Drainage Research Institute (DRI)

Drainage Research Project I & II

FINAL REPORT Dec 1994 – June 2001

SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE RESEARCH ON DESIGN, TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT

June 2001

International Institute for Land Reclamation ARCADIS Euroconsult and Improvement (ILRI) Arnhem Wageningen, The Netherlands The Netherlands  2001

Project title: Drainage Research Programme (DRP) and Drainage Research Project II (DRP2) Project number: EG 015601

Drainage Research Institute (DRI) National Water Research Center Building P.O. Box 13621/5, Kanater, Cairo, Egypt. Phone: +20-2-2189383 / 2189841 Fax: +20-2-2189153 E-mail: [email protected]

International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement (ILRI) P.O. Box 45, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands Phone: +31-317-495549 Fax: +31-317-495590 E-mail: [email protected]

In cooperation with: ARCADIS Euroconsult P.O. Box 441, 6800 AK Arnhem, The Netherlands Phone: +31-26-3577111 Fax: +31-26-3577577 E-mail: [email protected]

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or published in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without prior written permission of DRI/ILRI

FOREWORD The Drainage Research Institute was established in 1976 to carry out applied research that leads to cost-effective drainage systems. Therefore, it continuously focuses on improving designs and technologies that realise this objective. The institute is considered now the window through which modern technologies are introduced to the Egyptian drainage practices after testing, and in many cases, after adaptation to suit the local conditions.

With the successful completion of the Drainage Research Project I and II, I would like to thank all those who participated directly and indirectly in reaching the objectives and goals of the DRP project. My deep appreciation goes to H.E. the Minister of Water Resources and Irrigation and the chairperson of NWRC for their well-directed support. The cooperation of the chairman and staff of EPADP is gratefully acknowledged.

My appreciation and thanks also extends to the Directorate General for International Cooperation (Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Netherlands), the Royal Netherlands Embassy in Cairo, the International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement (ILRI) and Arcadis Euroconsult for their financial and technical assistance during the execution of the DRP project.

The project team deserves a vote of thanks for the valuable inputs and a well-done job.

Shaden Abdel Gawad Director Drainage Research Institute (DRI) Cairo, June 2001

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

FOREWORD ...... I TABLE OF CONTENTS ...... III LIST OF FIGURES ...... IX LIST OF TABLES ...... XI LIST OF BOXES...... XIII LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ...... XV ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... XIX EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ...... XXIII

PROJECT DETAILS...... 1

1. INTRODUCTION...... 3 1.1 Objectives DRP and DRP2...... 3 1.2 The Projects in Statistics ...... 4 Staffing and consultancies ...... 4 Planned and actual time...... 4 Training, workshops, conferences...... 5 Publications ...... 5 Advances in technology introduced (field equipment)...... 6 1.3 Implementation ...... 7 1.4 This Publication...... 9 2. AGRICULTURE AND DRAINAGE RESEARCH IN THE NILE DELTA...... 11 2.1 Cropping Patterns and Cropping Intensities ...... 12 2.2 Land Drainage Projects in Egypt...... 13 The Egyptian Public Authority for Drainage Projects (EPADP) ...... 13 Foreign Loans and International Agreements with EPADP ...... 15 2.3 Research Organisations in MWRI ...... 16 DRI ...... 16 2.4 Land Development and Research Organisations in MALR...... 17 EALIP ...... 17 GARPAD...... 18 ARC...... 18 SWERI ...... 18 2.5 Water user associations ...... 19

RESEARCH ON DESIGN CRITERIA ...... 21

3. DRAINAGE DESIGN CRITERIA IN PILOT AREAS...... 23 3.1 Drainage Design in Egypt ...... 23 Agricultural criteria...... 24 Technical criteria...... 24 3.2 Description of Pilot Areas ...... 24 Mashtul...... 24 Mit Kenana ...... 26 Haress ...... 28 3.3 Data Collection and Analysis ...... 30 3.4 Water Table: Fluctuation and Frequency ...... 31 3.5 Lateral Discharge: Fluctuation and Frequency ...... 32

iii 3.6 Collector Discharge: Fluctuation and Frequency ...... 33 3.7 Q-h Relationships...... 34 3.8 Conclusions and Recommendations ...... 34 4. PILOT AREAS RESEARCH GUIDELINES...... 37 4.1 Drain Envelopes ...... 37 4.2 Drain Spacing and Depth...... 37 4.3 Density and Number of Measurements...... 38 Density ...... 39 Number ...... 39 4.4 Regression and ANOVA ...... 39 4.5 Sample Size ...... 40 4.6 Proposed Scenarios ...... 41 Factorial experiment...... 41 A smaller experiment...... 41 Calculating the required sample size...... 42

MONITORING AND EVALUATION ...... 45

5. PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT ...... 47 5.1 Performance Assessment Concept ...... 48 5.2 Performance Assessment Indicators ...... 48 Purposes and rationales ...... 48 Characteristics of performance indicators ...... 49 5.3 Standard performance assessment procedure ...... 49 Preliminary Investigations (first step) ...... 50 Primary Investigation (second step) ...... 50 Cause Analysis (third step)...... 50 Performance Indicators ...... 50 5.4 Technical Activities and Achievements ...... 51 Client Requested PA ...... 51 Modified Field Data Collection ...... 52 Watertable as indicator for PA...... 56 Water table as function of time ...... 60 5.5 Conclusions and Recommendations ...... 60 6. REHABILITATION ...... 63 6.1 Introduction ...... 63 Indicators for rehabilitation ...... 63 Complaints collection ...... 64 6.2 Analysis of Complaints in Santa (stage 1 of the study)...... 64 6.3 Analysis of Water Table Depth in Santa...... 66 Salinity ...... 68 6.4 Spatial Distribution of Age and Complaints in Different Drainage Directorates (stage 2 of the study) ...... 68 Complaints related to the year of installation ...... 68 6.5 Conclusions and Recommendations ...... 69

RESEARCH ON DRAINAGE TECHNOLOGY...... 71

7. DRAIN ENVELOPE ...... 73 7.1 Introduction ...... 73 7.2 History of Drain Envelope Research in Egypt...... 74 7.3 Laboratory Experiments ...... 76 7.4 Field Experiments in Pilot Areas ...... 77

iv 7.5 Design Guidelines for Synthetic Envelopes in Egypt ...... 79 7.6 Manufacturing of Synthetic Envelopes in Egypt ...... 80 7.7 Installation of Pre-Wrapped Drain Tubes in Egypt...... 81 7.8 Quality Control...... 82 7.9 Envelope Maintenance ...... 83 7.10 Costs of Synthetic Materials in Egypt ...... 83 7.11 Conclusions and Recommendations ...... 84 8. FLUSHING OF SUBSURFACE LATERAL DRAINS WITH MEDIUM AND HIGH PRESSURE MACHINES IN EGYPT ...... 87 8.1 Introduction ...... 87 Types of machines used for maintenance in Egypt...... 87 Research objective ...... 88 8.2 Assessment for Flushing Machines...... 88 8.3 The Tested Flushing Machines...... 89 8.4 Study Achievements ...... 89 Sediment Removal Efficiency (SRE) ...... 89 Effect of flushing pressure on soil stability ...... 91 Regularity of hose speed ...... 91 8.5 Cost Comparison...... 94 8.6 Conclusions ...... 94 9. SALINITY MEASUREMENT WITH EM38 ...... 97 9.1 Introduction ...... 97 9.2 Principles of operation ...... 97 9.3 Calibration of the EM38...... 99 Soil sampling...... 100 Temperature measurements...... 100 Moisture measurements ...... 101 9.4 Calibration Procedure...... 101 Calibration method no. 1...... 101 Calibration method no.2...... 102 9.5 Guidelines for calibration...... 103 10. VIDEO INSPECTION ...... 105 10.1 Video Inspection Results ...... 105 a. During training period ...... 105 b. Pilot and experimental areas...... 105 11. TRENCHLESS DRAINAGE...... 109 11.1 Introduction ...... 109 11.2 General Background ...... 109 11.3 Methods of Installation, Monitoring and Calculations ...... 110 11.4 Factors Affecting V-plough Production...... 110 Installation depth (drain depth) ...... 110 Soil texture ...... 110 Soil moisture content...... 110 Soil resistance and penetration test ...... 111 Days after irrigation and number of mesqa’s crossed ...... 111 Speed and land cover ...... 111 11.5 Practical Experiences ...... 112 Moving through recently irrigated fields ...... 112 Weight and ground pressure...... 112 Type of tracks...... 113 Crossing of ditches ...... 113 Trench backfill and crop damage ...... 113

v Maximum installation depths ...... 114 11.6 Comparison Between Trencher and Trenchless Installation ...... 114 Production comparison...... 114 Cost comparison ...... 115 11.7 The Hydraulic Performance of V-plough and Trencher ...... 116 The draw down rate...... 116 Hydraulic performance comparison...... 116 11.8 Guidelines for the Implementation of Field Drains in Egypt ...... 119 Guidelines based on the V-plough experiment...... 119 Guidelines based on the hydraulic performance...... 120

CROP PRODUCTION AND WATER MANAGEMENT ...... 121

12. AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION IN HEAVY CLAY AREAS ...... 123 12.1 Problem Description ...... 123 12.2 Observations Related to Drainage ...... 124 12.3 Reclamation ...... 125 12.4 Soil Reclamation and Improvement ...... 125 12.5 Irrigation Water Management ...... 126 12.6 Synergy and Good Governance ...... 126 12.7 The Crop Production Model ...... 127 12.8 Recommended Reclamation Scenario...... 127 12.9 Research...... 128 13. CONTROLLED DRAINAGE ...... 129 13.1 Introduction ...... 129 13.2 Objectives and Stages ...... 130 13.3 Field Studies during DRP and DRP2 Projects (1995-2001) ...... 131 13.4 Results ...... 132 Water savings in rice fields ...... 132 Economic benefits on farm level ...... 132 Case study (El Khawaled area)...... 133 Soil salinity and crop yield...... 133 Water table depth ...... 133 Desk study ...... 136 Optimum size of organizations ...... 137 Integrated Programme...... 137 13.5 Conclusions and Recommendations ...... 138

RESEARCH MANAGEMENT ...... 141

14. COMPUTER NETWORK AND INFORMATION SYSTEM...... 143 14.1 Introduction ...... 143 14.2 Network ...... 143 Intranet ...... 143 14.3 Management Information System...... 144 Financial database (FINDAT)...... 144 Publications database ...... 144 Human Resource database ...... 145 Inventory database ...... 146 Contacts database...... 146 Activity database...... 146 14.4 Activity Database ...... 146 Management ...... 147 Study leaders and unit heads...... 148

vi Researchers ...... 148 14.5 Data Information System ...... 149 DIS design philosophy ...... 149 14.6 Data Entry Spreadsheet ...... 151 14.7 The Information Technology Unit...... 152 14.8 Conclusions ...... 152

REFERENCES...... 155

PUBLICATIONS BY DRP AND DRP2 ...... 163 Project Management Reports ...... 165 Technical Reports ...... 166 Technical Papers ...... 169 Consultancy Reports ...... 171

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LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1-1 Presence of Dutch resident staff...... 4 Figure 1-2 Planned and actual percentage of time for project studies ...... 5 Figure 1-3 Training through DRP and DRP2...... 5 Figure 1-4 Publications by DRP and DRP2 ...... 6 Figure 1-5 DRI organisational structure in 1994/1995 ...... 7 Figure 1-6 Vertical and horizontal communication...... 8 Figure 1-7 Organisational chart of DRI in 2001...... 10 Figure 2-1 Egypt EPADP Planning...... 14 Figure 3-1 Location of pilot areas...... 24 Figure 3-2 Mashtul pilot area ...... 26 Figure 3-3 Mit Kenana pilot area...... 27 Figure 3-4 Haress pilot area...... 29 Figure 3-5 Layout of observation wells and piezometers ...... 31 Figure 3-6 Example of Mit Kenana WT fluctuation ...... 32 Figure 3-7 Example of frequency analysis for Haress pilot area...... 33 Figure 3-8 Mit Kenana Pilot Area, coll.2, lat.9, from April 93-October95 Env. (Sock ) S= 60, D= 1.8, ks=3 m/day...... 35 Figure 3-9 q and h relationship for collector 3 and lateral 8, Haress Pilot Area Jan 93 – May 95)...... 35 Figure 5-1 Performance Assessment in relation to drainage implementation activities done by EPADP ...... 49 Figure 5-2 Standard Performance Assessment Procedure...... 51 Figure 5-3 Network of observation wells ...... 52 Figure 5-4 The readings of the midway observation wells and the lateral discharge.. 53 Figure 5-5 q and h for both methods, lateral 40, Fayoum ...... 54 Figure 5-6 The readings of discharge of the laterals under study ...... 55 Figure 5-7 Water table recession curves of the readings of the study observation wells...... 57 Figure 5-8 Typical water table drawdown curves for Fayoum...... 58 Figure 5-9 Water table draw down curve of Mashtul Pilot area...... 58 Figure 5-10 Application of WTDDC for performance assessment in Mashtul Pilot area. 59 Figure 5-11 Application of the watertable as function of area indicator ...... 62 Figure 5-12 Application of the watertable as function of time indicator ...... 62 Figure 6-1 Average number of complaints 1993-1996 ...... 65 Figure 6-2 The relationship between the number of collector's with/without complaints in different sub centers of Santa area ...... 66 Figure 6-3 Water table recession in different sub centers of Santa area during irrigation cycle ...... 67 Figure 6-4 Frequency distribution of complaints for the period 1993-1996 ...... 68 Figure 6-5 Complaints related to system age ...... 69 Figure 7-1 Upward flow permeameters in DRI laboratory ...... 76 Figure 7-2 Lateral discharge at Abu Matamir Area...... 79 Figure 7-3 Ranges of selected d90 values for use in the Egyptian Nile Delta ...... 81 Figure 8-1 High Pressure flushing machine ...... 89 Figure 8-2 Medium Pressure flushing machine...... 90 Figure 8-3 Soil texture around drainpipes, before and after flushing at Elgorn area (HP Machine)...... 92 Figure 8-4 Soil texture around drain pipes, before and after flushing at El Gorn area (MP machine) ...... 93 Figure 9-1 EM38 specifications, device shown in vertical mode ...... 98 Figure 9-2 Primary and secondary magnetic currents ...... 98 Figure 9-3 Horizontal modes reading during instrument preparation ...... 99 Figure 9-4 Vertical and horizontal response...... 99 Figure 9-5 Layout and locations of measurements in the pilot block A ...... 100 Figure 9-6 Calibration method 1, vertical and horizontal modes...... 102

ix Figure 9-7 The relationship between ECa (EM38) and ECe (Lab results)...... 102 Figure 11-1 Example of speed as function of depth for all areas together ...... 111 Figure 11-2 Speed as function of soil moisture content ...... 112 Figure 11-3 The speed of the machine as function of soil resistance...... 113 Figure 11-4 Regular tracks and tracks with ‘APEX’ plates...... 113 Figure 11-5 Installation depth: normal and deep ...... 114 Figure 11-6 Gross production V-plough compared to trencher ...... 115 Figure 11-7 A schematic of a typical water table draw down curve, showing the various stages that can be observed during an irrigation drainage unit ..117 Figure 11-8 Comparison of the average draws down rate in case of trencher and V- plough during the summer and winter season (all data) ...... 118 Figure 11-9 Comparison of the average draws down rate in case of trencher and V- plough during the summer season for h1, h2, h3 and h4...... 118 Figure 11-10 Comparison of the average draws down rate in case of trencher and V- plough during the winter season for h1, h2, h3 and h4 ...... 119 Figure 13-1 Comparison between layout of controlled and conventional drainage system ...... 129 Figure 13-2 Location of Balakter and El Qahwagy areas...... 131 Figure 13-3 Standing water layer and water table depth in rice field under controlled drainage condition...... 135 Figure 13-4 Area served and length of sub-collectors in the Nile Delta of Egypt ...... 136 Figure 13-5 Frequency analyses for areas served by sub-collectors in the Nile Delta of Egypt ...... 136 Figure 13-6 Frequency of holders by holding size ...... 138 Figure 14-1 DRI Homepage ...... 144 Figure 14-2 Financial database...... 144 Figure 14-3 DRI Publications...... 145 Figure 14-4 Employee information in the Human Resource Database ...... 145 Figure 14-5 Study planning in the Activity database ...... 146 Figure 14-6 Example of a timesheet ...... 147 Figure 14-7 Design Philosophy of DIS ...... 149 Figure 14-8 IT Unit position structure ...... 152

x LIST OF TABLES Table 2-1 Cropping rotation system ...... 12 Table 2-2 Cropping pattern by sub-areas (Amer & De Ridder 1989) ...... 13 Table 2-3 Soil Productivity in the old land of the Nile Delta of Egypt (EALIP, 2000) . 13 Table 2-4 Areas of Surface Drainage Projects (in 1,000 feddan) ...... 14 Table 2-5 Implementation Plan for Rehabilitation (in 1,000 feddan) ...... 15 Table 2-6 Completed agreements ...... 15 Table 2-7 Current agreements ...... 15 Table 3-1 Treatments at Mashtul Pilot Area...... 26 Table 3-2 Treatments at Mit Kenana Pilot Area for depth and spacing ...... 28 Table 3-3 Treatments at Haress Pilot Area ...... 30 Table 3-4 Envelope types tested...... 30 Table 3-5 Collector discharge (1991-1995) for Mashtul Pilot Area ...... 34 Table 4-1 Average draw down rates for cotton and berseem (fictitious)...... 42 Table 4-2 Mixing up of berseem and cotton ...... 42 Table 4-3 Actual measurement locations at Mit Kenana Pilot area...... 42 Table 5-1 Results of the monitoring of the studied laterals...... 54 Table 5-2 Different parameters of the Water Table Draw Down Curve ...... 59 Table 5-3 Different percentages of application of the watertable as function of area indicator ...... 61 Table 6-1 Overview of type of complaints ...... 65 Table 6-2 Frequency analysis of complaints numbers of the drainage sub centers of Santa Drainage Center...... 66 Table 7-1 Ranges of selected d90 values of Egyptian soils for determination of O90 of the drain envelope material (after Vlotman and Omara 1998) ...... 80 Table 8-1 Flushing equipment of EPADP ...... 87 Table 8-2 Soil texture analysis of study areas ...... 88 Table 8-3 Sediment removal efficiency (SRE) based on thickness ...... 90 Table 8-4 Sediment removal efficiency (Weight method) ...... 91 Table 8-5 MP flushing machine...... 94 Table 8-6 HP flushing machine ...... 94 Table 8-7 Cost comparisons for the HP and MP machines ...... 94 Table 9-1 Relationship between ECa and ECe under different moisture content (Abdel Ghany et al, 2000) ...... 103 Table 10-1 Results of video inspection during training period ...... 106 Table 10-2 Video inspection results of lateral drains with/without envelope at Abu Matamir area ...... 107 Table 11-1 The initial hydraulic head groups...... 117 Table 13-1 Total irrigation time for both conventional and controlled drainage ...... 132 Table 13-2 Cost saving in irrigation water (DRI, 1997&1998)...... 132 Table 13-3 Net return (LE/feddan) of rice crop in different studies cases ...... 134 Table 13-4 Average soil salinity in the root zone and crop yield under controlled and conventional drainage conditions...... 134 Table 14-1 Examples of parameters used in the field sheet...... 151

