Sticks, Stones and Broken Bones: Neolithic Violence in a European Perspective" Anthropological Review, 2012; 75(2):137-144

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Wiesław Lorkiewicz and Elżbieta Żądzińska Comments on the book "Sticks, stones and broken bones: Neolithic violence in a European perspective" Anthropological Review, 2012; 75(2):137-144

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18 May 2016 http://hdl.handle.net/2440/89409 Sticks, stones, and broken bones: Neolithic violence in a European perspective

Wiesław Lorkiewicz and Elżbieta Żądzińska

Anthropological Review • Vol. 75 (2), 137–144 (2012)

Comments on the book “Sticks, stones and broken bones: Neolithic violence in a European perspective”

Wiesław Lorkiewicz and Elżbieta Żądzińska

Department of Anthropology, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, University of Łódź, Poland

Sticks, stones, and broken bones: Neolithic violence in a European perspective Edited by Rick Schulting and Linda Fibiger, Oxford University Press, 2012, pp. 392, ISBN 978-0-19-95730-66

Introduction

Skeletal injuries observed in human bone remains from archaeological sites have always aroused considerable interest due to the interpretational opportu- nities they offer. Among them, particu- larly spectacular are those which are indicative of wounds intentionally inflicted by means of various weapons (or other implements used as weapons) as a consequence of interpersonal violence. Injuries of this type are found already in skeletons from the Middle Paleolithic (e.g., Wu et al. 2011), but it is difficult to interpret them in a conclusive manner, especially that features enabling distinc-

Book Review: Received 04.12.2012; Accepted 21.12.2012 DOI: 10.2478/v10044-012-0013-3 © 2012 Polish Anthtropological Society Brought to you by | University of Adelaide Barr Smith Library Authenticated Download Date | 5/18/16 4:41 AM 138 Wiesław Lorkiewicz and Elżbieta Żądzińska tion between accidental and intentional (Teschler-Nicola et al. 1996) and Herx- (violent) injuries often require analy- heim, southern Germany (Orschiedt et sis of a larger number of observations al. 2003). Controversies around the in- rather than isolated cases. More skeletal terpretation of some of these finds and remains with signs of injuries are known the increasing amount of data, both as from the Mesolithic (Frayer 1997; Thor- a result of new discoveries and re-assess- pe 2003; Roksandic 2004a; Roksandic ment of available skeletons from differ- et al. 2006), which is usually associated ent parts of Europe, led to an attempt to with the greater sedentism and territo- review the existing state of knowledge riality of hunter-gatherer groups in that on violence in Neolithic Europe during period (Roksandic 2004b). Taking into a 2-day meeting held at the University consideration the impact of such factors of Oxford on 14–15 March 2008. The on the level of aggression between hu- main organizers of the conference were man communities, one could argue that Rick Schulting and Linda Fibiger from the most significant developments in the School of Archaeology, University of the evolution of human violent behavior Oxford. The meeting was supported by took place in the Neolithic. The estab- the Leverhulme Trust, the British Acad- lishment of a food-producing economy emy, the Pitt Rivers Museum, Archae- led to tensions between early agricul- opress, Oxford University Press, and tural communities due to competition the Meyerstein Fund of the School of for cultivable land and pastures, while Archaeology, University of Oxford. The wealth accumulated in the form of crops papers presented at the conference were and livestock gave rise to covetousness also the first contributions to the volume and temptation of easy gain of resources. “Sticks, stones, and broken bones: Ne- The Neolithic was also a key period in olithic violence in a European perspec- terms of transformation from the egal- tive” edited by Rick Schulting and Linda itarianism of hunters-gatherers to the Fibiger and published by Oxford Univer- social stratification of Bronze Age so- sity Press in 2012. Seventeen chapters cieties (clearly documented by archaeo- of this monograph, comprising almost logical evidence) and the rise of the first 400 pages, present studies on bone inju- states. Despite these facts, the view that ries observed in Neolithic skeletal series the real climate of collective violence dated to 7000–3000 BC (as well as in emerged during the Neolithic (Beyneix some Mesolithic and Bronze Age skele- 2007) has developed only gradually, tal remains) from 12 countries: Sweden, overcoming the previous stereotypical Lithuania, Latvia, Poland, Germany, belief about the peaceful nature of early Austria, Netherlands, France, Britain, agricultural communities (motivated by, Greece, Spain, and Portugal. Most of e.g., the lack of weaponry in that period). the chapters have been authored by In the 1980s and 1990s a decisive role anthropologists and bioarchaeologists in this shift of perspective was played known for their work on Neolithic bone by the discovery of collective graves material. Some of them are devoted to and assemblages of human skeletal re- leading archaeological sites discussed mains with evidence of injuries in Tal- in previous publications (e.g., Talheim, heim, Baden-Württemberg (Wahl and Asparn-Schletz and Herxheim), but König 1987), Asparn-Schletz, Austria supplemented with new elements of in-

