Attributed to Margaret Foley (American, c. 1827-1877)
Jessie White Mario (1832-1906), c. 1867-1870
Ben Elwes Fine Art
Attributed to Margaret Foley (American, c. 1827-1877)
Jessie White Mario (1832-1906), c. 1867-1870
Carrara marble 72 x 48 cm (28.3 x 19 in.)
Provenance Possibly the Royal Naval Hospital Haslar, Gosport, UK Mrs Victoria Johnson, The Tartars, Sherston, Malmesbury, UK By descent, 2019 Kingsettle Antiques, Shaftesbury, UK I M Chaney Antique Furniture, Bristol, UK
Fig. 1. Jessie White Mario (1832-1906)
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‘An honor to her sex and to Britain’s great name’ 1
Fig. 2.
Jessie White Mario (1832-1906) was a British writer, revolutionary and philanthropist who dedicated her life to Italian unification. She challenged the limits placed on women’s political participation and subverted 19th-century misogynistic stereotypes, provoking great admiration from both male and female contemporaries. The Italian press knew her as Hurricane Jessie, a testament to her unwavering commitment to the Risorgimento, the Italian movement for unification and independence from foreign rule, and her fierce passion for social and economic equality.
1 W. P. Garrison in The Nation, 1906, as cited E. Adams Daniels, Jessie White Mario: Risorgimento Revolutionary (Columbus, Ohio: The Ohio State University Press, 1972), p. 116.
3
Born in Gosport, Hampshire, Jessie was the daughter of a successful shipbuilder. From an early age she had a strong desire to help those less fortunate than her, secretly giving food from her family’s pantry to the hungry.2 Her middle-class upbringing was traditionally religious yet educationally non-conformist, allowing her an excellent education at schools in Reading, Birmingham and London. In 1854, Jessie’s thirst for knowledge took her to study philosophy at the Sorbonne, where she was particularly drawn to the work of thinkers such as J. S. Mill.3 During her time in Paris, she brushed shoulders with radical republicans and exiled Italian nationalists, prompting her life- long engagement with the Risorgimento. Subsequently, Jessie accompanied her friend Emma Roberts to Nice in order meet the Italian general and revolutionary, Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807-1882), an encounter that she described as ‘the realization of a life- dream’.4
Jessie openly challenged Victorian ideals of female domesticity. On her return to England, she applied to medical school in order to fulfil her promise to Garibaldi, to treat the wounded on the front lines. However, she was rejected by fourteen schools in London on the grounds of her sex (Fig. 3). She wrote, ‘in no single case did I receive either a sensible or logical reply to my question, “Why may not a woman study medicine?”’.5 Whilst she was unsuccessful, her efforts arguably laid the groundwork for a shift in attitude as, ten years later, nine women sat for the University of London’s medical examinations for the first time.6
2 D. Taylor, Jessie White - An Englishwoman at the Court of Garibaldi (2003)
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Fig. 3. Letter from the Registrar seeking a legal opinion on Miss Jessie White’s Meriton application to be a candidate for the University of London Examinations, 3 July 1856, University of London Archive, RC/19/1
In London, as in Paris, Jessie moved in liberal social circles. Through the Ashurst family, she was introduced to Giuseppe Mazzini (1805-1872), an Italian politician and revolutionary. Impressed by her passion and dedication, he asked her to embark on a nationwide propaganda tour to encourage popular sympathy among Britons for the
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Italian Cause. Mazzini did not doubt Jessie’s abilities as a public speaker stating, ‘I dare say she will succeed more than 20 men who would put their strength together’.7
Between 1856 and 1862, her lecture tours took her around the country and across the Atlantic Ocean. A distinguished orator, she captivated her audiences and successfully raised considerable funds, simultaneously undermining sexist notions that women had no place in politics. A journalist from the New York Herald reported that ‘when she spoke of the wrongs of Italy… her brilliant eyes flashed like fire, and the glow of sympathy mounted to her cheek’.8 Whilst lecturing in America, she also spoke out against slavery, re-affirming her position as an advocate for all oppressed peoples. Confronting senators of slave-owning states, she said, ‘I would not dare to ask support in this great country for the oppressed Italians without strong faith in the right of every nation, of every race, of every man to his liberty… For whites and blacks, for everyone together’.9
Fig. 4. Detail of sculpture, attributed to Margaret Foley (American, c. 1827-1877), Jessie White Mario (1832-1906), c. 1867-1870
7 Adams Daniels, Jessie White Mario, p. 51. 8 Adams Daniels, Jessie White Mario, p. 75. 9 D. Moore, 'Transnational Nationalists: Cosmopolitan Women, Philanthropy, and Italian State-Building, 1850- 1890', City University of New York (2018), pp. 106
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Meanwhile, Jessie was developing an illustrious career as a writer, translator and journalist. In 1857 The Daily News, a paper founded by Charles Dickens a decade earlier, asked Jessie to be their foreign correspondent in Italy, funding a trip to Genoa. Renowned as the first female war correspondent in Italy, historian David Lowenthal described Jessie as a ‘crusading journalist’.10 She was outspoken and flamboyant, often wearing a tricoloured ribbon in her flame-red hair. Whilst her eccentricity and radicalism captivated the hearts of the Italians, it also gained the Austrians’ attention and she was jailed in Genoa for four months. During this period, she met her future husband, Alberto Mario (1825-1883), a radical Italian patriot. They were married in London a few months later.
