Common Quail

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Technical Report - 2009 - 032

EUROPEAN UNION MANAGEMENT PLAN 2009-2011

COMMON QUAIL Coturnix coturnix Disclaimer: This technical document has been developed through a collaborative programme involving the European Commission, all the Member States, the Accession Countries, Norway and other stakeholders and Non-Governmental Organisations. The document should be regarded as presenting an informal consensus position on best practice agreed by all partners. However, the document does not necessarily represent the official, formal position of any of the partners. Hence, the views expressed in the document do not necessarily represent the views of the European Commission.

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Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 2009

ISBN 978-92-79-13217-9 N° Catalogue KH-31-09-002-EN-N © European Communities, 2009 Reproduction is authorised provided the source is acknowledged.

First draft compiled in 2000 by: Jean-Charles Guyomarc’h, Université de Rennes-I, France

Final compilation by: Christian Perennou, Station Biologique de la Tour du Valat, F-13200 Le Sambuc, France. Finalisation by the European Commission in June 2009.

Comments, data or general information to the final version were generously provided by: Dr Sébastien Derégnaucourt, Max Planck Institute for Ornithology Jean-Luc Tesson, Office National de la Chasse et de la Faune Sauvage, France L. Barbier and J-M Boutin, Office National de la Chasse et de la Faune Sauvage, France Dr. José Domingo Rodríguez-Teijeiro & Dr. Manel Puigcerver Oliván, Universidad de Barcelona Borja Heredia, Ministerio de Medio Ambiente, Spain Dr Andreas Ranner, Anlagenrecht, Umweltschutz und Verkehr Amt der Burgenländischen Landesregierung, Austria Nicolaos Kassinis, Cyprus Game Fund Service – Ministry of Interior Michael Miltiadou, BirdLife in Cyprus Angeles Evangelidis and Rigas Tsiakiris, HOS, BirdLife in Greece Ana Iñigo, SEO/BirdLife in Spain Ruud van Beusekom, VBN/BirdLife in the Netherlands Nicola Crockford and Peter Newbery, RSPB, BirdLife in the UK John Marchant, British Trust for Ornithology Dr. Petar Iankov, Bulgarian Society for the Protection of Birds, BirdLife Bulgaria Boris Barov, Ian Burfield and Konstantin Kreiser, European Division, BirdLife International Dr Andre Raine, BirdLife Malta Fernando Spina, INFS (Istituto Nazionale Fauna Selvatica), Italy Torsten Larsson, Sweden

Contents

Executive summary 5

0. Introduction 7 1. Biological Assessment 8 General Information 8 Taxonomy 8 Populations 9 Distributions throughout the annual cycle 10 Population developments 12 Survival and productivity 14 Life history 15 Habitat requirements 18 2. Available key knowledge 20 3 Threats 27 Habitat loss/modification 27 Droughts and climate change 29 Genetic pollution from released Japanese Quail and/or hybrids 30 Hunting 32 Predation (non-human) 36 4. Policies and legislation relevant for management 39 5. Framework for Action 40 Priority statement/evaluation 40 Purpose of the action plan 41 Results for the period 2009-2011 41 6. Activities 43 7. References 57

Tables

Table 1. Geographical distribution of the Common Quail Coturnix coturnix during the year (EU 27). 22

Table 2. European breeding population of the Common Quail Coturnix coturnix. 23

Table 3. Timing of the different breeding stages in Catalonia, Spain, as a function of altitude 24 for the decade 1980-1990 (adapted from Gallego et al. 1990).

Table 4. Hunting seasons and annual bags in some EU and other European countries. 25

Table 5. Threats importance at national level. 38

Table 6. International conservation and legal status of the Common Quail Coturnix coturnix. 39

Table 7. Prioritized activities and results in all countries in the EU with populations of the Common Quail Coturnix coturnix. 47

Table 8. Summary of objectives/results and activities of the Common Quail Coturnix coturnix Management Plan 2009-2011. 52

Executive summary

The Common Quail Coturnix coturnix is listed on Annex II/2 of the EU Birds Directive as a species for which hunting is permitted. However, it has been identified as a bird species that has an unfavourable conservation status in Europe. This concern is based upon the fact that Common Quail populations showed decreasing trends in many Member States between 1970 and 1990, and that despite some increases during 1990-2000 its European population is still considered to be “Depleted” (BirdLife International 2004a). It is therefore important to assess its current conservation status and which research information is available, in order to appraise the current effectiveness of conservation actions, identify reasons for the observed trends and recommend options for future management to assist population recovery.

This Plan outlines management prescriptions to restore former population levels. It is aimed at all Member States with breeding populations of the Common Quail. It outlines the actions to be taken in the period 2009-2011, and should be followed by new versions with revised objectives that take into account the results achieved during the first and following phases.

Only the nominate race of the Common Quail, breeding in Europe, Coturnix c. coturnix, is taken into account in this management plan, and the European populations of Common Quail will be considered as a whole for that management purpose. However, it is vital to realize that Europe fully shares its breeding populations with North Africa, with a large proportion of birds breeding in succession in North Africa then Europe in the same year, after performing a migration between its two breeding cycles.

Although the past decline of this species at the European scale is obvious, its dispersed distribution, discreet character, very unusual migration patterns and breeding cycles make it very difficult to study and to monitor on its breeding grounds.

Some of the possible threats to the Common Quail in the EU are identified as (1) destruction/modification of the breeding and staging habitats, linked to intensification of agriculture (change of crops and agricultural practices, use of pesticides), (2) droughts and climate change in wintering areas and in some breeding areas; (3) genetic pollution from released Japanese and/or hybrid Quails. Furthermore (4) hunting and (5) predation (non-human) can be seen as aggravating factors in some cases.

Recognizing that the current (2005) European population level represents a lower level than historically documented, this Management Plan aims to restore the species to a favourable conservation status1 through reversing the declines in SE Europe and maintaining its natural genetic diversity. To reach this target, the Management Plan identifies nine operational objectives or Results that have to be achieved during its 3-year running period. These are:

(1) the release both on public and private lands, fenced-in or not, of the Japanese Quail (C.c. japonica) and its various hybrids (C.c. coturnix x C.c. japonica) is explicitly forbidden and this ban is effectively enforced. Methods of genetic identification of both subspecies must be developed in order to achieve an objective identification.

1 The EU Habitats Directive (92/43/EEC) states that a species’ conservation status will be taken as Favourable when: • Population dynamics data on the species concerned indicate that it is maintaining itself on a long-term basis as a viable component of its natural habitats; and • The natural range of the species is neither being reduced nor is likely to be reduced for the foreseeable future; and • There is, and will probably continue to be, a sufficiently large habitat to maintain its population on a long-term basis.

(2) Hunting seasons in EU Member States are in accordance with information on breeding period as defined in “Period of reproduction and prenuptial migration of Annex II bird species in the EU”, and hunting does not affect late breeding birds and birds during spring migration.

(3) The overall permitted hunting level in the EU, as set through national bag limits, is kept below levels that risk significantly slowing the rate of recovery of the European Quail population.

(4) Breeding and staging habitats of the Common Quail are conserved, managed sustainably and, eventually, restored in all Member States with significant numbers of breeding Common Quail; so as to ensure recovery in Common Quail numbers.

(5) Technical assistance is provided to those African countries where Quail hunting is important, so as to help ban – as in Europe – the release of Japanese/ hybrid Quails.

(6) The knowledge about wintering populations of the Common Quail in North and West Africa, and breeding populations in North Africa, is improving and made widely available.

(7) A common method is agreed, validated by the EBCC and used by all Member States to monitor Common Quail populations.

(8) Regular bag statistics are available for all Member States where Common Quail hunting is allowed.

(9) Research is under way to identify (1) the relative level of isolation of the four large palearctic “flyway populations” and the functional links between the regions lying on each of the four paths, notably the Atlantic (west Africa - Morocco - Iberia - north-west Europe) and Central Mediterranean (Tunisia - Italy - Central Europe) flyways, and (2) the existence of exchanges between the European population of the Common Quail and the southern (C.c. africana) and eastern (C.c. erlangeri) African subspecies.

It is the responsibility of the relevant authority of each Member State to decide how to implement the management prescriptions of this plan.

0. Introduction

This concern is based upon the fact that Common Quail populations showed decreasing trends in many Member States during 1970-1990 (Tucker & Heath 1994, Boutin & Barbier 1999), and that despite some increases between 1990 and 2000 its European population is still considered to be “Depleted” (BirdLife International 2004a). It is therefore important to assess its current conservation status and which research information is available, in order to appraise the current effectiveness of conservation actions, identify reasons for the observed trends and recommend options for future management to assist population recovery. Hence, this plan will focus upon the full implementation of the provisions of the Birds Directive as these apply for this species.

Although this management plan provides recommendations and actions to be taken only by the European Commission and EU Member States, the ecology of the Common Quail highlights the need for studies and conservation actions in wintering (and north African breeding) areas: the long-term conservation of the Common Quail depends also on international cooperation programs.

With a few exceptions the format of this management plan follows a new Single Species Action Plan format developed by BirdLife International for UNEP/AEWA Secretariat (AEWA 2002).

The first chapter of the Management Plan briefly presents concise information on the Common Quail populations. Chapter 2 focuses on the key knowledge for the 27 EU Member States. Chapter 3 analyses the threats that are believed to be the causes of its decline while chapter 4 lists the policies and legislation relevant for the Common Quail management in Europe.

Chapter 5 sets out long-term and immediate objectives for its future management.

Chapter 6 describes the actions to be taken for the period 2009-2011. These activities cover all countries.

It is the intention that this Management Plan shall be revised in 2011.

1. Biological assessment

General The Common Quail is the smallest European species of the Phasianidae family. information In “classic” international atlases (Cramp & Simmons 1980; Johnsgard 1988; del Hoyo et al. 1994; Taxonomy etc), up to eight subspecies are usually recognized: – the nominate form C.c. coturnix (Linné, 1758) encompasses the largest part of the species’ distribution area (Europe, North, West and East Africa, Arabia) – C.c. confisa (Hartert 1917) in the Canary Islands and the Madeira archipelago – C.c. conturbans (Hartert 1917), endemic in the Azores (but cf infra); – C.c. inopinata (Hartert 1917) in the Cape Verde Islands – C.c. africana (Temminck & Sclegel, 1849), in Eastern and Southern Africa; – C.c. erlangeri (Zedlitz 1912), in East Africa ; – the Grey Quail C.c. orientalis in India and Pakistan ; – C.c. japonica in Eastern Asia.

Only the first three are relevant to the EU.

Most of the distinctions for Atlantic Ocean and African races are only founded upon variations in the reddishness in face and/or breast colour, are often based upon a small sample, and go back to old descriptions from the first half of the 20th century.

The distinctiveness of the Atlantic islands forms has been recently questioned by Fontoura and Gonçalves (1995) and Puigcerver et al. (1996) on the basis of more recent samples - notably from Madeira and in the Azores - and of a new examination of earlier skins preserved at the British Museum (Puigcerver et al. 1991, 2001). The populations on these islands are not isolated from their continental counterparts, and the birds are not really different. These findings support earlier suggestions (e.g. Bannerman 1963) that the nominate form is a summer visitor to all the Atlantic islands.

Moreover, within those populations accepted as being nominate (in Europe, north and west Africa, particularly Morocco), a pheno-typical variability of both the plumage colour and individual size has been shown (Guyomarc’h et al. 1998b), highlighting that these criteria cannot be used alone for defining separate subspecies.

On the other hand, earlier publications which claimed the existence of two varieties of Quail in Mediterranean areas (e.g. see for Sardinia, Massoli-Novelli 1988 and for Portugal, Tait 1924 and Reis Jr. 1931) have acquired a certain validity through the fact that the species is defined as ‘polytypic’ in reputable publications (Cramp & Simmons 1980). However, they should best be discounted as they do not take into account the morphological differences between one-year-old adults and young, 7-8- week-old adults. Neither was the size variation due to the photo-period since birth taken into consideration by these authors: Quails born in June–July and benefitting from longer days for feeding are significantly larger than Quails born in October or March, at the same age (Saint-Jalme 1990).

Both in continental Europe and on islands (notably the Azores), studies are now complicated by the fact that these populations are possibly polluted by domestic Quails C. (c.) japonica since the 1980s at least.

The taxonomic status of the two African subspecies (C.c. erlangeri and C.c. africana ) is still unclear. The former is sometimes considered to be a resident of east Africa (Cheesman and Sclater 1935; Benson and Stuart-Irwin 1966), where it occupies exactly the same areas as ‘Common’ Quails wintering there from October to April. However for other observers (e.g. Mackworth and Grant 1952; Puigcerver et al. 2001). C.c.erlangeri is so similar to the nominate form that they do not recognize the validity of this taxon. The same occurs with the migratory Quail occupying a large part of eastern and southern Africa, from Kenya to the Cape (the "Cape Quail", C.c. africana.). Its validity as a subspecies is recognized by Chapin (1932), Courtenay-Latimer & Clancey (1960) and Mentis (1972), whilst other authors merged it with the nominate form, e.g. McLachlan and Liversidge (1957) and Urban et al. (1986). Despite the fact that the wings of the two African populations are very noticeably smaller than those of the nominate subspecies (Benson & Stuart-Irwin 1966), the question of their taxonomic status remains open.

The special case of Coturnix (c.) japonica Finally, some recent authors (e.g. del Hoyo et al. 1994) consider the oriental population Coturnix japonica as a separate species, on the basis of its supposed coexistence without hybridization (sympatry) with the Common Quail in the Baikal region in Russia and the Kentei region in Mongolia. However, in this latter region, recent proof of natural hybridization was obtained (Barilani et al. 2005). Clements (2002) in the supplement of his latest edition of the checklist, also recognizes two species: Coturnix coturnix and C. japonica.