Brought to you by | University of Adelaide Barr Smith Library Authenticated Download Date | 5/18/16 4:41 AM Sticks, stones, and broken bones: Neolithic violence in a European perspective 139 terpretation and comparative analysis. death. The author explains this phenom- Unfortunately, not all chapters enable enon by changes in climate, and also in quantitative assessment of injuries. This technologies and subsistence – connect- in particular concerns very interesting ed with the final transition to agriculture. (given the variety of weapons used) and Poland is represented by skeletal se- spectacular injuries in numerous Neo- ries belonging to the Brześć Kujawski lithic skeletal series from France. group of the Lengyel Culture from the area of Brześć Kujawski and Osłonki in Short review of the book’s Kujawy. A series of 109 skeletons, examined by Lorkiewicz, exhibits a typical content pattern of injuries (mostly depressed fractures of the cranium, more frequent Data from southern Scandinavia (the in males than in females), some of which island of Gotland), reported by Ahlström may be regarded as resulting from inter- and Molnar, concern the Pitted Ware personal violence. Of particular interest Culture, which was chronologically Neo- is the opportunity to relate the triple lithic, but Mesolithic in terms of mode of burial of individuals with peri-mortem subsistence (maritime hunting-gather- injuries of the skull to the archaeologi- ing). Among 109 skulls of adults, 12 re- cal record of destruction and fires in the vealed lesions of traumatic origin, most Osłonki settlement and to the probable often depressed fractures of the vault identification of the weapons with which bones. No injuries caused by projec- the injuries were inflicted (antler-beam tiles were found, even though bows and mattocks, typical of the Brześć Kujawski spears were certainly used by the PWC Group of the Lengyel Culture). This in- population, as both arrowheads and dicates a conflict between agricultural spearheads were found among artifacts communities, as in the case of Talheim. attributed to this culture. The authors Wahl and Trautmann present both conclude that their findings constitute previous and current findings concern- further evidence for the existence of vio- ing the mass grave at Talheim, southwest lence in human communities in all stages Germany from the late stage of the Lin- of their development. ear Pottery Culture (LBK), which was Data on 249 skeletons from the East discovered in 1983/84. This site, called Baltic region dated to a period from the by the authors “the pivotal find in con- Mesolithic to the Bronze Age (all avail- flict archaeology,” contains skeletons able skeletons from Lithuania and the of 34 individuals, probably comprising burial ground at Zvejnieki in Latvia) are the entire local community (population presented by Jankauskas. Most of the of a small hamlet) exterminated during injuries observed in that material are a single event (killed and buried at the interpreted as accidental, resulting from same time). This skeletal series consti- everyday life events. Generally, the ex- tutes the second largest (after Asparn/ amined series indicate a low incidence of Schletz) collection of lethal peri-mortem violence in the Mesolithic and Neolithic. injuries (multiple in some individuals). This situation apparently changed in the A detailed analysis of injuries and wound Bronze Age, as some skeletons from that patterns made it possible to reconstruct period show clear evidence of violent the event (attacks carried out from be-