Fig. 5. Detail of sculpture, attributed to Margaret Foley (American, c. 1827-1877), Jessie White Mario (1832-1906), c. 1867-1870
10 T. Kington, ' Englishwoman is hailed as a heroine of Italy's unification struggle', The Guardian, 22 May 2011
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In 1860, when the fighting began in the south of Italy, Jessie went to Garibaldi’s aid, treating the wounded on the front line as a self-taught nurse. As Professor of History Sarah Richardson affirms, ‘Jessie was a woman of action; she wasn’t just a writer’. She was in charge of two field hospitals and would often spend days on the battlefield with the troops. She also assisted in the operating theatre, the only woman in the hospital unit, including at the amputation of the arm of a twelve-year-old boy (…‘I held him on my lap; he told me afterwards that I cried more than he did, which was quite true’11). Jessie and Garibaldi had an intimate relationship built on mutual admiration and respect and, as such, when he asked her to accompany him in the Franco-Prussian war ten years later, she did not hesitate. Once again, she was a field nurse and a war correspondent, writing for both The Scotsman and The Tribune.
Returning to Italy, Jessie and Alberto spent time in Rome and Florence before settling in Lendinara, a small northern town. She became an archivist, historian and biographer. She produced biographies for both Mazzini and Garibaldi and created a posthumous edition of Alberto’s writings. Whilst Italy celebrated its unification, Jessie caused controversy by exposing the bleak realities of post-Bourbon Neapolitan life in La Miseria di Napoli of 1871, an extensive social study of the city’s residents. She descended into the hellish landscape of the Southern sulphur mines, outrageously peopled by an army of slave children and indentured workers: ‘Nothing can compare in any least degree with the human system of child torture openly and consistently practised in all the sulphur mines of the island (of Sicily).’12 As a member of the radical left, Jessie had pushed for genuine reform in order to achieve emancipation for all Italian citizens. The lack of social progress in post-unification Italy disappointed her and she continued to advocate on behalf of those in poverty.
Towards the end of her life, Jessie taught English in a school in Florence. She continued to write extensively, submitting her last of 143 articles to the American publication, The Nation, in the week before she died in 1906.13 Thousands attended her funeral procession. Her casket was followed by Garibaldian red shirts, schoolgirls, professors
11 Alberto Mario, Garibaldi’s Invisible Bridge, Cornhill Magazine, 9 May 1864, p. 549. 12 Jessie White Mario, article, The Nation, 4 January 1892 13 Orlando Project, Jessie White Mario (2021)
8 and members of the public before being buried next to Alberto in Lendinara. The Italian Government wanted to give Jessie a state funeral. She refused, arguing that the money would be better spent on relieving poverty. An atypical Victorian woman, Jessie has been written out of Britain’s historical narrative. However, her memory lives on in Italy where she is commemorated by plaques in the streets of Florence and Lendinara, with a school named after her in Genoa. Indeed, poet and Nobel Laureate Giouse Carducci asserted that Jessie White Mario ‘is a great woman to whom we Italians owe a lot’.14
Fig. 6. Jessie White Mario’s house in Lendinara, Italy, a plaque with her relief
Rome - Radical City
The city of Rome in the mid-19th century provided a unique environment for the nurturing of women as independent thinkers and artists: women who arrived in Rome from the 1850s discovered ‘a social and cultural space that had traditionally affirmed
14 L. Garland, Women of the Risorgimento (2020)
9 feminine participation in creative endeavours.’15 It was in Rome that the careers of the two greatest female painters of the 18th century, Angelica Kauffman (1741-1807) and Élisabeth Louise Vigée Le Brun (1755-1842), were developed and burnished. Indeed, the Arcadian Academy had been welcoming and encouraging female participants since as early as 1690. Female poets and improvisers, a uniquely Italian form, were celebrated to the extent that in 1776 Corilla Olimpica (1727-1800) became the first woman Poet Laureate of Rome. Her coronation on the Capitoline steps was a widely-lauded celebration of feminine creative genius.
The city therefore, in its liberality and tolerance, became a magnet for educated and often radical women, especially from Britain and America. Rome had already existed as the centre of a cultural and intellectual centrifuge for over a hundred years. The Grand Tour was a paradigm for the educationally sophisticated and socially ambitious. But Rome’s reputation was paradoxical, based on its crumbling Antique past and Roman Catholic mysteries rather than its contemporary pre-eminence. Travellers were often taken aback by the desperately poor Romans. It was to this Rome, idealised and romanticised, that liberal people flocked. Certainly, its citizens suffered from political tyranny but, before Italy’s national reawakening with the political movement ending in the Risorgimento, the city was uncomfortably hot and provincial and disinterested in the views of its visitors and foreign residents. For travellers from the United States and Great Britain, Rome remained profoundly alluring. Therefore, it was in Rome that many dynamic but free-thinking people congregated: this included artists, writers, actors, political radicals and the sexually non-conventional.
Within the artistic world, American female sculptors were one of the most formidable groups in Rome. Horatio Greenough (1805-1852), a Boston native, was the first American sculptor to settle in Italy, in Florence in 1828. Enticed by the irresistible opportunity to study and practise surrounded by such a wealth of art from the Classical and Renaissance periods, American artists flocked to Italy, and Rome in particular, throughout the 19th century.
15 Melissa Dabakis, A Sisterhood of Sculptors: American Artists in 19th Century Rome, Pennsylvania State University Press, 2014
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It was not only the lure of Italy’s great museums and galleries that drew these expatriates, but the abundant local supply of white marble, their medium of choice, from the quarries of Carrara and Serravezza. As the American journalist and politician, John W. Forney (1817-1881) observed, ‘The eloquence of marble is something very strange…it seems to talk to you in what I would call the grave silence of its features. It is not so with bronze. But the spotless marble of Carrara…has a language of its own when translated into statuary.’16 More important still, to some artists, was the cheap labour costs of the highly-skilled Italian stone carvers and craftsmen who could be hired to assist in the complex translation of drawings and clay maquettes into enlarged marble works. This collaborative process stretches as far back as Antiquity and was utilised by numerous sculptors in Italy.