There is therefore still some controversy on the exact status (specific or subspecific) of this form, which is not a purely academic debate but has direct conservation implications. Hybridization processes could be under way in Europe due to the massive release of Quails of Asian origin (see Section 3, below). However there is not yet any full evidence of this, as the hybrid Common Quails found in the wild in some studies (e.g. in Spain, Barilani et al. 2005) could either be captive-bred released hybrids, or free-born hybrids.

Populations The Common Quail ranges over almost the entire Palearctic zone south of ca. 60° N. and up to 1200 m altitude (Fig. 1). Breeding areas (between 28 and 55-60° N) and wintering areas (between 10-12° & 38-39° N) overlap broadly, in North Africa, the Nile and Jordan valleys and southermost Europe.

The meta-population can be roughly divided, from east to west, into four groups defined by the main migratory flows (Fig. 2): one Indo-asiatic area (Pakistan-Afghan route), corresponding to the Grey Quail (ex C.c. orientalis Bogdanov); a near-east area (Egypt-Syria route); a central European area (Tunisia-Italy route); and a western Atlantic area (Morocco-Iberia route), the last two (possibly the last three) being of relevance to the EU. These four groups have not been proven to represent ‘real’, biological populations, but they are useful for practical purposes.

The nesting area of the nominate race Coturnix coturnix in Europe stretches from Portugal and Ireland east to the Urals, south of the 60th parallel North. The extent of the distribution area somewhat varies depending on population fluctuations, with countries such as Ireland occupied only in some years. Apart from the latter country, the Common Quail currently breeds regularly in all European Union Member States, including all the large Mediterranean Islands (BirdLife International 2004a, Handrinos & Akriotis 1997).

Bearing in mind methodological difficulties (see § « Population developments » below), the European population totals 2.8 -5.5 million calling males (or 1.4 – 2.75 million pairs), by using an average ratio of 1 pair: 2 singing males (Guyomarc’h 2003) (Table 2). The total European population has also been estimated at between 2.8 and 4.7 million pairs by BirdLife International (2004a), but there appears to have been confusion in some countries between numbers of breeding pairs and calling males.

Only 5-24% of the global Quail population breeds in Europe and 43-54% of the European population breeds in Russia (BirdLife International 2004a; or 35–37% Guyomarc’h 2003), with big populations also in Belarus, Bulgaria, Turkey, Romania and Ukraine. Only 23-38% of the European population breeds in the EU (BirdLife International 2004b). Some 33-57% of the EU’s Quails breed in Spain, whilst France, Germany, Italy, Poland and Portugal also have large populations.

The EU population totals 884,000-1,912,000 calling males and, in contrast to the European population as a whole, is in favourable conservation status.

The Common Quail is apparently the only migratory Galliform. It is only a partial migrant though; Distribution the tendency to migrate is genetically inherited, and very sensitive to selection. All populations through the annual produce both sub-sedentary birds, and others which undertake long and short migrations, respectively cycle called ‘sedentary phenotype’ and ‘long/short migrant phenotypes’.

The annual cycle is extremely difficult to study and summarize, since: - different populations show various levels of migratory tendencies; - birds from populations with low migratory tendency can produce offspring which are long- distance migrants; - young birds born in March–April are capable of undertaking their first pre-nuptial migration from the age of 8 or 9 weeks, with a pattern different from, but geographically overlapping with, patterns shown by older birds; - birds can breed several times in succession in a given year, in different countries or even continents, and undertake either migrations or other movements between breeding cycles. This can lead to a very high turnover of individuals in a given breeding area, which can reach up to 95% in 15 days (Rodríguez-Teijeiro et al. 1992). This extraordinary mobility is a key obstacle to any serious population monitoring (J.D. Rodríguez-Teijeiro & M. Puigcerver Oliván, in litt.) - there is no synchrony between male and female movements: due to the lack of male parental involvement, a male may undertake new movements of variable scale (distinct from true migration) in search of another mate, as soon as its first mate has completed egg-laying.

Overall, in central latitudes (30-35°N.) the birds breed very early and have a very low migratory tendency, whereas in the very low (Sahel) or very high latitudes (Northern Europe, Central Asia), most birds undertake long migrations. Northern populations showing strong migratory tendencies ‘leap-frog’ over those with a weak migratory tendency, e.g. sub-sedentary populations of North Africa and the Near East.

Common Quails from Europe winter from the Mediterranean south to tropical Africa, where they overlap to some extent with african populations of the erlangeri and africana subspecies (the exact extent of overlap is uncertain).

After wintering south of the Sahara, populations of long-migrating birds undertake their pre-nuptial migration at the end of January and February (Guyomarc’h 1992, Rodwell et al. 1996). They start to arrive in the Maghreb countries from the third week of February, or even the 2nd in the south. Some will carry on and reach southern Europe (Spain, Romania) in late March - early April (Puigcerver et al. 1989, Munteanu & Maties 1974).

Simultaneously, the populations of short migrants (between 25-35° N, i.e. from the Mediterranean basin) undertake their first reproductive cycle. Whatever their migratory status, 80-90% of Western Palearctic Quails are thus by March either in the nesting phase in all favourable areas below 40° latitude from Portugal to Arabia (Fontoura and Gonçalves, 1996, Combreau, unpublished), or passing through Morocco, Egypt and Israel (Baha el Din et al. 1989, Bigger, in Mendelssohn et al. 1969).

A second enormous migratory movement then follows, made up of birds that have bred earlier at lower latitudes (south of 40° N). They come in several waves: adult males first, then adult females, and finally youngsters born in the same year. These three groups show abundance peaks separated by several weeks. They reach regions north of 40° N between 10th April - late May, or even early June for the first young birds. For a given latitude, birds breeding at moderate altitudes (1000-1200 m) arrive several weeks later than those breeding in the plains, as was noticed in several parts of Europe and Morocco (Puigcerver et al. 1989; Gallego 1993, Michaïlov 1996, Mur 1994, Brosset pers. comm.; Guyomarc’h & Maghnouj 1995).The quantitative importance of these waves (as seen by Europeans) largely depends on the earlier breeding success in southern latitudes: for instance, the last great ‘invasion’ of Quails in Europe in 1964 (Davis et al. 1966) was preceded by record abundance and breeding numbers in Morocco; in Catalonia (Spain) yearlings increased exponentially in the “invasion year” of 1988 as compared with “normal abundance” years, whereas adults increased only linearly (Puigcerver et al. 1989).

In Italy the index of relative abundance as derived from intense ringing campaign of passage migrants (Macchio et al. 1999) shows a maximum on the third decade of May.

Simultaneously with this second wave, a large part of the southern population (birds with the “short- distance migrant” phenotype) remain in the favourable southern habitats, notably at the huge irrigated plains of Morocco and Arabia. Densities there are very high in May–June, with a majority of sexually mature birds (a mixture of one-year-old adults and young adults).

After breeding in Europe is completed, the autumn migration starts. To summarise, the migration of populations from south of the Loire (France), Castilla (Spain) and northern Italy is under way by the first week of September (Guyomarc’h et al. 1988, Spano & Truffi 1992). Rodríguez-Teijeiro et al. (1996) even found it in the last week of August in the North of Castilla (Spain). Apparently, timings are determined by the Quail biological clock rather than by external local factors such as atmospheric pressure, wind direction, etc. In the autumn, there seems to be no sexual or age segregation in the succession of migratory waves, the only obvious trend being that the large majority of Quails captured in October are youngsters from the same year.

The autumn migration (September - October) of the populations in Eastern Europe (including Russia) is shifting much to the east and to the west from the spring flyway, reaching the western part of Bulgaria (Nankinov 1982) and being very intensive along the Romanian and Bulgarian Black Sea coast (P. Iankov, pers. comm.).

An important phase of preparation for the southwards migration takes place before embarking on the sea crossing. In Italy, out of a large overall sample of over 25,000 birds analysed through ringing (Licheri D. et al. 2005) a fast and significant increase in mean body mass is observed starting with the first decade of september, with peaks in the second and third decade for adults and juveniles, respectively.

The first birds from the western populations arrive in lower Senegal at the end of September (C. Sagna, pers. comm.), i.e. in the last weeks of the rainy season. The Quails normally have by this time abundant food resources at their disposal. Massive arrivals occur from mid-October onwards (F. Roux, pers. obs. 1974).

The proportion of birds with a weak or moderate migratory tendency (‘sedentary phenotype’) used to be marginal in Europe earlier on. It has probably increased considerably in the southern Palearctic: Morocco, Spain and Portugal, Arabia, Egypt, etc. Conversely, the proportion of birds inheriting strong migratory tendencies is decreasing, presumably because of the bad wintering conditions in the Sudan-Sahelian regions since the 1970s (Guyomarc’h 1992). A similar phenomenon has been observed in southern Africa (lat. 20° south), with a resulting tendency for populations to become increasingly sedentary overall (Mentis 1972).

Population Estimates and trends are available for most European countries (Table 2); however they are still developments imprecise, as reflected e.g. in the large differences between maximum and minimum numbers. This is due to a combination of reasons:

Methodological difficulties in censuring the species, especially since breeding females are very hard to detect, and because once paired, males stop crowing. This often leads to broad ranges for national estimates, most of which actually rely on no field census at all. An additional problem is linked to the high mobility of breeding birds (see § “Distribution” above; J.D. Rodríguez-Teijeiro & M. Puigcerver Oliván, in litt.) and to multiple breeding by the same individuals in a given year, e.g. in Mediterranean countries first then in central/northern Europe. Therefore, national population estimates cannot reliably be summed up at the scale of Europe;

- Inadequacies in large-scale compilations: Because the “breeding pair” is in this species a very ephemeral phenomenon, the number of singing males is considered by specialists as a much more practical index of population abundance than breeding pairs (see Table 2). However, broad-scale compilations (e.g. BirdLife International 2004a, Tucker & Heath 1994) often use the latter and also mix up data relating to pairs (although inaccessible in practice, with rare exceptions) with data on calling birds (by nature unpaired). Converting the singing males into “pairs”, if attempted, should at least take the sex-ratio into consideration, i.e. 1 pair for every 1 to 4 males, depending on the region (Guyomarc’h 2003); but in practice it often does not.

High interannual fluctuations in breeding numbers for a given country, which do not necessarily reflect the real variability in the total population size, but rather a variability in the amplitude of the pre-breeding, northwards migration. For example: - In France, numbers extrapolated from sample counts lead to estimates between 50,000 pairs (in ‘bad’ years, e.g. 1985, 1991) and 200,000-250,000 (in ‘best’ years e.g. 1987, 1992, 1997) (Guyomarc’h 1994). - Similarly in the British Isles, in the decade 1987-97, 1989 was a ‘vintage’ year throughout the United Kingdom (abundance index 1650); then 1994 (612) and 1997 (867) were ‘good’ years, while on the other hand 1991 was a particularly low year (index 107) (Ogilvie et al. 1999). - In the Netherlands, the breeding population in the period 1998–2000 is estimated at 2,000– 6,500 pairs, whereas 1989 involved 8,000-12,000 pairs (Sovon 2002). - Finally in Spain, numbers in good (rainy) years have been shown to be 4 or 5 times higher than in dry years (Jubete 1997, in Puigcerver et al. 2004).

Since peak years may be different between countries, simply adding “peak national numbers” from different years may not be adequate for estimating the European population. Trends are even more difficult than population size to assess reliably, as they are masked by the demography of an extreme ‘r’ strategist, showing considerable year-to-year fluctuations and multiple breeding in different countries, as noted above. For instance, Puigcerver et al. (2004) suggest that the varying abundance of Common Quails in Spain might be partly due to the breeding success in North Africa, earlier in the same year.

In recent decades, local/regional declines have been noted in a variety of regions (e.g. France north of the Loire, Bulgaria, Romania - BirdLife International 2004a), and increases in others (e.g. Germany, the Netherlands and Hungary, Guyomarc’h 2003, Spain, Puigcerver et al. 2004). In the Netherlands, the extended distribution is probably partly explained by better observer coverage, and is seemingly in contradiction with habitat loss due to agricultural intensification (Hustings et al. 2004). Overall, there was a decrease in the 1970s in Europe north of ca. 45°N, but in the 1990s an overall increase seems to have taken place (Guyomarc’h 2003).

Birdlife International roughly confirms these overall trends in Europe: a strong decline between 1970 and 1990 (especially in eastern and central Europe; Tucker & Heath 1994), followed by a decade of mixed fortune in 1990-2000, with large differences between countries (e.g. increases in northern and central Europe, declines in the south-east, especially Turkey). As a result, it is currently evaluated as “Depleted” in Europe (BirdLife International 2004a), rather than “Vulnerable” as it was a decade ago.

Bag statistics can give no useful indication of trends at a pan-European scale over recent decades, due to the enormous number of domestic Quails released and to changing dates in hunting season. However, some reliable, local or regional trends of relevance to the EU can be summarized as follows: - a rapid collapse in populations hunted in France between 1970 and 1975, in parallel with an extremely sharp fall of long-migrant phenotypes, whose presence has become patchy north of the Loire (Mur 1994, Guyomarc’h 1992, 1995). However the hunting season was gradually delayed by 2 weeks in the 1970s (from 25th August to 10th September), so that by the late 1970’s it may no longer have overlapped with the peak migration period; - a stability of the bag in Spain between 1973-96 (Ministerio de Agricultura, Pesca y Alimentación); breeding numbers do not show either any particular trend (Puigcerver et al. 2004); - for central European populations, a prime reference is provided by the recording over a century of annual hunting bag tables of the Castelporziano Estate, a 5,000 ha fenced estate in northern Italy, up to the 1960s (Ch. Fadat pers. comm.). Overall, data do not show any decline upto ca. 1965; instead remarkable cycles of abundance are obvious with a 20-year (+/- 2 yrs) return period and peaks around 1903-04, 1921-22, 1945-47, followed by a spectacular collapse in the mid-1960s; - the fall of long-migrant populations wintering in Senegal. Densities which used to reach, locally, 500 Quails per 100 hectares of bushy savanna in the early 1960s (Morel and Roux 1966) were 20 times lower by 1991 in the most favourable rice fields of the very same region (J.-C. Guyomarc’h, pers. obs.); - In Cyprus, numbers on passage fluctuate enormously (Cyprus Game Fund Service, in litt.), with apparently no clear trend.

