cent while we now provide less than access to these resources. But, in line with this the full brunt of the global recession? Why are 15 per cent. Moreover, China is now the main altered landscape, maximum leverage should they recovering more quickly? How will their trading partner in countries from Chile to also be applied to traditional global players. As transactions with other emerging powers affect South Africa. Increasingly, then, Canadian Rob Davies, South African Trade and Industry our own international relationships? Canada’s economic engagement in the United States, Minister, rightly pointed out: “We don’t just socio-economic future and its clout on the global along with multilateral development initiatives have to sign on the dotted line whatever is stage hinge on understanding and appreciating (such as in Africa, where the UN Millennium shoved under our noses any longer. We now have such questions. They are vital to Canada’s Development Goals face the most obstacles) alternatives, and that’s to our benefit.” investment in a clean, competitive tomorrow. and our considerable Latin American resource The precise economic conditions spurring investments, will see us rubbing shoulders with on the emerging powers vary from country to An altered landscape the BRIC and other major players. country, and we must adapt each situation to We live in a global economic system held For many observers, it is tempting to equate our own context just as they have done with together by supply chains and lubricated by the growing weight of emerging nations our advice. Their collective emergence does, financial flows. One would thus expect the with their respective population size. And in however, inspire some suggestions on how major markets of the world to be collectively some ways, particularly in leveraging foreign Canada can plug into the world of tomorrow. affected when a serious recession hits two investment, it is true that size does matter. major economies, the United States and the China once again sets the bar when it comes Striking a balance European Union. Yet this was not the case. to convincing foreign companies to agree to, between new and old The phenomenon of “de-coupling” has gained say, technology transfer, local content and The United States will continue to be of great potency, as emerging nations shielded their research and development (R&D). These importance to Canada in the future, but so economies from the worst of the firestorm. It conditions generally help to improve the quality will China, India, Brazil, Russia, Indonesia, is crucial to recognize that this de-coupling and spillover impacts of foreign investment, Mexico, South Africa and other emerging POSTCARDS FROM THE FIELD 37

Governments have a clear choice to make: continue to build on the legally binding targets and timetable approach, enshrined in the Kyoto Protocol, or revert to a voluntary pledge-and-re- view type arrangement. It will forever remain a mystery to me how anyone could think that saving the planet from climate change is a voluntary endeavour !

Tilting at Windmills by Claire Stockwell

Advocacy in any forum can be a tough 60-plus page narrative and 90-plus building agreement in Copenhagen job. Frequently those who ‘hold the page legal text of what a fair, ambitious that would build on the multilateral pen,’ so to speak, are not interested and legally binding deal could be. My architecture created by the Kyoto in listening to the views of civil society, own involvement in this project followed Protocol. Against the backdrop of and it is a constant challenge to come a similar trajectory from just working devastating Pakistani floods, Russian up with innovative ways to be heard. on the technology section to drafting forest fires and Chinese landslides, Sometimes it takes the form of novel both the narrative and legal texts! 2010 saw the negotiations go from bad campaigns, other times it is about While much had been written about the to worse and the timeline for reaching launching the right report at the right post-2012 climate regime, this was the a fair, ambitious and legally binding time. Both are easier said than done, first time anyone had ever attempted global deal to stop dangerous climate but when you get it right, you can really to put all of the pieces together in a change continually extended. And, get it right. comprehensive package. The proposal following the Durban talks in November My fellowship research focused on was launched in June 2009 on the 2011, the Canadian government made the role of technology transfer in the margins of the negotiations and the official the result of years of inaction international negotiations. Technology response was remarkable. Instead of on this file: Canada would formally is one of the key building blocks having to run after negotiators to ask for withdraw from its commitments under of any global climate deal. This meetings, governments were contacting the Kyoto protocol. Governments have research allowed me to contribute us with requests to meet. In the half a clear choice to make: continue to to the civil society version of what a dozen years I have been involved in build on the legally binding targets and post-2012 global climate deal should the international negotiations, the door timetable approach, enshrined in the look like. What started off as a small to speaking with policy-makers had Kyoto Protocol, or revert to a voluntary brainstorming session amongst a never opened so wide. It was the right pledge-and-review type arrangement. few people in the corridors of the product at the right time to help get our It will forever remain a mystery to me climate negotiations in Accra, Ghana, message across. how anyone could think that saving in August 2008, snowballed into a Unfortunately, the post-script of the planet from climate change is a collaborative effort by 48 individuals this story is nowhere near as positive. voluntary endeavour! from 19 different countries to draft a Governments failed to produce a legally

In international climate negotiations, technology transfer is one of three key building blocks for a post-2012 climate agree- ment (the other two are financing for adaptation and, of course, emission reductions). Many emerging and developing economies, including China where Claire conducted her research, have made it clear that they will accept no reductions in carbon dioxide (CO2 ) emissions without agreements in place for the technology and the financing to adapt to climate change impacts. Chapter 10

