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A Socio-Environmental History of Commercial Tobacco Farming in Southern Rhodesia and Zimbabwe, C.1893-2000S

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A Socio-Environmental History of Commercial Tobacco Farming in Southern Rhodesia and Zimbabwe, C.1893-2000S A Socio-environmental History of Commercial Tobacco Farming in Southern Rhodesia and Zimbabwe, c.1893-2000s by Elijah Doro Dissertation presented for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (History) in the Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences at Stellenbosch University Supervisor: Prof Sandra Swart March 2020 Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za Tobacco is without doubt one of the most destructive plants on the planet even before it hits the lungs. Standard Schaefffer, 2007. You will experience it with regret – like tobacco (snuff) on the nose. Shona proverb (loosely translated) Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za DECLARATION By submitting this thesis electronically, I declare that the entirety of the work contained therein is my own, original work, that I am the authorship owner thereof (unless to the extent explicitly otherwise stated) and that I have not previously in its entirety or in part submitted it for obtaining any qualification. Chapter Five of this dissertation is published in International Review of Environmental History, 5, 2 (2019). Signature……………………………. Date…………………………………. Copyright © 2020 Stellenbosch University All rights reserved i Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za ABSTRACT This thesis explores the relationship between tobacco farmers (both black and white) and the environment in Southern Rhodesia and Zimbabwe and how this relationship shaped physical landscapes, agricultural ecosystems and affected the human body across time. It examines the changing role of the state in regulating tobacco farming and discusses the shifting production dynamics and agronomic practices and how these transitions constructed new environments and social relations. The thesis demonstrates that extraneous global pressures such as the Great Depression, the Dust Bowl environmental catastrophe in the USA and the two World Wars also exerted a huge influence on tobacco farming in Southern Rhodesia. The thesis uses the broader historiographical theories on the rise of conservation ideologies within white settler agriculture in southern Africa and global discourses on modern environmentalism to interrogate how tobacco farming practices contributed to environmental degradation, contamination or improvement. The thesis further engages with colonial policy on African tobacco production and shows that Africans were systematically excluded from competitive commercial production of tobacco and relegated to the position of labourers in white farms and consumers of European tobacco. Finally, it evaluates the changing contemporary socio- environmental dynamics of tobacco production in Zimbabwe beyond 2000 and the prospects of using the lessons from history for curbing the global tobacco epidemic. KEYWORDS: Tobacco, Environmental history, Southern Rhodesia, Zimbabwe, peasants, settler farmers, labour, mixed farming, conservation, Pesticides, Rachel Carson, deforestation, dust bowl, natural resources, contour ridges, Turkish tobacco, burley. ii Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za OPSOMMING Hierdie proefskrif ondersoek die verhouding tussen tabakboere (beide swart en wit) en die omgewing in Suid-Rhodesië en Zimbabwe en hoe hierdie verhouding oor tyd die fisiese landskap en landbou ekosisteme gevorm het asook die menslike liggaam beinvloed het. Dit ondersoek ook die veranderende regulatoriese rol van die staat in tabakboerdery en bespreek die veranderende produksie dinamika en agronomiese praktyke en hoe dié oorgange nuwe omgewings en sosiale verhoudings totstand gebring het. Die proefskrif toon aan dat eksterne globale faktore soos die Groot Depressie, die “Dust Bowl” omgewingskatestrofe in die VSA en die twee Wêreldoorloë tabakboerdery in Suid-Rhodesië grondig beinvloed het. Die proefskrif gebruik die breër historiografiese teorieë oor die opkoms van bewarings ideologieë in wit setlaar/koloniale landbou in Suidelike Afrika asook globale diskoerse oor moderene omgewingsbewaring/bewussyn om te bepaal hoe die praktyke van tabakboerdery tot omgewings agteruitgang, besmetting of verbetering bygedra het. Die proefskrif fokus verder op koloniale beleidsrigtings oor Swart (African) tabakproduksie en toon aan dat Swartmense (Africans) sistematies van mededingende kommersiële tabakproduksie uitgesluit is en tot arbeiders op wit plase en verbruikers van Europese tabak gerelegeer is. Ten slotte gee die proefskrif ’n oorsig oor die veranderende huidige sosio-omgewings dinamika van tabakproduksie in Zimbabwe na 2000 en die vooruitsigte vir die bekamping van die globale tabakepidemie. iii Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank my sponsors and funders during this program the Gerda Henkel Foundation, the Lisa Maskell Fellowships and the Graduate School at Stellenbosch University for giving me the necessary financial support throughout. I would want to extend a special mention to my supervisor Professor Sandra Swart under whose guidance and mentorship I was able to bring together the ideas in this thesis. The History Department at Stellenbosch University for all the support in assisting me attend conferences and get the opportunity to share my research. I would also want to appreciate the emotional support I received from my wife Alima Katembo Doro, my son Farai Tiyamike Doro, my mother and family who encouraged me. Special mention also goes to my friends, Tapiwa Madimu for exhorting me to continue this path, Godfrey Hove, Wesley Mwatwara, Ushehwedu Kufakurinani and Together Kaseke. My History Friday Morning colleagues, “Dog historian” Innocent Dande, Bryan Kauma, Lloyd Maphosa, Yustina Komba, Mia Uys, Lyle Lennox, Este Kotze, Tinashe Takuva, Cecilia Mushininga and the late and the dearly missed Muhammad Maakato, who passed away while finishing his own doctorate. My social network of friends who lifted my spirits when the going got tough Trevor Chikowore, Admire Phiri, Tafadzwa Chiyangwa and Levi Bumhira. Many thanks to the individuals who agreed to be interviewed and participate in this research in Mazowe, Mount Darwin and Muzarabani districts. I must also express gratitude to my contemporary tobacco historian Sibanengi Ncube for showing me around and driving me during research and field work. The staff at the National Archives of Zimbabwe gave me the best assistance and the staff at the Tobacco Research Board. Special thanks also to Parliament of Zimbabwe and my peers there particularly Ruvimbo Matinhari, Betty Munowenyu, Angela Gutu and Martin Mugova. iv Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za DEDICATION To the memory of my late father, Keniard Doro, a tobacco farmer from rural Muzarabani who taught me how to dream and my mother, Dorothy Simbi, who gave me hope when it rained on me while working on the tobacco fields… v Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za CONTENTS Declaration................................................................................................................................................. i Abstract .................................................................................................................................................... ii Opsomming...............................................................................................................................................iii Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................................... iv Dedication................................................................................................................................................. v List of Abbreviations ................................................................................................................................ ix table of figures........................................................................................................................................... x Chapter one ............................................................................................................................................... 1 Historiography, Literature Review and Methodology ............................................................................... 1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................................... 1 Literature Review ................................................................................................................................. 9 The International Tobacco Context .................................................................................................... 16 Theoretical Points of Departure and Research Questions ................................................................... 20 Research Design and Methodology ..................................................................................................... 24 Structure and Layout ......................................................................................................................... 27 CHAPTER TWO ..................................................................................................................................... 31 Global Perspectives and Local Narratives: A Socio-environmental History of Pioneer Tobacco Farming in Southern Rhodesia, 1893-1928 ............................................................................................................... 31 Introduction ......................................................................................................................................
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