Finally, - numbers seem to be growing strongly in Arabia and Morocco, and maybe in all the Maghreb countries. These birds do not constitute separate populations, but a part of the population that breeds in Europe, in variable proportions depending on the year; - in Iberia and Italy, a trend towards increasing wintering numbers is reported in southern parts and on the islands (e.g. Balearics, Ferrer et al. 1986; Madeires pers. comm.), as in Cyprus (M. Miltiadou, BirdLife Cyprus, pers. comm.).

In summary, it seems that after a real decline in the 1970s (the quantitative amplitude of which is unknown because of the lack of earlier, reliable pan-European estimates or indexes), the main trend of the overall population now seems to be a gradual increase of the ‘sedentary’ and ‘short-migrant’ phenotypes over the ‘long-migrant’ one in the West Palearctic population, leading to:

- an increase in the proportion of the population that winters (and breeds afterwards) in the South Mediterranean and Arabia; (Local perception = ‘population increase’). - a highly variable proportion of the latter which subsequently migrates to Europe for a second breeding phase (Local perceptions = ‘population increase’ or ‘decline’, depending on regions); - conversely, a decrease in the fraction of the population that winters in tropical Africa. (Local perception = ‘population decline’) - an overall trend of the whole population which is now “Likely increasing in the EU”, with the evidence for a general decline being confined to the past, i.e. the 1970s. However declines have not stopped in southeastern Europe.

These changes may have been driven both by recurrent droughts in the Sahel, which may have counter-selected the ‘long-migrant’ phenotype (Guyomarc’h 1992), and by the massive releases of Japanese/ hybrid Quails (see below), which mostly come from sedentary phenotypes.

The Common Quail has a type ‘r’ population dynamic: very early age of first breeding (8-14 weeks), Survival and large clutches (8-12 eggs) that are repeated 2 to 3 (max. 6) times a year, short parental care period (by productivity the female only), absence of fixed feeding areas, high mortality rate, short life-expectancy, and a capacity for populations to renew their numbers very quickly.

The breeding potential of a given season rests, fundamentally, on youngsters in their first year, hence the considerable year-to-year fluctuations noted above. Indeed, a single truly unfavourable climatic episode happening during the course of their first winter, or in early spring in the Maghreb (e.g. a drought), has a very strong negative effect on survival, and even more so on the success of the first breeding period of March-April.

Based on the analysis of bag statistics, 4-5 young are produced on average per nest in Castille (Guyomarc’h et al. 1989), and 5,3 in Italy (Spano & Truffi 1994).There have been no studies on Quail survival rates from the moment of their independence to the end of their first year, when they undertake their northwards, pre-nuptial migration.

When Quails are ringed during their pre-nuptial migration (e.g. Chigi et al. 1935, Arnould et al. 1954-55, Bortoli et al. 1970), they are already between 7 and 10 months old. Their survival rate in the subsequent 12 months varies from 20% to 27-31% (F. Roux, comm. pers., Puigcerver et al. 1992). Similarly, the remaining life expectancy of one-year-old birds varies between studies from 0.72 to 0.85 year (Puigcerver et al. 1992, Mur 1994).

Life history Breeding: Feeding: Outside breeding season

In spite of traditionally The adult is omnivorous, eating a The Common Quail is an considering the pair as the wide variety of vegetation, mainly exclusively nocturnal breeding unit, (Seth-Smith seeds, but also other vegetable migrator. Just before 1906; Hémon et al. 1988), matter and invertebrates (molluscs, migration, birds undertake a detailed studies clearly show arthropods and arachnids) at certain hyperphagic phase, in which a more complex polygamous times of the year. Seasonal they eat as much as is possible mating system, which variations occur, determined by in order to build up reserves. includes both sequential physiological needs (Combreau & At 42 km/h (the average speed polygyny and sequential Guyomarc’h 1992, Guyomarc’h et measured for daytime flights), polyandry (Rodrígo-Rueda al. 1998): a Quail can travel a maximum et al. 1997, Rodriguez- distance of 160-50 kms per Teijeiro et al. 2003). Outside the nesting season, 88- night. 100% of food found in the crop is Pairs form in communal (or made up of seeds (Keve et al. 1953, The migratory strategy of the central) pairing places at the Penev 983, Combreau 1992, species is to bet on there being end of migration Michailov 1995). Exceptionally 6- no food resources at the spot (Guyomarc’h et al. 1984). 10% is made up of invertebrates in where dawn forces the bird to These places are recognized late summer in Portugal and Spain. land; it therefore rests during by the presence of several During the breeding season the the day in an unplanned place calling males. After a male proportions are: 67-8% without feeding much (which establishes a reproductive tie invertebrates, 22-3% seeds, and 10- also helps avoid predators); it with a female, they leave 1% fragments of green leaves leaves at the next twilight. their communal place, adopt (Combreau 1992, Michailov 1995). a very discreet behaviour, Seeds mainly consist of varieties of A Quail exhausts all its and become very difficult to Wheat (Triticum sp., Hordeum sp, reserves after a week’s journey detect in the field. Secale cereale throughout the of around 1,000 km. So it distribution area, Oryza sativa in usually resumes a normal daily The birds do not defend their Senegal; also cultivated activity once again, with a new breeding territory, the same graminaceous cereals such as straw hyperphagic phase and plot of land can be used or culm, various fodders, ryegrass, stocking up of reserves, at a simultaneously by two or and wild species such as Digitaria spot where it can find three pairs. The vital daily sanguinea, Panicum sp., Setaria sp., abundant seeds (= glucids). surface area (1-2 hectares) Echinocloa crus-gallis, Eragrostis shifts every day, remaining sp. etc. in Europe and the Maghreb, The break-up of the pair at the more or less centred upon Dactyloctenium aegyptium in end of laying stimulates an the nest. Senegal, and by the Lamiaceae, urge to move away in the male, mainly Stachys annua, Galeopsis which remains in a sexual or The ‘faithfulness’ of the sp, Ajuga sp. pre-sexual state (migratory), male can drive it to attack whilst the female is in the other females. But extra-pair Seeds from some families are found incubation stage. This is the copulations do also occur, in lesser quantities but on a regular key to the increasing bias in the together with mate- basis: Compositaceae (Cirsium sp., sex ratio when going switchings (Rodrígo-Rueda Sonchus) among which the northwards in the reproduction et al. 1997, Rodriguez- Sunflower can play an interesting zone. Teijeiro et al. 2003). role at the end of summer and during the wintering period in Portugal.

Breeding: Feeding: Outside breeding season

The pair bond only lasts Papilionaceae, Cruciferae, during the nesting period, Polygonacea, Chenopodiaceae etc. During migration, the majority and sometimes even less; the Each of these families can, on a of birds seem to converge female rejects the male by local basis, play a dominant role in towards bottleneck corridors: refusing copulation when 9- the pre-migratory hyperphagic 10 eggs have been laid. This phase. – the Nile, in spring and rift and the separation from autumn. Zuckerbrot et al. the male are necessary for Invertebrates represent a significant (1980) showed that the Quail incubation to begin. proportion of food intake during the crossing via the Sinai in 1972- breeding period, when they are 3 were from (and headed for) a The male will often, if not actively sought by birds of both specific area between 24° & always, undertake sexes (Combreau & Guyomarc’h 45° East, 41° & 49° North movements of variable 1989) which seek a wide variety of (Bulgaria, Georgia, the amplitude and start a new insect species living on the ground: Ukraine). A substantial part of breeding cycle elsewhere. small Carabidae, Elateridae, this same migratory flow Each bird (especially males) Staphylinids, Dermestidae, ants passed between the Caucasus can set up several nests in (adults and eggs), Diptera such as and the Black Sea (Dementiev succession with a new Tipulidae, Araneidae (Lycosidae, & Gladkov 1952) partner. The Common Quail Liniphiidae…); amphipod and – Tunisia in the spring therefore practises isopod crustaceans in saltmarsh (Arnould et al. 1953-54). We successive monogamy habitats. Gastropods are know through other (Guyomarc’h 1998). systematically eaten in alfalfa experiments how this flight (Helicella sp, Stagnicola, Succina path feeds into Bavaria, In favourable biotopes, the sp...). Poland, Sweden, Norway and quail shows a very western Russia (Dechambre aggregative distribution: 1936, Toschi 1939); quails of both sexes gather on The diet of quail fledglings – the former Spanish Sahara small areas of about 4-12 Results vary between areas, (west of the Sahara) in spring hectares, on which a varying depending on availability. (Valverde 1957) and possibly number of unattached males Invertebrates dominate, to a large in autumn as well. display. Numbers may reach extent, in the crop of fledglings several dozens where from saltmarsh habitats where seeds populations are dense, e.g. in have not yet fallen to earth in June– The routes shown on Fig. 2 Morocco, or just 3-5 males, July (Combreau et al. 1990). On the served to divide the palearctic as in France. These birds are other hand vegetable matter is meta-population into four not territorial (Aubrais et al. predominant in the crops of those relatively well-defined 1986); the distance between youngsters analysed in more populations, with distinct such ‘displaying centres’ is favourable land areas such as cereal migration routes. variable: 0,5-1 km, or even fields and set-aside land (Mur 1994, more. Michaïlov 1995): 38% invertebrates (araneids, springtails, diptera..), and These centres are apparently 62% vegetation, mainly seeds ‘traditional’ in character and (Euphorbia helioscopia, Stellaria location, so long as the crop media, Viola arvense). rotation remains favourable, Observations carried out under and despite the rapid chosen and controlled situations turnover in Quail give the same results in terms of populations. ingested matter.

Breeding: Feeding: Outside breeding season

The most likely explanation 40% was farinaceous material rich is that such sites may have, in proteins and 60% early-growth independently of the plot cereals; amongst these we observed location and the year’s crop, a very clear preference for small some intrinsic qualities round seeds, notably of Papaver (possibly geo-physical) that rheas, Setaria viridis, Galeopsis make them attractive over (Guyomarc’h et al. 1995). Long generations. seeds were rejected (e.g. Lolium sp), above all when they are sharp and The average clutch size hard, such as Apera spica-venti, varies from year to year Alopecurus spp. even in favourable areas: e.g. in alfalfa fields in The speed of chick growth is largely Morocco between 10,3 determined by the protein content of (1994, N=19) and 12,9 eggs available food resources. The (1992, N=19, Maghnouj second week of its life appears to be 1995). There is probably a the most critical, since a doubling in significant difference weight is observed (going from 10- between the average clutch 12g at 7 days; to 20-25g at 21 days). size of March and June: respectively 11,6 (8-16, N=22) and 11 eggs (7-12) for Morocco and Europe (Dementiev and Gladkov 1952, Mur 1994, Schifferli 1950, Muntaner et al. 1983), and the late clutches from August and September: 8.5 eggs (7-10).

Hatching rate was 97–98% in Morocco (Maghnouj, pers comm. 1995), and 92% in Spain, (Gallego et al. 1993). The average number of chicks per brood declines from 6.7 (1 week after hatching) to 3.9 (5 weeks after hatching) in the favourable habitats of Bulgaria (Michailov 1996).

The breeding phenology differs, at a given latitude, depending on altitude (Table 3).

The Common Quail systematically chooses open land, usually without hedges, either in lowlands or Habitat in mountains: large alluvial grasslands or large cereal plateaux, even terraces of cultivated farmland requirements such as in the Moroccan High Atlas. When the countryside is less open (the mesh-like bocages of Brittany or Aveyron, France), it settles away from trees in open spaces or where the region is dominated by gentle slopes. The topography and land unevenness therefore play a large part in the distribution of mating (displaying) centres.

The Quail carries out all its vital functions (feeding, nest-building) in the herbaceous strata of natural coastal grasslands (abundant grasses), high altitude prairies (e.g. uncultivated land in the Aveyron and Capcir, France) or, as for the Grey Partridge Perdix perdix, the grassy areas of open agro-systems (with the notable exception of ryegrass).

The Quail prefers cover which, although dense enough to provide protection, allows fluid movements, hence the choice of alfalfa, winter barley, and winter wheat when still green and showing abundant basal leaves or early shoots (Aubrais et al. 1986). Other cultivated areas with similar features such as flax (e.g. in west France) are used too, whereas Halimione clumps on saltmarshes are avoided.

In Greece, where 60% of the agricultural land is concentrated in semi-mountainous areas, Quail seem to avoid abandoned land. For example in a mountain plateau near the Vikos-Aoos National Park (Pindos mountain, North-West Greece) where some population data exist, the species prefers cultivated land with cereals or fodder (Trifolium spp. or natural hay-meadows that are not grazed and cut periodically), rather than abandoned agricultural fields, where perennial grass is much higher and denser. This is probably because the latter have many more naturally regenerating trees and scrubs, or because surrounding hedges have grown too dense and tall as they are no longer grazed by goats, or cut and burnt by farmers. This vegetation succession due to the abandonment of traditional land uses (grazing and cultivation in small agricultural fields) is a general pattern observed all over Greece, and may be in the long term a threat for many open grassland species along with Quail.

The situation is quite similar in Bulgaria (for which some population data exist), where during the period 1990-2005 the Quail population was breeding predominantly in cultivated land with cereals and to a lesser extend in meadows and other grasslands. Breeding in cultivated lands may be also a potential threat due to the increasing use of chemicals (P. Iankov, pers. comm.).

Quail use the centre of fields more than their edges, which significantly limits the exploitation of resources in linear structures such as walls or ditche.

In nesting time In the agricultural areas of southwest France in May–June (P. Mur 1994), as well as in the large alfalfa fields of Morocco in March–April (Maghnouj 1995 at Dourdan), a large majority of nests are located in field edges rather than in their centre: over 50% are located less than 10 metres (80% less than 20m) away from an edge, a drainage canal or ditch, or a meeting point between two fields.