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LIST OF BOXES Box 5-1 Definition of terms and examples ...... 48 Box 14-1 Specifications of the network ...... 143 Box 14-2 Field data stored in FSS ...... 150 Box 14-3 Field data stored in DBMS ...... 150 Box 14-4 Examples of tables in DBMS ...... 150

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ADB African Development Bank ADF African Development Fund AES Agricultural Extension Service APP Advisory Panel Project on Water Management and Drainage, funded by DGIS ARC Agricultural Research Center B.Sc. Bachelor of Science degree CIDA Canadian International Development Agency CLEQM Central Laboratory for Environmental Quality Monitoring CMRI Channel Maintenance Research Institute COARI Coastal Research Institute CRI Construction Research Institute CSSRI Central Soil Salinity Research Institute (Karnal - India) CUG Collector User Group DBMS Database Management System, part of DIS DEMP IV Drainage Executive Management Project IV, with EPADP, funded by DGIS Dfl Dutch (florin) guilder DGIS Directorate General for International Cooperation (Ministry of Foreign Affairs), The Hague, The Netherlands, since 1998 called NEDA DIS Data Information System DRAINMOD-S Computer model developed at DRI to simulate soil and salinity movement. DRI Drainage Research Institute DRP/DRP2 Drainage Research Project executed by DRI and ILRI (Dec 94 – Sep 98, then DRP2 until Jun 2001). DWIP Drainage Water Irrigation Project, funded by ADB at DRI EALIP Executive Authority for Land Improvement Projects EAP El-Azzazi & Partners Management Consultants, Cairo, DRP Consultant EC/ECe Electrical Conductivity, ECe Electrical conductivity of saturated soil extracts ECRI Environmental and Climate Research Institute EPADP Egyptian Public Authority for Drainage Projects, MWRI fed. feddan, 1 feddan = 0.42 hectares FINDAT Financial Database of DRI under development by DRP FSS File Storage System, part of DIS GARPAD General Public Authority for Reconstruction and Agriculture Projects Development GG Guidance Group of ODS2 GIS Geographical Information System GOE Government of Egypt GPS Global Positioning System HFG Hydraulic Failure Gradient HP High Pressure (flushing machine) HPA Haress Pilot Area HRI Hydraulics Research Institute ICID International Commission of Irrigation and Drainage, New Delhi, India ICLD International Course on Land Drainage, ILRI, Wageningen, The Netherlands IDA International Development Association IIP Irrigation Improvement Project, phase I funded by USAID, phase II by World Bank ILRI International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement, Wageningen, The Netherlands IS Institutional Strengthening

xv ISAWIP Integrated Soil and Water Improvement Project, funded by CIDA, terminated 1994 IT Information Technology IWASRI International Water Logging And Soil Salinity Research Institute (Pakistan) KESSIP Kafr El Sheikh Soil Improvement Project, Egyptian Authority for Land Improvement Projects (EALIP) in the Ministry of Agriculture KfW Kreditanstalt für Wiederaufbau, Federal Government of Germany LE Egyptian pound (currency) M&E Monitoring and Evaluation Project of EPADP/KfW. M.Sc. Master of Science degree MADWQ Monitoring and Analysis of Drainage Water Quality Project, at DRI. MALR Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reclamation. MDS Management Development Strategy, activity of DRP from 1995 - 1996 at DRI MERI Mechanical and Electrical Research Institute MIS Management Information System MKPA Mit Kenana Pilot Area MP Medium Pressure (flushing machine) MPA Mashtoul Pilot Area MPWWR Ministry of Public Works and Water Resources, Cairo, Egypt since Jan 2000 MWRI MWRI Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation (formerly MPWWR) NDP National Drainage Programme (sometimes referred to as National Drainage Project), meant here is the 1993 - 2004 GOE programme. NEDA Netherlands Development Assistance (DGIS name from mid 1998 till Jan 2000) NRI Nile Research Institute NWRC National Water Research Center, MWRI, before Dec. 1994 WRC OD Organisational Development ODS2 Organisational Development Sub-project, phase II, Phase I was MDS. ODS2 is sub-project of DRP ORU Operational Research Unit, a unit at EPADP involved with Trenchless Drainage PA Performance Assessment PAS Pilot Area Statistics Ph.D. Doctor of Philosophy degree PI Plasticity Index PLM Pre-wrapped Loose Materials PP Polypropylene PR Public Relations PRA Participatory Rapid Appraisal PRI Plant Research International, Wageningen University Research Centre, the Netherlands RIGW Research Institute for Groundwater SAR Sodium Absorption Ratio SP Saturation Percentage SRE Sediment Removal Efficiency SRI Survey Research Institute SRU Strategic Research Unit SSI Semi Structured Interviews SWERI Soil, Water and Environment Research Institute of MALR TSS Total Suspended Solids WB World Bank WMRI Water Management Research Institute WRC Water Research Center WRRI Water Resources Research Institute

xvi WT Water Table WTDDC Water Table Draw Down Curve WTFA Water Table as Function of Area WTFT Water Table as Function of Time WUA Water User’s Association

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS From December 3, 1994 through September 30, 1998 the Drainage Research Programme (DRP) Project with the Drainage Research Institute (DRI) was executed. On October 1, 1998 a follow-up was started called the Drainage Research Project II (DRP2). Both projects were bi-lateral cooperation NWRC; DRI on second floor between the Governments of Egypt and the Netherlands. From Egyptian side the Drainage Research Institute of the National Water Research Center (NWRC) in the Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation (MWRI) was the executing agency. The Dutch component of the project was funded through a grant by the Directorate General of International Cooperation (DGIS) of the Government of the Netherlands and was executed by the International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement (ILRI) and ARCADIS Euroconsult.

We would like to thank all those who participated in the DRP and DRP2 for giving their valuable inputs. DGIS and the Government of Egypt (GOE) provided funding for the projects and their support is gratefully acknowledged. From the Netherlands embassy we would like to thank Mr. C. Brandts (1st secretary Development Cooperation Division 1994 – 1995), Mr. P. le Poole (Head Development Cooperation Division 1995 – 2000), Mr. P.M. Flik (1st secretary Development Cooperation 1995 – 2000, and Head Development Cooperation ILRI Division 2000 – 2001), Mr. R. Havinga (1st secretary Development Cooperation 2000 – 2001), Dr. Tarek Morad (Senior Program Officer), Eng. Ayman Khoudier (Program Officer 1994-2000), Ms. Mai Elremisy (Program Officer 2000- 2001), Ms. Nettie van Hoof, and the various secretaries, who all were always ready to assist the project team.

The project team comprised the following staff:

DRI:

Dr. M. Safwat Abdel Dayem Director DRI, Project Director until Jun 97 Dr. Shaden Abdel Gawad Director DRI, Project Director Jul 97 to date Dr. Mohammed Abdel Khalik Deputy Director Oct 98 to date Dr. Mohamed Bakr Abdel Ghany Head Covered Drainage Department, Project Coordinator DRP Dr. Mohamed Akmal Omara Head Drainage Technology Unit, Project Coordinator DRP2 Dr. Gamal Abdel Nasser Head of DRI Laboratory; General Secretary

Study Leaders Dr. Magdy Ragab Assistant Researcher Eng. Mohammed Eissa Research Assistant, Head of HR Unit

xix Eng. Ibrahim H. Lashin Agricultural Engineer Eng. Karima Hanafy Assistant Researcher Eng. Maged Hassan Assistant Researcher Eng. Hossam El Naggar Agricultural Engineer Dr. Ghada Gamal El-Din Researcher, Head of IT unit Eng. Magdy Rashad Ahmed Assistant Researcher Eng. Gehan Abdel Hakeem Assistant Researcher Eng. Bahaa Khalil Research Assistant

Team Members Eng. Mohammed Kenawy Assistant Researcher Eng. Abdallah Hussein Agricultural Engineer Eng. Eman Abdel Gafar Assistant Researcher Eng. Ahmed Mohamed Abdel Hadi Research Assistant Eng. Mahmoud Abdel-Fatah Assistant Researcher Eng. Hussein Gamal El-Dien Amin Research Assistant Eng. Aly Ahmed Aly Research Assistant

Resident consultants:

Dr. ing. Willem F. Vlotman Team Leader DRP and DRP2, ILRI Eng. Ton van Remmen Drainage Engineer (1994 – 1995) Ir. Pieter J. Hoogenboom Drainage Engineer, Arcadis Euroconsult (1995 – 2000) Ir. Reinier van Hoffen Associate Expert in Drainage (1996-1999) Ir. Mirjam Walbeek Associate Expert in Organisational Development (1999-2001)

Consultants:

Mr. J. Ubels Institutional Strengthening Specialist Mr. A.M.J. Jaspers Training Specialist Mr. T.E.J. van Zeijts Trenchless Drainage Expert Dr. M. El Azzazi E.A.P. Management Consultants Dr Abdel Hamid Nossier E.A.P. Management Consultants Dr. Samir Farid E.A.P. Management Consultants Dr. L.K. Smedema Performance Assessment/Drainage Expert Mr. R.A.M. Vaes Management Development Specialist Mr. F. Croon Heavy Clay Drainage Specialist Drs. A. Dirix Institutional Strengthening Specialist Mr. P. Heenan Video Inspection training specialist Dr. Mohammed H. Amer Drainage Expert and Technical Advisor of DRI Eng. Said Amer EPADP Drainage Engineer Dr. M.H.A.F. Gomaa EALIP, MALR Dr. Salah El Din A. Mamoud EALIP, MALR Dr. Mohammed M. Moukhtar SWERI, Drainage and Reclamation Expert Dr. M. Essam Shawky Faculty of Agriculture, Cairo University, Soil scientist Dr. R. J. Oosterbaan ILRI, Drainage and Reclamation Expert Dr. A.L. Smit PRI, the Netherlands Dr. A. van der Zanden Director Alterra, the Netherlands Dr. Ahmed Abdel Haliem Agriculture Research Center Mr. Tarek Shaalan Human resource and marketing consultant Eng. Abdel Raouf El Salahy DRI consultant

xx Local staff:

Mr. Osama el Maghraby Computer Programmer and Database expert Mr. Abdel Latif Attia DRI accountant Mrs. Azziza Hafez Secr. Institutional Strengthening and Training

In addition we like to acknowledge all the support staff such as engineers and technicians of DRI laboratory, drivers, clerks, field staff and labourers that gave their inputs.

Special thanks goes to Mrs. Mirjam Walbeek for her great effort in editing and organizing this document.

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY On June 30, 2001 after a little more than six years (79 months) of cooperation between the Egyptian and Dutch governments, the cooperation between the Drainage Research Institute (DRI) and the International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement (ILRI) comes to an end. It is the end of two unique contiguous projects in which for the first time the emphasis of what started as a typical technical aid project was on the “soft components” of Institutional Strengthening and Organisational Development. These soft components lead to a stronger organisation with a much more market oriented approach of the research work, and summaries of the activities related to these activities may be found in Chapters 1 and 12. Detailed descriptions will be found in the proceedings of a workshop especially devoted to the “soft components” held on Feb. 19, 2001 (Abdel Gawad et al. 2001). Substantial achievements were also reached in the technical arena to warrant this special report on the achievements of the technical activities supported by the project.

The Drainage Research Programme (the DRP project) started in December 1994 and was extended as the Drainage Research Project II (DRP2) in October 1998. Three professionals from the Netherlands, together with numerous expatriate and local consultants, assisted and guided approximately 15 professionals directly and all of the DRI indirectly. One of the long-term expatriate staff came from ILRI, one from Arcadis- Euroconsult (subcontractor of ILRI) and the third position was filled by two persons via the Dutch Associate Expert programme. The projects were jointly funded by the Dutch Directorate of International Cooperation, DGIS, and the Government of Egypt.

After a brief sketch of agriculture and agricultural research in Egypt, with emphasis on the activities by DRI the achievements in the field of design criteria are described. DRI has a long history of research in pilot areas that started almost immediately from its establishment in 1976. When the DRP project started, four pilot areas were still actively monitored and the data from three of the areas was reviewed to assess the potential for further analysis. The objectives of the pilot areas in general were to determine best drain depth, spacing, combination of spacing and depth and the best drain envelope to be used, while other pilot areas also served to learn about best construction techniques (e.g. Mit Kenana Pilot area). The design discharge was also a topic of investigation and for this a frequency analysis was performed on the measured discharges. Some guidance for best drain depth and spacing were obtained (chapter 3), but this could not be proven statistically, due to the existing layouts and the reduced measurement programmes. Nevertheless, considerable data were available from the areas and the analysis done on these data are also described in chapters 5, 6 and 7 (Performance assessment, rehabilitation need and drain envelope research). Increased awareness of the complexities of pilot area research is treated in Chapter 4 and suggestions for future designs are given.

Donor agencies are very much interested in the economic viability of their investments in water management. Line agencies are very much interested in the performance of their system. During the DRP projects major attention was given to clarifying what Performance Assessment (PA) means and how it relates to rehabilitation of drainage systems (chapter 5). Rehabilitation is of specific interest to the Egyptian Public Authority for Drainage Projects, EPADP. The World Bank is more interested in the economic returns and justification of investments in drainage programmes such as in Egypt. Economic assessment and rehabilitation procedures were already investigated by a German funded project at EPAPD. DRI contributed to the rehabilitation component and the results are given in chapter 6. Besides clarifying the meanings of PA and rehabilitation, a major effort was to identify potential drainage system performance indicators that were replicable, practical and economical. DRI had extensive data sets of water table behaviour from various pilot areas and three procedures to transform the data into indicators with target criteria were developed. These are: percent of area waterlogged, trend analysis and draw down analysis (chapter 5). In particular the draw

xxiii down analysis resulted in a new procedure for PA, which requires that water table depth and the time since last recharge to the water table closest to the observation point be measured. Recharge to the water table is caused by rainfall and, in Egypt, primarily by an irrigation event. This measurement can then be plotted on the established target draw down curves to see whether it falls within the criteria range. It was found that under Egyptian conditions it is reasonable to expect that the water table should be at design depth six days after a recharge event.

It is essential that the latest, best and most economical techniques be applied for design, operation and maintenance, and monitoring and evaluation (M&E). DRI was extensively involved in the introduction of new materials for drainpipes, manholes and drain envelopes. Potential drain envelopes (materials) were analysed and this resulted in Egyptian standards for quality control, guidelines for design of drain envelopes, and the acceptance of synthetic drain envelope material by the design agency EPADP (chapter 7). Serious concerns were raised about the desirability of using high pressure flushing equipment for maintenance of subsurface drains. Medium pressure is preferred and recommended (chapter 8). To inspect drains a video inspection system was acquired that helped with inspecting drains for blockages (chapter 10). The system revealed the extent of pipe damage (from construction), sediment levels, root penetration and wildlife in subsurface drains (fish, crayfish, and rodents/insects in dry drains). The system allows cause analysis besides locating problems.

A second major objective of constructing a drainage system in arid and semi arid regions is the control of salinity (the first being control of the water table). Yet, this parameter is not considered a prime indicator for the functioning of a drainage system, because it also very much depends on the levels of irrigation. Nevertheless, salinity is measured intensively, and for this a new instrument that measures integrated soil salinity with an electromagnetic (EM) induction technique, the EM38, was introduced (Chapter 9). For M&E the use of this device can mean substantial savings, when the same amount of information is gathered. At the same time the method is highly suitable for automated measurements including the use of Global Positioning System (GPS) for location determination and data handling with Geographic Information systems (GIS). It is also highly suited for soil productivity management.