In 1903, the writer Henry James (1843-1916) famously immortalised the particular group of American women sculptors in Rome by describing ‘…that strange sisterhood of American ‘lady sculptors’ who at one time settled upon the seven hills [of Rome] in a white, marmorean flock.’17 The earliest member of this Roman “flock” was Harriet Goodhue Hosmer (1820-1908). Hosmer was often cited ‘as proof of the possible accomplishments of women in what had been heretofore a man’s world.’18 Originally from Watertown, Massachusetts, Hosmer sailed to Italy in 1852 along with her companion, the famous Boston actress and lecturer, Charlotte Cushman (1816-1876).
16 John W. Forney, A Centennial Commissioner in Europe, 1874-76, J. B. Lippincott & Co., 1876, Philadelphia, p. 115; this extract is referenced in Theodore E. Stebbins, Jr., The Lure of Italy: American artists and the Italian experience 1760-1914, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston in association with Harry N. Abrams, Inc., Publishers, New York, 1992, p. 91. 17 As referenced by Nicolai Cikovsky, Jr., et al, in Nineteenth Century American Women Neoclassical Sculptors, exhibition catalogue, Vassar College Art Gallery, Merchants Press, Poughkeepsie, New York, 1972, title page. 18 William H. Gerdts. Jr., ‘Introduction: The White, Marmorean Flock’, in Cikovsky, Jr., et al, in Nineteenth Century American Women Neoclassical Sculptors, p. 3.
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Fig. 7. Harriet Hosmer in her Rome studio, at work on the monumental statue of Missouri senator Thomas Hart Benton, 1865
In the case of Hosmer and her contemporaries, the notion of a “flock” was not only metaphorical, but also related physically to the location of this group within Rome. Situated just east of the Vatican City, in an area which had been home to Nicolas Poussin (1594-1665), Claude Lorrain (c. 1604-1682), and Salvator Rosa (1615-1673) some two hundred years earlier, the Via Margutta and its surrounding streets formed the centre of the women artists’ colony; ‘at No. 5 were to be found Harriet Hosmer and Florence Freeman, and at No. 53A, Margaret Foley.’19 The group also included Anne Whitney (1821-1915), Emma Stebbins (1815-1882) and Edmonia Lewis (1844-1907), the first professional African American female sculptor. All were described as “individualists”, 19th-century code for homosexuality, and Rome’s liberality seems to have been a magnet for people who found conformity stifling. Actors, writers, radicals, abolitionists, anarchists and libertines - a whole spectrum of non-conformists gravitated to the city. It was the mutual attraction of each other, the thrill of Revolution and the romance of the Eternal City that lured them.
19 Ibid.
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Fig. 8. Harriet Hosmer in Her Studio, n.d., engraving (clipping from an unidentified periodical), The Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe Institute, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, A-162-82
Margaret Foley (c. 1827-1877)
The present sculpture is attributed to Margaret Foley. Born in Vergennes in c. 1827, in the rural, forested landscape of Northern Vermont, Foley began whittling and carving from an early age. The daughter of a farmhand, she first worked as a maid to fund her schooling. In the 1840s, she travelled to Lowell, Massachusetts to be a mill girl in the spinning rooms of the Merrimack Corporation. In her spare time, she whittled wooden bobbins, drawing on her formative experiences as a self-trained carver. She also taught drawing and painting to some of the other female labourers.20
It was broadly accepted that young women from working-class backgrounds, like Foley, would remain at a mill only long enough to save up a dowry and marry. Margaret Foley, however, saw the mills as her way to greater independence and education. In 1848, she used the money she had earned to move to Boston, where she soon enrolled in the New
20 Bridget M. Marshall, ‘Margaret Foley Sculptor, Mill Girl Inspired Others to Make Their Way as Artists’, The Lowell Sun, last updated 30 June, 2015, accessed on 18 January, 2019, www.lowellsun.com.
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England School of Design and worked as a cameo-cutter and sculptor. Upon graduating in 1853, Foley had firmly established herself as a cameo portraitist, using shell and lava as her materials, and it was through this work that she developed her proficiency in the challenging discipline of marble sculpture.
Fig. 9. Margaret F. Foley, Medallion Portrait of Mary Howitt, 1875, marble, 5.1 x 58.4 cm (2 x 23 in.), Chrysler Museum of Art, Norfolk, Virginia, 2013.11
Florence and Rome had long since been the favoured cities of America’s Neoclassical sculptors by the time Margaret Foley moved to the Italian capital in 1862. “Known for her sympathy, tenderness, and warm-heartedness…Among all the women artists in Rome, Foley may have been the most successful in creating a safe haven of same-sex domesticity.”21 She nurtured a close-knit circle of friends, which not only included English painter Lizzie Hadwen, with whom she shared an apartment, but also the writer and poet Mary Howitt (1799-1888), perhaps best known for her poem The Spider and the Fly of 1829. Margaret Foley and Jessie White Mario were definitely acquainted as
21 Melissa Dabakis, A Sisterhood of Sculptors, p. 90.
14 late as November 1877, when Jessie made reference to the sculptor in a letter housed today in the Jessie White Mario Archives at the Istituto per la storia del Risorgimento Italiano, when she refers to Margaret Foley taking the apartment downstairs from Mary Howitt, but the two could have easily met before through Howitt. Jessie White Mario
Fig. 10. Mary Howitt (1799-1888) and Howitt were political allies, connected through Giuseppe Mazzini (1805-1872). In 1858, Jessie and her husband Alberto Mario travelled to America for a lecture tour, ‘The Problem with Italy’, working for Mazzini to drum up support for the Italian Cause. With letters of introduction from Howitt, Jessie was invited to address the English- speaking audiences, and Alberto the Italian ones.22 In 1870, the Howitts found lodging in Rome with Foley’s assistance.23 By this time, Foley already had two studios in Rome and may have hired skilled Italian carvers to meet the increased demand for her sculptures, as her health was beginning to fail. The present bust was made around 1870, or possibly earlier around the time of the Seige of Mentana in 1867, when Jessie had set
22Joseph Rossi, The Image of America in Mazzini’s Writings (Madison, WI: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1954), p. 108-109. 23 Mary Botham Howitt, Mary Howitt, An Autobiography, V. II (London: W. Isbiter, 1889), pp. 209 and 214.