In Cyprus, it is a common breeder in the lowlands in winter barley field edges, especially if these are bordered by phrygana (dwarf scrub) and riparian/ marsh vegetation or if the barley is planted in moist fields. Since 1981, it also nests in irrigated agriculture, like alfalfa and vegetables, but it is a far more common breeder in marshland vegetation of open shores of dams and natural wetlands.

There is a significant preference for nesting in an environment which is difficult to spot visually, dominated by vertical structures, with green rather than ochre colours (Michel 1998). Visual protection from aerial predators is reinforced by habits such as female pulling vegetation over itself and over the nest and eggs.

Colza, corn, sorghum, sunflower, soya as well as artificial grasslands (ryegrass) are usually Habitat avoided, as well as wheat growing on bare soil. Quails quickly adapted to the spread of requirements proteagenous peas in the 1980s and 1990s - maybe because of the density of insects that this crop supports, but such a choice eventually proved catastrophic, since the peas mature and die very early in the season, which leaves incubating females, clutches and young chicks at the mercy of predators and storms. Moreover, the absence of an early vegetation under the pea cover makes egg prone to rolling around when it rains.

Overall, a reduction in potential breeding habitats is likely to have taken place in many parts of Europe in recent decades, as was measured e.g. in southwest France.

During migration & winter In Cyprus, birds are found during autumn passage in the breeding habitats mentioned above, but also in the now open/bare/uncultivated barley fields where they congregate, as they feed heavily on the seeds of Amaranthus graecizans, which have a thick growth at these fields. In the winter it is found mostly in thick phrygana/maquis vegetation, from the coast up to 700m elevation.

2. Available key-knowledge

This chapter provides a summary of up-to-date knowledge on the biology, distribution and trends of the populations of the Common Quail that occur in the EU. It also gives information on the hunting status in the Member States.

A major problem in developing a Management Plan for the Common Quail is the extremely wide distribution of the species, breeding in farmland throughout nearly the whole of Europe. This makes it difficult to study and to precisely evaluate the population without detailed monitoring.

An important part of the Common Quail lifecycle takes place outside the borders of EU, where it is also difficult to assess the wintering populations (e.g. North and West Africa).

Furthermore the knowledge of bag statistics in Europe, North and West Africa is simply inadequate to assess the extent and variation of hunting pressure. Whatever is available on open seasons and annual bags is shown in Table 4.

Figure 1. Distribution of the Common Quail Coturnix coturnix (illustration from Guyomarc’h 2003).

Hatched leftwards: breeding area; hatched rightwards: wintering area (both areas overlap partly)

Table 1. Geographical distribution of Common Quail Coturnix coturnix during the year (EU 27)

Breeding Wintering • Austria • Italy • Belgium • Portugal • Bulgaria • Spain • Czech Republic • Cyprus • Cyprus • Greece • Denmark • Bulgaria • Estonia • Finland (few) • France • Germany • Greece • Hungary • Ireland (not annual) • Italy • Latvia • Lithuania • Luxembourg • Malta • Netherlands • Poland • Portugal • Romania • Slovakia • Slovenia • Spain • Sweden • United Kingdom

Table 2: European breeding population of Common Quai Coturnix coturnix l.

Only includes EU countries plus other European countries (in shaded rows) with major populations.

Note: Breeding pairs and calling males are not directly comparable: these are two different population indexes (see text)

BirdLife International estimate Guyomarc’h 2003 (data (2004a) from late 1990s - early 2000s )

Trend Country Breeding pairs Year(s) 1990- Calling males 2000

Austria (5,000 - 15,000)2 1998 - 2002 (+) (5,000 - 15,000) Belarus 15,000 - 30,000 100,000 - 150,000 Belgium 2,400 - 5,700 2001 - 2002 (0) 3,000 - 7,000 Bulgaria 8,000 - 15,000 50,000 - 200,000 Cyprus (1,000 - 4000) 1994 - 2002 (0) - Czech Rep 5000 - 10,000 2000 + 10,000 - 20,000 Denmark 200 - 600 2000 - 2001 + - Estonia 10 - 50 1998 0 - Finland 10 - 100 1998 - 2002 + - France (100,000 - 500,000) 2000 (F) 150,000 - 300,000 Germany 12,000-32,000 1995 - 99 (+) 20,000 - 100,000 Greece (2,000 - 5,000) 1995 - 2000 (-) - [Note: 5,000 - 10,000 in Handrinos & Akriotis 1997) Hungary 70,000 - 94,000 1999 - 2002 (0) 30,000 - 45,000 Ireland 0 - 20 1988 - 91 F - Italy (5,000 - 20,000) 2003 ? 100,000 - 150,000

Latvia 20 - 500 1990 - 2000 + - Lithuania (1,000 - 2,000) 1999 - 2001 + - Luxembourg 10 - 25 2002 0 - Malta 1 - 3 1990 - 2002 - - Netherlands 2,000 - 6,500 1998 - 2000 + 1,000 - 10,000 Poland 100,000 - 150,000 2000 - 2002 (+) 20,000 - 130,000 Romania 160,000 - 220,000 1999 - 2002 (-) 30,000 - 50,000 Portugal (5000 - 50,000) 2002 (0) 50,000 - 150,000 Russia (Eur.) 1,500,000 - 2,000,000 2000 F 1 - 2 million Slovakia 2,000 - 6,000 1990 - 1999 0 - Slovenia 1,000 - 2,000 1999 0 - Spain (320,000 - 435,000) 1992 ? 500,000 - 1,000,000 Canary Is. (2,500 - 10,000) 1997 - 2003 (-) - Sweden (10 - 40) 1999 - 2000 (F) - Turkey (300,000 - 800,000) 2001 (-) 250,000 - 500,000 Ukraine 100,000 - 160,000 1990 - 2000 - 500,000 - 600,000 UK 5 - 450 1996 - 2000 0 -

2 considered however by Austrian experts to refer to calling males rather than pairs

BLI data Breeding populations trends + increase, 0 stable, - decreasing, F fluctuating, ? unknown Quality of data: bold: reliable quantitative data available for the whole country normal characters: generally well known, but poor/ uncomplete quantitative data ( ): poorly known, with no quantitative data available

Calling male data (Guyomarc’h 2003) -: no data available

Table 3: Timing of the different breeding stages in Catalonia, Spain, as a function of altitude for the decade 1980-1990 (adapted from Gallego et al. 1990).

MONTH/ ALTITUDE APRIL MAY JUNE JULY AUGUST HARVESTING 1200m CROWING LAYING HATCHING MAT. CARE

HARVESTING 800m CROWING LAYING HATCHING CARING EMAN- CIPATION HARVESTING 600m CROWING LAYING HATCHING CARING EMANCIPATION

HARVESTING

200m LAYING HATCHING MATERNAL EMANCI YOUNG CROWING CARE PATION ADULTS

Table 4: Hunting seasons and annual bags in some EU and other European countries.

Annual bag Country Hunting season Source (individuals)

Austria 1 - 30 September - Dr Andreas Ranner, pers. (Burgenland Province only) comm. Bulgaria 15 August - 30 October 300,000 Union of hunters and anglers Cyprus 21 August - 16 October & 19 - 56,000 Cyprus Game Fund Service, 30 October - 28 February, Annual Harvest Report Sundays and Wednesdays, except some small coastal areas (~50 km2) that are 43,200 (2004) daily from the 4 September - 16 October France Last Saturday of August - 340,000 + 5% Boutin et al. 2000 20 February (3) (1) Greece 20 August - 2 December 72,000 Thomaides 1996 & Guyomarc’h 2003 Italy Mid September - 31 December (4) Malta The hunting season is unknown determined on a yearly basis upon a recommendation of the Ornis Committee in line with Maltese legislation, namely the Conservation of Wild Birds Regulations, 2006 Portugal 1 September - 30 December No data Hunting legislation; (in recent years, closing available ICN date was late November) 400,000 (1) Fontoura pers. comm. Romania 1 August - ?? 5,000 Paspaleva pers. comm. Russia 15/28 August - ?? 1,600,000 (2) Mezhnev 1994 Spain 15 August - 15/25 1,340,000 (1) Spanish Environmental September Ministry hunting statistics Ukraine ?? 134,000 Ukrainian Hunting Dept.

(1) including released Japanese and hybrid Quails (2) in the mid-1970s (3) Opening dates = can be open as from the last Saturday of August but most of the time it is not shot before the general opening in the course of September. (4) Opening dates can be on 1 Sept. in some areas

Figure 2. Main migration paths of the Common Quail Coturnix coturnix to/from the West Palearctic.

3 Threats

This chapter gives an overview of current human activities, along with climate changes, that are believed to have a negative impact on the Common Quail populations. Although not located in the European Union, some threats to the species in the wintering areas are also taken into account, as those areas are believed to be of crucial importance for the Common Quail.

To describe the importance of threats to Common Quail populations, the following categories are used:

Critical: a factor causing or likely to cause very rapid declines (>30% over 10 years); High: a factor causing or likely to cause rapid declines (20-30% over 10 years); Medium: a factor causing or likely to cause relatively slow, but significant, declines (10–20% over 10 years); Low: a factor causing or likely to cause fluctuations; Local: a factor causing or likely to cause negligible declines; Unknown: a factor that is likely to affect the species but to an unknown extent

1. Habitat loss/modification

Modern agriculture practices affect breeding habitats in a number of ways, e.g.: - early hay-making season, with short intervals between two cuts. For instance, alfalfa, a very favourable crop much sought after by quails has become today the primary source of nest and clutch destruction in Morocco. The female no longer has the required 5-8 weeks for egg-laying and incubation (Maghnouj pers. obs. 1995-96 in the irrigated parts of the Tadla). - mowing practices: non-flying young birds are often killed in the middle of fields, where they get concentrated by the circular, inward-spiralling move of mowing machines. A centrifugal move by a machine would gradually push the birds towards the edges, and prove less lethal to both the Quail and other species, e.g. rails and partridges (Broyer 1996). - intensive pesticide use is doubly harmful: a) by reducing the amount of cover, which increases Quail vulnerability; b) by the huge reduction of food resources (seeds and invertebrates), which become limiting, in spite of the demographic strategy of the species. The reduction in pesticide use in Bulgaria over the last 10 years (because of their inflated price) may have encouraged both breeding success and local population increases (Michaïlov 1995) ; - all stubble-clearing operations, wholesale eco-clearance in July and August (as in Bulgaria, Michaïlov 1995), and ground clearance immediately after the harvest are disastrous since they remove the cover for both the Quail and its prey.

More generally, habitat degradation mainly stems from the evolution of crop rotation and farming intensification (new strains, phyto-sanitary programmes, low mowing, early stubble clearance following harvesting, etc.)

A good supply of animal food sources for both females and Quail chicks, which feed on the ground surface, is vital for successful breeding. Pesticides reduce invertebrate densities in crops, which in turn affects Quail productivity through a shortage of animal protein.

Each region (or each country) shows its own particularities in terms of agriculture impact, but the results are often the same in terms of Quail declines. For example, the general reduction in grassy areas between 1970 and 1990 was -25% in France (IFEN 1996, in Verheyden 1999). Other crops, which are

in theory beneficial to Quails, have progressed (winter wheat, winter barley), but they have lost their initial qualities as a breeding habitat through the intensive use of herbicides. Finally, spring crops (corn, sunflower, soya, sorghum) have progressed considerably in the same period, but they are totally unusable during the breeding peak in May-June, which further reduces nesting and rearing areas.

However, these phenomena are often complex: - sunflowers which are avoided in summer, become attractive in late August / September during migration (and during the hunting season), both for the cover and the abundance of early- growing seeds which they offer; - pea fields are attractive in May for cover and insects, but they become dangerous at the end of June when they dry out (egg-rolling, predation); - paradoxically, meadows bring about a reduction in Quail density when they are permanent or in a process of rapid rotation by cattle (Mur 1994 in France; Fontoura, pers. obs. in Portugal).

Management measures oriented towards the development of ‘wild fauna set-aside land’ constitutes an interesting avenue to explore ( Moreau et al. 1995). An experiment carried out in Deux-Sèvres and Ille- et-Vilaine (west France) showed that set-aside lands - especially fallow land - are attractive sites for breeding birds and that they provide good food resources for young birds (Guyomarc’h et al. 1996). However, their role is limited overall by their small surface area and their dispersed location, which cannot be easily fitted to the ‘traditional’ mating (displaying) centres.

Yet, other EU countries may show a totally different pattern, albeit on a smaller scale.

Cyprus does not yet have the high degree of agriculture intensification, mechanization and monoculture characterizing most EU countries. Due to its small surface area and the highly fragmented land-tenure system, Cyprus agriculture has not suffered from monocultures as much as other EU countries. The average cultivated land tenure for all zones is ca. 3.6 hectares, i.e. the smallest in the whole of Europe. This land-tenure system makes agricultural intensification practically impossible. In Cyprus, irrigated land (sprinkle-fed alfalfa and vegetables) has increased from about 18,000 hectares (10% of the agricultural land) in the 1970s to 38,000 hectares (22% of the agricultural land) in 1995. This took place mainly in the lowlands, below 600-700 m elevation, where there is more open space and land is easier to irrigate. It could account for the observed increase in breeding and wintering Quail populations along with that of the black francolin Francolinus francolinus.

A very important cause of loss/modification of autumn staging habitat in Bulgaria is the boom of construction developments covering almost the entire coastline of the Black Sea. It includes compact built up of previously open grassland areas and erection of increasing numbers of wind turbines in the areas of mass concentrations of the Quail. The wind turbines may have destructive effects on the population passing in autumn along the Western Black Sea coast taking into consideration the flight abilities of the birds and the nocturnal pattern of migration. In areas such as the Bulgarian part of Coastal Dobrudzha (especially the region of Shabla - Cape Kaliakra - Balchik), where due to the shape of the coastline Quails stop in the biggest national numbers, erection of hundreds of planned wind turbines is underway (P. Iankov, pers.comm.). There is a similar threat in Romania.