Drainage system construction difficulties were already overcome by DRI and EPADP in the Mit Kenana pilot area, but when construction started in the heavy clay soils and in the even more unstable soils than were experienced in Mit Kenana, the need for further enhancement of appropriate construction techniques became evident. From the temperate climate zones (UK, Netherlands, Canada, USA) trenchless drainage construction was known, but his was never tried on larger scale in irrigated areas. The project introduced the trenchless V-plough technique of the Netherlands with success on experimental scale (chapter 11). Not only were construction problems reduced, the system of construction is also cheaper when properly managed. The leased V-plough was subsequently purchased by DRI and EPADP for further testing under non- experimental conditions. At the same time DRI investigated, on request of EPADP, whether there is any difference in hydraulic performance of subsurface drainage systems constructed with the V-plough or the traditional trenching technique. During the initial years (2.5 yrs) after construction the draw down rate of the water table is higher with the traditionally constructed system. Yet both systems perform satisfactory and also the V- plough constructed drains meet the above mentioned criterion of a 6-day water table drop to design depth. It is not known yet whether draw down rates remain higher than those of the V-plough after consolidation of the trench to original soil densities.

The heavy clay areas in the northern part of the Nile Delta are considered problematic soils. Problems come from the point of drain construction techniques and from water management, soil fertility and crop production point of view. The latter three topics are dealt with in Chapter 12. It was concluded that reclamation of heavy clay, saline, sodic and unripened soils requires more than drainage only. With a closely monitored

xxiv multidisciplinary approach to reclamation of these soils, full productivity can be reached in 12 years. The value of mole drainage as a reclamation and soil improvement method, rather than considering it a permanent drainage solution, is but one of the various recommendations. Although many of the areas visited/investigated are older than 30 years, their status with respect to the ideal reclamation model can be easily identified and appropriate measures initiated to bring the areas to full production.

Water scarcity will become a major concern in the near future in the Nile Delta. Already during the early eighties DRI pioneered the introduction of the modified drainage system for rice areas. This meant that sections of the drainage system could be closed during the rice season and this achieves water savings of up to 30% or more, and considerable timesavings for the farmers. The approach requires crop consolidation in the sub- catchments of the drainage system, adjustments in the traditional drainage design (more sub-collectors), willingness of farmers to consolidate, and passing on of the savings to the farmers by water user associations. In 1995 DRI re-introduced modified drainage as controlled drainage, through traditional field trials, new Participatory Rural Appraisal techniques, and advertising the opportunities with all stakeholders (Chapter 13). Guidelines to help with appropriate design and water management have been prepared. Controlled drainage is not only important to reduce water use during the rice-growing season, but will become an essential water management tool during water scarce situations for all crops. Downstream environmental impacts can also be controlled and minimised. If this approach will become widespread for all crops it introduces strains on the existing drainage reuse system in the Nile Delta, which will receive less (poor quality) water. Instead of reusing water at secondary canal level, the savings will occur at tertiary level, which requires less fresh water to be conveyed to the tertiary level, thus saving water will be at primary canal level. It could result in better quality water becoming available for downstream users. Further studies are needed.

As mentioned earlier, capacity building (Institutional Strengthening and Organisational Development) in the form of providing management tools and training in the use of them was a major work activity of the DRP projects. In Chapter 14, research management activities are highlighted. Tools specifically developed for supporting researchers in their tasks are: the intranet, an activity database, timesheets and a (technical) Data Information System (DIS). The Intranet provides information interesting for DRI, like management decisions, electronic newsletters, software upgrades and access to various MIS databases. The activity database keeps track of the planning and activities of researchers and studies of DRI. It is possible to enter several levels of planning, and to indicate the progress of activities. An important input for the database is the timesheets, in which the time researchers spend on the various studies is recorded. Periodic progress reports for the management are a major output of the database. In order to store and access technical data, the Data Information System was developed. This consists of a Folder Storage System, in which line, regional, and other data are stored, and a Database Management System, where mainly point data can be found. It is possible to extract data from the Database Management System through simple queries.

The research by the project and DRI has achieved noticeable savings and potential increased food production (and hence farmers/country income) by means of the following:

• Drainage construction costs can be reduced with 25% by using the V-plough method of drainage construction. This can be achieved in both the problematic areas for which the method was introduced and in other soil types/areas as well. • The acceptance of synthetic drain envelopes material will result in construction cost savings compared to systems that use the traditional gravel envelope material of 202 LE per feddan. The use of synthetic envelopes permits use of the V-plough in all areas where drain envelopes are necessary. Gravel envelopes cannot be used with the V-plough.

xxv • By introducing controlled drainage farmers saved time and money in the rice growing areas. Actual savings amounted to LE 86 per feddan. The increase in drainage construction cost was calculated to be 27%, or LE 83 per feddan. It is clear that if the actual savings in pumping of water are passed on to the farmers, farmers should have no difficulty in accepting the higher drainage investment costs. Financially they will recover the extra investment in two to three rice seasons. • EPADP has fixed funding allocations for maintenance based on area served rather than actual need. The performance assessment techniques introduced, the medium pressure flushing of subsurface drains, the video inspection and the monitoring of salinity with the EM38 device are all new tools that have the potential for savings in the O&M of drainage systems, and can contribute to further increase of agricultural production. • It is estimated that the production in the heavy clay areas of the Northern Nile Delta is only about 25 – 50% of the potential production based on climate, plant genetics and no limiting crop production factors. In order of consideration and to some extent priority, the following factors can be limiting: water, soil salinity/alkalinity, nutrient level, socio economic factors, weeds, pests and diseases.

DRI has moved towards a market and client oriented research approach under guidance of the DRP projects, and has become much more aware of internal management and the latest developments and techniques related to planning, design, construction and management of drainage systems. One of the major stakeholders of drainage systems, the farmer, received intensive attention as part of the introduction of controlled drainage system management. Although not a topic of the DRP projects, DRI is paying a lot of attention to water quality and environmental impact issues through other studies and hence is capable of offering a fully integrated and multidisciplinary approach in its field of expertise: drainage.

xxvi

Project Details

1

1. Introduction

In December 1994, the Drainage Research technically feasible and cost effective Programme (DRP) started within the drainage methods. framework of Dutch Development Aid. In October 1998, a second phase started It was felt that the modified objectives (DRP2) that ended in June 2001. reflected DRI’s possibilities within the NWRC and Government regulations, and 1.1 Objectives DRP and DRP2 also reflected the expectations of DRI’s principal clients. The workshop identified The project objectives as indicated in the that there was (and is) a great need for: Terms of Reference of the Consultants were: • Increased focus on management development within DRI; • Increase the market-orientation and • Increasing staff’s orientation to clients’ self-sustainability of DRI, requiring a or end-users’ specific needs; development of DRI in the direction of • Reconnaissance of market a self-sustained research institute opportunities. which generates its own income;

• Support the National Drainage The central focus of institutional Programme through the initiation and development for the DRI was therefore: execution of research of technically feasible and cost effective drainage To increase the capacity at middle methods. and lower levels in the Institute to implement research and projects and The following four components of the deliver the desired outputs. Drainage Research Programme were proposed in order to achieve the above Generating sufficient income to be self objectives: reliant in a sustainable manner, as implied in the original objectives was deemed • Institutional Development; neither practical nor possible within the • Development of the Research institutional arrangement of drainage Programme; projects implementation in Egypt. A more • Dissemination of Knowledge and client and market oriented approach to Application of Research Results; research will generate more externally • Training. funded work, and thus meets partially the original objective. Yet, it is not likely that After intensive preliminary assessment such a development will occur in the next and based on the results of the workshop decade, as the nature of DRI’s work is not on Institutional Strengthening of DRI conducive to full privatisation. (March 21, 1995, Nile Hilton Hotel) the Consultants proposed a slightly modified Government organisations have been version of the main objectives in established to be able to operate for the consultation with DRI: national good in areas where on individual basis the same could not be achieved. • Institutional development of DRI such DRI, with its main focus on drainage and that DRI will be able to operate with a its impacts, is typically working in a field stronger client orientation and more of expertise that has major regional and independent from Technical Assistance even national impact. During the support, thus ensuring the permanent execution of the project the discussion on availability of a good quality research whether DRI should operate independent institute responding to the questions of Technical Assistance funding was and problems arising from drainage questioned. Why not can donors be valid practice in Egypt; clients? This point taken resulted in the • Support the National Drainage following objectives for the follow-up of Programme through the initiation and DRP (DRP2), that reflect concisely the (continued) execution of research of

3 latest thinking as to the appropriate integral part of the Organisational objectives for capacity building and development during the DRP2. Towards institutional strengthening. the end of the project (for a total of 10 months), a local consultant was hired to The objectives of the project were the assist with the establishment of the institutional and organisational Human Resource Unit and the Marketing development of DRI, such that DRI will: Unit. The Dutch team leader terminated his resident status in October 2000 and • Operate as a flexible working force to remained involved on short-term basis produce demand (client) driven after October 2000. A total of 8 pm and 3 research; pm were spent on respectively local and • Attract internal (within the Ministry of expatriate short-term consultancies during Water Resources and Irrigation) and DRP2. external assignments successfully; • Manage the research in effective and efficient ways; and • Maintain high scientific knowledge of 40 appropriate topics. 35 30 During the first phase of the project, 50% 25 of the time was devoted to organisational 20 development and institutional 15 strengthening, and 50% to support 10 technical activities. This changed to 75% 5 for organisational development and 25% number of person months 0 for technical support during the DRP2. 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001

Institutional Strengthening (IS) is the Figure 1-1 Presence of Dutch resident introduction of new methods and staff methodologies to an existing organisation with the purpose to improve functioning of From DRI, more than 22 technical staff the organisation. Organisational worked on the project. Approximately 20 Development (OD) is the enhancement support staff (Laboratory assistants, field and strengthening of an existing assistants, drivers and admin staff) were management structure to operate more involved directly or indirectly with the effectively. OD is defined as an project as well. intervention strategy that uses group processes to focus on the whole organisation to bring about planned Planned and actual time changes. As part of the Organisational Development (OD), timesheets were introduced in 1.2 The Projects in Statistics February 1999. All technical staff submits their timesheet at the end of the month. Staffing and consultancies The timesheets have a dual purpose: first the time to be claimed from a certain Dutch resident staff gave a total of 180 client can be tracked and second the time person months input to the DRP and per individual research study or activity is DRP2. The division over the years is tracked for internal management shown in Figure 1-1. purposes, as will be explained in more A total of approximately 8 person-months detail in Chapter 14. expatriate consultants and 24 person- In Figure 1-2 the actual time as recorded months of on-off presence of local by the timesheets and the planned time consultants were employed during DRP. by the project is shown. Less time than During DRP2 two local staff were hired for planned was spent on the Organisational the full length of the project to support Development (OD). the implementation of the Management Information System, which became an

4 Other technical activities 100% Heavy clay 90% V-plough 80% Controlled Drainage 70% Research quality 60% Data Information System 50% Marketing and PR 40% Performance Appraisal Sytem 30% Human Resources 20% Meetings 10% Administration 0% actual planned

Figure 1-2 Planned and actual percentage of time for project studies

organised workshops and one-to-one Training, workshops, conferences training (e.g. report writing assistance by For capacity building, different types of the British Council, which they refer to as training were given such as short-courses surgery sessions). Training focussed on in-country and overseas, tailor made communication skills (languages, report courses in-country, attendance of writing), computer skills, management conferences and workshops, locally skills and technical skills (Figure 1-3).

200

150 Communication Technical 100 Computer 50 Management 0 number participants of

1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001

Figure 1-3 Training through DRP and DRP2

various workshops and conferences or Publications published in international and local The project produced a range of journals. A full listing is available in the documents from Technical Reports, Publications database (see also chapter Consultancy Reports, Management 14) and in the appendix of this document. Reports, User Manuals, Lecture Notes and In Figure 1-4, an overview of publications a range of articles that were presented at produced by DRP and DRP2 is shown.

5

30

25

20 consultancy reports technical papers 15 technical report project management 10 report Number of publications of Number 5

0 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001

Figure 1-4 Publications by DRP and DRP2

equipment was not accurate enough and Advances in technology introduced rather cumbersome in the field. (field equipment) Together with the DWIP a total station, For the trenchless drainage experiment a which can measure elevations, distances Dutch made V-plough was imported for and angles in horizontal and vertical the duration of the experiment. direction, was obtained to help with Afterwards, DRP, EPADP and the Drainage measurements in the field and to be able Executive Management Project IV (DEMP- to make accurate maps of research sites, IV) purchased the machine jointly. as well as, place measurement equipment at the desired location and elevation. Based on good experiences by the DEMP- Various staff received training by the IV project and the Tanta Training Center company who delivered the equipment of EPADP, DRI decided to also purchase an (via local distributor). In addition several elaborate Video inspection system. The Global Positioning System, (GPS) were equipment has proven itself already at obtained to fix all measurement locations various locations; engineers/researchers with a unified coordinate system. can now check in the field without excavation why certain drain work or not Experimental grade control and elevation (details in chapter 10). equipment was acquired to measure the location of underground drainpipes in the To improve the ease of salinity field. This was thought to be helpful for measurement in the field DRP has EPADP to check the proper construction of introduced the EM38 device (chapter 9) drains in a non-destructive way. In and organised training in the use of the particularly it was hoped that the equipment. Cooperation with Institutes in equipment would take away one of the Pakistan and India has started to calibrate objections of EPADP against the V-plough, the instrument for wide range of soil and namely, that it cannot inspect the quality measurement conditions (IWASRI in of construction (alignment and elevation) Pakistan and CSSRI in India). of drain lines. Unfortunately the

6

Dir. Dep. Dir.

management Dep. Lab. Dep. DRP Fld. Project units Dep.

Researchers Field staff Support and admin staff

Figure 1-5 DRI organisational structure in 1994/1995

1.3 Implementation To implement the Institutional Strengthening and Organisational The project operated under the overall Development of DRI establishment of supervision of the Director of DRI, who vertical and horizontal communication acted as Project Director. The Team lines was deemed essential (see Figure Leader of the Consultant and the Project 1-6). Coordinator of DRI operated the project on daily basis. The project was organised Major inputs were given to establish study in several activities and studies. The teams in the department as a first step. execution of these activities/studies was To guide the overall efforts of the based on project management principles Institutional Strengthening during DRP a with a Study Leader assigned to each, as Guidance Group (GG) was established to facilitator, administrator and manager. enhance vertical and horizontal Regular meetings with all heads, and communication in DRI. Minutes of monthly meetings of study leaders or unit meetings were made as a standard heads with their staff were held to method of reporting to various related improve the internal communication. organisational units. The DRI handbook (compare Figure 1-5 and Figure 1-6). was completed by the end of 1998. It describes DRI’s present and envisaged To assess the actual internal management organisational structure, mission and training needs a number of statements of departments and units, as consultancies were held during 1995 and well as job descriptions of 28 key 1996. The local management consultants, positions. The handbook is both in English EAP, were contracted to help and and Arabic and was distributed to the implement the various recommendations. middle management. Various workshops were held and training given to the DRI top and middle At the same time an improved staff management. The aim was to develop performance appraisal system was managerial knowledge and skills and to developed in close cooperation with DRI develop behavioural skills. Twenty training and EAP. A manual was the result of a sessions related to this were completed by year of intensive consultation with DRI March 1998 (see also Figure 1-3). staff on all the criteria that needed to be

7 considered. The system is rather unique, with the expatriate staff of DRI had a first in that it is the first documented effort of go at it. Training was given to selected establishing a fair and comprehensive staff but introduction of management staff performance appraisal system that skills proved not to be self-sustainable. considered 90% of the concerns brought Most of the detailed work was done in forward by the staff. However, this made Arabic. A local administrative and the system rather complex and it is still a computer programming assistant and a challenge to DRI to simplify the system for local expatriate consultant were hired to quarterly use without loosing the ability to advise and monitor the implementation. consider all aspects raised by the staff. DRP2 concentrated on developing tools for Several areas were identified as requiring easy application of the developed further development guidelines for peer procedures, because it was observed that review of technical publications, guidelines staff felt it took too much time to fill in the to judge quality of research (research various forms. This was partially true, but standards), and guidelines for progress the complaint also stemmed from the fact reports. that this was never done before, and the benefit of spending extra time on During 1999 the focus was primarily on management related activities was not implementing the tools developed and this seen as useful. The key to turn around continued with the development and this perception is to show what MIS can establishment of the (computer) database mean by actually executing the system for oriented MIS during DRP2. a number of years.

Implementation of models and tools Since the beginning of 1999, timesheets developed for management information were filled in on regular basis and this was proved to be quite a challenge and various a first step in supporting the management modalities to achieve this were attempted. with hard numbers on actual execution of EAP Management consultants together studies and activities.