Brought to you by | University of Adelaide Barr Smith Library Authenticated Download Date | 5/18/16 4:41 AM 140 Wiesław Lorkiewicz and Elżbieta Żądzińska hind), identify the tools used (mainly flat events related to the collapse of the so- axes and other tools with a blunt edge), cioeconomic system at the end of the and thus indicate the likely attackers (an- LBK. However, in their study of skeletal other LBK group). The authors also re- remains from Herxheim, Orschiedt and port attempts to use the latest isotopic Haidle firmly reject this interpretation, analyses to verify one of the hypotheses arguing that the observed bone injuries explaining the cause of the attack on the were inflicted in the process of manipula- settlement as revenge for the abduction tion of human corpses (involving inten- of a woman from another group. While tional separation of the cranial base and hypotheses of this kind will probably facial bones of the skull, cut marks relat- never be conclusively confirmed, isotopic ed to removal of the scalp, and perhaps and aDNA analyses of the Talheim skel- also disarticulation of the bodies), and etons make this group one of the best as such they probably constituted part of studied populations representing the a mortuary rite. LBK. Lidke gives a description of seven Similarly spectacular evidence of a vi- skulls from megalithic graves of the Sin- olent conflict that put an end to a settle- gle Grave Culture in northern Germany. ment as a result of extermination of its Five of them exhibit signs of trepanation, inhabitants is provided by the Asparn/ while the other two reveal evidence of Schletz site in Lower Austria. Skeletons injury (one healed, the other one with of 67 individuals were found strewn no signs of healing). The author sets the around the trench system of the settle- results against the broader background ment, without signs of regular burials. of the Corded Ware Culture, concluding Anthropological analysis conducted by that in that period injuries and trepana- Teschler-Nicola revealed the presence of tions more often occurred in males, but multiple peri-mortem cranial traumas were usually non-lethal, while violence and animal gnaw marks on postcranial rarely affected females, but if so, then bones. The appearance of skull fractures with more serious consequences. proves the use of mainly blunt weapons. Ample data for the same culture ho- The lack of young females among the vic- rizon (the Late Neolithic Corded Ware tims is deemed to be the consequence of Culture) in central Germany are present- their abduction by the aggressors. The ed by Wicke et al. Among 170 examined fact that the Talheim and Asparn/Schletz individuals, 21 exhibit healed antemor- sites date back to roughly the same time tem skull defects (possible peri-mortem is treated as evidence of a crisis at the end injuries are not included in the analysis). of the Linear Pottery Culture resulting in The fact that injuries occurred mostly in an increased level of intergroup violence. men and were characteristically located, Herxheim, southwest Germany is indicating face-to-face combat, and the the third very well known and similarly co-occurrence of skull defects and stone dated site from the same region of Eu- battle axes in the studied burials are in- rope. It contained the remains of at least terpreted by the authors as the develop- several hundred individuals (MNI=325) ment of a warrior-like, axe-carrying élite discovered in the ditches of the settle- in this culture. ment enclosure and is cited by some re- Fibiger reports a study of the skele- searchers as further evidence of violent tons of 186 individuals from Late Neo-