15 up a field hospital in the Palazzo Patrici on the Via Margutta, where many artists had their studios, in the heart of the Anglo-American artistic community.
This concentration of artists within Rome delighted American and British visitors on their Grand Tour, enabling them to enjoy the wealth of artistic attractions with great ease and proximity to one another. At this time, the United States was enjoying a period of security and wealth, “a reflection of both factors was the rising number of men and women who made the Grand Tour of Europe at least once in their lives.”24 As the American art historian William H. Gerdts, Jr. explains, “visits from prospective patrons were very much a part of the weekly activities [for artists] and guidebooks were published in Rome, describing not only the sculptors and painters whose studios could be found on such-and-such a street, but what works might be seen in each and which were the latest conceptions upon which the artists were working.”25 Visiting an artist’s studio was considered a privilege, the experiences of which were eagerly recounted and published by travellers: “The artist’s studio was a particularly intimate setting in which to view sculpture. Viewers could see not only finished pieces but works in progress, and they might have a chance to speak with the sculptor as well.”26An established member of “the white, marmorean flock” herself, Margaret Foley thrived in Rome, taking likenesses of tourists and other notable figures in Italy.
24 William H. Gerdts. Jr., ‘Celebrities of the Grand Tour: The American Sculptors in Florence and Rome’, in The Lure of Italy, p. 66. 25 William H. Gerdts. Jr., ‘Introduction’, p. 2. 26 Joy S. Kasson, Marble Queens and Captives, Women in Nineteenth-Century American Sculpture, Yale University Press, New Haven & London, 1990, p. 29.
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Fig. 11. Margaret Foley, Pascuccia, 1866, marble, 58.42 x 53.34 cm (23 x 21 in.), Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, 1987.472
The classically-inspired jewellery favoured by tourists was a significant iconographic element in Foley’s sculptural portraits. This type of jewellery was “characterised by a stylistic eclecticism that [took] its inspiration from all past styles … [adopted] for objects that reflect[ed] only a gesture of romantic admiration.”27 Thus it would have been widely available and coveted by tourists on the Grand Tour as souvenirs of their time in Rome. Foley frequently added such pieces to her sculpture. In her Pascuccia of 1866, a Neapolitan model, presented in strict profile ... ‘the model is bejewelled with earrings and necklace, sporting a shawl that covers the back of her head. She wears a Renaissance-style garment with a bodice revealing delicate textures.’28 Foley’s work stood out as regularly including pieces which not only referenced Etruscan, and classical Greek and Roman styles but literally spelled out the word ‘Roma’, as seen in the marble reliefs of Jenny Lind, c. 1866-1869 (Milwaukee Art Museum), Mary Howitt, 1875 (Chrysler Museum of Art), Mrs. Cleveland, 1870 (Carnegie Museum of Art) as
27 Guido Gregorietti, ‘Jewelry’, Encyclopedia Britannica, Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., last updated 29 January, 2019, accessed 24 January, 2019, https://www.britannica.com/art/jewelry/The-history-of-jewelry-design#ref14094 28 Dabakis, Sisterhood of Sculptors, p. 89.
17 well as on the present bust of c. 1870 depicting Jessie White Mario. Hurricane Jessie’s ‘Salve’ and ‘Roma’ brooches are linked to the same classical traditions and serve as signifiers of her social and political activism. In this case, the message embedded in the jewellery literally inscribed Jessie’s passions across her chest. Her radical Republicanism and association with Mazzini caused a rift with Robert and Elizabeth Barrett Browning despite their common interests in Italy’s unification and independence.29 Nonetheless, Elizabeth Barrett Browning left a half-finished letter to Alberto Mario upon her death in 1861 in which she praised the Italian cause.30
Fig. 12. Detail of brooches on Attributed to Margaret Foley (American, c. 1827-1877), Jessie White Mario (1832-1906), c. 1867-1870
The Neoclassicists reflected the classical world in the format of their portraiture and in the jewellery of their sitters, however, this is not to say that the sitters themselves are idealised in the work of Margaret Foley (Fig.11). Dabakis, who describes how the artist Joshua Reynolds when speaking in regards to the work of Neoclassical sculptors, notes: “In his Discourse VI, he intoned, ‘All the inventions and thoughts of the Antients [sic], whether conveyed to us in statues, bas-reliefs, intaglios, cameos, or coins, are to be sought after and carefully studied.’ At the same time, he insisted that these sculptures be ‘original’ works of art. This conundrum haunted late 18th- and 19th-century artists who chose to emulate antiquity.”31 Foley herself gracefully navigates these difficult principles, managing to represent the true likeness of her sitters whilst remaining true to
29 Daniels, Jessie White Mario, pp. 79-81. 30 Henry James, William Wetmore Story and his Friends, Vol II (Boston: Houghton, Miflin & Co., 1903), p. 64. 31 Dabakis, Sisterhood of Sculptors, p. 41
18 the classical tradition just as Reynolds commanded. When considering the characteristics of her work, it can be determined that “the facial features are highly specific - recalling a historical personage rather than an ideal rendering.”32 The portrait medallion of Mrs. Cleveland, at The Carnegie Museum of Art, faithfully depicts the sitter’s strong nose and receding chin while adorning her with a floral garland and typical antique-style jewellery.