Quarterly meetings with When projects are all heads are essential Dir. larger than 20% of the for good vertical and total budget or use horizontal Dep. Dir. more than 20% of the communication institute staff they Project Lab. Dep. should be made Monthly meetings of Field departments, else they study leaders or unit offices Dep. should be a unit or heads with their staff study/activity are essential for studies planning, monitoring units and evaluating progress Researchers Field staff Support and admin staff

Figure 1-6 Vertical and horizontal communication

8 In order to transform DRI in a robust research organisation, the DRP2 project focused on six main topics, all related to activity monitoring capacity building: publications

1. Enhance internal communication contacts 2. Enhance human resources management Management 3. Enhance planning, monitoring and human resources Information evaluation (MIS) and System 4. Develop marketing strategies and PR training

activities 5. Develop Technical Data Information financial inventory System (DIS) data tracking 6. Improve management and quality of intranet research

With reference to the Guidance Group considerations in day-to-day used during DRP, this activity was management of DRI. continued during DRP2 as GG2, with the aim to create institution wide knowledge To cap the IS and OD activities of the and support of the various OD activities. projects, a final workshop was organised This did not work and the OD activity was in 2001, at which fellow research reduced to Department level and the GG2 institutes of the NWRC, EPADP and was replaced by monthly meetings selected invitees were informed of the between the Director of DRI and the Team achievements of the IS and OD activities leader and Project Coordinator of DRP2. at DRI. At the same time the opportunity was also taken to market the various To sustain the institutional activities within database models developed for MIS, DRI, three new units were established, through demonstration and fact sheets focussing on Human Resources, Marketing (Abdel Gawad et al. 2001). and Information Technology (IT). Because of its importance, they were placed The emphasis of the foregoing description directly under the supervision of the of implementation of the projects was director (Figure 1-7). For each unit, the primarily on IS and OD. The remaining of position structure and the job descriptions this publication, however, is on the were developed and included in the DRI achievements in the technical arena. handbook. A local consultant hired for 8 Chapter 14 highlights the OD activities as months helped with the establishment of they relate to the management of the the units. It is essential that these units technical studies and activities. take the lead in show and tell implementation of all components of the 1.4 This Publication MIS. The objective of this publication is to give One of the many achievements of the a comprehensive overview of the results institutional strengthening and obtained of the research topics supported organisational development activities of by the DRP and DRP2 projects. Emphasis the projects is that a broad section of the will be on the work achieved during the DRI staff has become aware of 1994 – 2001 period with earlier research institutional, management and personnel results highlighted where appropriate.

9 DRI Organisation

Board of Directors

Director

Secretary General

HR Unit Marketing Unit Financial Division Mechanical Division

IT Unit Projects Finance office Administrative Division Secretaries pool

Technical Office

Library Logistics

Deputy Director

Covered Drainage Dep. Open Drainage Dep. Special Studies Dep. Lab Department

Pilot Areas Unit Field Surveys Unit Envelop Analysis Unit

P.A. of the Drainage Systems Unit Data Unit

Drainage Technology Unit Math Models Unit

Figure 1-7 Organisational chart of DRI in 2001

10 2. Agriculture and Drainage Research in the Nile Delta

The Arab Republic of Egypt covers some Delta is divided into three regions 1,002,000 km2 between latitudes 22o N according to their position with respect to and 32o N, of which only 8.0 million the Nile branches, i.e. Eastern Delta for feddan are cultivated. The total area is the region east of Damietta Branch, Middle located within an area of desert zone. The Delta for the region between the two rainfall ranges from almost 180 mm branches and western Delta for the region (winter rain fall) along the North Coast to west of Rosetta branch. virtually zero in the south of the country. The temperature fluctuates from a The total agriculture land production minimum temperature of 9o C (January) to amounts to 8 million feddan (1 feddan = a maximum temperature of 35o C in 1.04 acre), which represents 3.8% of the northern districts whereas it reaches more whole area of the country. There are two than 40o C in the south. The relative major crop seasons, namely, the winter humidity ranges from 70% (February to season (November-May) and the summer October) to 80% in December, while the season (May-October). The most evaporation rate fluctuates from 1,500- important crops are wheat and berseem in 2,400 mm/year in the deep south of the winter, cotton, rice and maize in summer. country (EALIP, 2000). Since the completion of the High Aswan The Nile Delta and the Nile Valley of Dam in 1970, irrigation has become Egypt, are one of the oldest agricultural possible throughout the year (perennial). areas in the world, having been under All agricultural lands are more than double continuous cultivation for at least 5,000 cropped (more than 200% cropping years. The arid climate of Egypt, intensity). Among the main constraints to characterized by high evaporation rates agriculture production in Egypt is the rise and little rainfall, leaves the River Nile as of the water table causing waterlogging the main fresh water supply. and salinization. Therefore, drainage becomes obvious to control water table The Delta of the Nile appears as a triangle level and soil salinity. A system of open broader at its base than the sides. The main and branch drains has been area of the Nile Delta is 22,000 km2, with constructed since the start of the 20th length and maximum width of 170 and century. This network of open drains 220 km, respectively. It is one of the most solved the problem of waterlogging and fertile and intensively cultivated regions in salinity partially. the world, due to the Nile sediment brought down by the Nile from the Subsurface drainage was found to be the Ethiopian plateau, before the construction necessary solution to control the of the Aswan Dam in 1959. Seven groundwater table and soil salinity. The branches of the Nile used to flow through Government of Egypt gave priority to the Delta, but these have been controlled improve the productivity of the cultivated during the last centuries and the Nile has lands through the application of a been consolidated now into two main complete drainage system. branches reaching the Mediterranean Sea at Rosetta and Damietta. The Delta The design procedure of the subsurface Barrages, located about 26 km north of drainage system in Egypt comprises the Cairo, control the water supply through following activities: the two branches and the four principal • canals of a network that covers the Delta. Compilation of results of field The Delta has a northwest slope of 1 in investigations; • 10,000 and is bordered on the east and Layout of collectors and determining west by higher desert. Near the coast, areas served by each collector; • there is a considerable area of salt Computation of lateral drains spacing; • marshes and a series of lagoons: Mariout, Final design and alignment of collectors Edku, Burullus and Manzala lakes. The and laterals;

11 • Designing longitudinal profiles of the Valley is a three-year rotation based collectors in which pipe slopes and on the major crops: cotton, full-term diameters are determined and berseem (Egyptian clover) and wheat, installation levels are fixed; each of which occupies the land for about • Preparation of drawings and contract five to seven months. These three crops bill of quantities and conditions; ready are planted on a small plot once every for advertising to contractors. three years interspersed with broad beans, rice and maize. The dominant cropping About 150,000 feddan are provided with rotation is shown in Table 2-1. subsurface drainage systems yearly beside 50,000 feddan to be rehabilitated by the Table 2-1 Cropping rotation system Egyptian Public Authority for Drainage Years Season Winter Summer Projects (EPADP). The total drained areas till 2001 amounts to 4.9 million feddan 1 1 Legume (Figure 2-1). 2 Cotton 2 3 Full-term The soils of the Delta and the Valley berseem belong to the recent Nile alluvium. The 4 Maize/rice soils have a generally clayey texture, although along the desert fringes of the 3 5 Wheat Delta and the Valley, intermingling of Nile 6 Maize/rice alluvium with sandy material of desert origin occurs. The greater part of the northern Delta has developed under fluvio- Cotton, wheat and rice are usually grown marine conditions and the soils are mainly in large blocks arranged at the village level heavy clays. Adjacent to the Nile course by the cooperatives thereby making farm and its branches, levees have been formed operations more efficient. Farmers often which show clear stratification of fine own land in each of the major crop blocks. medium and coarse textured layers. The All farms also grow other cash crops, deterioration of soil productivity is mainly especially vegetables and most farms also due to the following constraints: have some perennial crops, mainly sugarcane in Upper Egypt and citrus in the • Hydrological and chemical constraints Delta. Grapes are also important in the comprising waterlogging, salinisation western Delta. There is some regional alkalinisation due to the use of low specialisation governed mainly by climate, water quality for irrigation and soil conditions and water availability. In seepage; Upper Egypt beans and lentils in the • Physical constraints such as winter crop may replace berseem; during deterioration of soil structure and the the summer sorghum may be planted occurrence of compacted layers which instead of maize in the hotter areas. In impede drainage; the northern part of the Delta, where the • Exhaustion of soil fertility as a result of required amount of water is available band intensive cropping, removal of crop incidence of water logging is high, rice residues, nutrient deficiencies, organic replaces maize in the crop rotation. matter and environmental pollution; • Management constraints as a result of The cropping pattern varies within and improper water management and between districts in the Delta as well as absence of inadequate land levelling. from that in the Nile Valley. A representative cropping pattern is 2.1 Cropping Patterns and presented in Table 2-2. Cropping Intensities A soil productivity map produced by the The cropping pattern is affected by a Soil and Water Research Institute number of factors including Government classifies the productivity of the land in the quotas, farmers' food needs and degree of Nile Delta into four categories as shown in commercialisation, as well as soil and Table 2-3. climatological conditions. The most common practice followed in the Delta and

12 Table 2-2 Cropping pattern by sub-areas the widening and deepening of the existing (Amer & De Ridder 1989) main open drains, the excavation of new Crops East Middle West Upper main drains, the construction of Delta Delta Delta Egypt appurtenant structures, the construction of Percentage of cultivated lands new pumping stations and the Wheat 28 33 31 25 rehabilitation of old ones. It included also, Berseem (full 55 56 42 46 the installation of subsurface drainage & short- systems of laterals and collectors in term) gridiron layout. The average field Cotton 28 31 26 16 Rice 44 43 35 - drainage depth is 1.35 m and the Maize 20 12 26 55 minimum depth of water levels in the main (summer & drains is 2.5 m. short -term) Vegetables & 12 13 28 42 The total target of the surface drainage is others 7.2 million feddan, of which 4.9 million Perennials 8 8 8 12 feddan are in the Nile Delta and 2.3 million Average 195 196 196 196 feddan in Upper Egypt. The area covered crop by improved open main drains till end of intensity 1997 is about 6.7 million feddan with a

total cost of LE 1,060 million. The rest of Table 2-3 Soil Productivity in the old land the target area will be completed during of the Nile Delta of Egypt the five-year plan 1997/1998 - (EALIP, 2000) 2001/2002, as shown in Table 2-4 Class Area in % of Productivity (Hamza, 1998). feddan (in total 1,000) area I 360 6.1 High The Egyptian Public Authority for II 2,633 44.7 Good Drainage Projects (EPADP) III 2,292 39.0 Moderate The Egyptian Public Authority for Drainage IV 600 10.2 Weak Projects (EPADP) is an autonomous Total 5,885 organization within the Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation, created under By the mid of the 1990's there were two Law by Presidential Decree No. 158 for main developments: 1973, to undertake the designs, implementation, operation, maintenance • The liberation of the cropping pattern and development of drainage systems at leaving the farmers free to choose the the national level. EPADP carries out the crops they like. Thus, the crop pattern following main activities: is mostly driven by the market prices of crops. • Field investigations for pre-design of • The plans to involve farmers in the on- drainage systems; farm water management and make • Planning and design of both field and them more responsible for operation main system of drainage network; and maintenance of the irrigation and • Supervision and implementation of the drainage systems, opened new drainage networks, which comprises horizons for implementing new field systems, collectors, open drainage practices which help in saving water, and pump stations; achieving better water management • Monitoring and Evaluation of and having higher crop yields. constructed drainage systems; • Operation and maintenance of the 2.2 Land Drainage Projects in drainage systems, both surface and Egypt subsurface.

The implementation of the recent National Drainage Program started in 1970 under a new project planning policy. It included

13 Contractors carry out the construction of about 4,000 permanent staff. Casual field drains, open drains and open drains labourers are about 3,000 working remodelling. EPADP presently employs at particularly in the field of drainage both Cairo Headquarters and Directorates maintenance.

Figure 2-1 Egypt EPADP Planning

Table 2-4 Areas of Surface Drainage Projects (in 1,000 feddan) Region Target Area completed Expected area to be area up till 31-12-97 completed during plan 1997/2002 Nile Delta 4,900 4,614 286 Upper Egypt 2,300 2,046 254 Total 7,200 6,660 540

The implementation of subsurface Delta and the rest in Upper Egypt, Figure drainage consists of installation of covered 2-1. field collectors of cement or plastic corrugated pipes and the installation of Due to the large areas provided by buried lateral drains of PVC corrugated subsurface drainage rehabilitation of the pipes with envelopes. The total area to be old-field drainage, which exceeded their provided with subsurface drainage is 6.4 economic lifetime (to improve the million feddan, of which 4.6 million feddan drainage efficiency in such areas) is is in the Nile Delta and 1.8 million feddan considered. Farmer complaints and in Upper Egypt. The total executed area difficulties of maintenance are important until 31-12-97 is 4.6 million feddan, of factors in deciding on the need for which 3.3 million feddan is in the Nile rehabilitation. The total rehabilitated area Delta and the other 1.3 million feddan in is 368,000 feddan until the end of 1997, Upper Egypt. The total cost so far are LE. with a total cost of LE 199 million (Hamza, 1,796 million. In the 4th five-year plan 1998). (1997-2002) it is proposed to implement th tile drainage for an area of 800,000 For the 4 five-year plan, a reservation is feddan, some 600,000 feddan in the Nile made to rehabilitate field drainage in

14 another 350,000 feddan in both Nile Delta 2007 to 80,000 feddan with a total cost of and Upper Egypt with a total cost of LE LE 130 million per year. This will be 340 million (Table 2-5). This is equivalent increased again in the period 2007-2012 to 70,000 feddan to rehabilitate per year. to 100,000 feddan to be rehabilitated with The rate will increase in the period 2002- a total cost of LE 170 million per year.

Table 2-5 Implementation Plan for Rehabilitation (in 1,000 feddan) Area completed Expected area to be completed during until 31-12-1997 1997/2002 2002/2007 2007/2012 368 350 400 500

these agreements are soft loans and Foreign Loans and International others are grants. Table 2-6 and Table Agreements with EPADP 2-7 show the areas and investments of It is clear that the drainage projects in drainage projects for completed and Egypt need high investments to achieve current agreements respectively. The their goals. Many agreements have been Egyptian Government financed the rest of signed with several foreign donors to the drainage project areas. finance the drainage projects. Some of

Table 2-6 Completed agreements Ser. Agreement Total area in 1,000 feddan No. Open Subsurface Loans in million Drainage Drainage 1 Nile Delta I (WB) 950 950 US$ 24 2 Upper Egypt I (WB) 300 300 US$ 35 3 Dutch Project (NL) - 44 Dfl 10.4 4 Nile Delta II (WB) 815 400 US$ 54.3 + DM 50 5 Upper Egypt II (WB) 500 463 US$ 65 6 Nile Delta V (WB) 140 464 US$ 63 + Dfl 10 7 ISAWIP (CIDA) 84 60 CN$ 27.5 + US$ 11 8 Islamic Bank - 75 US$ 11 Total = 2,789 2,756

Table 2-7 Current agreements Ser. Agreements Financing Total area in 1,000 Loan or Grant No. Agency feddan (million) Open Subsurface Drainage Drainage 1 Upper Egypt V (ADB, ADF) 116 + 140 86 UA 27.83 2 National Drainage (IDA, KFW, 480 740* US$ 160 Project NL) 3 Rehabilitation ADF 100 100 UA 19.342 Total = 836 926

* = Includes rehabilitation of 150,000 feddan ADB= African Development Bank IDA= International Development Association KFW= German Bank for Reconstruction NL= Netherlands Government ADF= African Development Fund CIDA = Canadian International Development Agency WB= Word Bank

15 2.3 Research Organisations in read like a list of problems facing Egypt's MWRI irrigation sectors. These are:

To advice the Ministry of Water Resources • Water Management Research Institute and Irrigation, MWRI (until 1999 Ministry (WMRI) of Public Works and Water Resources), the • Drainage Research Institute (DRI) Water Research Center (WRC) was • Water Resources Research Institute established in 1975. (WRRI) • Nile Research Institute (NRI) Owing to the pioneer role of the WRC in • Hydraulics Research Institute (HRI) solving the unique combination of water • Channel Maintenance Research resources problems on both national and Institute (CMRI) regional scales during the past two • Ground water Research Institute decades, a second Presidential Decree No. (GWRI) 316 was issued in 1994, by virtue of which • Construction Research Institute (CRI) the WRC was re-organised as National • Mechanical and Electrical Research Water research Center (NWRC). Institute (MERI) • Survey Research Institute (SRI) The NWRC is a unique organisation • Coastal Research Institute (CORI) developed in Egypt to conduct applied • Environment and Climate Research research at the highest water resources Institute (ECRI) policy-making level. In this way, Egypt has set an example for other developing The NWRC also includes: countries to follow. • Strategic Research Unit (SRU) By structuring the centre as one of the • Central Laboratory for Environmental major departments of the ministry, with Quality Monitoring (CLEQM) the Chairperson of NWRC reporting directly to the Minister, the authorities DRI have ensured that research influences The Drainage Research Institute was policy and action in the field. A Board of established to carry out applied research Directors appointed by the Minister of that leads to cost-effective drainage Water Resources and Irrigation guides the systems which serves to solve all activities of the center. problems faced by EPADP. Therefore, it continuously focuses on improving designs MAJOR OBJECTIVES OF NWRC and technologies that realise this • Study, outline and propose long-term objective. In the area of design, the policies for managing water resources adequate design criteria for each region in in Egypt; Egypt where drainage projects are • Solve the technical and applied planned are proposed and verified on the problems associated with general basis of intensive field investigation and policies for irrigation, drainage and data collection. The design criteria water resources; includes drainage coefficients and water • Carry out investigations and research table depths which express the targeted work connected with the expansion of controls of water logging and salinity agricultural lands; under the prevailing irrigation practices, • Find the means for utilizing the water cropping patterns and soil characteristics. resources of the country in the most Also, hydro geological conditions play an efficient and cost-effective way; important role in the determination of the • Propose measures for environmentally criteria when natural drainage or upward seepage has appreciable effects. sound development for the irrigation and drainage systems. Another design issue is the procedure

used for determining the appropriate drain The variety of water related problems in depth and spacing. Analytical spacing Egypt require specialisation in many equations have been developed for different fields. The centre has therefore varying conditions. A more integrated established twelve research institutes that approach based on simulation of water