Emerging Powers 38

powers. Investing in trade missions, cultural and capricious American market. Just as China has broker nation to uncover the middle ground on educational exchanges, diplomatic relationships prospered by fostering capacity along its supply climate change, which is inherently intertwined and economic agreements with the emerging chain, Canada should invest its resource rents with ongoing deadlock in other key areas such powers while seeking to remain competitive in fostering secondary and tertiary industries. as international economic governance and trade in the United States and Mexico (e.g., North Manufacturing is a key sector that both uses and negotiations. American regional co-operation) will be key. creates services, uses resources and conducts This is true particularly in a G20 economic significant amounts of R&D. This is not to suggest Of deeds proverbial world, but also for multilateral, diplomatic and strict protectionism, but it does call for a sharper There is a crucial corollary to Canada’s quest development co-operation on global issues. focus on a well-balanced economy that can for global influence: our obligations and With Canada’s dependence on the U.S. market a weather external impacts. responsibilities toward the global poor and glaring source of vulnerability for our domestic those living under situations of duress. A huge economy, there is no better time to boost and Protecting and proportion of them live in the very countries diversify trade and investment patterns with experimenting with now emerging as our competitors. By continuing these new sources of long-term growth. what works to bring attention and assistance to reducing Certain industries, such as Canada’s cultural, inequality, Canada has a real opportunity to Prioritizing capacity transport and telecommunications sectors, are demonstrate that prosperity needn’t come building vital to Canada’s identity and economy. The at someone else’s expense. Our leadership in To enable our own sources of leverage, Canada same is true for Canada’s natural environment this regard could well play a critical role in should significantly boost its physical and and biodiversity. At the very least, these cementing international relations into the future. human investments in its science, technology industries are important for establishing and innovation capabilities. This would promote Canada’s brand as a country, which is significant linkages with emerging powers that are hungry in promoting other countries’ goodwill toward for co-operative international initiatives to help us and our ability to win support for Canadian address some of their most pressing social and leadership in international fora. In key sectors economic challenges. While such measures where Canada has lagged, such as renewable are worthwhile in their own right, a keen energies and technologies, the policy community emphasis on possible spin-off and joint-venture must be willing to boldly experiment with opportunities would build strong foundations measures to ensure Canada is at the forefront of for strategic new relationships. Complementary these industries of the future. support for policy research focused on emerging countries is also critical to better understand Pre-empting the future these dynamic and evolving economies. climate crisis Without a doubt, one of the central challenges Putting our resources of the present and the future is adaptation to to best use changing climate patterns. Investing in the Canada is blessed with abundant natural resources transition to a low-carbon economy and in such as lumber and oil that will continue to be in sustainable technologies will prove to be a key high demand. This calls for a close examination driver of economic growth in Canada. With of our historic identity as “hewers of wood and international agreement remaining frustratingly drawers of water,” in particular with regard to a elusive, the scene is set for an activist honest- Chapter 11

ARCTIC 39

ARCTIC

n July 2009, the Canadian government “Prairie Provinces Strategy” in Ottawa. indigenous rights. unveiled a comprehensive policy regard- Sovereignty is perhaps the most prominent Moreover, northern indigenous peoples’ I ing Canada’s North. The document, entitled pillar of Prime Minister Stephen Harper’s historical relationship with the Canadian state Canada’s Northern Strategy: Our North, Our Heri- Northern Strategy, receiving the bulk of its has in the main been a deeply negative one, tage, Our Future outlines public investment and financial investment, mainly in the form of marked by over half a century of submission activity in four strategic areas: Exercising Arctic military hardware and infrastructure. But while to the norms and demands of military security. Sovereignty, Promoting Social and Economic Ottawa addresses sovereignty in the North by Our government has a reputation for asserting Development, Protecting the Environment and constructing a deepwater port and strengthening Arctic sovereignty at the expense of the people Improving and Devolving Northern Gover- the presence of the Canadian Armed Forces, who live there. Events like the forced relocation nance. One year after the Northern Strategy was Northerners frame the discussion in a different of Inuit families to the high Arctic are not revealed, the same four goals were prioritized in manner. For them, any discussion of sovereignty easily forgotten, even after the welcome federal the “Arctic Foreign Policy Statement” released by should be focused on indigenous rights and government apology made in August 2010. This then Foreign Affairs Minister Lawrence Cannon. self-determination. The issue of sovereignty checkered “security” narrative will have to be These two documents suggest that, as far as the is a local one in the North since in many cases reconciled with Northerners’ direct experience Arctic is concerned, domestic policy and foreign true sovereignty over the land has never been before sovereignty can be well and truly claimed. policy are deeply intertwined. In other words, universally established. Does the Crown possess Canada’s engagement in the circumpolar world it? Do the Inuit? Do Dene? The extent to which Protecting the begins at home and our international Arctic this question is unclear to Northerners may environment leadership depends largely on what we can surprise policy-makers in Southern Canada. Climate change is the single issue that brings all achieve inside our borders. Based on these four In the North, perspectives are often shaped Northern realities together and is the confluence priorities, this chapter analyzes what is, or could in small communities, even though the of so many other issues within the North. It is be, a unified Arctic policy. framework for policy discourse may trickle global and local, economic and social. It affects down from international bodies such as the UN ongoing issues around resource extraction and Exercising Arctic and Arctic Council, an eight-nation circumpolar land use, which are highly contentious to begin sovereignty body. For the most part, people on the ground with. There are social impacts of climate change For many Northerners, attention from the federal do not perceive their struggles as overtly rights- that exacerbate the effects of poverty, inadequate government is warmly welcomed. However, based, so even well-intentioned policies like the housing and addiction, already too widespread Ottawa’s Northern Strategy was developed UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous in the North. without consulting northern indigenous leaders Peoples lack meaning in the very communities On a positive note, several strong leaders have or even Northerners more broadly. Many in they are intended to benefit. There is no direct emerged and made great progress in melding the North were left puzzled as to how these translation, for example, of “indigenous rights” the discourse on climate change with that of four pillars were conceived. Quite tellingly, the into Inuktitut. Perhaps the closest translation indigenous rights. Mary Simon and Sheila Watt- location of the strategy announcement—in the is “the way things ought to be.” The fight for Cloutier are prime examples, having articulated bowels of Ottawa’s Museum of Civilization— indigenous rights is grounded in a struggle for the “Inuit right to be cold.” Their voices offer was a world away from the communities the recognition of a distinct way of life, one that a crucial counter-argument to the claim (often heard in southern Canada) that climate change will be beneficial to the Inuit because it will open “Canada’s engagement in the circumpolar world the region to a resource boom. However, such begins at home and our international Arctic a view ignores the reality that the Inuit have a leadership depends largely on what we can achieve unique connection with place, to say nothing of the lessons history has taught them about the inside our borders.” negative impact of resource booms on local and indigenous populations. document would impact. The event indicated revolves fundamentally around language and This discourse—the central role of land to Northerners that this was just another culture. For northern communities, the more (understood to include water) in the indigenous imposition of southern politics and priorities tangible issues surrounding land, food, water, world view—is divided at the national level. One on a remarkably unique and diverse area of family and the health of the community itself side is supportive of the federal government the country. Imagine the uproar that would be are paramount. Yet this grounding in place position that seeks to separate Aboriginal caused by announcing an “Atlantic Strategy” or is all too often left out of official dialogue on peoples from place. This argument frames rights Chapter 11

