therefore their source value is limited. They are mainly useful for The of flint in the of the problem of flint. defining the extents of usage of particular varieties The Vistula and upper Warta basins analysis of other problems was based on the information

provided by certain closed assemblages. of the Krzysztof Cyrek The character of sources and the specificity problematics

selection of research and the have determinedthe methods way

is Ph.D. that under results. Beside methods This paper an abridgement of the dissertation of presenting the purely archaeological the same title has been written at the University of . of particular importance were here statistical and cartographical

In view of the character of the Symposium special emphasis has methods. Basic information was supplied by the classification of

the material been put on such problems as the occurrence and characteristic all Mesolithic artifacts from the point of view of of raw materials as well as their exploitation and distribution, used. This classification was made possible thanks to the whereas the technique of flint working, cultural differentiation of macroscopic petrographic analysis on the basis of which

and of of raw material economy socio-economic interpretation particular assemblages have been assigned to groups raw these processes have been marginally treated. materials.

The basic object of the study undertaken by this writer was to Prior to their characterization, attention should be drawn to an

determinewhich varieties of flint were used in the production of important element of the environment in which the Mesolithic particular artifacts and to examine the raw material structure of societies lived, i.e. to certain features of the geological formation establish (Atlas 9-10). closed assemblages. As a result it has been posible to of subsoil. geologiezny Polski nos. I mean here the varieties of flint that were used by Mesolithic communities in cretaceous and Jurassic outcrops of limestone and marl which the area under discussion. Consequently, other questions arose, were the natural sources of flint (Fig. 1). namely: These are (besides the Carpathians):

- - where did the outcrops of these materials lie and in which way 1. The environs of Cracow limestone with flint (upper Jurassic- Raurak) were they exploited?

- how far and in which direction did the distributionof particular 2. Western part of the northern fringe of the Swietokrzyskie

reach? - Jurasic- raw materials Mountains compact tabular limestone (upper

- is it possible to speak about provinces of raw materials in the Oxfordian).

of the Mesolithic? (i.e. about zones characterized by a specific 3. Eastern part of the northern fringe Swietokrzyskie

structure of the materials used). Mountains - detritic, pellithic and oolithic limestone (upper

The final object was an attempt at constructing models of raw Jurassic-Oxfordian-Kimmeridgian), limestone (Raurak), as material the well and economy of Mesolithic societies. as spongy marly limestone (Oxfordian).

The study has been based on artifacts of flint and occasionally of 4. Cracow-Czestochowa Upland as far as Wieluh - massive

stone derived from 259 inventories, of which 44 are chronologi- limestone (Oxfordian-Raurak). cally and culturally closed assemblages. The remaining ones are 5. Miechow Basin, Nida Basin - siliceous chalk with inclusions of

fragments of assemblages collected from the surface of sandy limestone and marl (upper cretaceous-Turonian). sites. These materials were chiefly obtained during excavations 6. Lublin Upland on the Vistula - limestone (upper cretaceous-

and conducted many years ago, usually unmethodically, Turonian).

of mezozoic rocks the Pomeranian I North- Fig. 1. The outcrops ; PI,

Eastern IP-wl, Jurassic UI, chocolate ICzl, Swieciechów ISwl, of Mielnik (Ml, Volhynian IWI flint deposits; and the provinces

materials and Warta basins. raw ll-X) in the Vistula upper

1 - Jurassic rocks,

2 - Cretaceous rocks.