16 management in irrigated fields is also While the Institute carries out a lot of considered. The simulation model monitoring activities for research DRAINMOD-S was developed to determine purposes, the development of the drain spacing on the basis of crop performance indicators for evaluation is yields as a function of moisture and still subject to intensive research. This is salinity stresses in the root zone. The especially important when rehabilitation of model is used also to evaluate the existing drainage systems needs to be performance of drainage systems under decided. varying conditions of irrigation practices, irrigation water quality and cropping Economical and environmental impacts of patterns. drainage system are also matters of concern at DRI. Research work on crop In the area of technology, DRI gives a yield as a function of water table depth great deal of attention to drainage and soil salinity is carried out under materials and machinery as well as the varying climatic and soil conditions. The auxiliary structures. The Institute is the most economic system under certain window through which modern prevailing conditions is a target of technologies are introduced to the research. Salts, nutrients and pesticide Egyptian drainage practices and after leached by drains are receiving testing and, in many cases, after considerable attention. The transport and adaptation to suit the local conditions. fate of these pollutants are subject to During the past two decades, plastic careful monitoring and study along the tubing replaced pipes and pre-wrapped passage of water from the soil surface to synthetic envelope materials are gradually the drain outlet. replacing gravel envelope. The Institute investigates new cost-effective techniques 2.4 Land Development and and evaluates their suitability. Trenchless Research Organisations in technology has been successfully tested in MALR. 1996 in areas with unstable soils as well as in clayey soils. Pipe connections, The Ministry of Agriculture and Land manholes, flushing structures and other Reclamation (MALR) plays an important drainage system components have been role in the development of the agricultural subject to research to improve their lands in Egypt. Two executive quality and method of construction. organisations, namely EALIP and GARPAD, Quality control methods and equipment play key roles that relate to the research are always subject to consideration to executed by DRI, while SWERI, one of the assure quality of constructed systems. 16 Institutes of the Agricultural Research Maintenance equipment and procedures Centre (ARC) has also close relations with are another area of interest for research. DRI. Drainage of special conditions such as areas subject to artesian pressure, EALIP unstable soils and areas with rice in the In 1971 the Ministry of Agriculture and crop rotation have been studied by DRI. Land Reclamation established the Testing of new design concepts and Executive Authority for Land Improvement technologies were carried out in pilot Projects (EALIP), which has the overall areas implemented by DRI and EPADP. responsibility of all types of land The pilot areas are equipped with improvement in Egypt. It plays a central instrumentation that provide data about role to implement the strategy of the the climate, discharges, water levels government for better utilization, salinities and soil moisture. conservation and restoration of land productivity. EALIP has been The performance of drainage systems is a implementing a land improvement measure of their success against the program covering the entire irrigated relevant design objectives. Monitoring the lands of Egypt. It has a yearly plan to performance of the existing drains is improve 750,000 feddan in different therefore, a key factor for evaluating their governorates of Egypt. design, construction and maintenance.

17 animal production, agricultural Since the establishment of EALIP and until industry and making use of available June 2000, the following soil improvement foreign expertise within the range of activities were completed: technical and economical agreements with foreign countries. • Addition of 5.3 million tons of gypsum; • Provision of technical know how and • Sub-soiling in an area of 6.3 million expertise for Arab countries and feddan; foreign organizations. • Reshaping canals to serve 8.0 million feddan; • Fine land levelling using laser beams in ARC 93,000 feddan. The Agricultural Research Center (ARC) of the Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reclamation consists of sixteen Institutes EALIP has 22 regional and 60 sub-regional and five central laboratories in the offices and is run by a staff of 3,100 and different fields of agricultural research up supported by 10 laboratories and a large to today. inventory of machinery equipment. These Research Institutes (Ministry of Agriculture & Land Reclamation, 1994) GARPAD are: The General Public Authority for Reconstruction and Agriculture Projects • Soil, Water & Environment (SWERI) Development (GARPAD) is an autonomous • Field Crops organisation within MALR founded under • Sugar Crops the Presidential Decree No. 369 for the • Cotton year 1975. Its responsibilities are as • Horticulture follows: • Plant Protection • Plant Pathology • Policy planning land reclamation at the • Agricultural Economics national level. • Extension & Rural Development • Coordination with all government • Agricultural Engineering organizations in the preparation and • Animal Production planning of main infrastructure in all • Animal Health new horizontal expansion areas • Veterinary Serum & Vaccine (irrigation and drainage projects, • Animal Production electricity networks, domestic water • Agricultural Genetic Engineering projects, etc.). • Food Technology • Making land classification for identification of available lands for new The Central Laboratories are: horizontal expansion projects on Nile water, ground water, flash floods and • Central Laboratories for Agricultural rainfall. Pesticides • Making economical, technical and • Central Laboratories for Design and social studies for agricultural horizontal Statistical Analysis expansion projects dealing with crops, • Central Laboratories for Food & Feed animal production, mechanization, • Central Laboratories for Agricultural agricultural, environmental and Expert Systems industry. • Central Laboratories for Aquaculture • Planning policy for resettlement in reclaimed land for social groups (low income farmers, graduates, investors). SWERI • Provide consultancy and technical In 1971, the Soil & Water Research studies for land reclamation projects Institute (SWERI) was established as an and making the necessary designs. independent institute of the Agricultural • Co-ordinate with foreign and Research Centre (ARC) in MALR. international organizations in respect of agricultural policy, land reclamation,

18 SWERI has received international The following are the major tasks of the recognition for research and contributions WUA: to Egyptian agriculture. The institute has more than 260 researchers, staff • Planning, designing, implementing, members with advanced degrees. operating, maintaining, monitoring and Scientists are responsible for basic and improving micro systems. applied research projects aimed at the • Developing and implementing conservation and improvement of Egypt’s operational plans with irrigation soil and water resources. These projects scheduling, purchasing, operating and include national and international maintaining WUA's pumps. cooperation with other institutes. Staff • Improvement of water delivery and members also act as consultants, water removal on field drains. university lecturers and trainers in Egypt • Improvement water use through and abroad. improved scheduling and irrigation practices. SWERI conducts basic and applied • Developing roles and responsibilities of research to meet the following objectives: WUA's Leaders, and developing Local rules and resolving water conflicts. • Surveying and classifying available soil • Developing close coordination with and water resources, other organizations for essential • Improving productivity of old and inputs, services and information, newly reclaimed soil, especially agricultural extension, local • Protecting soil and water resources, banks and cooperative and institutes • Optimising fertilizer use, providing research data such as Soil, • Increasing the agricultural productivity Water and Environment Research of plants, Institute of MALR and the Water • Providing management Management Research Institute of recommendations for crop production MWRI. improvement, • Monitoring soil and water pollution and their impacts on the environment.

SWERI has the following departments:

• Soil survey and classification, • Soil physics and chemistry, • Soil fertility and plant nutrition, • Water requirements and field irrigations, • Field drainage, • Improvement and conservation of cultivable soils, • Saline and alkaline soils, • Sandy and calcareous soils, • Environment, • Agricultural microbiology.

2.5 Water user associations The Water User Association (WUA) is a private organisation owned, controlled and operated by number of users for their benefits in improving water delivery, water use and other organizational efforts related to water for increasing their production possibilities.

19

Research on Design Criteria

21

3. Drainage Design Criteria in Pilot Areas

One of the main methods of performing an agricultural drainage system may have research by the DRI, besides laboratory to be installed, or an already installed testing and computer modelling is system may have to be improved, so that fieldwork in pilot and experimental areas. the waterlogging is eliminated. If, on the Experimental fields were in Nashart and other hand, a drainage system has Roda (1980 – 1988) and in Zagazig (since lowered water levels to a depth greater 1980). Pilot areas were established in Mashtul The Hooghoudt equation (1980), Harrara (1986), 8 K dh + 4 K h 2 Mit Kenana (1992) and L2 = 1 2 in Haress (1992). Three q of these had still data q = The theoretical lateral discharge (m/day) collection going on k = Saturated hydraulic conductivity (m/day) during the DRP and h = Hydraulic head (m) DRP2 project periods, L = Drain spacing (m) namely Mashtul, Mit Kenana, and Haress. d = Equivalent depth to the impermeable depth Before describing the (m) details of the areas and their underlying design than specified by the criteria, then this is principles it is important to first sketch the known as an over-designed system. typical design procedures followed in Besides employing agricultural drainage Egypt. criteria, there are technical drainage criteria (to minimize the costs of installing 3.1 Drainage Design in Egypt and operating the system, while Agricultural drainage criteria can be maintaining the agricultural criteria), defined as criteria specifying the highest environmental drainage criteria (to permissible levels of the water table, on or minimize the environmental damage), and in the soil, so that the agricultural benefits economic drainage criteria (to maximize are not reduced by problems of the net benefits) (Oosterbaan, 1994). waterlogging. If the actual water levels In agricultural drainage, one is dealing are higher than specified by the criteria, with agricultural, environmental, engineering, economic, and social Manning equation aspects. The agricultural aspects 2/3 1/2 concern ‘object factors’ and ‘criterion Q = 1/n * A R S factors’. Object factors represent the • Q = Flow Rate (m3/s) agricultural aims that are to be • n = Manning’s roughness coefficient achieved to the highest possible • A = Cross section area (m2) degree (maximization) through a • S = Hydraulic gradient process of optimisation, yielding • R = Hydraulic radius (m) agricultural targets • P = Wetted perimeter (m) Studies were conducted in three pilot

areas for defining the design criteria. For full flowing pipes: Two Pilot areas were located in the Eastern Nile Delta (Mashtul and Mit R = A/P= (0.25 π d2 / π d ) = d/4 Kenana Pilot Areas), and the third was located in the Western Delta (Haress And the Manning equation becomes: Pilot Area). Mashtul pilot area was provided with subsurface drainage Q = 0.312 * 1/n * d2.67 S1/2 system since 1980 while the other two pilot areas were provided with subsurface drainage system since

23 1992. • An average drainage rate of 1.0 mm/day to permit sufficient leaching The design criteria of the subsurface to maintain the soil salinity below the drainage system are based on the critical levels for crop production requirements of the most critical crop (leaching requirement). (DRI, 1987b), which was considered to be cotton. The design is based on the seasonal average of hydrological Technical criteria conditions. This is an acceptable approach • A peak design discharge rate for the as the storage capacity of the soil is fairly determination of drain pipe capacity of large compared to the volume of recharge 4 mm/day for rice areas and 3 and discharge (Oosterbaan, 1987). mm/day for non-rice areas; • A safety factor of 25% in the design of The design criteria for the composite the collector drains to account for drainage system presently used in Egypt sedimentation and irregularities in the (Abdel Dayem and Ritzema, 1990) are as alignment or for changing (increasing) follows: the collector pipe diameter towards the outflow; • No overpressure is allowed in the Agricultural criteria system at discharges equal to the • An average depth of groundwater table design rate; midway between the drains of 1.0 m • A maximum drain depth of 1.5 m and to guarantee favourable soil water 2.5 m for lateral and collector drains conditions for the deep rooting plants respectively. (cotton);

Mediterranean Sea Mediterranean Sea Lake Burullus

Lake Manzala Alexandria El-Lawaya Kaft el Sheikh Kharbotly El Mansura El-Gorn Zawyat Sakr Haress El Mahalla el Kubra Abu Matamir

Tanta Faqus Mashtul Shibin el Kom Ismailiya

Mit Kenana

Cairo

Figure 3-1 Location of pilot areas

3.2 Description of Pilot Areas as a representative area for the soil of Southern-Eastern Nile Delta (Figure 3-1). o Mashtul The latitude of the area is 30 31’ N and o The Mashtul Pilot Area (MPA) is situated in the longitude 31 30’ E. The area is rather the East Bahr Saft area, about 7-km north flat with an average elevation of 7.60 m+ of the city of Zagazig. MPA was selected MSL, dipping slightly towards the west (DRI, 1990b). The total area of MPA is

24 approximately 260 feddan. The pilot area sub collector at all. The collector and the was divided into rectangular farm blocks sub collector system were designed for a ‘units’ separated by earth roads and discharge rate of 2 mm/d and the slopes irrigation and drainage canals. The size of are according to ”EPADP Standards”, these farm blocks varies from 9 to 24 based on the Visser equation (Ven, 1983). feddans. The collector drain consists of concrete A clay layer on the top of a sandy aquifer pipes with a standard length of 0.75 m characterizes the area. The clay layer, and a diameter varying from 150 mm at which contains around 35% silt and 65% the upstream end up to 350 mm at the clay, is about 9.0 m thick in the central outlet of the longest collector. Collector part gradually decreasing to 4.5 m in the drains are installed every 400 m and have north and east and almost disappears a design slope 0.03-0.08%. towards the west (DRI, 1990b). LATERAL SYSTEM The hydraulic conductivity of the clay cap The design of the lateral spacing in MPA was measured in 2.0 and 3.0 m deep followed the steady state concept with the auger holes through the pre-investigation depth of the ground water table midway process. Maximum and minimum average between the drains of 0.9 m below ground value of the area was 0.21 and 0.06 level and a discharge of 1 mm/d. The m/day respectively. In addition, the bulk 3 drain spacing was calculated accordingly density of the clay varies from 1.2 g/m in 3 using the Hooghoudt equation (DRI, the topsoil to 1.5 g/cm at a depth of 1987a). A check was made for the 2.0m. The porosity changes accordingly required spacing for each drainage unit from 55% to 40%. based on hydraulic conductivity values of The available water in the root zone, the pre-drainage investigations and the which is defined as the water content Hooghoudt equation. between field capacity and wilting point, is The lateral drains are corrugated PVC approximately 19% on a volume basis. pipes. The used diameter in the whole The original objectives of the Mashtul Pilot area was 80 mm. In addition, they have area were to: an average length of 200 m with a design slope between 0.1 and 0.2% according to • Determine best drain depth the design standard of EPADP. • Determine best drain spacing • Determine the drainage coefficient The Mashtul Pilot area was designed according to the principles described by The subsurface drainage system was Dieleman and Trafford (FAO, 1980) which designed according to the principle of the specifies that once the actual drain modified drainage system (DRI, 1985). spacing (S) has been determined one This means that each cropping unit in the should test also 2S and 0.5S. The actual area is provided with a sub collector drain, spacing resulting from standard design which can be blocked when rice is procedures was 30 m. Hence MPA has cultivated in the unit. spacing of 15, 30 and 60 m. The 30 m spacing was the design spacing. The selected drain depths are 1.2, 1.5, and COLLECTOR SYSTEM 1.7 m. The Mashtul pilot area is provided with three-subsurface collector drains, see For this, the layout as shown in Figure 3-2 Figure 3-2. Collector (1) has a command was established. A total of 93 laterals area of 124.7 feddan and five sub were installed. Mashtul is a heavy clay collectors. Collector (2) has a command area. The treatments are as shown in area of 48 feddan and only 1 sub Table 3-1. All cells have values and collector. In addition, collector (3) has a replications from 2-15. command area of 42.4 feddan and has no

25

Figure 3-2 Mashtul pilot area

installed. According to DRI (1992c), three Table 3-1 Treatments at Mashtul Pilot distinct soil layers are found in the area: Area [unit] number of laterals Layer 1 Consists of soil brought onto S D 1.2m 1.5m 1.7m the field by farmers from 15 m [1] 14 [3, 4, 6] [13] 6 outside the area and it ranged 15 from loamy sand to sandy clay 30 m [7] 4 [8] 2 [15] 5 loam with thickness ranges from 0.2 to 0.6 m sometimes

up to 1.0 m; Layer 2 Consists of sands, occasionally Mit Kenana loamy sands. It reaches to a Mit Kenana Pilot Area is located 40 km depth much greater than 2m north of Cairo city (Figure 3-1). The actual (south- West) while it Pilot Area is about 830 feddan (350 ha). It decreases gradually until it includes both agricultural lands and village disappears; areas. It is part of a big area of about Layer 3 A layer of much heavier 3,000 feddan in which a subsurface texture in the Northeast part drainage system has not yet been of the area.

26

Figure 3-3 Mit Kenana pilot area

27 The mean value of hydraulic conductivity • Construction procedures in unstable reached 4.3 m/day for sandy texture. At soils; the same time, the heavier textured layer • best drain depth; is much less permeable, having a mean • best drain spacing; hydraulic conductivity value of 0.20 m/day • best envelope material. (DRI 1992c).

The layout of the subsurface drainage Mit Kenana field office systems at Mit-Kenana Pilot Area (MKPA) is shown in Figure 3-3. The subsurface drainage system in Mit-Kenana Pilot Area consists of eight collectors discharge in surface drains. The lateral spacing was calculated using the Hooghoudt formula for steady state flow and rounded 30, 40, 60, 90 and 120 m respectively (DRI 1992d). The lateral length ranged between 30 and 480 m while the lateral depths were taken as 1.0, 1.2 and 1.4 m for each of the spacing considered.