Brought to you by | University of Adelaide Barr Smith Library Authenticated Download Date | 5/18/16 4:41 AM Sticks, stones, and broken bones: Neolithic violence in a European perspective 141 lithic Wartberg Culture burials in cen- non, it is necessary to comprehensively tral Germany. Cranial injuries (both analyze and quantitatively assess also healed and peri-mortem, without signs other types of skeletal injuries. Accord- of healing) were found in 20 individuals ing to Beyneix, explicit evidence of war- – males, females, and children. The high like trauma was not common in the Ear- incidence of injuries, a lack of differences ly and Middle Neolithic, and collective between sexes, and a peri-mortem head violence in the first farmer communities trauma in a juvenile show that interper- of Europe should not be called authen- sonal violence was a common feature tic war, which did not emerge until the during the Wartberg cultural horizon and Bronze Age. may have had a significant impact on the Schulting considers possible variation life of communities in that period. in the prevalence and forms of violence Smits presents results concerning 34 between different regions of Britain and skeletons from one Middle Neolithic and between different mortuary contexts two Late Mesolithic sites in the Nether- (grave forms). One of the arguments for lands. Evidence of trauma was found in this variation is the occurrence of cause- three individuals: a healed depression wayed enclosures in southern England, fracture of the skull, non-healed cut which probably reflects a higher level marks on an isolated clavicle (probably of socio-political integration of Neolith- due to a peri-mortem decapitation), and ic societies in that region. Although the an extensive lethal peri-mortem injury of presented results are preliminary, the au- the skull. Despite the atypical features thor indicates possible differences in the of the burials from which the aforemen- incidence of injuries between skeletal se- tioned skeletons were recovered, isotope ries from northern and southern Britain, analysis revealed that the individuals as well as between individuals buried in were autochthonous. mortuary monuments and non-monu- Beyneix gives an overview of the mental graves. most important Neolithic sites contain- The oldest data presented in the re- ing human skeletons with evidence of viewed volume come from Greece and injuries in France and offers some broad- concern, among others, such well-known er reflections concerning violence in past sites as Franchthi Cave (also Mesolithic) societies and the beginnings of war. Both and NeaNikomedeia. Papathanasiou’s French Neolithic skeletal series and bone study encompasses all available human finds exhibiting injuries (from about 60 skeletal remains from the Mesolithic sites!) are some of the richest in Europe. (21 individuals) and the Neolithic (370 However, they are not very well known individuals) in Greece. The author inter- in the world literature as the results prets cranial injuries (mainly depressed of studies are mostly published in the fractures) as evidence of interpersonal French language. What distinguishes violence, and post-cranial injuries (rel- the injury profile of the Neolithic- se atively rare) as accidental. An interest- ries from France is the high incidence ing observation is the greater incidence of wounds caused by arrows (including of cranial injuries in the Mesolithic as the most spectacular examples of arrow- compared to the Neolithic at Franchthi heads lodged in bones). However, in or- site. According to Papathanasiou, the der to correctly interpret this phenome- observed profile of injuries indicates

Brought to you by | University of Adelaide Barr Smith Library Authenticated Download Date | 5/18/16 4:41 AM 142 Wiesław Lorkiewicz and Elżbieta Żądzińska sporadic non-lethal confrontation rather in the occurrence of injuries in the stud- than generalized warfare. ied skeletons: most cases were identi- Very comprehensive data from San fied in bone material dated to the period Juan ante Portam Latinam, an interesting during which remains of settlements are site in northern Spain, are contributed difficult to detect, while fewer in skele- by Vegas et al. The authors discuss 338 tons dated to periods during which the skeletons of men, women, and children settlements were equipped with clearly discovered in a small rock shelter used defensive structures (walls and ditches). as a collective burial place at the end of Stabilization of settlement probably de- the fourth millennium BC. The identified creased the risk of raids and unexpected injuries are both depressed fractures and attacks, which the authors termed a “pe- arrow injuries (the latter in 11 individu- riod of deterrence”. als), while the many arrowheads found among the bones may indicate additional Final remarks wounds to soft parts of the body, so the number of deaths from this kind of weap- A focus on violence in the Neolithic is on may have been greater. According to convergent with the general interest in the authors, many individuals were con- the period of the so-called Neolithic rev- currently interred in the collective burial olution and its impact on the European site, which, given its unusual location, gene pool and the biological condition suggests a sudden need to bury a larger of human populations. It is to be expect- number of individuals killed simultane- ed that the spread of the new model of ously in an act of violence. social and economic organization gave The last two chapters contain data on rise to some tensions and conflict oppor- bone injuries examined from collective tunities, irrespective of whether it pro- burials in Portugal. Oosterbeek and Tomé ceeded by migration (colonization) or by present a study of bone remains of about acculturation. An overview of the scope 60 individuals from three cave burials in and degree of these phenomena in differ- central Portugal, dated to 6000–3000 cal ent parts of Europe provides additional BC. Among the individuals whose sex and very important information on the was determined, cranial injuries (healed mechanism of Neolithization, relations blunt force depressed fractures) were between allochthonous farmers and au- found exclusively in males, which sug- tochthonous hunter-gatherers, popula- gest their violent origin (although their tion density, the occurrence of economic location does not correspond to typical crises, etc. Injuries to the skeleton are face-to-face confrontation). A broader the best direct evidence for interpersonal overview of injuries linked to interper- violence in past populations, despite fre- sonal violence, based on skeletal assem- quent difficulties with interpreting the blages from Late Neolithic collective context in which such injuries occurred burials in Portugal (16 sites, about 620 (intentional versus accidental) and iden- individuals), is given by Silva et al. Also tifying peri-mortem damage (these prob- here, injuries (mostly depressed frac- lems are also mentioned in the volume tures) are predominantly found in skulls, reviewed). “Sticks, stones, and broken in adult individuals, and in males. The bones” provides ample evidence of this authors report an interesting time trend kind: its 16 chapters (passing over the in-