ARCTIC 40

as dependent upon the state and can be seen in determinants of health, education outcomes, culture unstable, while the indigenous current national policies on land claims and self– and poverty, among others. So while the goal of Permanent Participants receive less funding than government. These policies define and restrict Northern development should be the creation before. In fact, Canada tried bypassing the Arctic the use of land and environment by Northern of citizens who are able to walk confidently in Council by supporting a parallel process with the indigenous communities in accordance with both the indigenous and the western worlds, five oil-producing Arctic coastal states, thereby western norms and jurisprudence. the pattern of investment is arguably creating excluding the participation of indigenous Meanwhile, others hope to change the generations who are ill-equipped to walk representatives. Lamentably, Canada has let the discourse from one that is focused on law and the properly in either. power and legitimacy of the Council wither to state to something more inclusive of indigenous The Arctic Governance Project, an the point where its future is now unclear. But philosophy and world views. This new discourse independent international initiative looking into Canada is not alone in its lukewarm support must be founded on the indigenous notion of ways of strengthening governance at multiple to this body; other circumpolar states have attachment to the land and a different approach levels in the circumpolar world, has found that demonstrated varying degrees of enthusiasm for toward resource management, culture and effective indigenous governance is already in the Council since its creation. language. A concrete example of this is the place across much of the Arctic. Canada would Dehcho Process, in which the Dehcho First be doubly wise to respect its historic land Promoting social and Nations are seeking more control over land and claim treaties, because they can be leveraged economic development resources in lieu of cash to settle their land claim. internationally to bolster Canada’s Arctic If national decision-makers truly wish to see the Nor does the current federal approach sovereignty claims. These land claim settlements Arctic prosper, then they must value the people comprehend the idea that environmental damage are recognized not only within Canada, but also who inhabit it. This means viewing the North is experienced as social suffering. Currently, across the circumpolar North, giving us a greater as something more than a resource hinterland. Ottawa’s position is that neither has any bearing degree of legitimacy than any other Arctic If Canadians do not address climate change on land claim negotiations. Yet most northern nation. and indigenous sovereignty, we will never be communities view these negotiations as a means Unfortunately, when politicians in Ottawa able to call the North home. The most effective to end suffering—both their own and the land’s. discuss issues of Arctic sovereignty and Arctic and logical way to do this is to invest directly governance, they often need to be reminded in Northern communities and develop local Improving and that there is already a complex and innovative knowledge. When one considers that the median devolving Northern governance milieu in place. At a recent age of Nunavut’s population is 23, one gets an governance conference on Arctic issues held in Whitehorse, idea of the enormous human capacity that exists Governance of the North is one of the region’s the Government of Nunavut told delegates, who in the Canadian North. largest and most complex issues. First and were eager to discuss the “creation” of a new Thus far, however, Canada has failed to foremost, Canada should fully articulate just governance model in the North, that there was, harness this potential. In the circumpolar North, what the North is. For Northerners, “the in fact, a government already operating in the there are 61 university campuses, an average of North” is largely a southern construct. There territory. Rather than ignore local government, seven per country. Canada is the only nation that is little pan–Northern collaboration among the the federal government should be doing does not have a single university north of the three territorial governments. For example, everything possible to trumpet its existence 60th parallel. The role a university could play in the North, according to the Inuit of Eastern since, again, our modern land claims treaties advancing Northern issues and contributing to nation-building is tremendous. The University “If national decision-makers truly wish to see the of Greenland in Nuuk is one example; the Sami University College in Kautokeino, Norway— Arctic prosper, then they must value the people population 3,000—another. A university in who inhabit it.” Canada’s North, designed by Northerners, has the potential to weave through the jurisdictional Nunavut, is fundamentally different from set us apart from all other states and are a silos and provide an institution that can serve the North known by the Tlingit in southwest strong foundation for the concept of indigenous all Northerners. And it would undoubtedly Yukon. As well, what little policy statements sovereignty. serve each of the four pillars of the federal exist in relation to the north usually refer only On the world stage, it is unfortunate government’s Northern Strategy: environment, to Canada’s three territories. However, many that Canadian foreign policy is minimizing sovereignty, social and economic development argue that any true definition of the Canadian the significance of the Arctic Council, an and governance. North should also include Nunatsiavut, Nunavik international body Canada pushed to create and possibly the northern portions of provinces at the end of the last century. Mid-level from BC to Ontario. departmental officials represent Canada at Many in the North also feel that there is little its meetings compared with the high-level support within the current Canadian political representation most other nations send. framework for their indigenous worldview. Moreover, Canada has terminated the office of The lack of attention to Northern governance, the Circumpolar Ambassador, who by convention programs and infrastructure is affecting all was a Northern indigenous person. The socio-economic indicators including social revolving secretariat has made the organizational POSTCARDS FROM THE FIELD 41

At the community level, the success of na- tion building efforts is undeniable. Children are learning the Tlingit language and revitalizing ancient songs and ceremonies, many community members are employed by the First Nation and all citizens are able to participate in the direc- tion of their government. None of these were encouraged under the restrictive Indian Act.