Fig. 13. Margaret Foley, Mrs. Cleveland, 1870, marble, 74.3 × 64.77 cm (29 x 25½ in.), The Carnegie Museum of Art, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, 95.62
Among Foley’s other sculptures is her celebrated bust of Cleopatra, 1876 (Fig. 14). One of the most famous heroines of Antiquity, Cleopatra was often depicted by the Neoclassicists, particularly by members of the “marmorean flock”. Cleopatra held a particular appeal for the women sculptors “who sought to project an image of an independent and assertive woman who mirrored their own autonomy.”33
32 Dabakis, Sisterhood of Sculptors, p. 89. 33 William H. Gerdts. Jr., ‘Celebrities of the Grand Tour’, p. 73.
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Fig. 14. Margaret F. Foley, Cleopatra, 1876, marble bust, 60.8 x 49.8 x 30.1 cm (23⅞ x 19⅝ x 11⅞ in.), Smithsonian American Art Museum, Washington, D.C., 1973.164
While heavily reliant on their Grand Tour patrons, the Neoclassical sculptors were always searching for other means of income, and are described by Gerdts to be “quite enterprising…despite the heaviness and relative fragility of their art, and the distances…They sent their marble sculptures to numerous exhibitions in Europe and America.”34 In 1876, the year before her death, Margaret Foley shipped sculptures to the United States to exhibit at the Philadelphia International Centennial Exhibition. Her pieces Jeremiah (date unknown), Cleopatra (1876), and the medallions Mrs T. B. Read, and the pair Mary and William Howitt (1875) were exhibited in the Memorial Hall building (Fig. 15) together with similar prodigious sculpture by other artists.
34 William H. Gerdts. Jr., ‘Introduction’, p. 3.
20
Fig. 15. Extract from International Exhibition, 1876: Official Catalogue, United States Centennial Commission, 1876, book digitised from the library of Harvard University and uploaded to the Internet Archive
Her monumental marble fountain, known as Miss Foley’s Fountain, was exhibited separately as the prominent centrepiece in the Horticultural Hall (Figs. 16 and 17). This sculpture depicts three life-size children shaded by a covering of acanthus leaves in which rested a basin. Designed by the architect H. J. Schwarzmann (1846-1891), the Horticultural Hall was the smallest of the five Centennial structures “but it was the largest conservatory built up to that time, bigger than the famous hothouses in the Botanical Gardens of London and Paris.”35 Like Foley’s sculpture within it, the structure’s Moresque style received both professional and public praise, however, the success of the exhibition never led to any immediate further patronage for Foley. The Horticultural Hall itself was demolished in 1955, though the fountain still resides in
35 Ken Finkel, ‘Praising Horticultural Hall in Fairmount Park’, The Philly History Blog, last updated 24 October, 2017, accessed on 18 January, 2019, https://www.phillyhistory.org/blog/index.php/2017/10/praising-horticultural- hall-in-fairmount-park/
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Philadelphia within the same site now called the Fairmount Park Horticultural Centre. Whilst three-dimensional works by Foley are rare, due to her adherence to bas-relief, her Philadelphia fountain demonstrates the artist’s ability to sculpt in a naturalistic style as shown in the present bust. Her funds depleted and her health failing, she returned to Europe where she was taken by her friends, the Howitts, to Austria to recuperate, but she died of a stroke in Meran, Austria, in 1877.
Fig. 16. Centennial Photographic Co., Miss Foley's fountain-Horticultural Hall. Albumen Prints. Free Library of Philadelphia: Philadelphia, PA. https://libwww.freelibrary.org/digital/item/1556. (accessed 5 February 2019)
Fig. 17. Centennial Photographic Co., Miss Foley's fountain-Horticultural Hall. Albumen Prints. Free Library of Philadelphia: Philadelphia, PA. https://libwww.freelibrary.org/digital/item/1633. (accessed 5 February 2019)
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Appendix Many of the articles and books cited in this bibliography appear in varying stages of manuscript preparation in the Archivio Jessie White Mario (AJWM), Museo Centrale del Risorgimento, Rome. The published material is here listed in chronological order.
“Augustin Thierry.” Eliza Cook’s Journal, February 8, 1851, pp. 229-31. “Association of French Workmen.” Eliza Cook’s Journal, February 15, 1851, pp. 245-48. “Lilly Crossland.” Eliza Cook’s Journal, May 31, 1851, pp. 73-75; June 7, 1851, pp. 93-95; June 14,1851, pp. 106-9; June 21, 1851, pp. 116-18; June 28, 1851, pp. 141-43. [Unsigned, authorship likely.] “The Old Man's Mystery.” Eliza Cook’s Journal, July 17, 1852, pp. 186-89 [Background identical to “People's Artist.”］ “The Home of Taste.” (poem) Eliza Cook’s Journal, September 11, 1852, p. 320. [Initialed“J.W.”] “Jessie's Wisdom.” Eliza Cook’s Journal, April 2, 1853, pp. 361-64. “Alice Lane.” Eliza Cook’s Journal, August 27, 1853, pp. 276-83. “The People's Artist.” Eliza Cook’s Journal, October 1, 1853, pp. 354-59; Oct. 8, 1853, pp. 372-76. [Identified as hers in the Cowen collection, but unsigned.] “Roger Dale:A Story of Birmingham.” Eliza Cook’s Journal, November 19, 1853, pp. 55-61; November 26, 1853, pp. 69-76. “Lamennais” “Lives of the Illustrious.” Biographical Magazine 7 (1855): 109-26. [Article signed “G de F,” attributed to her in AJWM (Busta 419) where she says “published somewhere.”］ “Beranger. “In “Lives of the Illustrious.” Biographical Magazine 6 (June-December 1854): 241-47. “Alphonse de Lamartine.” In “Lives of the Illustrious.” Biographical Magazine 6: 177-92. “Italy for the Italians.” Daily News (London), series of 9 articles: November 1856, November 13, 1856; November 27, 1856, December 11, 1856; December 26, 1856, December 29, 1856; January 2, 1857; January 8, 1857; January 15, 1857. Orsini, Felice. Austrian Dungeons in Italy. Translated with preface by Jessie White Mario. London: Routledge, Warnes, and Routledge, 1856. “A Plan for Preventing Italian attempts on the Life of the French Emperor. Letter to the editor.” Morning Star and Dial, February 17, 1858.