Brought to you by | University of Adelaide Barr Smith Library Authenticated Download Date | 5/18/16 4:41 AM Sticks, stones, and broken bones: Neolithic violence in a European perspective 143 troduction) discuss findings concerning ness revealed in the collective graves at over 3,400 Neolithic skeletons from all Talheim and Asparn/Schletz, and the de- major European regions, although not all gree of organization and involvement of of them are equally well represented. For human communities in offensive and de- instance, some Central European coun- fensive activities fit some elements of the tries with rich collections of Neolithic definition of warfare. Similar concerns skeletons (e.g., Hungary and the Czech about the dividing line between feuding Republic) have been left out, whereas and warfare (and the need to make such including them in an English-language a distinction) were raised in a BAR In- publication would greatly increase the ternational Series monograph devoted to availability and knowledge of these ma- interpersonal violence in the Mesolithic terials. It is also regrettable that the (Roksandic 2004c). book does not contain data for the very The presented evidence of collective large skeletal series from the Middle El- violence gives rise to the obvious ques- be-Saale region belonging to the Linear tion about the parties to the conflicts. In Pottery Culture horizon, as their system- a work published several years ago, Go- atic re-evaluation would make it possible litko and Keeley (2006) proposed that to, e.g., put the finds from the Talheim burial trauma and the fortification of and Asparn/Schletz sites in a broader sites from the LBK period are signs of in- population context. tense conflicts between early farmers and Such a large collection of cases of in- indigenous hunter-gatherers. However, jury from the Neolithic enables prelimi- this hypothesis is not confirmed in the nary analysis concerning regional differ- reviewed monograph. The injuries dis- ences in terms of this phenomenon. One cussed indicate the use of weapons typi- of the most striking aspects of this varia- cal of Neolithic farmers, while the latest tion is the fact that so many injuries were anthropological and archaeogenetic data caused by ranged weapons (projectiles suggest an early assimilation of agricul- and arrowheads) in western Europe, and tural groups and the adoption of the new especially in France. These differences economic model by the Mesolithic pop- may be due to omission of other types of ulation. injury (which is mentioned by Beyneix), The collective publication of such but they may also reflect the Mesolithic extensive data, so far dispersed among substrate of the Neolithic in this part of different journals and monographs and Europe. often available only in local languages, The authors of most chapters usual- is extremely valuable not only from the ly avoid the term “warfare” in describing standpoint of the main subject matter cases of interpersonal violence, some- of the volume, but also with a view to times stressing their ritual, non-lethal dissemination of general anthropological nature. On the other hand, the evidence knowledge on the Neolithic in particular given for the emergence of a warrior-like European countries. The reviewed vol- elité whose attributes included offensive ume is also an important contribution to weapons (e.g., stone axes in the Corded the paleopathological literature. Despite Ware Culture and antler-beam mattocks being yet “another book on violence in in the Brześć Kujawski Group of the prehistory” (Roksandic 2004c), it is un- Lengyel Culture), the level of aggressive- doubtedly an excellent point of departure