A Strong Constitution by Gavin Gardiner

Early January 2012 marks the six-year Progress has not been easy. The indigenous communities outside our anniversary of one of Canada’s newest federal and territorial governments are borders, provide rich lessons learned jurisdictions. The Carcross/Tagish First often confused by this new approach for indigenous communities across Nation (CTFN) in the southwest Yukon to governance, and across the the globe in their struggle for political signed its Final and Self Government country, innovative and progressive recognition. Agreements on January 9, 2006. Upon approaches that recognize a First On the international stage, pressure signing the agreements, CTFN became Nation’s right to self-government are is growing for states to right past constitutionally recognized as an order few and far between. However, at the wrongs against indigenous peoples of government within Canada. Along community level, the success of nation within their borders. If self-government with this recognition came exclusive building efforts is undeniable. Children is implemented properly, Canada rights and control to nearly 1500 km2 of are learning the Tlingit language has a true opportunity to lead in this land and legal jurisdiction in over three and revitalizing ancient songs and regard. Whether in Uganda, where dozen areas based on both citizenship ceremonies, many community members the traditional kingdoms’ request for and geography. are employed by the First Nation and official recognition have led to violence, At once, the newly formed nation all citizens are able to participate in the or Bolivia, whose new constitution set out to establish government direction of their government. None has enshrined indigenous autonomy processes that would respect the of these were encouraged under the strikingly similar to the powers of laws of the ancestors, reflected in the restrictive Indian Act. self-government in Canada, or in traditional stories passed down orally These are the successes which are Norway, where the indigenous Sami by the Elders. Self Government has making self-governing First Nations in are struggling for representation on allowed the legal space for this unique Canada’s North the envy of the world. bodies that make decisions on land cultural expression. To that end, the The nation-building exercise currently and resources within their traditional Carcross/Tagish Nation has been underway in the Arctic represents some territory, there is a wealth of expertise built on the principles of consensus, of the most innovative approaches and experiences that offer invaluable community engagement and cultural to governance in the world, and the lessons for the international community appropriateness. lessons learned here, as well as in and for Canada.

Of the 22 self-government agreements in Canada, 19 are in the North (the other three, the Nisga’a, Sechelt and West Bank, are all located in BC). Through his fellowship, Gavin explored how First Nations in Canada and other indigenous nations outside our borders can learn from each other as they shift from conventional/western models of governance towards tradi- tional/culturally-relevant ones. CONCLUSION 42

CONCLUSION

ooking at the world through the eyes of negotiations, during which Canada has earned the transnationalization of finance, hosting as we the Gordon Global Fellows who wrote this the dubious “Fossil of the Year” award from do 60% of the world’s mining companies on the L book, a landscape of tectonic shifts comes environmental groups for five years in a row for Toronto Stock Exchange. For the most selfish of into focus. The G8 has been eclipsed by the G20, being the most obstructive nation at the talks. reasons, it makes sense to promote international ushering in a new age of emerging powers; at No other western country has argued against regulatory frameworks that could oversee the same time, international corporations rival concrete targets for emissions reductions, or everything from corporate social responsibility nation-states in money and clout; the growing dodged them at home so successfully, as Canada. to carbon emissions and trade disputes. global divide between rich and poor has fed a Our international influence has been further With respect to foreign policy issues that corresponding preoccupation with security, weakened by the recent dramatic withdrawal of have slipped off our radar, opinions coalesced often at the expense of human rights; Canada’s Canadian embassies, peacekeepers, and Official around a few themes. Water, for instance, is military has spent the better part of a decade in Development Assistance money out of Africa; the world’s number one extracted resource by a distant country where the old rules of war no partly as a result, Canada suffered a historic volume, while dirty water is the world’s leading longer apply; looming over it all, the gathering rebuke when we failed to win a rotating seat on cause of premature death. A concerted effort storm of climate change is set to become the the Security Council at the end of 2010. On the to make clean water accessible to the global defining struggle of the 21st century. Canada’s economic front, Canada has narrowed its outlook poor may well be the most strategic way to position in this shifting terrain is, or ought to be, with an aggressive pursuit of bilateral free trade achieve Canada’s goals on maternal and child the subject of vigorous public debate. agreements following the collapsed World Trade health. Another (related) unsung policy issue That was the idea behind one last dialogue Organization (WTO) negotiations, thus fostering is conflict prevention: the old maxim that an amongst the Fellows, who were asked to discuss competition over cooperation on the world ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure is three questions before they left Ottawa last fall: stage. Of course Canada needs to be competitive, gaining currency at the Security Council, and but in focusing on short term economic prizes international efforts are underway to install What has been the greatest success or (whose value inches closer to zero with each early warning mechanisms in volatile regions. failure of Canada’s foreign policy over the free trade agreement our partner countries sign But Canada, a traditional peacekeeper used to past decade? elsewhere) might we be risking a slow slide to arriving after hostilities have broken out, has protectionism, overlooking bigger opportunities thus far been slow to take up the challenge. What important issues have slipped off our foreign policy radar completely? “The real question is not whether one’s top foreign policy priority is climate change or What should be our top foreign policy priority going into the next decade? terrorism, human rights or Canada’s international reputation—in the end, there are no single issues, Opinions varied across all three questions— hardly surprising, given the diversity of the and what truly matters is a solid grasp of how they Fellows’ backgrounds— but one principle did influence one another.” emerge that drew unanimous support: Canadian foreign policy is most effective when pursued that cut across all departments in the process? The role of Canadian civil society on the world multilaterally. This has been key to our cherished After all, progressive multilateralism not only stage also deserves more credit and support status as a model power, and many Fellows agreed requires cooperation between governments, than it currently receives; indeed, many non- that the last decade has yielded a few more but inside them as well. In this respect, governmental organizations with decades of successes in that vein: an international ban on Canada’s Foreign Affairs team deserves credit experience in aid delivery must continually fend landmines, the Kimberley Process for ending the for developing the innovative whole-of- off funding cuts as the Canadian International global trade in blood diamonds, the Responsibility government response to international disasters, Development Agency changes its priorities. to Protect (enshrining the international the Stabilization and Reconstruction Task Force These discussions were crafted with the goal community’s responsibility to prevent genocide, (START). Still in its infancy, START cut its of generating debate, not consensus. The real war crimes, ethnic cleansing and crimes against teeth in Haiti following the devastating 2010 question is not whether one’s top foreign policy humanity), and most recently the creation earthquake; it could, if nurtured, become the priority is climate change or terrorism, human of the G20. All are products of Canadian-led model for dealing with the host of 21st-century rights or Canada’s international reputation—in diplomacy that sought international solutions to issues that cut across economic, political, and the end, there are no single issues, and what truly international problems—an equation that could environmental boundaries. Climate change matters is a solid grasp of how they influence easily serve as the 21st century’s slogan. is again the most obvious of these. But there one another. A government needs to prioritize Unfortunately, the Fellows further agreed that are many others, including the vulnerability if it is to accomplish anything at all, but to do so these examples are increasingly rare exceptions of a global supply chain on which more and without first hearing all the options is to invite to the rule—Canada’s greatest historic success more nations depend for both income and failure by any measure. Sound policy relies on has become its greatest contemporary failure. consumption. Another grave concern that no informed debate. Whatever their disagreements, Our country is now known in diplomatic circles single department can address is the ability of the authors of this book share that conviction, for hindering rather than helping the most international finance not only to circumvent and with it the belief that Canada’s foreign policy important international developments. Most federal laws, but increasingly to have those laws is vitally important not just to the world outside prominent among these are the ongoing climate changed in their favor. Canada is no stranger to our borders, but to Canadians as well. Biographies 43