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Releases covering Sicily and the Southern campaign for the Daily News, 1859. Correspondence, including bulletins, three times a week to the Morning Star and Dial, 1859. “La schiavitù e la guerra civile negli Stati Uniti d'America.” Nuova Antologia (July 26, 1861): 264-310. “March on Rome.” (Pamphlet) [Accepted for publication, November 28, 1862, by Smith, Elder & Co., London, but perhaps not printed.] “Recent Italian Comedy.” North American Review 99 (1864): 364-401. [Houghton Library, Norton papers April 15, 1864, F. Boot to Charles Eliot Norton, attributes it to her but most likely a rewriting of Alberto's work.] “Parties in Italy.” Nation 2 (February 22, 1866): 241-42. “Italian Finances,” Nation 2 (March 22, 1866): 369-70. “Religious Intolerance in Italy.” Nation 2 (April 26,1866): 527-28. “The Military Strength of Italy.” Nation 2 (May 4, 1866): 567. “The Warlike Preparations in Italy.” Nation 2 (June 8, 1866): 727. “Florentine Mosiacs.” Nation 3 (December 13, 1866): 476. “Italy.” New York Tribune, September 16, 1867, unsigned. “Garibaldi's Position.” Nation 5 (November 7,1867): 378-79. “The Daily Press in Italy.” Nation 6 (February 13, 1868): 129-30. “Public Instruction in Italy.” Nation 6 (February 27, 1868): 167-68. “The Volunteers of 1867.” Nation 6 (March 12, 1868): 208-9. “Italian Libraries.” Nation 6 (April 9, 1868): 287-88. “What One Noble Family Has Done For Italy.” Nation 6 (May 7, 1868): 369-70. “The New Process of Mummification.” Nation 7 (July 9, 1868): 29-30. “The Abolition of Feudal Tenure in Venetia.” Nation 7 (September 17, 1868): 227-29. “Venetian Glass.” Nation 7 (November 19, 1868): 413-14. “Right and Wrong in Italy.” Nation 9 (July 15, 1869): 48-49. “Social Equality in Italy.” Nation 9 (September 30, 1869): 267-69. “On The Position of Women in Italy.” Nation 9 (November 25, 1869): 456-57; (December 2, 1869): 480-82. Articles about French Republican war for Scotsman (Edinburgh), September 8, 26; October 6, 10, 16, 27; November 6, 7, 10, 14, 15, 20, 21, 23, 27; December 13, 23, 1870. [Some also published in the Daily News and New York Tribune. Duplicates in AJWM.] I Garibaldini in Francia. Rome: Giovanni Polizzi, 1871. [Compilation of newspaper articles
24 on Franco-Prussian war.] “Cattaneo.” Contemporary Review 26 (1875): 465-86. La miseria di Napoli. Florence: Le Monnier, 1877. [Printed only after Pasquale Villari assured her that London slums were better than those of Naples.] [With Alberto Mario, posthumously.] Carlo Cattaneo. Cremona: Ronzi and Signori, 1877. “Sepolcri Inglese in Roma.” Nuova Antologia (May 14, 1879): 265-83. “Sicily and Ireland.” Newcastle Chronicle, January 25, 1881, unsigned. “A Mazzinian View of Mr. Gladstone.” Newcastle Chronicle, February 16, 1881. Releases to the Pall Mall Gazette [no articles identifiable], 1881. “Specie Payments in Italy.” Nation 31 (December 23, 1880): 440. “Italian Industrial Exposition.” Nation 32 (May 26, 1881): 369-70. “The Vatican and the Extension of the Suffrage in Italy.” Nation 33 (August 11, 1881): 111- 12. “A Press Trial in Rome.” Nation 33 (December 29, 1881): 509-510. “The Scrutin de liste in Italy.” Nation 34 (March 2, 1882): 181-82. “The Opening of the St. Gothard Tunnel.” Nation 34 (June 15, 1882): 498-99. “The Last Days of the Italian Liberator.” Nation 34 (June 29, 1882): 539-40. Garibaldi and “Mazzini.” Nation 35 (July 27, 1882): 71-72. “Elements of Discord in Italy.” Nation 36 (February 1, 1883): 101-2. “The Crown Prince in Rome. The Italian (Republican) View.” Nation 38 (January 10, 1884): 31-32. “Carlo Cattaneo and the Five Days of Milan.” Nation 38 (April 17, 1884): 338-39. “Cholera, Misery, and Superstition.” Nation 39 (October 9, 1884): 306-7. [Again uses La Miseria di Napoli.] Life of Garibaldi. Milan: Treves, 1884. [Carducci.] Scritti di Alberto Mario. Edited by G. C. and J.W. Mario. Bologna: N. Zanichelli, 1884. [and Alberto Mario.] Carlo Cattaneo,Cenni Reminiscenze.Rome: Sommarnga, 1884. Garibaldi et son Temps. Paris: Denoc, 1884. “Italian Politics.” Nation 41 (October 1,1885): 274. “Misery, Discontent, and Agitation in Italy.” Nation 42 (February 25, 1886): 165-67. “The Trial of the Peasant Rebels.” Nation 42 (April 15, 1886): 316-17. “Italy -The General Elections.” Nation 42 (May 13, 1886): 400-401. “A Radical View of the Italian Elections.” Nation 42 (June 24, 1886): 526-27. 25