Several types of synthetic envelope Haress materials were used in the Pilot Area to Haress Pilot Area is located about 20 km evaluate their sustainability to the south of Alexandria (Figure 3-1). The area prevailing soil conditions. These materials dips gently from the southwest to the include voluminous envelope materials, northeast. The soils are mainly calcareous which were made from polypropylene clay and loam, with 10 to over 50 cm thick material and thin sheet including Typar layers of shells, occurring rather high in and Knitted Socks (imported envelopes) the soil profile. This is especially observed (DRP, 1995). in the northeastern parts. The area receives its irrigation water from two branches of the Nubaria Canal. The open Table 3-2 Treatments at Mit Kenana Pilot Haress 3 drain constitutes the local Area for depth and spacing drainage base through which all drainage water from the area is evacuated.

number of laterals The area covers about 590 feddan S D 0.9 1.0m 1.2m 1.4m which is divided into virtually All envelopes rectangular plots of 100 by 200 m. Figure 3-4 shows the layout of 30 m (4+5+14) 19 Haress Pilot Area. 40 m 3 4 (2+28+14+8) The pilot area is dominated by 60 m (1+4+3) (1+7) (5+3+2+3+5) loamy soil. The upper layer (up to 90 m (3+3) 1 meter) is characterized by the presence of shells, but its 120 m (1+8) importance varies considerably from one point to another. The hydraulic conductivity of the soil was At Mit Kenana Pilot Area (MKPA), a design determined by means of auger hole rate of 1.5 mm/d was used even though method which average at 0.57 m/day, EPAPD had recommended 2 mm/day. while individual values range from 0.03 to 5.83 m/day (DRI 1992b). The original objectives of the Mit Kenana Pilot area were to determine: For Haress Pilot Area (HPA), a design rate of 1.5 mm/d was used as the general area was below the +3 m contour line.

28

Figure 3-4 Haress pilot area

29

DRAINAGE SYSTEM (HARESS) Table 3-3 Treatments at Haress Pilot The drainage system consists of five Area collectors, labelled C1 through C5, which number of laterals run more or less parallel to the surface 0.9 1.0m 1.2m 1.4m contour lines (Figure 3-4). Because of the S D sloping topography of the land, laterals All envelopes and without envelope are connected from one side only to the 20 m 4+6 collectors (uni-lateral system). All 40 m 3 7+4 9+3+1+5 4 collectors discharge either directly (C1 through C4) or indirectly (C5) into Haress 60 m 5+3 3 drain. 80 m 1+3 2+2 4+5 The spacing between lateral drains was 120 m 6 2+3 3+3 calculated using the Hooghoudt equation. The basic design spacing are 60 (C1); 40 (C2; C3 and C4) and 20 (C5) meters. At It may be noted that not all cells have the same time, and to allow the laterals and that a number of cells have determination of the most economical different envelope types (when the + are spacing, treatments were included with shown). lateral spacing ranging from 2 to 4 times the basic design spacing. The design Table 3-4 Envelope types tested depth of the lateral per collector are as follows: 1.4; 1.2; 1.2; 1.0 and 0.9 for Number of laterals collectors C1; C2; C3; C4 and C5 Env. measured all respectively (DRI 1992b). Five different pp290 3 15 envelope materials are tested in Haress Pilot Area. Three are locally produced, pp310 6 12 voluminous polypropylene envelopes. The pp360 9 37 other two are thin imported materials: the BigOsock 5 9 knitted Bio-O Sock and Polyfelt (Typar). Typar 6 6 No subsurface drainage system is installed No Env. 5 5 in the control area. Such an area facilitates the comparison of crop yield between areas provided with subsurface 3.3 Data Collection and Analysis drainage systems and areas without tile The monitoring programme started two drains. After the completion of the years prior to the installation of the research, this control area will be drained subsurface drainage system for the three too in order to provide ultimately the pilot areas and continued up till now. The farmers of the whole pilot area with a programme included the monitoring of the properly working drainage system. cropping pattern, crop yield, soil salinity at 0-0.25 and 0.25-0.50 meter, depth of Finally, the original objectives of Haress water table, discharge and salinity of and Pilot area were to investigate: collector drains, and water level in manholes collector and the performance of • Drain envelope; different type envelope materials used for • Drain depth; lateral drains. • Drain spacing. The depth of water table was measured A total of 90 laterals were installed, with three times per week in some selected depth and spacing as shown in Table 3-3 units under study (Figure 3-5). In the and the envelopes as shown in Table 3-4. same units, the pipe discharges were measured daily with a bucket and stopwatch. Salinities of the discharges were measured daily.

30 The analysis of the different parameters laterals discharges were collected from and their relationships are based on daily 1989 to 1995 for Mashtul pilot area and averages of measured parameters. from 1993 to 1995 for Haress and Mit Kenana pilot areas. These data were To achieve the objective of the drainage analysed and some relations were criteria study, water table depth and developed.

Manhole and flow measurement point Laterals Piezometer Inside the pipe Observation well

Row I

Row II L

3/4L

Row III 1/2L

Collector 1/4L

Irrigation

Drain pipe without envelope Drain pipe with envelope

Dd Plastic Pipe

-he ht Probe ht h t he 20mm -he he 80mm -ht h e actually used Details of piezometer on top of pipe a b c d

Figure 3-5 Layout of observation wells and piezometers

3.4 Water Table: Fluctuation and Also, the frequency of the water table Frequency depth and the cumulative frequency at 95%, 90% and 85% are calculated. The This type of analysis is to study the main objective of this calculation is to fluctuation of the water table depth with determine the common water table depth time, the rise of the water table in in most of the studied period to determine irrigation days and the drop of the water the best hydraulic head to design the table up to the drain level or less. This drain depth and spacing. fluctuation could describe the water movement in the soil and if there is any The relationships between water table seepage, or natural seepage or no depth-time are shown in Figure 3-6 for sufficient drainage or over drainage. MKPA. The water table reaches its highest

31 level 1-4 days after irrigation, recedes Due to the nature of land tenure, each quickly and then falls down at a much farm plot is owned by a different farmer slower rate. The rate of rise and fall who may follow a different irrigation depends on many factors such as the schedule and use different quantity of irrigation and infiltration rates, moisture water per irrigation in spite of the content of the soil before irrigation, soil presence of the same crop within the physical properties, climatic conditions, same drained unit at the same time. It is size of area irrigated, irrigation conditions noticed that the watertable fluctuates in in the neighbouring fields and drain depth successive cycles of rise and fall. The and spacing. watertable rise occurs in a relatively short time of one or two days.

Mit kenana collector 4, laterals 19 and 21,

0.00 G.L

-0.20

Berseem& -0.40 Vegetables& Vegetables& Vegetables& Berseem& Maize Maize -0.60 Wheat Maize Strawberry

-0.80

-1.00 Water Table Depth (m)

-1.20 Drain Depth

-1.40 04/04/93 02/11/93 30/03/94 05/11/94 04/04/95 30/10/95 Date

Figure 3-6 Example of Mit Kenana WT fluctuation

For Mit Kenana Pilot Area it is observed 3.5 Lateral Discharge: that the average watertable depth during Fluctuation and Frequency the study period ranged between 0.81- 0.90 m below soil surface. The best The second type of analysis is the watertable depth to be considered is 0.9 fluctuation of the lateral discharge with m with spacing 60 m between laterals. time. This fluctuation could describe the water movement in the laterals and if The standard deviation of the watertable there is any blockage or break along the depth shows that the watertable depth laterals or any submergence in the laterals variation throughout the growing seasons outlets. ranged between 0.043 m –0.293 m for Mit-Kenana respectively, below and above Also, the frequency of the lateral the seasonal average. Less variation was discharge depth and the cumulative monitored during season. This could be frequency at 95%, 90% and 85% are attributed to the frequency of irrigation. In calculated. summer the intervals between successive irrigation vary between 5 and 20 days, Figure 3-7 shows the lateral discharge for while in winter it varies between 20 and the full period of observation that was 30 days. considered (4 years). Most of the data

32 were higher and lower than the design Although high discharge values were value (1 mm/day). recorded, no waterlogging is evident and basically no change in design discharge is The maximum discharge depends on the recommended. type of crop and irrigation regime.

100 120%

90 100% 80

70 80% 60

50 60%

Frequency 40 40% 30 Cumulative frequency %

20 20% 10

0 0% 00.511.522.533.544.555.566.577.588.59 Lateral discharge (mm/day)

Figure 3-7 Example of frequency analysis for Haress pilot area

3.6 Collector Discharge: consequently increasing the sediments. Fluctuation and Frequency There were low values of discharge in 1992 due to the clogging of some laterals The field measurements of the collector because of cultivating rice, which needs discharge should be analysed by more water. Also, through the period from calculating the minimum, maximum, April 94 up to August 95 the outlet of the average and the frequency at 95% to collector was broken through maintenance compare these values with the design process for the open drain. value to check if it is suitable to the area conditions or not. For collector (3) at MPS (As=42.4 feddan), the maximum discharge was 1.21 mm/d Table 3-5 shows the discharge during the as listed in Table 3-5. Although it was period from 1991 to 1995 (collector (1) designed on 2 mm/d for the same reason (As=124.7 feddan)). The maximum mentioned above. There were some low discharge of collector (1) at Mashtul Pilot values of discharge in 1992 due to Area was 0.82 mm/d as listed in Table clogging some laterals that drain their 3-5, although it was designed on 2 mm/d water to the collector. (DRI, 1987a). This is because the whole area does not drain at the same time. The frequency distribution of the collector Therefore, a new approach in designing discharges was calculated and the 95% the collectors is considered instead of frequency distribution values are listed in designing on the maximum value of Table 3-5. It was noticed that for both discharge. In addition, this low passing collectors, the discharge value of 0.6 discharge might lead to reducing the mm/d represented about 95% of the velocity through the pipes and

33 whole discharge data. The most frequent Lateral discharge and hydraulic head value was 0.1 mm/d, which implies that relationships are drawn as shown in Figure the design should not be on the maximum 3-8. The design of the lateral pipe values design discharge. at full capacity “qmanning“ are listed and drawn on the charts for the values up to 6 Table 3-5 Collector discharge (1991- mm/d. Also, the theoretical values of 1995) for Mashtul Pilot Area laterals discharge “qtheoretical” which indicate the ideal value of the discharge in Collector 1 Collector 3 case of performing well was calculated by Max. Reading 0.820 1.213 using Hooghoudt equation for different Min. Reading 0.011 0.016 hydraulic conductivity values. It was plotted according to the hydraulic Avg. Reading 0.182 0.200 conductivity “K” measured in 1980 and 95% Frequency 0.600 0.600 1995. Distribution Figure 3-9 shows the q-h relation between the actual, theoretical and full pipe lateral discharge and the water head above drain HARESS AND MIT KENANA For Haress pilot area, frequency analysis level in between laterals for the period from Jan. 93 to Oct. 95 for Haress. of the collector discharge throughout the study period shows that the peak It is noticed from the Figures that all the discharge doesn’t exceed 6.58 mm/day discharge measurements are below the (collector 4) and the frequency of this maximum discharge i.e. full pipe and the value is less than 8%. The cumulative measurements of summer season follow frequency does not exceed 5.5 mm/day at the theoretical discharge. 95%. The high discharge values are attributed to the shell layers, which give 3.8 Conclusions and more discharge. Recommendations The maximum discharges depend on the Generally it could be concluded that: size of the command area and the type of crops and their intensities. • The qmanning in 15m spacing units is very high with comparison with 30m For Mit-Kenana Pilot Area, the peak values spacing units because of the difference of the collector discharge can be as high in the area served. However, the as 6.58 mm/day and it occurs for a short Lateral drain depth and spacing 1.7 m period throughout the period of the study. and 15 m gave a good result with Their occurrence does not exceed 5% of comparison to other cases. the monitoring period. • The best drain spacing is 30 m with 1.2 m drain depth. In general, the recommended discharge for collectors is not a problem because it The newly reclaimed areas that are is a transporting pipe for the lateral subjected to high watertable levels; discharges. It is important to focus on the salinity problems, etc are of great lateral discharge design rate, which keeps consideration during the implementation the watertable on the permissible level. of subsurface drainage. Due to the implementation of subsurface drainage in 3.7 Q-h Relationships two pilot areas in Western and Eastern The main objective of the actual (field) Delta it is concluded that: theoretical lateral discharges is to check if • there are any field values higher than the For Haress pilot area (Western Delta) theoretical one and how many times the it is better to use drain spacing of 80 field values are higher than the full pipe to m (water table depth is 0.80 m and determine if the designed diameter is not drain depth is 1.2m). • suitable and need to be enlarged. For Mit-Kenana pilot area (Eastern Delta) it is better to use drain spacing

34 of 60 m (water table depth is 0.90 m • The collectors could be designed and drain depth is 1.2m). according to the area served because • The results of lateral discharge showed it is only a transporting pipe. that the design discharge of 1.5 • The implementations of subsurface mm/day and 2 mm/day are better for drainage in such areas need trenchless using in Haress and Mit-Kenana pilot machines and pre-wrapped lateral areas respectively. pipes to be used due to the problems of unstable liquefying subsoil.

Figure 3-8 Mit Kenana Pilot Area, coll.2, lat.9, from April 93-October95 Env. (Sock ) S= 60, D= 1.8, ks=3 m/day

10 summer93 winter 93-94 summer94 winter94-95 8 summer 95 qth qmax

6 q max

4 Lateral Discharge (q - mm/day) - (q Discharge Lateral

2

0 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 h (cm)

Figure 3-9 q and h relationship for collector 3 and lateral 8, Haress Pilot Area Jan 93 – May 95)

10 qth. 9 q full winter 1/93-5/93 8 summer 6/93-10/93 7 winter 11/93-5/94 summer 6/94-10/94 6 winter 11/94-5/95

5

4

3

2 Lateral discharge (q - mm/day)

1

0 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 h (cm)

35

36 4. Pilot Areas Research Guidelines

In general, the objectives for pilot area • Water table height at a certain time research are to determine: interval, exceeding an arbitrary depth, or fluctuating between depths • the best envelope material; considered representing wet stress and • the best drain spacing; dry stress of plants such that yield is • the best drain depth; affected. If the water table fluctuation • the best combination of drain depth is the result of rainfall and the various and spacing; treatments are within a reasonable • the design drainage coefficient distance of each other it may be (mm/d). assumed that all treatments receive the same rainfall amount. If the water 4.1 Drain Envelopes table fluctuation is the result of one or more irrigations then it is essential to To assess the best envelope material, the know also the type of crops and the variables for making this judgement are: quantity of water irrigated; • Soil salinity at a certain time and • he/ht; three measurements are needed for this namely (1) observation of the interval and the relative change that water table/level in the drain pipe, (2) has taken place. This requires also one observation of the water table information about the water balance immediately adjacent to the drain including concentration of salts in soil envelope and always at a fixed and water; • distance from the outside of the drain Yield. This is by far the most complex pipe, (3) and one water table variable (parameter) that can be used observation midway between two in a statistical analysis, because the parallel drains; level of yield depends on so many • r ; the entrance resistance which is a factors. Yield is the first parameter e (dependent variable) that comes to function of he and the discharge of the lateral (ql). The same observations as mind for assessment of which spacing before and a discharge measurement or drain depth is best. The higher the at the end of the lateral are necessary yield the better the spacing or drain for this; depth provided that all other factors affecting the yield are the same and • ae; the total entrance resistance contraction constant, which is a the depth or spacing is the only function of he, ql and Ks. The latter is parameter different between two the saturated hydraulic conductivity of series of yield data from the same the soil at drain depth. observation point (location).

These three variables are used to decide A major difference in the (statistical) on which of the treatments is the best. approach between experimental fields and Basically for all three values the lower the pilot areas is that the treatments (e.g. 4 value the better the performance of the different drain spacing) are at fixed envelope. locations under full control of the researcher in experimental fields, while 4.2 Drain Spacing and Depth under pilot area conditions the location of the treatment (e.g. one specific spacing) To assess the best drain spacing and may be different from growing season to depth, the variables for making this growing season, not because it changes judgement in order of simplicity are: place physically, but because conditions change. The reason for this is that the • Drawdown rate of the water table after farmer may grow different crops on plots an irrigation of rainfall event. The that have the same drain spacing; this higher the rate the better the system makes them belong to two different performs, however it may be over treatments. In order to compare designed; statistically only the drain spacing should

37 be different between the plots that are blockages, high water levels in surface compared (assessed) to see which drains (e.g. Submerged outlets of collector performed best. So to compare drain drains and/or laterals as visible in spacing, the crop, the amount of manholes, or at the outfall of the irrigation, the drain depth, the envelope, subsurface drain), interval of the amount of fertiliser applied, the weed measurement (daily, weekly, monthly, control management, etc. all need to be etc.), irrigation regime, and dominant crop the same. Some of these factors may be in an area (e.g. rice) will have a bearing minor in effect and can be neglected when on the exceedance of certain levels. One the quantity of data collected over time could say that there are five to six grows. However, rarely does a pilot important variables and a number less scheme run longer than 3 – 4 years and important ones. As before, for sets of hence we need to collect the necessary measurements to be compared all but one data within that time. should be the same.