130 - (P-W) 7. Lublin Upland, environs of Rachow limestone (upper 2. The cretaceous ’north-eastern’ flint the first time. Its is Jurassic). This variety has been distinguished for age and its 8. Lublin and - chalk and the that of the Baltic flint, Upland, upper Wieprz Bug region probably same as outcrops It in limestone (upper cretaceous-Turonian). have not yet been localized. was used north-eastern in - colour, it 9. Middle Pilica limestone (upper Jurassic). for the production of blanks and tools. Analogous

differs from the Baltic flint in a number of other properties such

the size of concretions, less cortex and a better Of the flint deposits mentioned above the following were as larger polished (absence of cracks). This indicates that the exploited in the Mesolithic (Fig. 1); state of the flint mass

concretions over a short distance to 1 - Jurassic flint from the environs of Cracow (denoted by the were transported by glacier Poland where occurred in moraine symbol J). the area of north-eastern they formations. the properties its use 2 - chocolate flint (Cz) Thanks to above described

4 - Jurassic flint from the Warta (Jw). value was upper region high. The Mielnik flint 6 - Swieciechow flint (Sw). 3. (M)

this cretaceous flint resembles both 8- Volhynian flint (W). In outer appearance upper north-eastern and the flint. In the Holocene it 9 - Jurassic flint from the Pilica region (Jp). the Baltic Early surface of the middle terrace and in As follows from this list, not all of the mentionedflint deposits occurred in deposits Bug

natural of cretaceous rocks in the were exploited in the Mesolithic. exposures decomposed because of its rather The comparison of the position of pre-Quaternary formations moraine of this area. Probably poor quality (inferior to P-W) it only locally used. which according to geologists contained flint concretions with was (W) the situation of flint deposits used in the Mesolithic (Fig. 1) 4. The Volhynian flint another cretaceous flint,this time, however, of high throws some light on the availability and knowledge of particular This is upper and varieties flint communities. The far value. In the Mesolithic it was only marginally locally of among Mesolithic greater use Poland. variety of the kinds of flint in southern Poland is the direct result used in south-eastern (Cracow-Wieluh Jura). 5. The Pomeranian flint (P) (L. DOMAŃSKA, 1979) of a large number of uplifts of older rocks This cretaceous flint is the honey colour of its Outcrops of mezozoic rocks are virtually absent from the distinguished by and the characteristic oval shape of its northerly areas with the exception of Oxfordian rocks in Kuyavia, mass by regularly very

- concretions. In the Holocene its limestone in the environs of Lodz both small Early use was virtually upper cretaceous It from - limited Western Pomerania. probably without flint concretions or upper cretaceous to was exploited secondary

cliff sea shores and on the surface on the Baltic in the surface deposits localized on formations laying near the surface coast that in the of this flint a of the of moraines. It should be added working vicinity of Trzebiatow from which probably comes part the 'on anvil' which in the erratic Baltic flint. technique, was quite exceptional

The has author 18 Polish Mesolithic was employed. survey of artifacts induced the to distinguish The Świeciechów flint (Św) (B. BALCER, 1975) categories of raw material. With few exceptions this division has 6. and The last in the of cretaceous materials is the grey-white- been based on kinds and varieties already distinguished group flint. is described in literature (B. GINTER, J.K. KOZLOWSKI, 1975). spotted Swieciechow According to petrographers this

rather This that the of the The criteria used here were as follows: a spongiolite. would indicate origin

rock In to the - where had order with geological age of the rock a particular variety of flint was purely organic. comply formed; archaeological tradition the term 'the Swieciechow flint' has

- retained. geographical position and character of the deposits (primary or been of flint secondary); The morphology of Mesolithic artifacts made this that - manufactured of size and shape of the concretion; suggests they were chiefly comparatively concretions available in the of its - character of the cortex and state of its preservation; large erratic easily region

of the flint original (right bank of the Vistula, a little to the north of - colour, lustre and degree of transparency mass; outcrops the of the The flint from secondary deposits was - certain visible macroscopic elements of texture and structure of junction San).

inferior (inner cracks). This was one of the the flint mass of quality probably

its use - finds - was principally - character of fracture; reasons why single excepting

limited to south-eastern Poland (Fig. 2) where it co-occurs with - capability for regular splitting. In view of the specificity of this study and in order to avoid the Jurassic and chocolate flint. chocolate flint (Cz) (R. SCHILD, 1976) repetition of description, in the characterization of flint varieties 7. The On account of its quality this Jurassic (upper special attention was paid to the selected attributes whereas very good