Gordon Global Fellows

Erica Bach Louis Dorval Tracy Glynn Erica Bach works for Louis Dorval works as Tracy Glynn is the the Department of the Managing Director Acadian Forest Foreign Affairs and of the Meltwater Campaign Director International Trade, Entrepreneurial with the Conservation currently holding the School of Technology Council of New position of Senior (MEST) Incubator in Brunswick. She teaches Advisor with the Office of the Extractive Accra, Ghana which has invested in a dozen courses on environmental praxis and social Sector Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) local IT start-ups. Louis is also the founder of policy at St. Thomas University and is a doctoral Counsellor in Toronto. Prior to that, she Equilibrium Partners, a strategy consulting firm student in interdisciplinary studies at the completed a series of internships in Southern for social enterprises based in San Francisco, University of New Brunswick. Tracy is also a Africa and Southeast Asia, including in the California. Prior to this, he spent nine years co-editor of the Mines and Communities website Philippines, Mozambique and Zimbabwe. As working for Engineers Without Borders Canada, and sits on the board of Mining Watch Canada a 2009 fellow, Erica investigated the role of including four as the Director of Overseas and is a founding member of the New Brunswick victims in international criminal law processes, Programs. He now sits on the board of directors Media Co-op. As a 2009 fellow, Tracy travelled to in particular at the International Criminal Court. of the organization. As a 2007 fellow, Louis Guatemala to document stories of Mayan women investigated the relationship between the affected by mining. She is currently working on Adrian Bradbury learning capacity of African organizations and a book manuscript that tells the stories of mine- Adrian Bradbury is their accountability to donors. affected women, building on previous research currently the Director she conducted with indigenous women in of Strategy and Gavin Gardiner Indonesia and Labrador (Nunatsiavut). Partnerships at Public Gavin Gardiner is the Inc., a Toronto-based Senior Government Farouk Shamas organization that raises Official for the Jiwa (Mato) money, mobilizes volunteers, and advocates Carcross/Tagish Farouk Shamas Jiwa for social issues. He is the founder of Athletes First Nation (CTFN). (Mato) works with for Africa, a global charity, and GuluWalk, a As one of less than the Advocacy & Public grassroots movement for peace in northern two dozen Self-Governing First Nations in Policy team at the GAVI Uganda. More recently, Adrian launched Football the country, CTFN has undertaken a radical Alliance Secretariat for Good, an initiative in partnership with decolonization process using traditional stories in Geneva, Switzerland. The GAVI Alliance two-time NBA MVP Steve Nash. Adrian has and Tlingit and Tagish oral history to rebuild an is a global health partnership representing been honoured as a ‘Newsmaker of the Year’ indigenous government. Gavin’s 2009 fellowship stakeholders in immunization from both private by Maclean’s magazine and has written for the investigated the similarities between Canadian and public sectors. Farouk’s focus at GAVI is National Post, The Globe and Mail, and The First Nations and three other communities with on strengthening GAVI’s engagement with civil Walrus. As a 2006 fellow, Adrian studied tools a history of colonization in Uganda, Bolivia and society organizations and advancing GAVI’s for civil society to engage in the United Nations’ Norway. His research sought out areas where engagement in key public policy arenas such as “Responsibility to Protect” and mechanisms to Self Governing First Nations and other emerging the G8/G20, African Union, World Economic make the international community intervene democracies can benefit through the mutual Forum (Davos), and the like, with the objective of when a nation is unwilling or unable to protect exchange of insight, information and experience. advancing global efforts to increase the number its citizens. of children who have access to immunizations Chris Henschel and life-saving vaccines. As a 2006 Global Clare Demerse Chris Henschel is the Fellow, Farouk explored the meaning and Clare Demerse is the National Manager relevance of multiculturalism, diversity and the Director of the Pembina of Domestic and pluralism of identity for foreign policy. Institute’s Climate International Affairs Change Program, at the Canadian where she works with Parks and Wilderness a range of stakeholders Society (CPAWS). He leads an international and acts as a spokesperson for civil society on network of environmental organizations to issues related to greenhouse gas reduction policy. define and advocate for climate rules that create Through her 2008 fellowship, Clare researched accountability for emissions from logging forests financial support for tackling climate change in and damaging wetlands. Chris’ 2007 fellowship developing countries, publishing a report about work investigated whether rules can be Canada’s role in climate financing entitled Our developed under the United Nations Framework Fair Share in April 2009. She continues to work Convention on Climate Change (e.g. the Kyoto on climate financing in her role at the Pembina Protocol) to encourage forest protection as part Institute. of climate change response strategies. BIOGRAPHIES 44