“Among the Tuscan Hills.” Nation 43 (September 2, 1886): 193-94. “Anti-Clerical Agitation in Italy.” Nation 43 (October 7, 1886): 288-89. “The Cooperative Congress in Milan.” Nation 43 (November 11, 1886): 390-91. Agostino Bertani e i suoi tempi. 2 vols. Florence: Barbera, 1886. Della Vita di G. Mazzini, Milan: Sonzogno, 1886. “The Daily and Periodical Press in Italy.” Nation 44 (January 6,1887): 8-9. “Carducci." Nation 44 (February 3, 1887): 95-96. “The Italian Army-1887.” Nation 44 (April 28, 1887): 360-61. “The First Pilgrimage to Caprera.” Nation 44 (June 30, 1887): 548-50. “The New Italian Premier.” Nation 45 (August 4, 1887): 90-91 “Agostino Depretis.” Nation 45 (August 18, 1887): 130-31. “The Last of the Gozzadini.” Nation 45 (September 29, 1887): 250-51. “Italy and the Vatican.” Nation 45 (November 17, 1887): 390-91. “Garibaldi's Memoirs.” Nation 46 (February 2, 1888): 97-98. “Aurelio Saffi.” Nation 46 (April 19, 1888): 319-20. “Poets and Cooperatives.” Nation 47 (September 13, 1888): 207-9. Della Vita di Giuseppe Mazzini. Milan: Sonzogno, 1888. “The Italian Fleet.” Nation 48 (May 2, 1889): 362-64. “Italy's Allies and War Scares.” Nation 49 (August 22, 1889): 146-47. “Michele Amari.” Nation 49 (August 29, 1889): 164-65. Autobiography of Giuseppe Garibaldi. With a supplement by Jessie White Mario. Authorized translation by A. Werner.3 vols. London: Walter Smith, 1889. Vol. 3 by Jessie White Mario. “The Patrimony of the Poor in Italy.” Nation 50 (February 20, 1890): 149-51. “Italy's Burdens under the Triple Alliance.” Nation 50 (April 17, 1890): 312-13. “The Triumph of an Idea.” Nation 50 (May 8, 1890): 371-72. “Public Instruction and Starvation in Italy.” Nation 50 (June 26, 1890): 504-6. “Venice and Liberty,” Nation 51 (September 11, 1890): 208-9. “The Italian Elections.” Nation 51 (December 11, 1890): 459-60. Scritti e discorsi di Agostino Bertani. Scelti e curati da Jessie White Mario. Florence: G. Barbera, 1890. “Italy and the United States.” Nineteenth Century 29 (January, 1891) 701-18. “The Housing of the Poor in Naples.” Nation 52 (February 12, 1891): 134-36. [Scribner's Magazine article in process uses same material.] “Mafia, Camorra, Brigandage-Alias Ĉrime.” Nation 52 (April 16, 1891): 314-15. 26
“Peace or Death.” Nation 53 (July 9, 1891): 25-26. “The Jews and Italy.” Nation 53 (July 30, 1891): 82-83. “Italy on the Sea.” Nation 53 (September 3, 1891): 177-78. “The Financial Condition of Italy.” Nation 53 (October 1,1891): 255-56. “The City of Initiatives.” Nation 53 (December 3, 1891): 422-24. “Italian Wine-Making.” Nation 53 (December 31, 1891): 505-6. “In Sicilian Sulphur Mines.” Nation 54 (January 14, 1892): 29-31. “The Exhibition of Palermo.” Nation 54 (March 17, 1892): 208-10. “St. Joseph's Day in Naples.” Nation 54 (April 14, 1892):281-82. “A Treasure Trove.” Nation 54 (June 9, 1892): 426-28. “Letters of Ippolito Pindemont,” Nation 55 (August 11, 1892): 103-5 “Crime and Politics in Italy.” Nation 55 (November 10, 1892): 350-52 “The Italian Elections.” Nation 55 (December 8, 1892): 427-28. “The Poor in Naples”, in "The Poor in Great Cities.” Scribners Magazine 13 (January 1893); see 59 above. “Bank Troubles in Italy.” Nation 56 (February 9, 1893): 98-100 “Carducci and His Critics.” Nation 57 (July 6, 1893): 7-8. “A True Realist.” Nation 57 (October 7, 1893): 305-7. “The Social Unrest in Sicily.” Nation 57 (November 9, 1893): 344-46. “The Dry Rot in Italy.” Nation 57 (December 21, 1893): 462-63. Vita di Giuseppe Garibaldi. Milan: Fratelli Treves, 1893. “Habemus Pontificem.” Nation 58 (January 4, 1894): 9-10. “Martial Law in Sicily.” Nation 58 (January 25, 1894): 63-64. “Le miniere di zolfo in Sicilia.” Nouva Antologia 49 (January 15, 1894): 441-66; (February 15, 1894): 719-43. “The Trade Between Sicily and the United States.” Nation 58 (March 22, 1894): 209-11. [Previous two articles use same materials.] “Italy at the Cross-Roads.” Nation 58 (April 19, 1894): 287-88. “Protectionism and Socialism in Italy.” Nation 58 (May 24, 1894): 384-85. “Prodotti del Suolo e Viticoltura in Sicilia.” Nuova Antologia 136 (August 15, 1894): 708-41. “Lake Garda and Lake Iseo.” Nation 59 (October 11, 1894): 267-68. “Carducci at San Marino.” Nation 59 (October 25, 1894): 303-5. “The Last Letters of Baron Ricasoli.” Nation 59 (December 20, 1894): 459-60. [With Gabriele Rosa]. In Memoria di G. Nicotera. Florence: Barbera, 1894. 27