Oxfordian or flint was utilized the whole others were omitted. Kimmeridgian) during

Stone Also in the Mesolithic it enjoyed - beside the Baltic The following categories of raw material have been Age.

flint - widest extent the whole under distinguished: the covering nearly area discussion (of the 29 analysed assemblages it occurred in 23) 3). It obtained from the surface 1. The Baltic flint (B) (Fig. was by collecting or by

The erratic chocolate flint occurs in the form either of This is cretaceous erratic flint, easily available in the whole area mining.

in small with cortex and with outer under discussion and due to its availability very popular the pebbles worn highly polished

in out 29 that were surface or of of crumbled concretions brought to Mesolithic (it was present 28 of assemblages fragments large

in the moraine the surface by erosion and scattered by water over the analysed in detail). Its secondary deposits occur The latter are derived from the layers of and fluvoglacial formations of the two last glaciation and in neighbourhood. upper rock which the bed of this flint. Small accumulation river terraces. It was obtained by collecting from decomposed was primary of of this material could also be found in the natural the surface (mainly small-sized pebbles) or by exploitation pieces in river valleys of the Jura. The erratic variety of the chocolate flint shallow pits or of exposed profiles (larger exposures used in the (mainly in the of concretions). was Early Mesolithic assemblages

flint is tradit : n). An interesting example of the exploitation of this provided the On the other hand, the second of the Mesolithic (primarily by the selective use of its concretions on site XI/1, part

in the Janislawice tradition) of was the flint situated on the Vistula terrace. Of the various concretions among major importance extracted by and in the form of tabular cortical which also large pieces were present, only small oval specimens mining occurring

use value. were extracted were selected. (S.W. KRUKOWSKI, 1976). concretions of particularly high They residual with shafts Different conditions under which this variety of flint occurred from clay deposits by mining the use of

differentiation the size of the to those found at Tomaszow, of Radom, and were chiefly responsible for its as to analogous

R. Schild to the Linear culture (R. SCHILD concretions, the state of cortex, colour of flint mass, degree of assigned by Pottery

of The of chocolate flint on particular sites inner thermic cracking and the presence and character patina. 1977). great variety the

and occurrence on seems to suggest that it was derived from various places in the As a result of the long-lasting glacial transport north-eastern flint had which made whole area of its incidence (western part of the or near the surface the acquired properties of the Mountains). its working difficult. Therefore, in comparison with that of other margin Swietokrzyskie Warta its that the distributionof the chocolate flint flint varieties in the basin of the Vistula and upper use It seems the process of

a in the life of Mesolithic communities. value was the lowest. played major part many

131 Fig. 2. The spread of the artifacts made of the Swieciechow flint in the assemblages of:

1 Janislaw/ce culture,

2 - Komornica culture,

3 - Chojnice-Piehkiculture,

4 - Indefinite culture.

Fig. 3. The spread of the artifacts made of the chocolate flint in the assemblages of:

1 - Janislawice culture,

2 - Komornica culture,

3 - Chojnice-Pienki culture,

4 - Indefinite culture.

132 8. The Jurassic flint (J) the occasional difficulty in distinguishing it from the chocolate

There varieties the Jurassic differ small-sized are many of upper flint which flint (in case of artifacts) there exists a probability of in from one another geographicalposition and the kind of natural committing single errors in the classification of the analysed

deposits as well as in number of morphological properties such artifacts.

as colour, size and shape of the concretion, transparency and To this list we should add the so-called flint-like rocks, i.e.