In Italy, major coastal stopover areas are under threat due to impinging touristic / infrastructural activities causing significant habitat loss. This is true both in spring, for birds which have crossed the barriers represented by the Sahara and Mediterranean, including long endurance flights across the sea: and in autumn, being the latter also a crucial phase for the storing of energy reserves for southwards migration.

Importance of habitat loss/modification

• For breeding areas in the EU the importance of habitat loss/modification is set at Low/ Local. [Note: this is based on current assumed impact of this factor on EU population changes, and does not imply that this factor cannot assume in the future a High or Critical importance]

• For autumn migration areas in the EU the importance of habitat loss/modification is set at High.

2. Droughts and climate change

On sub-Saharan wintering populations Although not located in the European Union, climate conditions (most particularly drought) in wintering areas can indirectly lead to abnormally high mortality. Since 1970, the Sahelian regions of west Africa, which provide wintering areas to west European populations, have been hit by long periods of drought, with an annual rainfall now rarely exceeding the long-term average, and quite often remaining well below (Jarry 1994). The dates of first arrivals on the breeding areas in the northeast Iberian Peninsula have advanced by 0.87 day/year showing a negative association with December and January air temperature in the western sub-Saharan zone (Rodriguez-Teijeiro et al. 2005).

It is strongly suspected that this drought brought about the major decline of a large proportion of Quail populations which flourished right up to the 1950s and 1960s. The gradual drop in the level of rainfall noted since measures exist (see p. 394 in Guyomarc’h 1992) has considerably modified the bushy savannah of the Saloum, Senegal and Niger basins. It seems that the drop in Quail numbers between 1967-68 and 1971-72 constitutes a dramatic turning-point.

Drought may have acted principally through affecting farmland where the Quail search for cover and food: for instance, millet and sorghum fields shrank from 120,000 to 20,000 hectares between 1975 and 1990 in the Senegal basin (Guyomarc’h 1992). As a likely consequence, the fat reserves of Quails measured in the Djoudj (Senegal) on their migratory path to Mauretania and Europe, were found to be very low. These reserves are insufficient to meet the energy requirements to reach their next stopover - wadis of the south Atlas (e.g. Wadi Draa valley, in south Morocco). Overall, this amounts to a strong counter-selection of the long-distance migrant birds.

On Mediterranean breeding birds Access to plentiful water is essential for egg-laying. When deprived of water (dry period without dew), egg-laying stops. Since the Spanish hunting bag is positively related to the the annual rainfall, rain probably affects productivity indirectly, perhaps by improving breeding habitats, or by helping maintain a favourable habitat quality until later in the season (Michaïlov 1995, Puigcerver et al.1999).

Sudden shortages of water in Tunisia, resulting from strong sirocco wind spells, are known to lead to the nests and broods being abandoned (Lavauden 1935). Drought could explain why some years - that would otherwise seem to be favourable - prove to be eventually disastrous for Quail breeding, as e.g. in 1989 in many French regions. It could also help explain the opposite phenomenon: an abundance of breeding Quails in areas irrigated by sprinkling.

Importance

• The importance of climate change in wintering and breeding areas is provisionally set at Low/ Local. [Note: this is based on current assumed impact of this factor on EU population changes, and does not imply that this factor cannot assume in the future a High or Critical importance]

3. Genetic pollution from released Japanese Quail and/or hybrids

Japanese Quails and their hybrids with Common Quail are frequently bred and released in Europe for hunting purposes. This practice was initiated in the 1970s, particularly in France and Italy, in order to meet the requirements of hunters in years when Quail bags declined. All EU countries are potentially affected, and the risks are mainly generated by Spain, France, Italy, Greece, Turkey, and even Tunisia (F. Roux pers. comm.)

Initial releases Initially, Japanese Quails were released from stocks originating from Quail breeding for the food industry. The origin of these birds is well known. Quails from the (sub-)species Coturnix (c.) japonica have been domesticated in Japan and all along the Pacific coast for several centuries. Yamashina (1961) clearly states that domestic, non-migratory stock enabled the re-establishment of quail-breeding as an economic activity in Japan after World War II. To this initial stock, domestic Quails from Taiwan, Korea, China were then added, as well as ‘country quails’ domesticated from birds captured in the wild (Howes 1964, Mills et Faure 1991). Thus the genetic ingredients for migration were re-introduced into this captive population3. From this stock, breeding quails were sent to France and Italy in the 1950s (Rizzoni & Lucchetti, 1957, 1972). A ‘cynegetic’ (hunted) strain quickly diverged from the ‘food- industry’ strain, but frequent introductions of birds from the latter into the former were made in order to ‘improve’ the quality of birds supplied to hunters (fighting weight gain, encouraging flight; J-C Guyomarc’h, unpubl. obs. in Sologne, France).

In Italy (Baccetti et al.) the first Japanese Quails were imported in 1953. Most Italian Provinces have seen releases in the wild, despite apparently very low breeding performances. In 1966 a semi-melanic form has also been released in several areas, including the Island of Capraia (Tuscany).

In parallel with birds of Asian origin, indigenous quails captured in Italy just after WW2 were also bred for hunting. Italian breeders continue today to provide migratory ‘wild’ Common Quail for release each spring (in April; S. Spano pers. com.). In addition, an industrial production of hybrid stock (‘wild’ Italian x Japanese) was set up, by Italian breeders first (possibly as early as 1980), then French breeders, e.g. from 1982-83 onwards at Romorantin (Sologne), and from at least 1992-93 at Domaine d’Empaillon (Auch) (J-C Guyomarc’h, pers. obs.).

In Europe, no clear monitoring of the scale of releases was done between 1960-1980. For France, an estimated maximum of 450,000-500,000 birds released per year would seem reasonable for the early 1980s, on the basis of ONCFS studies in 1983 (i.e. between 3/4 and 2/3 of the 640,000 Quails shot in total; Ferrand 1986). Most releases were done in August or September, before hunting opened, and the majority were shot. But evidence has been gathered that several hundred Japanese Quail were also released in June 1985 in Maine-et-Loire (France), and calling Japanese birds have been recorded in France, Portugal and Spain (Rodriguez-Teijeiro et al. 1993, Guyomarc’h 2003; Y. Kayser pers. comm.). Out of a sample of 160 Common Quails captured in Catalonia, Spain, during the 1998 breeding season, 5% contained Japanese Quail genetic material (mitochondrial DNA) (Puigcerver et al. 2000).

Some EU members have taken a strong stand against such releases. o In Cyprus, no release of Japanese or hybrid Quail has taken place and the Game Fund, Ministry of Interior, is strongly against it. Additionally, release of any exotic animal species on the island is illegal.

3 This was further shown by a few very large-scale introductions attempted in the USA into several states, such as Missouri and Tennessee. Birds came from ‘country quails’ brought from Japan after the war. These operations showed that a large number of these birds were good migrators (Stanford, 1957), which incidentally contributed to the failure of these attempts: the quails got lost in neighbouring states.

o In Portugal, the general hunting law allows releasing huntable species both for short-term hunting purposes (e.g. for training fields and for hunting within three days after release) and for long-term objectives (population recovery). The law states the obligation to ensure "genetic purity and similarity of the introduced animals with the receptive species". The uncertain taxonomic status of the (sub)species could be a problem as the legislation only refers to the species level, but the general understanding of the Administration is that Japanese Quail is a species, following the EBCC Atlas of European breeding birds and BirdLife International. So, its use for training fields and recovery is considered illegal. Currently, there are few regular, small-scale releases of Common Quail for training/hunting purposes. These are done with captive-bred birds, and breeding must legally ensure the "genetic purity, etc...". Control is done at Quail production centres, but not in the field. Currently, the key issue is therefore to have a quick, easy way of controlling (sub)species in captive breeding centres. This would stimulate the breeding in captivity of the wild species and consequently its release in the wild, decreasing the probability but not eliminating the illegal use of Japanese Quail. o In France, the release of the Japanese Quail is prohibited since 2000.

European, Japanese and hybrid Quails are virtually impossible to distinguish from morphological factors. The best discriminating criteria remains the breeding call (“crowing”), but it has to be remembered that hybrids can produce calls identical to both parent (sub)species (Derégnaucourt et al. 2001).

In short, cynegetic’ Quails are: 1) hybrids of Japanese Quail and Common Quail; and 2) probably bringing Coturnix (c.) japonica genetic material into wild European populations of Common Quail, to an unknown extent. Furthermore, the few hybrid individuals that have not lost the migratory habits could potentially bring genetic pollution away from Europe, especially to North Africa which currently hosts a vital component of the overall metapopulation.

The effect of releases on wild populations

Both male Japanese Quails and F1 hybrids are very aggressive in the breeding season, and systematically dominate male Common Quails of the same age in direct encounter tests (Derégnaucourt 2000). They will copulate with any female Common Quail which they meet during summer.

Beyond ethical considerations on genetic pollution, the main drawback of released, hybrid Quails is that they have inherited the genetic characteristic of being sedentary, and potentially can pass it on to wild populations (Deregnaucourt 1998). In ‘cynegetic quails’ available in western Europe, the frequency of migratory phenotypes is dropping considerably but has not completely disappeared, which increases the danger of spreading pollution throughout the entire distribution area, notably towards the African wintering zones. A recent study found that 8% of migrants from an Italian breeding centre, and 32% from a French breeding centre (among which 24% were long-distance migrants), were indisputably polluted (Guyomarc’h et al. 2000).

So, releases of the Japanese Quail in the 1960s and 70s, and of hybrid Quails, may contribute to a lowering impulse to migrate in the Common Quail, and to the reduced frequency of phenotypes showing this tendency, thus exacerbating the drop in numbers of long-migrating birds. Releases may also reduce the adaptive value of wild populations by introducing into them birds which are not adapted to the vagaries of a natural life (climatic factors, predation, etc….). It has thus been stated that “releasing hybrid and Japanese Quails in the wild could rapidly lead to widespread genetic pollution of the western palearctic populations of the European Quail” (Derégnaucourt et al. 2005).

However in Catalunya (Spain), detailed monitoring in the last 11 years has shown that despite 100,000 Quails of dubious origin being released annually, the proportion of hybrid birds detected in the field during the breeding season is small (<5%), and did not increase over the period. It is therefore likely that hunting, predation and possibly other natural factors currently prevent genetic pollution to reach a large

scale (J.D. Rodríguez-Teijeiro & M. Puigcerver Oliván, in litt.). No similar study seems to have been done in any other part of the EU, and therefore any true impact on populations of this potential threat remains unknown.

Therefore, as a consequence of a potential risk rather than of yet any evidence of a current negative impact, recent studies unanimously conclude on the need to ban Japanese/ hybrid Quail releases throughout Europe and even further, in the rest of the Common Quail distribution area (Guyomarc’h 2003, Barilani et al. 2005).

• The importance of genetic pollution from released Japanese Quail and/or hybrids in breeding, transit (migration) and wintering areas is provisionally set at Unknown.

4. Hunting

The Common Quail is fully protected in Belgium, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Germany, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxemburg, the Netherlands, Poland, Slovakia, Sweden, Switzerland, Slovenia and UK. It is furthermore listed in the Red Data Books of Austria (Near-Threatened), Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, Spain (Data-deficient) and Sweden. It can be hunted in specific periods in the following EU countries: Austria (one province only out of 9: Burgenland), Bulgaria, Cyprus, France, Greece, Italy, Malta, Portugal, Spain.

Practices

In most of Europe, Asia and Africa, the Quail is hunted with guns by dedicated specialists with dogs. Several convergent sources point at a significantly unbalanced sex-ratio among birds killed, to the detriment of males: ca. 60% males in Morocco in 1985-86, a 1.98 male/female ratio in 11 years of bag statistics in Italy ( N=143 rings returned). The dates of these captures coincide with the breeding season in both cases, and can be attributed to the difficulty in flushing a female off her nest if she is laying or incubating. With non-shooting hunting methods deemed to be non-selective, a 1.57 male/female ratio was obtained at Cape Bon (Tunisia).

Another technique consists in using nets (Italian three-sectioned vertical net, or small square cloth laid across stubble) while mimicking the female call (Berthet 1946), which leads to the exclusive capture of unpaired, wandering males. This practice was outlawed in Italy in 1939, but since then, there was some relaxation in special zones called ‘quagliare’ up until 1977 (Spano, pers. comm.). In the rest of Europe too, nets are usually forbidden, but in the 1990s a certain amount of net-trapping was ongoing in Italy (in Puglia, Calabria, Frioul and Piedmont) in order to fuel hybrid Quail breeding and dog training (Spano, pers. comm.), as well as a small number in Andalusia, Spain (Guyomarc’h 2003).

In Malta, hunters operate in spring (targets = males only) and in autumn, by throwing a square net (roughly 10m x 10m) over cut vegetation, after attracting the birds to it with a device mimicking the female call (the ‘kwaljarin’ or ‘kirjolin’). They also drive the birds towards the trap on foot, having possibly previously burned the surrounding vegetation where the birds could have taken refuge (Fenech 1992). This practice seems to be on the decline. Although the trapping of Quail was banned in Malta by Legal Notice 79/2006, it was permitted under derogation during 26 March-20 May 2007.

Hunting seasons Available data is summarized in Table 4.

Hunting does occur in the breeding and pre-breeding stage in north Africa (e.g. Egypt), and will continue so long as the real start of the breeding period (March) is not fully recognized and accepted by

authorities. Morocco, where the first scientific studies demonstrated this point in 1985-86, is an example of a country where hunting dates were changed so as to avoid the breeding season - it is now 2 October to 22 January, whereas in the 1980s it used to cover February and March too.

At the beginning of the hunting season, hunting may affect young birds less than 6-7 weeks old, which have a limited hunting interest: weak flight capability and no body fat. The latitude and altitude of hunting areas do play a part.