Scritti di Alberto Mario scelti e curati da Giosuè Carducci, con le memorie di lui scritte da Jessie vedova Mario. 2 vols. Bologna: Zanichelli, 1894. “The Poor in Naples.” In The Poor in Great Cities. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1895. “Italy in Africa.” Nation 60 (March 7, 1895): 178-80. “A Grand Old Man.” Nation 60 (April 4, 1895): 254-55. “On the Eve of the Italian Elections.” Nation 60 (June 6, 1895): 441-42. “Carducci-Tasso-Ferrara.” Nation 60 (June 27, 1895): 497-98. “Mazzini's Love Story.” Nation 61 (August 1, 1895): 77-78. “Carducci's Readings from the Italian Renaissance.” Nation 61 (November 21, 1895): 361- 62. “A Doomsday Book Doomed.” (January 2, 1896): 8-9. “The Thirty-Fifth Anniversary of Carducci's Professorship.” Nation 62 (February 27, 1896): 175-76. “Italy's Humiliation and Prowess in Africa.” Nation 62 (April 9, 1896): 284-85. “Social Regeneration in Italy.” Nation 62 (May 7, 1896): 358-59. “An Impenitent Republican.” Nation 62 (June 4, 1896): 431-32. “The Triumphs of Leo XIII.” Nation 63 (July 2, 1896): 7-9. “Italy and France in 1870.” Nation 63 (July 9, 1896): 33-35. “The First Act of Social Justice to Sicily.” Nation 63 (August 6, 1896): 102-3. “The Marriage of the Crown Prince of Italy.” Nation 63 (October 29, 1896): 324-25. “L'Italia,Roma,e la Guerra Franco-Prussania.” Estratto dalla Rivista storica del Risorgimento Italiano. vol. 1. Turin, 1896. “Italy,Rome and the War.” Cosmopolis. London: T. Fisher Unwin,n.d. “Italy and Crete.” Nation 64 (March 11, 1897): 178-79. “More Readings from the Italian Renaissance.” Nation 64 (April 22, 1897): 300-301. “Crime and Misery” June 24, 1897): 470-71. “Le opere pie e l'infanticidio legale.” Rovigo: A. Minelli, 1897. “Il sistema penitenziario e il domicilio coatto in Italia.” Dalla Nuova Antologia. Rome, 1897. “Mazzini's Early Letters, 1834-1840.” Nation 66 (February 24, 1898): 146-47. “Felice Cavallotti.” Nation 66 (March 31, 1898): 240-42. “The Riots in Italy.” Nation 66 (May 26, 1898): 402-3. “Carducci's Leopardi.” Nation 67 (September 15, 1898): 201-2. “One More Letter from Robert.” Nation 68 (March 23, 1899): 220-21. “Carducci's Petrarch.” Nation 68 (April 6, 1899): 254-56. 28
“Micromaniacs and Megalomaniacs.” Nation 68 (May 11, 1899): 350-51. “The Villari Testimonial.” Nation 69 (December 7, 1899): 423-25. Cenni biografici sulla vita di G. Dolfo. Florence: Elziviriana, 1899. “Charles Albert-Legend and History.” Nation 70 (April 5, 1900): 257-59. “Carducci's Muratori.” Nation 70 (May 31, 1900): 414-15. “Sunset or Dawn.” Nation 71 (October 18, 1900): 305-6. “Malta and the Question of Language.” Nation 71 (December 20, 1900): 484-86. Scritti scelti di Giuseppe Mazzini. Edited by Giosuè Carducci. Introduction by Jessie White Mario. “Verdi, the Patriot.” Nation 72 (March 31, 1901): 231. “Unpublished Letters of Mazzini and Kossuth.” Nation 72 (April 11, 1901): 291-93. “Giosuè Carducci.” Nation 7 2 (May 16, 1901): 392-94. “Carlo Cattaneo.” Nuova Antologia 177 (June 16, 1901): 683-705. “Carlo Cattaneo.” (July 18, 1901): 48-49. “Cesare Abba's Von Quarto zum Volturno.” Nation 73 (July 25, 1901):72-73. “Cattaneo,” New York Evening Post, August 17, 1901. “Crispi.” Nation 73 (August 29, 1901): 165-67. “Tuscan Town and Country.” Nation 73 (November 14, 1901): 375-76. Mario, Alberto. Scritti letterari e artistici. Edited by Giosuè Carducci. Bologna: N. Zanichelli, 1901. With a biography by Jessie White Mario. “The Naples Tammany Overthrow.” Nation 74 (January 23, 1902): 65-66. “The Railway Strike in Italy.” Nation 74 (March 27, 1902): 245-47. “Giosuè Carducci.” Nation 74 (May 15, 1902): 383-84. “The General Strike in Florence.” Nation 75 (September 25, 1902): 241-43. “The Rebuilding of the Campanile.” Nation 75 (October 16, 1902): 302-4. “The Roman Strike.” Nation 76 (May 14, 1903): 391-92. “Mazzini Redivivus.” Nation 77 (July 2, 1903): 7-9. “The Italian Socialists.” Nation 78 (May 12, 1904): 367-68. “Italy, France, and the Vatican.” Nation 78 (June 16, 1904): 467-68. “Popular Education in Italy.” Nation 79 (August 4, 1904): 97-98. “The Great Political Strike in Italy. Nation 79 (Oct. 20, 1904): 312-14. “The General Elections in Italy.” Nation 79 (November 10, 1904): 370-72; (December 8, 1904): 456-58. “Italy's Tribute to Carducci.” Nation 80 (February 2, 1905): 88-90. 29
“Monuments to Crispi.” Nation 80 (February 16, 1905): 130-31. “Parliamentary Decadence in Italy.” Nation 80 (April 13, 1905): 285-87. “The Sixteenth Volume of Carducci's Works.” Nation 81 (October 12, 1905): 297. Garibaldi e i suoi tempi: Milan. n.p., 1905. “The New Italian Ministry.” (posthumous) Nation 82 (March 8, 1906): 195-97. The Birth of Modern Italy. (posthumous) Edited by Duke Litta-Visconti Arese. London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1909
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