degree of impurity of the flint mass and organogenetic hornstone, chert and others (e.g. sandstone). Hornstone and

inclusions. From this variety follows the different workability of chert were extremely rarely used, mostly where only limited

particular kinds. Of decisive importance were here the kinds of quantities of good quality material were available. They occur

mat account deposits which contained this flint. Thus the relatively big, only in a few rich assemblages where they for a small

and concretions from the Warta of the whole. opaque upper region were percentage

obtained from rock debris by exploiting shallow pits and natural Such artifacts as 'anvils', hammerstones and grinders were made

in the Warta had of slate and exposures the valley of which, moreover, sandstone, granite, less frequently of limestone

repeatedly transported and deposited single pebbles of this flint (flakes made of sandstone or chalk are very occasional).

on its banks. In the Mesolithic its use was confined to the region This rich assortment of flint materials available in the area under

of the upper Warta. This rather limited distribution (Fig. 4) was discussion was to a very small degree supplemented by imports

mainly due to considerable difficulties in the working of the flint, of radiolarite (Rd) and obsidian (Ob). They were erratic varieties

arising among others from the irregular shapeof the concretions, of these desirable materials derived from westers Slovakia and

and the in the flint calcite Moravia. from presence mass of numerous

precipitations. The Jurassic flint from the region of the middle The analysis of the raw material structure of 34 closed assem-

Pilica differs considerably from the flint described above. This blages has revealed that they were far more differentiated in

group includes yellow-white materials with weakly developed southern than in northern Poland. For example, the assemblage

silica and with properties of the gaize as well as dark brown and of Janislawice and Chojnice-Piehki cultures in the forks of the

which in of nodules Vistula and San show least four light brown flint the shape characterized by a constant presence of at

transparent flint mass with organogenetic inclusions occurred in varieties of flint (chocolate, Swieciechow, Jurassic and Baltic).

the upper Jurassic limestone. Small amounts of this flint were Of quite different, monotonous character (nearly 100% of

locally used on the sites of the Pilica valley. chocolate flint) are the structures of the workshop assemblages

The Jurassic flint from the Cracow region, which was classified of the Janislawice and Komornica cultures in the region where

and described in detail in relevant literature. (M. KACZANOWS- the chocolate flint was extracted. Also the assemblages of the

KA, J.K KOZLOWSKI, 1976) was used on Mesolithic sites in the Chojnice-Piehki culture in Eastern Pomerania show a very

southern part of the Vistula basin, particularly intensively in the specific structure, composed as they are exclusively of the local

environs of Cracow. The examined flint artifacts showed Baltic and Pomeranian varieties of flint. Of similar structure,

properties which indicate that they were made of materials either composed of two parts, are Janislawice inventories on the

derived from secondary local deposits or transported by glacial or middle Bug (Local Baltic and Mielnik flint). Similar in character

fluvial water. The latter, occuring abundantly on the surface, are the structures of the Janislawice and Chojnice-Piehki

available but were easily were of poorer quality. assemblages from Central Poland (on the Bzura and middle The above list is probably incomplete and in all probability there Vistula). Their position between the north, dominated by the

exist kinds many other of the Jurassic flint whose outcrops are Baltic flint, and south, with a considerable share of the chocolate

still unknown. Because of the great differentiation of this flint flint, is reflected in the slight preponderance of the former over (though certain constant and similar attributes do exist) and of the latter.

Fig. 4. The spread of the artifacts made of the Jurassic flint in the

assemblages of:

1 - Janislawice culture,

2 - Komornica Culture,

3 - Chojnice-Pienki culture,

4 - Indefinite culture.