Mohammed Khan Bryony Lau Brendan Mulligan Mohammed Bryony Lau lives in Brendan Mulligan is Khan is presently Jakarta, Indonesia currently working for working as the Principal where she works for the Centre for Researcher at Community the International Crisis Indigenous Appraisal & Motivation Group (ICG), a non- Environmental Programme (CAMP), profit organization that Resources (CIER) in a Pakistani NGO based in Islamabad, where he seeks to prevent or resolve political and military Winnipeg, Manitoba on indigenous water issues. explores how Afghan refugees interact with the conflict through research, analysis and advocacy. CIER is a national, First Nation-directed Pakistani legal system in the absence of refugee She focuses on the Philippines, travels regularly environmental non-profit organization, working law. Mohammed has also held internship and to its conflict-affected areas and is the primary to assist First Nations with building the capacity volunteer positions with the Egyptian Initiative author of ICG’s reporting on the country. As to address the environmental issues they face. for Personal Rights in Cairo and the Sri Lankan a 2009 fellow, Bryony studied the effects of Previously, he was working for the University of Human Rights Commission’s Disaster Relief China’s influence on the global refugee regime, Calgary as the Academic Advisor and Monitory Unit. His position with CAMP grew out looking at whether China was influencing Coordinator of the CIDA-funded “Water of his 2009 fellowship, which focused on the legal government policies on refugee and asylum Management in Bolivia” project, which involved empowerment of Afghan refugees and migrants in issues in Southeast Asia. She also considered the strengthening an M.Sc. program in hydrogeology Iran and Pakistan. strategies used by other governments, the United and integrated water resource management in Nations and NGOs to affect Chinese policy on Bolivia. As a 2009 fellow, Brendan investigated Arno Kopecky refugee questions. transboundary water policy through a case study Arno Kopecky is an on the Silala basin, shared by Bolivia and Chile. independent journalist Nuala Lawlor whose writing has Nuala Lawlor is a Jessica Oliver appeared in The foreign service officer Jessica Oliver works as a Walrus, Foreign Policy, with the Department policy analyst at the Maclean’s, the Globe and of Foreign Affairs and Canadian International Mail, the Toronto Star, and other publications. International Trade Development Agency, As a 2009 Global Fellow, Arno investigated the (DFAIT). Following focusing on education in Harper administration’s Americas Strategy, assignments in Ghana, Sudan and Venezuela, emergencies, conflict, focusing on indigenous rights and the free trade she is currently living in Lima, Peru and post-conflict, and fragile states. As a 2009 fellow, agreements Canada recently signed with Peru working for DFAIT as a Peru political analyst. Jessica examined the use and implementation of and Colombia. A book based on his fellowship As a 2008 fellow, Nuala examined how a the Inter-Agency Network for Education in work will be published by Douglas & McIntyre in gender perspective has been incorporated into Emergencies, Chronic Crises, and Early the fall of 2012. the training and capacity-building programs Reconstruction (INEE) Minimum Standards in developed to address conflict resolution and southern Sudan. The objective of this fellowship Akim Adé Larcher peace support operations at the Kofi Annan project was to develop policy recommendations Akim Adé Larcher is Peacekeeping Training Centre (KAPTC) in to improve access to education for all war- currently the Director Accra, Ghana. affected children. & Senior Consultant at The Larcher Émilie Lemieux Group, a consulting Émilie Lemieux is firm specializing in a currently pursing variety of strategic planning, capacity building her Master’s at the and policy development services. He serves on École nationale the board of the International Lesbian & Gay d’Administration Association (ILGA), is a member of the Advisory publique, while working Committee for the LGBT Program with Human as a program manager at SUCO (Solidarité, Rights Watch, and founded Stop Murder Music Union, Coopération), a non-governmental (Canada). As a 2008 fellow, Akim explored organization based in Montreal. SUCO supports the various ways Canada can advance lesbian, partners in Africa, South America, Central gay, bisexual, trans-identified and intersexed America and the Caribbean to promote the rights through both the work of the Canadian participation of local communities in their own International Development Agency (CIDA) and development process. Émilie’s 2009 fellowship the development aid that Canada provides to work focused on Peru, where she investigated donor countries in the Caribbean Community the efficacy of Corporate Social Responsibility (CARICOM). (CSR) principles of Canadian mining companies for fostering positive local development. Biographies 45