Simplicity of the variable used for the The soil salinity is a function of: salt inflow judgement of the objective means that the through irrigation water (rain), salt variable used in the assessment should outflow through drainage, number of have as few as possible complicating irrigations and quantity of water supplied factors. Perusal of the parameters on and drained, the crop water use (so the which the selected indicator variable is crop), the time of measurement in the based shows that for the first three season, transformation of the data (i.e. variables, the variable affecting the calculating an average for a certain indicator variable are nearly the same, period). In all at least seven factors need and substantially more for yield. to be known, before we can determine statistically, which spacing is most The draw down rate is a function of: effective in lowering the salinity. saturated soil hydraulic conductivity (alternatively texture may be used), the The yield is a function of: crop and crop, the growth stage, the spacing, the variety, irrigation amount, soil salinity drain depth, the drain envelope material, (and alkalinity), water table height, the and the starting water table depth above weed control, the amount of fertiliser the drain at the measuring location. So applied, the time of planting, the time of seven factors affect the draw down rate harvesting, etc. The list already contains and these are the most important ones 10 important factors and there are more. under Egyptian conditions, where pipe Hence although a very visible indicator diameter and number of perforations in variable, it is not a simple one for the pipe are always the same. It goes comparison. DRI has been collecting without saying that other factors affecting long-time records of yield in various pilot the measurement result, such as location areas. It's objective was to obtain of the observation wells with respect to impressions of yield levels over time of the subsurface drain are at the same. To selected crops. During the early days of compare draw down rates between the Mashtul and the Harrara Pilot areas treatments all these factors need to be the (1980 - 1990), more intensive same, except one (i.e. in the case measurements were taken and from these followed sofar this is the drain spacing) yield as function of soil salinity and water Applications of draw down rates are table height were derived. described in Chapters 5, 6 and 11. 4.3 Density and Number of The water table height over a certain time Measurements interval is a function of: drain depth, drain spacing, amount and number of irrigation One of the first questions that arise in (or rainfall), the crop water use (so the drainage pre-investigations and in the crop), the porosity of the soil (so soil establishment of Pilot Areas is: What texture, or saturated hydraulic should the density of measurements be? conductivity). These are the most This is followed immediately by: “How important ones probably, but also many measurements?

38 Density 2001 (Khalil et al. 2001) to determine the The determination of hydraulic number of observations required. They conductivity requires a great investment are: in time, money and manpower. Optimum sampling density is defined as the widest • Using statistics from population possible grid, with the least loss of sampling. This method allows us to accuracy in the estimated drainage block determine the sample size as function value of the conductivity. As a start, one of confidence interval and could follow the recommendations as probabilities. The method is used to published by FAO (1980), to sample about estimate proportions. For instance, it 5 to 10% of the projected area with a can be used to determine the density according to the expected drain proportion of voters who favour a spacing. The so derived data set can be particular candidate, by taking a used to determine the optimal sampling sample of certain size. This method grid spacing. Stratification of the area may not be directly applicable to PAS according to soil characteristics could lead or engineering applications and this to a considerable reduction in the number needs further investigation. of necessary measurements. • Another approach is to use t-test statistics to determine the sample size The density of measurements depends on instead of z-test and probability. For the particular needs, but generally for soil this method the same uncertainties investigation purposes a density of one exist about its possible use in measurement per 10-25 ha (grids of engineering applications, as its main 300x300m or 500x500m) is commonly use is in the context of estimating a used. Gallichand et al. (1992) used geo- single mean value. statistical methods to determine the • From the theory of analysis of variance optimal sampling density for the Nile Delta (ANOVA), a more elaborate in Egypt, by comparing the results of the methodology emerged which requires original sampling density with reduced decisions on whether treatments are densities, with measurement values correlated or not, whether a one-way originating from the same data set. They or two way ANOVA is set-up and what found that for preliminary surveys a grid are the desired levels of significance, of 900x900m would provide adequate risk and sensitivity. information on hydraulic conductivity, • Finally, from the theory of hypothesis, while optimum results were obtained with power, effect size and Type I or II grids that had distances between 400 - error a general method to determine 600 m. the number of observations when using ANOVA or multiple regression Van Aart and van Alphen (1994) give an analysis. This method is very similar extensive overview of different types of to the previous one. measurements to be taken depending on whether the purpose of the investigation 4.4 Regression and ANOVA is for reconnaissance, feasibility, design or monitoring and evaluation. However all Assuming both independent variable, x are based primarily on engineering and dependent variable y affect each other as follows: x!y, then the judgement and only some on frequency correlation coefficient measures the analysis (hydrologic time series measurements). None relate to research degree of linear association between x and y. It is assumed that both x and y refer to and statistical theories, yet that is where continuous variables, means and for Pilot area research we need to obtain guidance for the number of observations variances are independent from each needed. other i.e., normally distributed. If there are more than one independent variable a correlation table between all investigated Number variables is a first step to assess between There exist at least four methodologies, which variables regression analysis is which have been presented in the Pilot sensible. Area Statistics (PAS) training course in

39 If the relationships are found to be non- There is, however, another error one can linear (in which case the linear relation make: the Type II error is the error of might appear weak), analysis of variance, falsely rejecting H1, i.e. of rejecting H1 ANOVA would seem to be more suitable. when in fact it is true. The size of this kind ANOVA, in fact, is a generalisation of of error is denoted as β. correlation when the independent variables are also independent from each A third quantity of interest is the power p other. ANOVA assumes nominal variables, of the test. The power of a test is the or at least distinct classes derived from probability of accepting H1, if it is true. continuous variables. These nominal The power and the size of the Type II variables of distinct classes are called error add up to 1. factors. If the analysis includes just one factor, a sample model is assumed. If A fourth quantity of interest is the there is more than one factor, each at dependence of power on n. For use with more than one level, a factorial model is ANOVA the concept of Effect Size (ES) has recommended. In such case, both main been developed to provide a unifying effects and interaction are investigated. framework in which the same formula can In experimental work, the experiment be used for all ANOVA designs (Khalil et including one factor is called sample al. 2001). ES is related to the proportion 2 experiment. If the experiment included of variance explained (η , which is in 2 more than one factor each at more than effect similar to the multiple R of one level, it is called a factorial regression analysis). In ANOVA context experiment. the ES is denoted as f.

As may be clear the typical wording f η2 η appearing from statistical theories very .10 .001 small ES much points to experimental set-up rather than pilot area set-up. .25 .06 moderate ES .4 .14 Substantive ES Setting up analysis of data according to ANOVA or using regression methods with .5 .20 dummy coding, will result in exactly the .75 .36 same outcome if done correctly (Pedhazur 1.00 .50 1982). Hence whether a researcher uses ANOVA or regression analysis is a matter 2.00 .80 of personal preference. 3.00 .90 10.00 .99 4.5 Sample Size Extracted from Cohen (1977) When the design of the experiment has been decided (i.e. the dependent variable, The relations between size of Type I error, the independent variables, the interactions size of Type II error, power, sample size of interest, covariates, and possibly the and effect size, have been tabulated, sampling scheme), some decision has to among others, by Cohen (1977). In order be taken about the required sample size. to use this kind of tables, one needs to The required sample size depends on: specify

• the desired level of Type I error (α) • the number of groups; • the desired level of Type II error (β); • the desired level for α , and or the power (p) • the desired power at a specified Effect • the size of the effect one expects of Size. wishes to be able to assess. Now the question becomes: what is a The Type I error is the error of falsely small effect, or a large effect, or a rejecting H0 (the Null Hypothesis), i.e. of medium effect? And the only possible rejecting H0 when in fact it is true. The answer to this question is that the size of the Type I error is denoted as α. investigator has to decide this, using previous experience. If, for example, from

40 the literature it is known that the η2 in a Factorial experiment certain area of investigation is always In the ambitious approach one would larger than .50 (which corresponds to an investigate the effects of all factors ES of f = 1.0), no large power is required simultaneously. This would entail a design at small effect sizes. If no previous with 3 x 3 x 4 x 3 = 108 cells. A cell is the experience is available, Cohen suggests particular combination of a spacing, depth, using f = .10 for small ES, f = .25 for crop and growth stage. This number of medium ES, and f = .40 for large ES. It cells is so large, that 3 replications per cell may be noted here that Cohen is a social will do. That is: for one particular scientist, and in the social sciences effects combination of S, D, C and G: are usually rather small. It may well be that in drainage and irrigation research f 1. observe the water table height on a = .40 for small ES, f = 1.0 for medium ES, number of consecutive days; and f = 1.5 for large ES are much better 2. derive from this an estimate of the values. However, as the effects in draw down rate; drainage and irrigation research are 3. perhaps steps 1 and 2 can be probably larger than in the social sciences, replicated after the next irrigation, so the values suggested by Cohen are safe, that two draw down rates can be i.e. they are not likely to lead to too small averaged to yield a more reliable sample sizes. estimate; 4. Perform steps 1, 2 and 3 also for the 4.6 Proposed Scenarios other 2 replications in the cell; 5. This gives you the 3 draw down rates Having elaborated in section 4.2 on how for one single cell in the design; to define and measure the dependent 6. Repeat steps 1 – 5 for all 108 cells in variables (draw down rate, or water table the design. control), the next question is: how to determine their dependence on e.g. drain If one fears loss of cases during the spacing and depth? For the draw down experiment, perhaps it would be wise to rate this is summarily elaborated below. start with 6 replications per cell, and so be The reasoning for water table would be reasonably sure to retain at least 3 cases analogous. per cell in the end. This means that 3 x Let us assume that (at least) 4 factors 108 = 324, or even 6 x 108 = 648 influence the draw down rate: drain separate drains have to be observed and measured. With these observations all spacing (S), drain depth (D), crop type (C), and growth stage (G). Furthermore, main and interaction effects can be assume these factors have the following estimated with a reasonable power. But numbers of levels: this is very expensive.

• Spacing: 3 A smaller experiment • Depth: 3 A less ambitious, and probably more • Crop type: 4 realistic approach is possible if we are • Growth stage: 3 willing to assume that there is no interaction between e.g. crop type and There are factors with more levels (i.e. growth stage on the one hand, and see the layouts of the pilot areas, section spacing or depth on the other hand. With 3.2); but perhaps levels could be this assumption the required sample size combined into narrow, medium and wide can be substantially reduced. The spacing. The reason for trying to reduce following (fictitious) example illustrates the number of levels is that this will what is meant. reduce the number of replications required, and as will be seen below, that There is no interaction between C or G is probably of some importance. and S and/or D if the best spacing/depth Considering that all these 4 factors may combination for e.g. berseem is also the influence the draw down rate, two ways best for e.g. cotton, to name but two are open to the researcher: a full factorial possible crops. In this case one could experiment or a smaller experiment. decide not to vary crop type and growth

41 stage, and only investigate the effects of crops and growth stages as well. In later spacing and depth for one single given experiments it can perhaps be value of crop and growth stage. It is very investigated if this is really true. important, in this case, not to mix up fields with different crops, because Calculating the required sample although the same S / D combination may be best for both, perhaps the draw down size rate for both is different. For example: Khalil et al. (2001) worked out examples of calculating the required sampling number per cell (i.e. replications) and the Table 4-1 Average draw down rates for findings are briefly summarised here. cotton and berseem (fictitious) berseem cotton If we investigate the effect of spacing, S1 S2 S1 S2 depth and their interaction, on draw down D1 5 4 D1 2 3 rate for a given crop and growth stage, with both S and D having 3 levels, there D2 3 8 D2 1 4 are 3 x 3 = 9 cells in the design. For all nine cells in the design, carry out steps 1 Assuming large drawdown rates to be – 5 from before. Now suppose that we better, it can be seen in this table that for want to investigate the effect of spacing at both berseem and cotton, the combination S2D2 is the best. Now suppose that in • α = 0.05; three of the four experimental fields one • u =2 (u is the degrees of freedom for has berseem, and in one field cotton. The this effect, which equals 3 - 1) observed drawdown rates are copied into • with power p = 0.80; the following table: • at an effect size f = 0.25.

Table 4-2 Mixing up of berseem and From Cohen’s table (in Khalil et al. 2001), cotton and using another formula, we find n* = S1 S2 S1 S2 18, that is we need 18 replications per cell and total necessary observations become D1 bers, bers. D1 5 4 162. If we would allow for extra losses in D2 bers. cotton D2 3 4 the cell and collected six replications the number becomes 216. This set-up of the experiment would lead to the (erroneous) conclusion that S1D1 is This is substantially less from the 324 and the best combination. 648 observations required in the full factorial experiment, but it is still So if you suspect there are factors that substantially more then for instance the could influence the value of the dependent actual cells and observations taken in the variable, but Mit Kenana pilot area:

• these are in fact nuisance factors, that Table 4-3 Actual measurement locations is, you are not really interested in their at Mit Kenana Pilot area. effect; and • you believe there is no interaction of S1 S2 S3 these factors with the factors of D1 E1 interest (in this case spacing and D2 E2 depth), that is, if you believe the E3 conclusions would be similar, whether E4 you investigate crop1 or crop2, in D3 E2 growth stage 1 or growth stage 2; E5

E = different drain envelope types then it is possible to consider only one level of the nuisance factors (in this case From the foregoing it may be clear that in of crop and growth stage) during the Mit Kenana, each cell has potentially 5 entire experiment. In fact you then sub-cells (5 different envelopes) and in assume that the results hold for other order to meet the objectives of

42 determining the best drain spacing, or envelopes have a good number of depth, or combination of depth and replications in each treatment. spacing it would be best to select observation locations for one envelope From the foregoing it is clear that type only. designing an appropriate layout, both physically and from statistical analysis Mashtul has 93 laterals and 6 treatments point of view is not an easy task and installed and a minimum of two replicated requires the advice of a statistician from laterals. Traditionally measurements are the very first conception of the pilot area. taken at .25, .5 and .75 of the length of Additional input by a statistician during the lateral and each of these could be changes and analysis of the first sets of considered a replication. So there are data is essential too. actually about 3*93=279 possible measurement locations for depth and spacing assessment if the standard of 3 observations along a lateral is used. Of course one could install more observation points along the lateral.

Yet, as was actually experienced by DRI, this is not possible due to high (labour and equipment) costs. Some time during the life of the pilot area research studies a reduction in observations at Mit Kenana was implemented according to Table 4-3. A better solution would have been:

S1 S3 D1 E1** E1* D3 E1 E1 and

E1 E3 E5 S1 D1** D1 D1 S3 D1* D1 D1

The above analysis layout would meet the objectives of determination of best drain spacing, depth and envelope for the selected treatments.

Note further that the cells marked with * and ** are actually the same cells in the physical layout, but during analysis their results are arranged differently.

Unfortunately, the layout of Haress turns out to be somewhat of a disappointment from statistical point of view when assessment of drain depth and spacing are considered. Cells (treatments) have either zero laterals or as many as 18 laterals, when we ignore the envelope differences. When we ignore the drain spacing and the depth differences, the

43

Monitoring and Evaluation

45

5. Performance Assessment

Performance Assessment (PA) is a subject Two workshops were organised in 1995 of considerable interest in the irrigation and 1996 on the topic of rehabilitation and and drainage sector during the last performance assessment. The first decade. This interest stems from the workshop resulted in a listing of possible widely known and documented performance assessment objectives. The unsatisfactory performance of the many second aimed at clarifying the exact irrigation and drainage projects and meaning of PA in the Egyptian context and schemes. This unsatisfactory performance the relation with the perception of PA and is conceived to be mostly due to low Rehabilitation internationally (ICID, standards of management. PA is Worldbank) as well as coming to an advocated as an essential tool for agreement on indicators to be used for the improving the management, and various rationales of the Performance eventually the performance, of irrigation Assessment activity. and drainage projects and schemes. It was concluded from these workshops In Egypt, the drainage development that a number of the original PA project started relatively early and by now has a study objectives were already covered by large and well-established drainage other DRI studies except: (i) Client sector. The Egyptian Public Authority for Requested Performance Assessment, and Drainage Projects (EPADP) is still heavily (ii) Economic Performance Assessment. engaged in the construction of new drainage systems but has also become Hence development of criteria for the responsible for the drainage system indicators was possible using data management for a large and annually collected under other on-going studies. growing area. The drainage Research The results will be reported in this chapter Institute (DRI) is the main research after more clarification of PA. institution to help EPADP in solving the drainage problems and developing the The workshop participants agreed on the different techniques in the drainage following main conclusions: process. • The definition of PA and other The performance assessment research terminologies presented in Box 5-1. As was one of the topics mentioned in the in Egypt, performance assessment and terms of reference of the Drainage rehabilitation are principally concerned Research Programme Project (DRP). The with pipe drainage (horizontal objectives formulated in broad terms, in subsurface drainage) no efforts were the request for proposal and the made to find definitions, which cover Consultants proposal, mentioned physical, all types of drainage systems; hydraulic, operational, water • The primary and secondary indicators management, economical, sociological and to judge the function of a drainage environmental indicators and impacts that system are the water table and need to be studied. The main bottleneck salinity, while essentially the design in clarifying the study of performance criteria used provide the initial assessment: performance assessment of boundary values for those indicators; what and for whom? • To assess the need for rehabilitating, the same primary and secondary The DRP and DRP2 first set out to clarify indicators as mentioned earlier can be the concepts of Performance Assessment used; assessment of complaints by (PA). What is PA and what is not. What farmers (see Chapter 6) needs to is research and not PA. From 1997 on precede assessment of the indicators; potential indicators and criteria were • Economics and yield-related indicators developed and these are briefly described are not needed for drainage system herein. assessment.

47 Box 5-1 Definition of terms and examples Drainage Performance Assessment The determination of the functioning of the drainage system compared with established design criteria, and the identification of the cause of malfunctioning (if applicable).

Maintenance To keep or to bring back the drainage system in good functioning order by measures which are within the capacity of the maintenance directorates. Examples: Cleaning and flushing. Fixing a damaged outlet, connection, or manhole. Replacing sections of collectors and laterals.

Rehabilitation New construction that done by contractors to bring back existing drainage system to its former good functional state. Examples: Replacing or adding complete drains.