133 not taken into account because of the lack of a The question now arises of the relation, if any, between the ratio aspect has been and the sufficient number of absolute dates for the Mesolithic in this of a given variety of flint in particular assemblages of distance of the latter from its deposits. A detailed analysis this area. flint, with the of problem as regards the chocolate use diagrams the other conclusions drawn from the and statistical indexes, has revealed the existence of a distinct For the sake of brevity correlation of this kind in the Janislawice and Piehki-Chojnice analysis have been summed up as follows:

Mesolithic of cultures. On the other hand, this correlation is much less distinct 1. During the there operated a complicated system cultural in the Komornica culture. The ratio of the chocolate flint in flint distribution, slightly different within particular their distance traditions and of materials. particular assemblages was greatly influenced by provinces raw of flint from its deposits, however, it was also conditioned by the 2. Certain features of the techniques working are of other characteristic of materials of the position of the sites in relation to the outcrops good particular raw (irrespective in certain cultural of the and the other hand quality varieties of flint and relation to water ways. identity assemblage) on

the seem to have been certain technical features are typical of particular cultural The groups of Chojnice-Piehki culture of of material used). particularly mobile and far-reaching 'bearers' of the chocolate traditions (irrespective the variety the 3. The sites functionally this linked flint. On the other hand, its role was particularly important were differentiated, being of them. the of the societies of the Janislawice culture. with the dominance of activities on some among majority workshop tradition decisive in the of Similar inter-relations can be noted with regard to the 4. The cultural played a part shaping

Swieciechow flint, whose extent, however, was much more the morphology of the inventories; however, it was influenced limited than that of the chocolate variety. (mainly with respect to the size) by the properties of the flint

where all sites with the used. As follows from the map (Fig. 3) chocolate flint have been plotted, its extent is larger than that of 5. The communities of the Janislawice culture sought good all other varieties of flint (apart from the Baltic flint) and covers quality flint (mainly chocolate and Swieciechow), the varieties of nearly the whole area under discussion. The extreme point which communities of the Komornica tradition used local the chocolate flint has reached is at Orle in Eastern Pomerania at flint irrespective of their quality (mainly the Baltic flint), and oscillated a distance of 450 km (as the crow flies) from its deposits. The the communities of the Chojnice-Piehki culture

main directions in which the chocolate flint had spread show between the two tendencies. certain tendencies. The major route ran north-westwards of the 6. The Mesolithic flint working technique is marked by distinct deposits along the Pilica to its lower course where it branched elasticity associated with the relatively important role played

the Bzura and the other in local different off: one route ran into upper region by raw materials, offering possibilities of the direction of the middle Vistula. Smaller amounts were ex- working. ported towards south-east, primarily because of the competition 7. In the time-span from the Early to Late Mesolithic two tendencies be detected: of the nearer deposits of the Swieciechow flint. Attention should might

Vistula and the - the differentiation in the of the materials used be drawn to the important part played by the growing range

Pilica in the distribution of the chocolate flint. and of the technique of working;

The extent of the Swieciechow flint was considerably smaller - the growing intensity of the use of the Swieciechow flint;

(Fig. 3). Its main area extended over southern Poland, and its 8. There are certain premises which allow us to reconstruct socio-economic of material small quantities occurred in a narrow belt stretching towards models of the aspects raw

essential in the existence in the local north-westalong the Vistula which played an part economy. Assuming the Mesolithic of definite distribution of this flint over considerable distances. The farthest human groups occupying certain areas, the following point which the Swieciechow flint has reached is at Wistka models of obtaining and distribution of the desirable flint can Szlachecka, distant about 270 km from its deposits. be constructed (this refers primarily to chocolate flint):

is similar in - in order to The area where the Jurassic flint was utilized (Fig. 4) the organisation of far-going expeditions

that the and it accumulate stocks materials in the extent to of Swieciechow flint, generally coincides directly of necessary raw with the local occurrence of its deposits. area of their occurrence;

Because of the commoness of its depostis the Baltic flint had the - the obtaining of flint by indirect barter in the course of inter- removed the widest extent. The only site where no artifacts of this flint were group contacts (in the case of groups from found is the workshop of the chocolate flint at Tomaszow. A deposits)

- the general regularity has been noted, namely the proportion of the the obtaining of flint by direct barter (in case of groups

Baltic flint in the assemblages in a given area depends on the neighbouring with the regions of deposits).