Brought to you by | University of Adelaide Barr Smith Library Authenticated Download Date | 5/18/16 4:41 AM 144 Wiesław Lorkiewicz and Elżbieta Żądzińska for a new perspective on the extent, con- International Series S1237. Oxford: Ar- text and social impact of interpersonal chaeopress 53–74. aggression and violence in the Neolithic Roksandic M. 2004b. Introduction: how vio- and human history in general. lent was the Mesolithic, or is there a common pattern of violent interactions spe- cific to sedentary hunter-gatherers? In: M Corresponding author Roksandic, editor. Evidence and meaning of violent interactions in Mesolithic Eu- Wiesław Lorkiewicz, Department of An- rope, BAR International Series S1237. thropology, Faculty of Biology and En- Oxford: Archaeopress 1–17. vironmental Protection, University of Roksandic M, editor. 2004c. Evidence and Łódź, Banacha 12/16, 90-237 Łódź, Po- meaning of violent interactions in Mes- land. olithic Europe, BAR International Series e-mail address: [email protected] S1237. Oxford: Archaeopress. Roksandic M, Djurić M, Rakočević Z, Seguin K. 2006. Interpersonal violence at Lepen- References ski Vir Mesolithic/Neolithic complex of the Iron Gates Gorge (Serbia-Romania). Beyneix A. 2007. Réflexions sur les débuts de Am J Phys Anthropol 129:339–48. la guerre au Néolithique en Europe occi- Teschler-Nicola M, Gerold F, Kanz F, Linden- dentale. L’Anthropologie 111:79–95. bauer K, Spannagl M. 1996. Anthropol- Frayer DW. 1997. Ofnet: evidence for a Meso- ogische Spurensicherung – Die trauma- lithic massacre. In: DL Martin, DW Frayer, tischen und postmortalen Veränderungen editors. Troubled times: violence and war- an den linearbandkeramischen Skelet- fare in the past. Amsterdam: Gordon and tresten von Asparn/Schletz. In: HJ Windl, Breach Publishers. 181–216. editor. Rätsel um Gewalt und Tod vor Golitko M, Keeley LH. 2006. Beating plough- 7.000 Jahren. Eine Spurensicherung. As- shares back into swords: warfare in the parn/Zaya: Radinger-Druck. 47–64. Linearbandkeramik. Antiquity 81:332–42. Thorpe IJN. 2003. Anthropology, archaeology, Orschied T J, Häußer A, Haidle MN, Alt KW, and the origin of warfare. World Archaeol Buitrago-Téllez CH. 2003. Survival of 35: 145–65. a multiple skull trauma: the case of an Wahl J, König HG. 1987. Anthropolo- Early Neolithic individual from the LBK gisch-traumatologische Untersuchung enclosure at Herxheim (Southwest Ger- der menschlichen Skelettreste aus dem many). Int J Osteoarch 13:375–83. Bandkeramischen Massengrab bei Tal- Roksandic M. 2004a. Contextualizing the ev- heim, Kreis Heilbronn: Fundberichte aus idence of violent death in the Mesolithic: Baden-Württemberg 12. 65–193. burials associated with victims of violence Wu XJ, Schepartz LA, Liu W, Trinkaus E. in the Iron Gates Gorge. In: M Roksandic, 2011. Antemortem trauma and surviv- editor. Evidence and meaning of violent al in the late Middle Pleistocene human interactions in Mesolithic Europe, BAR cranium from Maba, South China. PNAS 108(49):19558–62.

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