In Spain, in the Catalonian Pyrenees, the average time for hatching is in the third quarter of June at 800 m, in the third quarter of July over 1000 m (Puigcerver et al. 1989). So an estimated 50% of youngsters hatched over 1000 metres altitude are less than 40 days old on 1st September, when the season opens.

In SW France, an analysis on wings recovered in lowlands (Tarn-et-Garonne, Haute-Garonne) in 1987- 89 suggested that over 80% of the youngsters were hatched before 15th July, and had completed their post-juvenile moult by 1st September. But as in Spain, the situation is different at altitudes of 800–1000 metres (e.g. in Loire, Aveyron and Eastern Pyrenees) where breeding, growth and migration of the young are delayed by at least 2-3 weeks (Puigcerver 1990, Mur 1994). So except for an occasional short flight, most young birds may still be undergoing their post-juvenile moult when the season starts on 1st September, and may not fly efficiently. They represented for example 40% (N = 35) of the Quails shot in Cerdagne (France) in early September 1990.

National bag statistics Figures are available only for a few EU countries, plus a few neighbouring ones which may have an impact on populations of EU relevance (see Table 4).

Cyprus

Many birds are shot in the autumn hunting season (Sep-Oct) but individual bags are small due to lack of dogs to aid hunters in flushing the Quail. Only in small areas (one for each district) where dogs are allowed during the autumn hunting period is any number of birds taken. During winter, larger numbers are taken and then only during the period when dogs are allowed (Nov-Dec).

Hunter harvest records have been recorded by the Game Fund since 1986. Since 1998 Game Fund conducts a randomly selected telephone survey covering > 1% of registered hunters from all districts (450-500 hunters/year) (Papadopoulos and Kassinis 2005). The Game Fund combines harvest records with annual population counts for resident game species to monitor population levels and safeguard the species’ sustainable harvest.

The average participation in Quail hunting in September ranges from 13% to 19% of all Cypriot hunters, varying between districts. It is estimated that average hunting days per Quail hunter ranges from 5-9 hunting days per season (8.6 days in 1999, 5.6 days in 2000). In year 2000 the average Quail hunter harvested a total number of 4.2 Quail for the whole season. The tables below show Quail harvest estimates for 1999 and 2000.

1999 Quail harvest

Average Quail District Hunters Participation % Hunters Total harvest per hunter

Lefkosia 14,000 16% 2,240 1.2 2,688 Lemesos 12,000 8% 960 2.3 2,208 Larnaka 7,000 43% 3,010 3.2 9,632 Ammochostos 5,000 29% 1,100 4.8 5,280 Paphos 6,000 0% 0 0.0 0 Total 44,000 17% 7,310 2.3 19,808 Source: Cyprus Game Fund Service, Annual Harvest Report, 1999

2000 Quail harvest

Average Quail District Hunters Participation % Hunters Total harvest per hunter Lefkosia 14,000 13% 1,820 2.1 3,822 Lemesos 12,000 5% 600 2.2 1,320 Larnaka 7,000 26% 1,820 7.8 14,196 Ammochostos 5,000 22% 1,100 8.9 9,790 Paphos 6,000 0% 0 0 0 Total 44,000 13% 5,340 4.2 29,128 Source: Cyprus Game Fund, Annual Harvest Report, 2000

Harvest data may fluctuate greatly from year to year and will depend on the availability of birds in specific days as well as the possibility of hunters to be present in specific areas. Also, the r-selected nature of Quail leads to large variations in harvest from year to year. It is estimated that September Quail harvest in Cyprus ranges from 11,000-36,000 birds per year. The harvest data for the November- December season is estimated to range from 8,000-20,000 birds per year making the total harvest to be 19,000-56,000 birds annually.

There is no bag limit for Quail.

Spain

The mean bag collected over 5-years periods remains rather constant at 1.3 – 1.4 million birds per year (“bad” years 1.1 million, “good” years 1.7 million) (Puigcerver et al. 2001). One method of regulating Quail hunting in Spain is to reduce the number of days where shooting is permitted, for example in Castilla y León hunting is permitted for only 22 days.

France

An enquiry carried out by the Department of Haute Garonne Hunters’ Federation in 1986 (110 municipalities) indicates that the hunting associations released around 3,800 Quails at the end of August, of which 3,700 were shot during the hunting season, as well as 1,250 wild Quails, which therefore represent one quarter of the total bag for this department.

If this is taken as a representative example4, one can extrapolate these proportions to the national annual bag, which was estimated at 640,000 birds three years earlier (ONC-SOFRES enquiry, Ferrand, 1984). The total bag of wild Quail in France would therefore reach 160,000 for this period, including 140,000 young Quail (i.e. 90% of the total, a classic percentage). These values would be, respectively 210 and 190,000 if we estimate that wild Quail make up one third of the national bag.

Taking as a basis the estimated number of breeding pairs and average clutch size, we can speculate that the total annual production laid between 0.8 and 1.4 million young birds in the period 1985-1992. The annual bag therefore represented, at most5, 10–18% of the birds produced in France (13-24% if wild Quail make up one third of the national bag ) (Guyomarc’h 1995).

A more recent national enquiry of shooting bags was carried out in autumn 1998 (Boutin 2000): the total estimate was 340,000 Quails shot, but with no distinction possible between released and wild birds.

Greece

A 1994-1995 enquiry revealed that the Common Quail was in the top group of hunters’ preferred species, on a par with the wood pigeon Columba palumbus. During the first 6 weeks of hunting, i.e. during some 125 hunting trips, the average take was 4 Quail per gun per trip (Thomaides 1996). Taking into account a total number of hunters of 3,000 (which is the number of questionnaires sent out by the author of the enquiry, being the number of replies 400) and 6 trips by hunter, the total take could amount to 3,000 × 6 × 4 = 72,000 Quails. At least one third of these Quails would be “local” shot in the last ten days of August. But, because only 3% of the hunters that were polled reached the authorized limit of 12 Quail per hunting trip, the interpretation of the estimates is not straightforward.

Italy

There is no sound information on national harvest.

Malta

There is no sound information on national harvest.

Portugal

There is no data available on trends in hunting pressure on Quail population numbers.

Bulgaria

(The annual bag is estimated at 250,000 to 350,000 Quails (enquiry by Union of Hunters and Fishers in Bulgaria), all taken in autumn as no spring hunting is allowed. Most are taken from the Via Pontica flyway (especially from the area of mass concentration of Quails in the Shabla – Cape Kaliakra – Balchik region of North-Eastern Bulgaria). Much less shooting takes place inland. The figure is indicative of the numbers of Quails passing during autumn migration through the country, rather than of the size of the national breeding population (no captive-bred Quail are released).

Russia

The take fell from 2.5 million in the 1960s to 1.6 million by the mid-70s (Mezhnev 1994).

4 but this is a department of keen Quail hunting specialists, which leads to possibly larger than average numbers of Quails being released. 5 without taking into account birds migrating from the northernmost countries through France.

In total, the annual bag for Eurasia was estimated at ca. 4.27 million birds/year (Guyomarc’h 2003), including released birds, to be compared with a wild population of 1.3-2.45 million breeding pairs, and 4-5 young/clutch surviving in average to 1 month (post-fledging age).

In those European countries where hunting is permitted, the current hunting bag - even if not well evaluated - does not seem to be related to the estimated numbers of Quails born in (or passing through) these areas. The past declines in some populations in these countries was not preceded by any particular hunting measure which might have brought about this phenomenon, or contributed to it.

Conclusion

Hunting therefore does not seem to be a primary limiting factor for the European population overall, but it may add to the natural mortality rate, especially on locally declining sub-populations. Even if not scientifically proven, a few hunting practices may locally affect the species conservation status: - a hunting season starting too early, e.g. around 20th August in lowlands or in the first week of September in the mountains. Such takes have an effect on local birds, still attached to their birth place. Whole family parties can then be flushed and taken, unlike what happens with birds on passage (usually solitary). - nets set up in the Sinai area catch large numbers along eastern migratory routes (Baha el Din and Salama 1991; Lorgnier du Mesnil 1993), in addition to the great hunting pressure experienced by the same populations along the Black Sea coast to/from Russia and Ukraine. - birds are still hunted on their pre-breeding migration near the beaches of the Tyrrhenian coast in central Italy. - Spring hunting by tourists with guns has recently dropped in Morocco (Alaoui 1996), but it is not known whether it has in the rest of the Maghreb too. - In the Maghreb countries, both the populations of early breeders and those which do not migrate outside these territories in summer (June) are exposed to a constant human predation which may eventually amount to considerable numbers. - Spring poaching with nets is still a reality in Puglia (Italy) and in Andalusia (Spain); but the level of the take is unknown, and as it is exclusively directed at males, it is unlikely to have serious consequences. However, as the function of unpaired males is not well known, the possible consequences of this hunting practice are not yet assessed. - Under derogation, spring hunting of Quail is still possible in Malta.

Importance

• For breeding ranges States in the EU (Member States where hunting is allowed) the importance of hunting is set at Medium. [Note: this is based on current assumed impact of this factor on EU population changes, and does not imply that this factor cannot assume in the future a High or Critical importance]

The evaluation on overall harvest is lacking information from crucial areas, where hunting is intense (based on percentage of recoveries of Italian ringed Quails). This information gap could be considered in the statement and evaluation.

• For the wintering areas and migration stop-overs outside Europe, the importance of hunting is set at Unknown

5 – Predation (non-human)

In Russia, the Common Quail is the prey of foxes, ermines, polecats; which destroy broods and adults during the summer (Dementiev and Gladkov 1952). Groups in migration are attacked by various falcons

and by the Steppe eagle Aquila nipalensis. In Italy, notably in Sardinia and on the island of Montecristo, there are numerous instances of predation by falcons (Eleonora’s Falcon Falco eleonorae and Peregrine F. peregrinus), buzzards, sparrowhawks, Yellow-legged Gull Larus (argentatus) michahellis and by owls at night (in Spano & Truffi 1992). In Europe, the large number of stray cats, often a long way from any habitation, add their take (brooding birds, chicks) to those of natural predators.

No study has to our knowledge evaluated the effects of predation on wild populations. But different experiments involving radio-tracking young captive-bred females (of Coturnix c. coturnix), released into agro-systems, indicate the following losses (J-C Guyomarc’h, unpublished data):

*In 1986-87 in the Lauragais (Haute-Garonne, France) - 30% of egg-layers over 2 weeks of monitoring (N = 35); - 25% of incubating birds over 2 weeks of monitoring (N = 12). - overall, ca. half of the females were predated (by Buzzard Buteo buteo, Hen Harrier Circus cyaneus and domestic cats).

*In 1996, in the grasslands of Sainte-Blandine (in Deux-Sèvres, W. France) of 32 sexually mature female Quail, at least 16 (over 50%) were taken by predators over the following three weeks by small carnivores (weasel 1, stone marten 1, domestic cats...), whilst buzzard and harriers each accounted for roughly one third.

* In 1993-95, in the province of Tarragona (Catalonia, Spain), 31 breeding females were electronically tagged and monitored throughout their breeding cycle. Only four of them vanished, out of which two cases of predation were confirmed, which is remarkably low (Rodrigo-Rueda et al. 1997 ).

Since 1980 large fields with spring crops (sunflower, corn, peas…) have developed, which offer breeding Quails only a precarious shelter. This may have exacerbated the impact of natural predation, by birds especially, as harriers (Montagu’s Harrier Circus pygargus) are obviously keen on Quails as a prey.

• The importance of Predation (non-hunting) in wintering and breeding areas is provisionally set at Low/Local.

As a summary, the relative importance of the threats as perceived by experts in various European countries in summarized in table 5 below.

Table 5: Threats importance at national level

Release of Habitat loss Threat Score Japanese or Climate Predation and Hunting hybrid change (non-hunting) modification Quails** Austria H N? P Belgium S - P Bulgaria H S P Cyprus ? S P Czech Ph - P Republic Denmark N - P Estonia Ps - P Finland - - P France H S N S Germany S - P Greece H H H Hungary Ph - P Ireland - - P Italy H? H? H Latvia - - P Lithuania S* N P Luxembourg - - P Malta ? S/H? P Netherlands - - P Poland Ph - P Portugal S Ph S (no data available) N Slovakia Ph - P Slovenia Ph - P Spain S H H Sweden N - N United H - P Kingdom Outside EU: N N S N H & W Africa

H - High relevance, S - some relevance, N - no relevance, P - potentially relevant, Ph - potentially high relevance, Ps - potentially some relevance.

* - evaluation concerns just the last 10-15 year period when small farmers’ plots predominated in the agricultural sector. Some (or even significant) changes might happen soon when adopting the intensive agricultural practices common in the EU (including increased usage of chemicals, fertilizers, large fields of monoculture, etc.).

**- for this specific threat, “H” denotes countries which practice (or have recently practiced) massive releases, whilst all other countries are listed as “Potential” since ALL of them can be affected, due to the migratory habits of the Common Quail.

38 4. Policies and legislation relevant for management

Table 6: International conservation and legal status of the Common Quail Coturnix coturnix.

Convention African- EU of World BLI BLI Bern Bonn Eurasian Birds International Status6 European SPEC Convention Convention Migratory Directive Trade on (Criteria) Status7 category8 Annex Annex Waterbird Annex Endangered Agreement Species

Not listed Depleted 3 II/2 Appendix Appendix II listed Not listed III

Member States / Contracting parties obligations

EU Birds Directive

The Common Quail is listed on Annex II/2 in the EU Birds Directive which implies that it can be hunted in all Member States which have defined a hunting season for this species, and that non-selective hunting methods are prohibited (with some exceptions).

Bern Convention

The Quail features in Annex lll, i.e. species ‘protected’, but not ‘strictly protected’. Prohibition of non-selective capture methods (art.8) but exclusion clauses exist (art.9). Committment to inter-party cooperation for conservation (art.10), and to strictly control the introduction of non-indigenous species (art.11)

Bonn Convention

The species features in Annex II (not protected, but conservation state unfavourable). The parties commit themselves to co-operating to restore and conserve its habitats.