the the presence at spot or nearby of outcrops of better quality

the mentioned in the has been flint (Swieciechow, chocolate or Jurassic). In closed assem- In this study problematics title research blages the Baltic flint supplements other varieties and only where barely sketched. In order to analyse it thorougly certain should fulfilled. The essential task is the detailed and they are difficult to obtain it constitutes the main component. tasks be

Single artifacts made of imported radiolaritewere found on only dynamic analysis of newly discovered and some previous assem- and 7 sites (distributed over an area stretching from Central Poland to blages from the point of view of the materials techniques of the environs of Warsaw). The use of obsidian was similar used. Another is the constant prospecting for and description identification within (present on 6 sites). The relatively larger amount of obsidian so far unknown flint deposits and their

sites. noted in the Janislawice assemblages at Rydno XIII/59 may inventories of archaeological of indicate that it was obtained by barter for haematite. It is possible Another problem is how to present the detailed characteristic of of flint. It that the that both radiolariteand obsidian were obtained in the course particular varieties seems microscopic-petro-

contacts with communities or alternatively, they were graphic analysis can be useful to the archaeologist only when it which in the collected on Palaeolithic sites. Characteristically, in none allows to localize deposits of the flint was used

This either site. view inventory the two varieties-co-occur. may indicate production of artifacts found on a However, in of the that they originated from geographically different deposits and close similarity in the structure of particular varieties of flint this

feasible and the arrived in the area under discussion by differentways or that they does not seem therefore microscopic analysis were utilized in various periods. should be used with great caution.

For the been that the of purpose of clarity the area under discussion has To conclude, I would like to stress problem raw divided into 13 regions (cf. Figs. 2, 3 and 4). These are separate materials used by prehistoric societies is a fascinating one, territorial studies. units comprising particular groups of sites usually providing a strong impulse to further

concentrated along larger rivers or on lakes. Most of them are distinguished by a definite specificity of raw material. At the BIBLIOGRAPHY same time certain units are characterized by close similarities.

BALCER B., 1975 - Krzemien swieciechowski w kulturze pucharów Due to this it has been possible to isolate the so-called zones (or lejkowatych, Wroclaw, Warszawa, Krakow, Gdansk. provinces) of raw material. These are areas which differfrom one DODLEZ R., DAYCZAK-CALIKOWSKA K., DEMBOWSKA J„ 1962 another in the specific set of materials used (Fig. 1). Another Atlas geotogiczny Polski, z. 9 - Jura, Warszawa.

factor which bore on the decision to certain important join DOMANSKA L., 1979 - Krzemien pomorski w kulturach srodkowej i their It be regions into provinces was neighbourhood. should mlodszej epoki kamienia na nizu polskim, praca doktorska napisana w stressed that in the division into provinces the chronological Katedrze Archeologii Uniwersytetu Lódzkiego Iw maszynopisie), Lodz.

134 GINTER B., KOZLOWSKI J.K., 1975 - Technika obróbki i typoiogia SCHILD Ft., 1976 - Flint Mining and Trade in Polish Prehistory as Seen wyrobów kamiennych paleolitu i mezoiitu, Krakow. form the Perspective of the Chocolate Flint of Centrai Poland. A Second

KA CZANOWSKA M., KOZLOWSKI J.K.. 1976 - Studia nad surowcami Aproach, Acta Archaeologica Carpathica, t. XVI. krzemiennymi poiudniowejczesci Wyzyny Krakowsko-Czestochowskiej,

Acta Archaeologica Carpathica, t, XVI. Dr. Krzysztof Cyrek

KRUKOWSKI S. W., NOWAKOWSKIA., 1976 - Skam 71. Zbiór rozpraw Muzeum Archeologiczne prahistorycznych, Wroclaw, Warszawa, Krakow, Gdansk. i Etnograficzne

- POZARYSKI W. 1962 - Atlas geologiczny Polski, z. 9 Kreda, Warszawa.

Lodz - Poland

135