Ajmal Pashtoonyar Daniel Din-Yu Poon Martha Robbins Ajmal is currently Daniel Din-Yu Poon is Martha Jane Robbins completing his Ontario currently working as is currently studying articles at Waldman and a researcher with the agriculture and rural Associates in Toronto. North-South Institute development at the Prior to that, he was a in Ottawa. He has lived, International Institute visiting professional at studied and worked in of Social Studies the International Criminal Court in the Hague, Beijing for a number of years, delving into issues of Erasmus University Rotterdam. Prior to where he supported the Prosecutor’s Office of Chinese economic development and industrial that, she was the International Coordinator ongoing preliminary examination of Afghanistan. policies, as well as those related to microfinance. for the National Farmers Union from 2007 He has also served as Justice Sector Officer, He has worked as a policy consultant with various to 2011. In this role, she worked closely with Afghanistan Task Force at the Department of civil society organizations including: the Canadian the international peasant and small-scale Foreign Affairs and International Trade, working Autoworkers Union, the Ontario Manufacturing farmers movement, La Via Campesina (LVC), directly with the Canadian Embassy in Kabul Council, the Canadian Foundation of the Americas, on agriculture and food policy. For her 2006 on transitional justice issues. He has previously and the Canadian Centre for Policy Alternatives. fellowship, Martha concentrated on the situation worked with the Department of Justice in As a 2008 fellow, Daniel was a visiting scholar with of Mexican migrant farm workers employed in Ottawa and the United Nations in Geneva and the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences (CASS) in Canada. She also traveled to Mali for the first Nairobi. As a 2009 fellow, Ajmal conducted a Beijing, China, as well as with Trade and Industrial international conference on food sovereignty and comparative investigation of transitional justice Policy Strategies (TIPS) in Pretoria, South Africa to work with LVC`s International Commission processes in Bosnia Herzegovina, Rwanda, Sierra to deepen his understanding of Chinese industrial on Migration and Rural Workers. Leone and Afghanistan. policy and how it might be applied in the South African context. Amitabh Saxena Rita Soares Pinto Amitabh Saxena Rita Soares Pinto is Anuradha Rao recently completed currently working Anuradha Rao is a his MBA at INSEAD, as a gender justice marine conservation an English-language program officer at consultant, biologist business school south of Oxfam-Québec in and writer. She Paris that emphasizes Montreal and, at the has facilitated and global leadership. Prior to that, he was a director global level, she is acting as a member of the participated in in the Marketing and Product Development Unit Gender Justice team of Oxfam International. conservation initiatives and research in Canada, of ACCION, a nonprofit pioneer in microfinance She also serves on the coordination committee Southern Africa, West Africa, Indonesia and that provides financial services to over 2 million of the “Gender in Practice” community of the Caribbean, and for over a decade held the poor people. As a 2007 fellow, Amitabh studied practice that she founded with the Association volunteer position of West Africa Coordinator the Canadian regulatory environment of person- Québécoise des Organismes de Coopération for Amnesty International. Most recently, to-person international money transfers through Internationale (AQOCI). “Gender in Practice” she has provided technical support to marine the mobile phone, in an effort to reduce the cost aims to reinforce the capacity of Canadian civil planning processes in British Columbia of remitting money abroad. society organizations to integrate gender and directed by First Nation, federal and provincial women’s rights in their development work, and governments. As a 2006 fellow, she studied in 2011 the initiative secured long-term funding the mapping, conservation and restoration of from IDRC and was recognized as an innovative coastal ecosystems to preserve their function as initiative for building the capacity of member protective barriers against the effects of climate organizations to advance gender equality. change in Newfoundland and Ghana. Through her 2007 fellowship, Rita organized an international conference and edited a collective Katherine Reyes publication entitled Women’s rights and gender Katherine Reyes has equality in Canadian cooperation: Challenges and served as the Special perspectives, in addition to founding “Gender in Assistant to the Practice.” Deputy Joint Special Representative of the African Union-United Nations Operation in Darfur. She is currently pursuing a PhD on security and local leadership in refugee/IDP camps at the University College London. Her 2008 fellowship investigated Canada’s support to the African Union, with a focus on that support’s impact on efforts in conflict resolution and prevention. BIOGRAPHIES 46

Alexandra Sicotte- Guillaume Sirois Claire Stockwell Lévesque Guillaume Sirois Claire Stockwell Alexandra Sicotte- est présentement began her DPhil at Lévesque is a étudiant au doctorat au the Centre for Socio- filmmaker, journalist département d’histoire Legal Studies at the and development de l’art et d’études en University of Oxford in worker with over 10 communication de 2011 and is examining years experience on the African continent. l’Université McGill. Ses recherches portent the effectiveness of climate change litigation. In 2002, Alexandra co-founded Journalists principalement sur les politiques culturelles Prior to that, she worked as a consultant in the for Human Rights (JHR), an NGO mobilizing dans le contexte de la mondialisation. Il agit field of climate change law and policy, living in African media to spread awareness about human aussi comme consultant indépendant dans le Canada and China. She has been attending the rights. For her 2006 fellowship, focused on domaine des politiques culturelles, œuvrant international climate negotiations since 2003 Canada’s responsibilities towards communities principalement pour des regroupements and has worked with many organizations in the affected by Canadian extractive industries d’artistes et des groupes de représentation des field, from youth groups to the United Nations abroad, Alexandra directed and produced the intérêts dans le domaine des arts et de la culture. Institute for Training and Research’s Climate documentary film When Silence is Golden. The À titre de bénévole, il occupe actuellement le Change Programme. Claire’s 2008 fellowship film, about a Ghanaian community’s struggle poste de président du conseil d’administration research focused on the role of technology with a gold mine, was screened around the world de Musique Multi Montréal, un organisme transfer in the international negotiations and and awarded an honorary mention at Montreal’s dédié à l’intégration des musiciens du monde included three months of fieldwork in China. Pan-African Film Festival, Vues d’Afrique. dans le paysage musical montréalais. Pour son Alexandra is now working for the United Nations fellowship en 2008, Guillaume a examiné quels while directing her second film, The Waiting sont les besoins des milieux artistiques des pays Myroslava Tataryn Room, which follows the journeys of four young en voie de développement, pour contribuer Myroslava Tataryn has Sudanese leading up to the 2011 referendum on à l’établissement d’une réelle coopération over 10 years of diverse southern Sudan’s independence. internationale dans le domaine de la culture. life and work experience at the Shibil Siddiqi Magdalena Smieszek intersection of disability Shibil Siddiqi is a Magdalena Smieszek rights, social inclusion, lawyer, journalist and currently works as the and access to health services. Currently, political analyst. He Regional Integration Myroslava Tataryn is based in the UK working as works at a community Officer for the a research officer for BasicNeeds. After legal aid clinic in United Nations High completing the MSc in Public Health in Toronto. He also writes Commissioner for Developing Countries at the London School of a column for the Express Tribune (the Pakistani Refugees (UNHCR) Regional Representation in Hygiene and Tropical Medicine in 2010, she affiliate of the New York Times’ International Central Europe based in Budapest, Hungary. In joined the School’s International Centre for Herald Tribune), and blogs for The News her role, she examines and advocates on policies Evidence in Disability. Prior to living in the UK, International, Geo News, Asia Times, and The of integration of refugees and beneficiaries Myroslava was based in Uganda, working as the Mark, covering international affairs and strategic of international protection in seven Central Advisor on Disability and HIV/AIDS for AIDS security issues in South Asia and the Middle European countries. She has previously worked Free World. As a recipient of a 2008 fellowship, East. He is also a Fellow at the Centre for the with the UNHCR in Nepal, Pakistan, Lebanon, Myroslava investigated disabled women’s Study of Global Power and Politics at Trent and Yemen, as well as for the UNDP in Ghana experiences in accessing health care services, University. He has worked with international and the International Organization on Migration focusing on sexual/reproductive health care and local organizations in Pakistan and in Hungary and Bosnia and Herzegovina. Her services in particular in Canada and Uganda. Afghanistan, including the National Democratic 2008 Fellowship work studied international Institute for International Affairs and the Legal policy on trafficking for sexual exploitation. Aid Organization of Afghanistan. His 2007 fellowship research covered the historical relationship between Afghanistan and Pakistan, and explored the regional and global dimensions of the protracted Afghan conflict.