6 BirdLife International/IUCN Red List assessment. 7 BirdLife International 2004a 8 BirdLife International 2004a SPEC 1: Species of global conservation concern. Species which are globally threatened, conservation dependent or data deficient. SPEC 2: Species whose world populations are concentrated in Europe (i.e. over 50% of the total population or range occurs in Europe) and which have an unfavourable conservation status. SPEC 3: Species whose world populations are not concentrated in Europe, but which have an unfavourable conservation status in Europe. non-SPEC: Species which have a favourable conservation status but whose populations are concentrated in Europe. 39 5. Framework for Action

Priority statement/evaluation

The Common Quail is a relatively abundant species and an important quarry species in southern Europe and North Africa. The Common Quail is not concentrated on marginal habitats, but instead has a wide distribution and uses the majority of agricultural areas during the breeding season. Due to its very particular breeding system and migration pattern, which is unique in European birds, quantitative knowledge on population size and trends is very incomplete and subject to large gaps or inconsistencies. Its erratic breeding output between years results in fluctuations in autumn population size, which should be taken into account when determining the size of the hunting bag in the following winter.

The species is of unfavourable conservation status in Europe, its population remaining “Depleted” following declines during 1970-90. In particular, the ‘long-distance migrant phenotype’, i.e. birds that breed north of 40-45°N, may be threatened in the long term by a combination of factors that are partly beyond EU control (e.g. climatic changes like droughts in the Sahel) and partly possible to control (e.g. genetic pollution from released birds). There are currently no specific protection measures for the Common Quail in Europe.

The European Union only accounts for a very small part of the distribution area of this species. That is why, the management measures that can be taken in Member States will not be enough to guarantee the sustainability of breeding populations which winter in North or tropical Africa for half of the year.

Purpose of the action plan

The Common Quail is a Depleted species in Europe, which has been affected by events out of short-term human control (climatic change, long-term changes in agriculture). After a large decline in the 1970s, its European population seems to have stabilized overall in recent decades, except in SE Europe. However, the genetic structure of the population is largely influenced by the release of exotic Quails, which may threaten eventually the species’ migratory habits, and therefore its capacity to regularly breed in good numbers in northern Europe. Recognizing that, the plan aims:

To restore the species to a favourable conservation status9 including through reversing the declines in SE Europe and maintaining its natural genetic diversity.

Results for the period 2009-2011

This section outlines the Results to be achieved during the first 3-year period of Common Quail management within the EU. The Results outlined below (and the corresponding activities in Section 6) are targeted at both the European Commission and (mostly) at the authorities responsible for the implementation of the provisions of the Birds Directive in the Member States. The Results listed below initially aim at addressing the most urgent issues needed to safeguard the Common Quail population in the EU, while keeping the corresponding activities to be carried out in the 3 year period within a realistic level.

The running period of the Action Plan is 2009-2011, and this version will be followed by versions with revised objectives/results that will take into account the results achieved during the first phase. It is the responsibility of the relevant authorities of each Member State to decide how to implement the management prescriptions of this plan.

The required Results for the initial Common Quail Coturnix coturnix Management Plan period (2009-2011) are listed below.

Policy and legislative actions

Current texts show up two weaknesses: (1) they ignore the existence of the geographic (sub)species C.(c.) japonica (a natural, migratory subspecies from Asia) and sometimes mix it with a “domestic species status”, and (2) they ignore the existence of the hybrids produced by crossing the Common Quail C.c. coturnix with diverse stocks of Japanese Quail, whether domesticated or not. Furthermore, releases of captive bred quails will continue – whether legally or not - because of the perceived decrease of long-distance migrants in those countries where it

9 The EU Habitats Directive (92/43/EEC) states that a species’ conservation status will be taken as Favourable when: • Population dynamics data on the species concerned indicate that it is maintaining itself on a long-term basis as a viable component of its natural habitats; and • The natural range of the species is neither being reduced nor is likely to be reduced for the foreseeable future; and • There is, and will probably continue to be, a sufficiently large area of habitat to maintain its population on a long-term basis.

is a popular game species, and because of the high professionalism achieved by captive Quail breeders. The real issue at stake is therefore to offer a viable, harmless alternative to Japanese/hybrid Quail releases, although their potential efficiency in assisting population recovery remains to be shown. A Result of the implementation of this Management Plan should therefore be that by 2011:

(1) The release both on public and private lands, fenced-in or not, of the Japanese Quail (C.c. japonica) and its various hybrids (C.c. coturnix x C.c. japonica) is explicitly forbidden and this ban is effectively enforced. Methods of genetic identification of both subspecies must be developed in order to achieve an objective identification.

Whilst the species is in a state that does not preclude hunting, it is essential to ensure that this activity does not hamper the recovery of the population. Spring hunting that overlaps with the return migration or the start of breeding should not be permitted under any circumstances. The opening dates for the hunting season in the EU Member States should also avoid effects on late- hatching Common Quail broods. Therefore, these two should be results of the implementation of this Management Plan by 2011:

(3) The overall permitted hunting level in the EU, as set through national bag limits, is kept below levels that risk significantly slowing the rate of recovery of the European Quail population.

Management of breeding habitats Throughout the EU, factors reported to limit populations include habitat loss and modification. The majority of Common Quail breeding in the EU occur in South Western and Central Europe, where numbers are more or less stable or fluctuating. Results of the implementation of this Management Plan should therefore be that by 2011:

(4) Breeding and staging habitats of Common Quail are conserved, managed sustainably and, eventually, restored in all Member States with significant numbers of breeding Common Quail, so as to ensure recovery in Common Quail numbers.

International co-operation

The Common Quail is a fully migratory species, and winters mainly in North and West Africa. Breeding and subsequent release of Japanese/hybrid Quails in southern countries, especially in West Africa (Senegal), is currently planned by hunting associations and private tourist hunting organisations for the same reasons as in Europe (increasing rarity of migrating phenotypes), and international cooperation should address this threat not only at EU level as proposed under Result 1.

Furthermore, although African wintering (and North African breeding) areas are far from the EU border, there is an urgent need to improve knowledge about wintering population numbers and distribution.

Therefore by 2011 the following results should be achieved:

(5) Technical assistance is provided to those African countries where Quail hunting is important, so as to help ban - as in Europe - the release of Japanese/hybrid Quails.

(6) The knowledge about wintering populations of the Common Quail in North and West Africa, and breeding populations in North Africa, is improving and being made widely available.

Research and monitoring

Adequate population monitoring is vital for achieving the goals of restoring the species from a Depleted conservation status to Favourable conservation status. However, both population size and trends are poorly known, as is the nature of the migratory routes, the existence – or not – of genetic exchanges with neighbouring populations, etc. This improvement must be achieved at local, national and international level.

Furthermore, the Common Quail is a very popular quarry species, with significant bags harvested every year in the Member States where hunting is permitted. Therefore, it is urgent to assess the pressure of hunting on the Common Quail populations. It should be noted that a proposal for the development of national systems of bag reporting (including some mechanism for determining age ratios and monthly totals) is currently being developed, as part of the Sustainable Hunting Initiative, and commissioned by DG ENV.

Results of the implementation of this Management Plan should therefore be that by 2011:

(7) A common method is agreed, validated by the European Bird Census Council (EBCC) and used by all Member States to monitor the Common Quail populations.

(8) Regular bag statistics are available for all Member States where the Common Quail hunting is allowed.

(9) Research is under way to identify (1) the relative level of isolation of the four large Palearctic “flyway populations” and the functional links between the regions lying on each of the four paths, notably the Atlantic (west Africa - Morocco - Iberia - North-Eest Europe) and Central Mediterranean (Tunisia - Italy - Central Europe) flyways, and (2) the existence of exchanges between the European population of the Common Quail and the southern (C.c. africana) and eastern (C.c. erlangeri) African subspecies.

6. Activities

6.1 Policy and legislative actions

To achieve the Result (1) that “the release both on public and private lands, fenced-in or not, of the Japanese Quail (C.c. japonica) and its various hybrids (C.c. coturnix x C.c. japonica) is explicitly forbidden and this ban is effectively enforced. Methods of genetic identification of

both subspecies must be developed in order to achieve an objective identification”; the relevant administrative bodies in all Member States as well as the European Commission shall take action to:

(1.1) Ensure that the Japanese Quail (C.c. japonica) and its various hybrids (C.c. coturnix x C.c. japonica) are given appropriate EU and national status so as to be treated as (potential) exotic/pest species, which threaten the integrity of a European native species;

(1.2) Pass legislation forbidding the release in the wild of Japanese/hybrid Quails, both on public and private land, whether fenced-in or not;

(1.3) Enforce this legislation, especially through strict control of breeding centres;

(1.4) Fund research aiming at developing a rapid genetic assessment of individuals, so as to enable effective control of breeding centres.

To achieve the Result (2) that "hunting seasons in EU Member States are in accordance with information on breeding period as defined in “Period of reproduction and prenuptial migration of Annex II bird species in the EU”, and hunting does not affect late breeding birds and birds during spring migration", the relevant administrative body in all Member States shall take action to:

To achieve the Result (3) that “The overall permitted hunting level in the EU, as set through national bag limits, is kept below levels that risk significantly slowing the rate of recovery of the European Quail population”, the relevant administrative body in all Member States shall take action to:

(3.1) Define and promote a Maximum Permitted Bag per hunter (either per hunting day or per season), which can be adapted yearly according to the state of the populations based on monitoring.

6.2 Management of breeding and staging populations and habitats

To achieve the Result (4) that “Breeding and staging habitats of the Common Quail are conserved, managed sustainably and eventually restored so as to ensure recovery in the Common Quail numbers”, the following actions shall be taken:

(4.1) Ensure that future EU agri-environmental schemes incorporate provisions that allow the conservation of breeding and staging habitats, in line e.g. with the specific prescriptions suggested by Guyomarc’h (2003, p. 72).

(4.2) Member States will support such schemes, e.g. the development of set-asides and of “quail-friendly” cultivating techniques, and ensure they are properly monitored so that prescriptions can be refined to best meet the conservation objectives, in all European Member States with significant numbers of breeding Common Quail.

6.3 International co-operation

To achieve the Result (5) that “Technical assistance is provided to those African countries where Quail hunting is important, so as to help ban – as in Europe – the release of Japanese/hybrid Quails”, the following international activities should be on schedule:

(5.1) Member states and the European Commission raise the awareness of decision-makers in relevant African countries on the need to legally ban, and enforce, the release of Japanese/hybrid Quails.

To achieve the Result (6) that “The knowledge about wintering populations of the Common Quail in North and West Africa, and breeding populations in North Africa, is improving and made widely available”, the following international activities should be on schedule:

(6.1) Member States and the European Commission support studies and monitoring schemes aiming at (1) identifying the African wintering area of the European populations, (2) monitoring the numbers (or density) of wintering birds in a representative sample of each key wintering habitat type, and (3) monitoring the numbers (or density) of breeding birds in key breeding habitats in North Africa.

6.4. Research and monitoring

To achieve the Result (7) that “A common method is agreed, validated by the EBCC and used by all Member States to monitor the Common Quail populations“, the following activities should be on schedule:

(7.1) Standardised (or at least, internationally compatible) monitoring programmes for the Common Quail population size are undertaken in each Member State with a significant breeding population, and data are regularly analysed and reported. This scheme could be included in a broader, pan-European monitoring scheme for e.g. farmland birds10.The current project to monitor the Common Quails of the Atlantic meta-population could be very useful.

(7.2) An international coordinating body (e.g. a “Quail Working Group”) is set up with clearly defined objectives, focusing on translating the results of well coordinated national monitoring programmes into permissible bag quotas.

To achieve the Result (8) that “Regular bag statistics are available for all Member States where the Common Quail hunting is allowed “, the following activities should be on schedule:

(8.1 ) Regular bag surveys are implemented in Member States where the Common Quail hunting is allowed, in co-operation with local, regional and national hunters associations, so as to assess monthly totals hunted, age and sex-ratios.

10 The Pan European Common Bird Monitoring Scheme (PECBM) collected data on Quail in 2003 but it proved too variable to use safely at a European level. Inclusion of the Quail remains a possibility and it should collect the data, but erratic nature of quail numbers is a problem (R Gregory pers. comm.).

(8.2) The structure of bag tables is regularly analysed (via wing analysis, which enable to assess age-ratios), and results are made widely available.

To achieve the Result (9) that “Research is under way to identify (1) the relative level of isolation of the four large Palearctic “flyway populations” and the functional links between the regions lying on each of the four paths, notably the Atlantic (west Africa - Morocco - Iberia - North-West Europe) and Central Mediterranean (Tunisia - Italy - Central Europe) flyways, and (2) the existence of exchanges between the European population of the Common Quail and the southern (C.c. africana) and eastern (C.c.erlangeri) African subspecies“, the following activities should be on schedule:

(9.1) Member States and the European Commission support targeted research programmes aiming at answering these questions.

Table 7: Prioritized activities and results in all countries in the EU with populations of the Common Quail (Scale for Priority and Time Scale is given at the bottom of the table).

Result Priority National or European Commission activities Time scale Means of verification (1) The release both on public and Member states will: private lands, fenced-in or not, of • Ensure that the Japanese Quail (C.c. japonica) Immediate Publications/web-pages with official the Japanese Quail (C.c .japonica) and its various hybrids (C.c. coturnix x C.c. legislation of Member State. and its various hybrids (C.c. japonica) are given appropriate EU and national coturnix x C.c. japonica) is status so as to be treated as (potential) exotic/pest Short No Japanese/hybrid Quails detected in explicitly forbidden and this ban is Essential species, which threaten the integrity of a breeding centres during random controls by effectively enforced. Methods of European native species; Member States’ agents. genetic identification of both • Pass legislation forbidding the release in the wild Medium subspecies must be developed in of Japanese/hybrid Quails, both on public and Technical articles by breeders in order to achieve an objective private land, whether fenced-in or not; professional journals demonstrate a real identification. • Enforce this legislation, especially through strict shift from banned to native Quails. control of breeding centres; Medium • Fund research aiming at developing a rapid Reports by Member States to the ORNIS genetic assessment of individuals, so as to enable committee on controls implemented in effective control of breeding centres. breeding centres. Short Articles in applied science journals propose techniques applicable by e.g. government control officers.