Biographies 47

Jessie Thomson Surendrini Photo credits Jessie Thomson is an Wijeyaratne advocate for refugees Surendrini Wijeyaratne Page 7 - Restoring water flow as a first step in bringing and internally displaced works at Oxfam back mangrove forests in Ghana. (Anuradha Rao) persons. She is an International’s New Page 9 - A boy looks out of his house onto the Emergency Response York office as the neighbourhood of Comuna 13, one of Latin America’s Program Manager Humanitarian Advisor. most violent slums. (Arno Kopecky) at CARE Canada. Prior to that, she worked as Prior to that, she worked with the Canadian Page 11 - Members of the Bugiri Disabled Women’s a Protection Delegate with the International Council for International Cooperation, Association in eastern Uganda. (Myroslava Tataryn) Committee of the Red Cross in Pakistan, as specializing in peace and conflict. As a Page 12 - “Work, Justice and Dignity,” a slogan for the a senior policy advisor in the Humanitarian 2007 fellow, Surendrini examined Canada’s Via Campesina. (Martha Jane Robbins) Affairs and Disaster Response Group at the international policies on peacebuilding with a Page 15 - Children collect water at a Canadian mining Department of Foreign Affairs and International particular focus on support for peace processes camp in San Vicente, Bolivia. (Émilie Lemieux) Trade Canada, and in the Refugees Branch at at the official level and with local communities, Page 17 - Lepista, a refugee born in Tanzania’s Citizenship and Immigration Canada. As a 2008 conducting field research in Afghanistan, the Katumba Refugee Settlement, boards a truck heading for fellow, Jessie examined efforts underway to Democratic Republic of the Congo, and Northern her new home in Burundi. (Jessie Thomson) resolve protracted refugee situations around the Uganda. The extent to which gender equality Page 18 - Three of Lepista’s ten children wave world, co-producing the short film Home Free in and women’s participation have been supported goodbye as they leave Katumba Refugee Settlement partnership with the Burundi Film Center. Home was central to her study. in Tanzania and head for their new home in Burundi. Free documents the story and voice of three (Jessie Thomson) refugee families; it is a training and advocacy Michael Wodzicki Page 21 - A view of Port of Spain, Trinidad from the tool aimed at raising awareness about protracted Michael Wodzicki Gulf of Paria. (Guillaume Sirois) refugee situations and provides concrete has over 10 years Page 23 - Mexican peasant leader, Rogelio Ruelas, examples of successes and failures in ongoing of experience with feed for his animals on his family’s ejido near efforts to bring an end to displacement. working in politics Anagua, Chihuahua, Mexico. (Trevor McKenzie-Smith) and international Page 25 - Female police officers in Ghana received Ross Wallace cooperation. He is Canadian support for their training. (Nuala Lawlor) Ross Wallace is currently Director of Market Development Page 26 - Nepalis waiting for their situations to be currently working in for the Canadian Cooperative Association, assessed as part of a UNHCR project. (Magdalena government affairs for with a focus on helping the cooperative sector Smieszek) AstraZeneca Canada, diversify and increase funding for projects that Page 28 - Kandahar Market, Afghanistan. (Jeff Lacroix- one of the world’s support credit unions, agricultural cooperatives, Wilson) largest pharmaceutical and small businesses around the world. As a Page 31 - A child near Prestea, Western Ghana, companies. In addition to working with a 2007 fellow, Michael studied what people in overlooking one of Golden Star’s open pit gold mines. wide variety of government, health sector developing countries really think of foreigners (Olivier Asselin, Journalists for Human Rights) and innovation partners, Ross also sits on supporting their democracy, using Indonesia as Page 34 - Protest march in the Plaza de Mayo, Buenos two global teams that directly relate to his a case study. Aires, Argentina. (Natasha Sawh) fellowship work—one focused on rolling out a Page 35 - A Bolivian soldier stands guard over new international corporate social responsibility Christina Yeung the Silala watershed, near the Bolivia/Chile border. “Signature Initiative” focused on adolescent Christina Yeung works (Brendan Mulligan) health, and the other aimed at increasing for the Department Page 37 - Windmills near Tilarán, Costa Rica. access to medicines in the developing world. of National Defence (Natasha Sawh) For his 2006 fellowship, Ross examined four as a researcher on Page 41 - Kha Shade Heni Mark Wedge of the unique public-private partnerships focused on security sector reform Carcross/Tagish First Nation (CTFN), Minister Andy discovering, developing, and distributing new and stabilization Scott of the Department of Indian and Northern Affairs medicines for “neglected diseases”—afflictions missions. Prior to that, she was seconded to and Premier Dennis Fentie of the Yukon Government like HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, malaria and chagas. the Stabilization and Reconstruction Taskforce hold up the first signed copies of the CTFN Self- (START) at DFAIT where she worked on conflict Government Agreement. (Gavin Gardiner) prevention and peacebuilding programming in Pages 43-47 - Fellow headshots taken by Jenn Kelly Uganda, Kenya and Sudan. Her 2007 fellowship of 360 Photography, Shad Seresinhe, and Manpreet project concentrated on finding participatory Sokhi of Mansa Photography policy solutions to the misuse and proliferation of small arms in pastoralist communities in East Africa, including demand-oriented alternatives to disarmament. Field Diplomats: Foreign Policy Notes from the Gordon Global Fellows

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