Result Priority National or European Commission activities Time scale Means of verification (2) Hunting seasons in EU Member Member States will ensure that national hunting Publications/web-pages with official States are in accordance with seasons are in accordance with information on hunting seasons in Member State, including information on breeding period as High breeding period as defined in “Period of Reproduction Medium specific provisions linked to altitude. defined in “Period of reproduction and Prenuptial migration of Annex II Bird Species in and prenuptial migration of Annex II the EU”. Additional annual publicity about bird species in the EU”, and hunting compliance with hunting seasons is does not affect late breeding birds undertaken in key areas (brochures etc). and birds during spring migration. No Quail hunting detected outside hunting season during monitoring of hunting activity in key areas.

(3) The overall permitted hunting Member States will define and promote a Maximum Publications/web-pages with official level in the EU, as set through Permitted Bag per hunter (either per hunting day or hunting bag limits in Member States. national bag limits, is kept below Medium per season), which can be adapted yearly according to Medium levels that risk significantly slowing the state of the populations based on monitoring. Additional annual publicity about the rate of recovery of the European compliance with hunting bags is Quail population. undertaken in key areas (brochures, etc.).

No excess bags detected during monitoring of hunting activity in key hunting areas.

Result Priority National or European Commission activities Time scale Means of verification (4) Breeding and staging habitats of • The European Commission will ensure that future Public awareness raising, including the Common Quail are conserved, EU agri-environmental schemes incorporate publications and brochures distributed to managed sustainably and, Essential provisions that allow the conservation of breeding Short private landowners, local authorities and eventually, restored in all Member and staging habitats, in line e.g. with the specific other relevant stakeholders. States with significant numbers of prescriptions suggested by Guyomarc’h (2003, p. breeding Common Quail., so as to 72). Projects reports about results of ensure recovery in the Common conservation and restoration of habitats and Quail numbers. • Member States will support such schemes, e.g. Medium other management prescriptions targeted at the development of set-asides and of “quail- the Common Quail. friendly” cultivating techniques, and ensure they are properly monitored so that prescriptions can be refined to best meet the conservation objectivesin all European Member States with significant numbers of breeding Common Quail.

(5)Technical assistance is provided Members states and the European Commission raise to those African countries where the awareness of decision-makers in relevant African Reports, articles and material (eg. leaflets, Quail hunting is important, so as to Medium countries on the need to legally ban, and enforce, the Medium brochures…) of projects aiming at raising help ban - as in Europe - the release release of the Japanese/hybrid Quails, while providing awareness. of the Japanese/hybrid Quails. a viable alternative where needed, along the same Official journals of countries where lines as Action n° 1.4. changes in legislation were introduced. Member States and the European Commission support (6)The knowledge about wintering studies and monitoring schemes aiming at (1) Published results of these populations of the Common Quail in Medium identifying the African wintering area of the European Long research/monitoring projects. North and West Africa, and populations, (2) monitoring the numbers (or density) breeding populations in North of wintering birds in a representative sample of each Africa, is improving and being made key wintering habitat type, and (3) monitoring the widely available. numbers (or density) of breeding birds in key breeding habitats in North Africa.

Result Priority National or European Commission activities Time scale Means of verification • Standardised (or at least, internationally (7) A common method is agreed, compatible) monitoring programmes for the Minutes of Ornis Scientific Working validated by the EBCC and used by Common Quail population size are undertaken in Group. all Member States to monitor each Member State with a significant breeding Medium Common Quail populations. population, and data are regularly analysed and reported. This scheme could be included in a broader, pan-European monitoring scheme for Scientific publications. e.g. farmland birds. The current project to Medium monitor the Common Quails of the Atlantic meta- population would be very useful.

• An international coordinating body (e.g. a “Quail Working Group”) is set up with clearly defined Reports and websites from the Quail objectives, focusing on translating the results of Short Working Group (once established) and well coordinated national monitoring programmes from Member States game and wildlife into permissible bag quotas administrations reports.

• Regular bag surveys are implemented in Member (8) Regular bag statistics are States where the Common Quail hunting is Minutes of Ornis Scientific Working available for all Member States allowed, in co-operation with local, regional and Short Group. where the Common Quail hunting is High national hunters associations, so as to assess allowed. monthly totals hunted, age and sex-ratios. Reports and websites from Member States • the structure of bag tables is regularly analysed game and wildlife administrations. (via wing analysis, which enable to assess age- ratios), and results made widely available. Reports and website of the Quail Working Medium Group (once established).

Result Priority National or European Commission activities Time scale Means of verification (9) Research is under way to identify (1) the relative level of isolation of the four large Palearctic “flyway populations” and the functional links between the regions Low • Member States and the European Commission Long Scientific publications. lying on each of the four paths, support targeted research programmes aiming at notably the Atlantic (west Africa - answering these questions. Morocco - Iberia - north-west Europe) and Central Mediterranean (Tunisia - Italy - Central Europe) flyways, and (2) the existence of exchanges between the European population of the Common Quail and the southern (C.c. africana) and eastern (C.c.erlangeri) African subspecies.

The Priority of each Result is given, according to the following scale: • Essential: an action that is needed to prevent a large decline in the population, which could lead to species or subspecies extinction. • High: an action that is needed to prevent a decline of more than 20% of the population in 20 years or less. • Medium: an action that is needed to prevent a decline of less than 20% of the population in 20 years or less. • Low: an action that is needed to prevent local population declines or which is likely to have only a small impact on the population across the range.

The Time scales attached to each Activity use the following criteria: • Immediate: completed within the next year. • Short: completed within the next 1-3 years • Medium: completed within the next 1 - 5 years. • Long: completed within the next 1 - 10 years. • Ongoing: an action that is currently being implemented and should continue. • Completed: an action that was completed during the preparation of the Management Plan

Table 8: Summary of objectives/results and activities of the Common Quail Coturnix coturnix Management Plan 2009-2011.

DESCRIPTION VERIFIABLE INDICATORS MEANS OF VERIFICATION ASSUMPTIONS

Purpose: - Population abundance maintained - National and international publications Common Quail Management Plan and, in SE Europe increased. document that Common Quail numbers are approved and supported by EU and To restore the species to a favourable restored and the species is no longer in Member States. conservation status through reversing the - Proportion of long-distance migrant unfavourable conservation status declines in SE Europe and maintaining its phenotype stabilized. - Northern and south-eastern sub-populations natural genetic diversity. do not show a long-term decline. - Genetic analysis of wild-caught Quails do not show a decline of long-distance migrant phenotype. Results 2009-2011:

1. The release both on public and private 1. Publications/web-pages with 1. Random controls in breeding centres during For all results: Member States have lands, fenced-in or not, of the Japanese Quail official legislation of Member State; by Member States’ agents. adequate resources and (C.c .japonica) and its various hybrids (C.c. No Japanese/hybrid Quails detected commitment to take responsibility coturnix x C.c. japonica) is explicitly in breeding centres. for Common Quail management in forbidden and this ban is effectively enforced accordance with the Birds . Methods of genetic identification of both Directive’s requirements. subspecies must be developed in order to achieve an objective identification.

2. Hunting seasons in EU Member States are 2. Hunting season is not conflicting 2. Publication/web-site with official hunting in accordance with information on breeding in any Member State with “Period of seasons in Member States available by 2011. period as defined in “Period of reproduction Reproduction and Prenuptial and prenuptial migration of Annex II bird migration of Annex II Birds Species species in the EU”, and hunting does not in the EU”, corrected for the effect of affect late breeding birds and birds during altitude on breeding dates. spring migration.

3. The overall permitted hunting level in the 3. Publications/web-pages of 3. Controls by Member States’ agents in key EU, as set through national bag limits, is kept Member States with official hunting hunting areas: no excess bags detected. below levels that risk significantly slowing bag limits, set according to results of the rate of recovery of the European Quail pan-European monitoring. population. 52

DESCRIPTION VERIFIABLE INDICATORS MEANS OF VERIFICATION ASSUMPTIONS 4. Breeding and staging habitats of the 4. There is no more net loss of 4. Project reports of favourable actions; For result 4, an assumption is that Common Quail are conserved, managed favourable habitats for Common statistics about landscape evolution and environmental issues are taken into sustainably and, eventually, restored, so as to Quail, and set-aside projects or other farming practices. account by the ministries of ensure recovery in Common Quail numbers. similar actions are implemented. agriculture of Member States.

5. Technical assistance is provided to those 5. Ban of Japanese/hybrid Quails in 5. Official journals (legal texts) and project For results 5-6-7, a key assumption African countries where Quail hunting is national legislation of Southern reports (effectiveness in the field). is that Member States with relevant important, so as to help ban – as in Europe – countries is official and populations of Common Quail are the release of Japanese/hybrid Quails. implemented. willing to develop research/conservation activities 6. The knowledge about wintering 6. Assistance to southern countries 6. Population dynamics papers and annual beyond their borders, and to populations of the Common Quail in North for bird monitoring and/or research census of Common Quail on wintering sites coordinate protocols with each and West Africa, and breeding populations in projects are initiated. are published. other. North Africa, is improving and being made widely available.

7. A common method is agreed, validated by 7. All EU surveys about Common 7. Minutes from Ornis Committee. Scientific the EBCC and used by all Member States to Quail follow the same (or publications summarizing trends across monitor the Common Quail populations. compatible/comparable) protocol. Europe.

8. Regular bag statistics are available for all 8. Hunters associations or national 8. Annual report on bags is available (member For result 8, an assumption is that Member States where Common Quail administrations implement regular States websites; reports to ORNIS hunters and hunters association are hunting is allowed. (ideally: yearly) bag registers for all Committee…). willing to provide annual bags. hunters. 9. Research is under way to identify (1) the relative level of isolation of the four large 9. First answers to these scientific 9. Scientific publications. Palearctic “flyway populations” and the questions start to emerge. functional links between the regions lying on each of the four paths, notably the Atlantic (west Africa - Morocco - Iberia - north-west Europe) and Central Mediterranean (Tunisia - Italy - Central Europe) flyways, and (2) the existence of exchanges between the European population of the Common Quail and the southern (C.c. africana) and eastern (C.c. erlangeri) African subspecies. 53

MEANS OF DESCRIPTION VERIFIABLE INDICATORS ASSUMPTIONS VERIFICATION Activities

(1.1) Ensure that the Japanese Quail (C.c japonica) and its various hybrids (C.c. Progress and actions taken by Minutes from Ornis All Member States have coturnix x C.c. japonica) are given appropriate EU and national status so as to be Member State are reported Committee meetings and commitment and adequate treated as (potential) exotic/pest species, which threaten the integrity of a European annually to the Commission at annual reports from Member resources to implement the native species. annual Ornis Committee States. actions for the Common meetings. Quail management in (1.2) Pass legislation forbidding the release in the wild of the Japanese/hybrid accordance with the Birds Quails, both on public and private land, whether fenced-in or not; Directive requirements.

(1.3) Enforce this legislation, especially through strict control of breeding centres;

(1.4) Fund research aiming at developing a rapid genetic assessment of individuals

(2.1) Ensure that national hunting seasons are in accordance with information on spring migration and breeding period as defined in “Period of Reproduction and Prenuptial migration of Annex II Bird Species in the EU” (Annex I of this Action Plan). [Note: At altitudes over 1000 metres, the breeding season is delayed by up to 3 weeks, and so should be the opening season].

(3.1) Define and promote a Maximum Permitted Bag per hunter (either per hunting day or per season), which can be adapted yearly according to the state of the populations based on monitoring.

(4.2) Member States will support such schemes, e.g. the development of set-asides and of “quail-friendly” cultivating techniques. (all European Member States with significant numbers of breeding Common Quail).

MEANS OF DESCRIPTION VERIFIABLE INDICATORS ASSUMPTIONS VERIFICATION

(5.1) Members states and the European Commission raise the awareness of Progress and actions taken by Minutes from Ornis All Member States have decision-makers in relevant African countries on the need to legally ban, and Member State are reported Committee meetings and commitment and adequate enforce, the release of the Japanese/hybrid Quails, while providing a viable annually to the Commission at annual reports from Member resources to implement the alternative where needed, along the same lines as Action n° 1.4. annual Ornis Committee States. actions for the Common meetings. Quail management in (6.1) Member States and the European Commission support studies and accordance with the Birds monitoring schemes aiming at (1) identifying the African wintering area of the Directive requirements. European populations, (2) monitoring the numbers (or density) of wintering birds in a representative sample of each key wintering habitat type, and (3) monitoring the numbers (or density) of breeding birds in key breeding habitats in North Africa.

(7.1) Standardised (or at least, internationally compatible) monitoring programmes for Common Quail population size are undertaken in each Member State with a significant breeding population, and data are regularly analysed and reported. This scheme could be included in a broader, pan-European monitoring scheme for e.g. farmland birds. The current project to monitor Common Quails of the Atlantic meta-population could be very useful.

(8.2) the structure of bag tables is regularly analysed (via wing analysis, which enable to assess age-ratios), and results made widely available.

(9.1) Member States and the European Commission support targeted research programmes aiming at identifying (1) the relative level of isolation of the four large Palearctic “flyway populations” and the functional links between the regions lying on each of the four paths, notably the Atlantic (west Africa – Morocco – Iberia – north-west Europe) and Central Mediterranean (Tunisia – Italy - Central

MEANS OF DESCRIPTION VERIFIABLE INDICATORS ASSUMPTIONS VERIFICATION Europe) flyways, and (2) the existence of exchanges between the Common Quail and the southern (C.c. africana) and eastern (C.c. erlangeri) African subspecies“.

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