5.1 Performance Assessment rationale, it must be clearly specified Concept because assessments appropriate for one purpose may be quite unsuitable for A drainage system can be defined as a others. set of elements, which is used to: PA would not be very useful to drainage • prevent or reduce waterlogging to a system implementation without defining reasonable water table depth; the cause analysis, and therefore it • control soil salinity; and, should be an integral part of the • prevent reduction of crop yield. drainage PA. To clarify the role of Performance Assessment in this context Like all systems, implementation of Figure 5-1 shows relationships with drainage systems needs inputs in Standard M&E, as done in EPADP in various internal transformation Egypt and the role of Quality Control, processes that produce both Maintenance and Rehabilitation in the intermediate and final outputs. The final process. According to that, PA is a outputs, interacting with the large procedure (method) to determine the environment, result in the system’s status of an operational system and it is impact on the environment. a decision support tool.

Small and Svendsen (1992), mentioned 5.2 Performance Assessment that the nature of an assessment of a Indicators system performance depends on the rationale for it being conducted. In some cases periodic assessments are Purposes and rationales undertaken to evaluate the operational For the different purposes of the status of the system and to suggest performance assessment, a changes. In other cases, the comprehensive list of performance assessments are structured to modify indicators is developed. In many cases the behaviour of certain actors in the indicators cannot stand-alone and will system, with purpose of the assessment only in relationship with others give a simultaneously being to modify and to satisfactorily explanation of observed monitor behaviour. Whatever the trends.

48 Pre-drainage improve the design criteria such as: Investigation drain depth, drain spacing and & Design design discharge. 5. Functioning of the drain envelope: Quality to select the best envelope the Construction control performance assessment of certain envelopes in field and laboratory is essential. Satisfactory Standard performance EPADP Characteristics of performance M&E Signs of indicators unsatisfactory at 2, 3 and performance An indicator can be defined as a value 5 years derived from two or more parameters, which describes conditions and changes Complaint in time and space, to assess the monitoring PA functioning of the system against an agreed set of criteria.

Improved Assessment indicators for drainage Maintenance systems performance should have all or or most of the following main Rehabilitation characteristics (Bos et al, 1993):

• provide important information on the system functioning; Figure 5-1 Performance Assessment in • have or can be related to accepted relation to drainage standards; implementation activities • have a solid scientific base; done by EPADP • can be measured or expressed in a quantitative form; • have high diagnostic value; In some cases it may be argued that • have a high discriminating capacity; certain indicators listed are in fact not • the parameters needed for the indicators, but rather parameters, which indicator can be easily monitored on may be used in relationship with other cost effective basis. parameters (typically time, area, etc.) to provide the necessary data for the 5.3 Standard performance indicator. Depending on the purpose of the PA, the rationale, certain indicators assessment procedure are needed and others not. These The standard PA procedure and its rationales are: relationship to rehabilitation has been schematically presented in Figure 5-2. 1. Functioning of the drainage system, The addition of the term “standard” is when complaints about a system meant to indicate that the proposed reach the appropriate authorities, procedure is expected to have wide requests for PA will be issued. applicability but that other procedures 2. Need for rehabilitation: the major may be needed as well (Smedema and indicator is the one related to the Vlotman, 1996). level, frequency and costs of maintenance. The PA is executed to It involves three sequential steps. Each see whether the system needs to be next step is only undertaken when the replaced. previous step has confirmed its 3. Impact of the drainage system on necessity and, therefore, the PA process crop yield and farmers income. may end after each step. It may not be 4. Drainage design criteria: the necessary to complete all three steps or rationale for the PA activity is to to do them in the indicated order. The

49 Preliminary Investigation may for step may be broken down into two sub- example be stopped when the complaint steps: assessment indicates that the complaints do not require further action 1. Data collection and processing: (and it would be resumed when the monitoring the selected indicator complaints persist or when other new parameters followed by some form information becomes available). of processing to facilitate the use of the collected data; Preliminary Investigations (first 2. Data evaluation: comparing of the collected indicator data with the step) accepted standards on basis of This first step is proposed to include the which judgments can be made on following four activities: the performance of the pipe drainage systems. 1. Complaint management.

2. File/database search: this includes It is of course possible that these the age of the project together with Primary Investigations reveal that there the applied technology (materials are no real waterlogging and salinity in and construction methods); the the area or that the prevailing applied quality control; the contract conditions are not due to malfunctioning documents; and other indications of the pipe drainage systems. In that may be added and each indication case the observed problems are may have value singularly or in properly reported and the performance combination with others. assessment is ended. 3. Agricultural data search: crop productivity and cropping pattern. 4. Rapid appraisal: a short field survey Cause Analysis (third step) to assess the drainage conditions. This phase is entered when the Primary Investigations have confirmed that the

performance of the installed pipe During this first step, the need for the drainage systems does not meet the second step is assessed. The latter step expected standards. The remaining task requires considerable field work and is then to identify the cause(s) of the expenditure and should only be under-performance of the system(s). undertaken when the preliminary investigations have confirmed that there Selection of indicators has to come up are sound indications that there are with only a few powerful, easily indeed waterlogging and/or salinity observable indicators, which still allow problems in the area or in a drawing reliable conclusions. considerable part of the area, and that these problems are most probably due to a malfunctioning of the pipe drainage Performance Indicators systems. Indicators have been identified as:

• DIRECT indicators: almost Primary Investigation (second independent indicators, e.g. water step) table depth; and This step is followed when there is a • INDIRECT indicators: dependent on major waterlogging and/or salinity other indicators as well, e.g. soil problem in the area and these problems salinity. are due to a malfunctioning of the pipe drainage systems. In this step, this Besides that, it is also be useful to assumption is confirmed or rejected by distinguish the indicators into: collecting indicator data (e.g. water table depth and soils salinity) and • Screening indicators to be used comparing these to the accepted during the first step (Preliminary standards of good performance. This Investigations);

50 • Primary indicators to be used during • Secondary indicators to be used the second step (Primary during the third step (Cause Investigations); Analysis).

               ! " #   

   
      
    
    

    

    $ %  
     

  
  

  

    

Figure 5-2 Standard Performance Assessment Procedure

5.4 Technical Activities and Achievements Client Requested PA The following activities related to PA The development of operational (client were executed: requested) performance assessment coincided with three requests to DRI • Client requested PA; and EPADP to assess the functioning of • Review of assessing drainage related certain drainage systems (University of parameters under irrigated field Alexandria, El Shobac El Gharbi and El conditions. This resulted in modified Atteiat villages in Giza Governorate and field data collection procedures; el Biadia in Luxor). Rapid appraisals • Review various water table were performed and recommendations assessments for use as primary for further activities were given. indicator in PA. This resulted in the draw down rate being considered as a prime indicator for PA.

51 Modified Field Data Collection • The head loss fraction (he/htot). In subsurface drainage research, q-h relations are used for the determination The FAO method (FAO, 1976) requires a of the entrance resistance of field drains uniform irrigation distribution over the (laterals), for envelope design lateral catchment area, preferably also verification, for the determination of the over the adjacent lateral areas. In Egypt hydraulic conductivity, and to verify the this condition is seldom met. Due to the drain spacing calculation procedure. The small field sizes (Figure 5-3), with q is measured from the outfall of the different landowners, the plots within lateral and the h values are observed in the lateral catchment area are irrigated several observation wells within the at different times during the common catchment area of the lateral. Typical irrigation 'on' period of 4 to 6 day. Even parameters used for assessment are: when all plots are irrigated at the same time the volume applied is usually not • The q/h ratio; uniformly distributed over the • The drainage intensity (reaction) catchment area. Plots have different factor (a); crops and water requirements. Also field • The Hydraulic conductivity (K) conditions and water shortage can cause calculated from the drain spacing a considerable difference between equation; volumes supplied to the head and tail • The drain entrance resistance (re); ends of the fields.

area 3 area 4 area 3

11 12 13 11 12 13

4 6 9 4 6 9 Midway Midway Midway area 2 observation area 2 area 5 observation observation well well

1 2 3 1 2 3 area 1 area 1

manhole collector drains manhole

Figure 5-3 Network of observation wells

52 This uniform irrigation distribution from a previous irrigation turn on one requirement is generally disregarded in of the other plots its volume was lateral drain performance assessment estimated by extrapolating the in Egypt. In pilot areas in el Fayoum recession curve of the discharge and el Minia an attempt was made to (Figure 5-6). This discharge from incorporate the non-uniformity into the previous irrigation was subtracted from standard performance calculations. the total discharge (Figure 5-5).

For each individual plot within the For entrance resistance and head loss lateral catchment area (Figure 5-3), fraction determination, it is common the dimensions were measured and practice in Egypt to use q-h values the irrigation schedules were recorded. that are randomly collected during a To determine the q-h relation only the season or daily values for a shorter observation wells within the irrigated period. This is contrary to what is plot were considered. The result is the advised in FAO 28, i.e. those average head of the observation wells measurements should be done when actually affected by the irrigation turn the drain is discharging close to its instead of the average of all midway design rate, just after an irrigation. wells. Moreover, the low values (if any) measured a long time after an Figure 5-4 shows the readings of the 6 irrigation recharge will be in the same midway observation wells during the order of magnitude as the inevitable study period. The measured drainage observation errors. The modified discharge of the lateral, expressed in method uses for the entrance mm/day, was only related to the resistance calculations only the q-h actual irrigated area of the plot instead values measured two days after of the whole lateral catchment area. If cessation of the recharge. there was some residual discharge

1.40 ground surface Ir rigation Ir rigation Ir rigation 1.20 level =1.32 cm on 13/12 on 24/12 on 30/12

1.00 OW1 0.80 OW3

0.60

OW11

head (m) 0.40 OW9 0.20 OW4 OW13 0.00 Center line -0.20 1/12 6/12 11/12 16/12 21/12 26/12 31/12 December '93

Figure 5-4 The readings of the midway observation wells and the lateral discharge

53 Table 5-1 Results of the monitoring of the studied laterals * Lateral ID q h a q/h K he/htot re (mm/d) (mm) (day-1) (day-1) (m/d) (-) (day/m) fay/1/40/1/2** 0.83 443 0.56 0.0019 0.06 0.39 10.56 fay/1/40/1/3 0.50 190 0.28 0.0026 0.08 1.43 15.86 fay/1/40/2/3 1.13 462 0.51 0.0024 0.07 0.32 9.50 fay/1/40/1/all 0.95 16.10 fay/1/40/1/1*** 0.18 206 0.08 0.0009 0.03 0.13 12.00 fay/1/40/2/1 0.21 204 0.13 0.0011 0.03 0.10 10.29 fay/1/40/1/all 0.04 3.29 fay/1/28/1/1 0.23 64 0.27 0.0063 0.21 0.25 8.61 fay/1/28/2/1 0.27 79 0.21 0.0044 0.14 0.23 7.34 fay/1/28/1/all 0.39 10.87 min/18/3/1/2 0.15 202 0.03 0.0007 0.23 0.37 41.92 min/18/3/2/2 0.45 555 0.03 0.0008 0.25 0.19 5.10 min/18/3/1/all 0.44 29.51 fay/1/6/1/1 0.13 498 0.02 0.0003 0.02 0.63 18.42 fay/1/6/2/1 0.13 498 0.02 0.0003 0.02 0.87 26.60 fay/1/6/1/all 0.56 31.82 fay/6/45/1/3 0.08 249 0.01 0.0003 0.03 0.72 86.68 fay/6/45/2/3 0.16 446 0.02 0.0004 0.03 0.74 44.00 fay/6/45/1/all 0.76 72.95 fay/1/5/1/1 0.25 276 0.05 0.0009 0.08 0.78 40.67 fay/1/5/2/1 0.59 807 0.08 0.0007 0.07 0.42 14.17 fay/1/5/1/all 0.46 25.62 * ID: area(fay=Fayoum, min=Minia)/collector no./lateral no./method no. (1=regular, 2 (shaded) =modified)/irrigation cycle no. (all=all cycles). ** Based on observations from December 1993. *** Based on observations from November 1992.

4.0 800 Irrigation Irrigation Irrigation 3.5 700 on 13/12 on 24/12 on 30/12 3.0 600 2.5 500 400 2.0 300 1.5 head (mm) . 200 1.0 discharge (mm/day) . 100 0.5 0 0.0 1/12 6/12 11/12 16/12 21/12 26/12 31/12 December '93

Regular head Adjusted head Regular discharge Adjusted discharge

Figure 5-5 q and h for both methods, lateral 40, Fayoum

54 1.0 Irrigation Irrigation Irrigation 0.9 on 13/12 on 24/12 on 30/12 0.8

0.7

/ day 0.6 3 0.5

0.4

0.3

discharge m 0.2

0.1 Extrapolated discharge from cycle 2 0.0 1/12 6/12 11/12 16/12 21/12 26/12 31/12 December '93

Figure 5-6 The readings of discharge of the laterals under study

The modified method circumvents the or lower. Not enough data were problem of non-uniform irrigation with available to observe definite differences. additional observations for plot sizes, plot locations, and irrigation schedules. Similar observations were made for the These extra observations are used to drainage intensity factor. determine which observation wells are responsible for the measured discharge In almost all tests the assessment of the and what plot size is represented by head loss fraction and entrance those observation wells. resistance by measuring and using daily observations of q and h resulted in Table 5-1 presents the results obtained moderate to large deviations from the for the comparison between the ones of the modified method. application of the regular and modified methods. Although this research on seven lateral drains in Egypt doesn’t actually prove The values calculated by the modified that the proposed modifications of the method for the hydraulic conductivity FAO 28 procedures give more accurate are practically equal to the ones results it certainly is based on a more resulting from the regular method. The sound interpretation of Egyptian q and h values differ considerably but subsurface drain testing conditions. Its their ratio doesn’t change much. is recommended to use this method in areas were plot sizes are smaller than The head loss fraction and entrance lateral catchment areas, especially when resistance is also based on q and/or h drain testing is done for the verification but these are measured at peak of the drainage design criteria q and h, discharge, i.e. approx. 2nd day from and the determination of the use and recharge. Here significant differences type of envelope materials. In that case were observed between the two the head loss fraction and entrance methods although no trend could be resistance determination is needed and distinguished. The values for the head values for those parameters appears to loss fraction and the resistance were the be significantly different. The same for both methods, somewhat procedures are more applicable for higher or lower, or considerably higher research than PA, because PA will

55 generally not go in such detailed due to many considerations and assessment. different reasons. Some of these indices are not valid in the semi arid irrigated conditions and they are applied only in Watertable as indicator for PA humid or different conditions (e.g. Under field conditions soil-plant systems indices based on rainfall). Some others vary continuously. Evaluating the effect need long monitoring period (e.g. the of physical conditions on plant growth seasonal and long term averages). Also, would require integration of these some indices (e.g. the sum of conditions over time and depth during exceedances of certain watertable the entire growing season. One of the levels, SEW , where xx is the depth parameters that give certain integration xx below the surface used as target level) is watertable depth. depend on the required watertable depth for the crop and it may result in A watertable depth of 60 to 90 cm is unreliable values too. required for sandy soils while it is 100 to 150 cm for clay soils. The depth within The behaviour of the watertable is these ranges depends on soil type, crop, considered the prime indicator to be and climate conditions (Goins et al. used for the assessment of the drainage 1966, Williamson and Carrekar 1970, systems. Nevertheless, there are Feddes 1971, and Wesseling 1974). multiple procedures to prepare the data and three of these have been used with Tovey (1964) found that excess water data from several pilot areas (Seila, must be removed within 3 days from the Mashtul, Mit Kenana and Haress). root zone of alfalfa plants adapted to stationary watertable at 60 cm depth to Three selected procedures of watertable insure optimum crop production. analysis were investigated on their applicability for PA: In many publications, watertable, soil salinity and crop yield were mentioned • Watertable Draw Down Curve as the main indicators to assess the • Watertable as function of area drainage performance. However, • Watertable as function of time watertable is considered the unique indicator to be used for the assessment of the drainage system performance due WATER TABLE DRAW DOWN CURVE to its independence from other factors. A method of water table assessment not common in Egypt before the project is The watertable indicator also complies that analysing the draw down rate of with all the needed characteristics of a the water table. This indicator can be good indicator as described before. used for system wide or individual drain Therefore, it can lead by itself to a line assessment and has been used for judgement of the functioning of the other assessments (e.g. research) as system. It can be used in all stages of well (see chapter hydraulic performance assessment investigations: preliminary, of V-plough constructed drains). primary, and cause analysis (Abdel Dayem et al., 1996). Two data sets were available for this type of assessment (Eissa et al. 1996, Oosterbaan (1994), found that the Eissa et al. 2001): one from the Fayoum watertable mean values of the daily and and several sets from various pilot areas monthly averages do coincide, but the in the Nile delta. standard deviation of the monthly averages is much smaller than of the In addition data were grouped according daily averages, and the monthly drain depth, drain spacing, starting head extremes are much closer to the mean. of the draw down above the drain level, He added that by evaluating the etc. in order to exclude factors that different watertable indices, that these affect the hypothesized theoretical draw indices are not always valid for the down curve. assessment of the drainage functioning

56 All curves thus obtained were then may cause a rapid water table drop that plotted as in Figure 5-7. From these are not directly related to the then the upper and lower boundaries functioning of the drain line or drain were determined and a resulting set of system. Equally so, if the data point curves such as the ones from the falls above the upper boundary, the Fayoum (Figure 5-8) and the one from cause of this may not be the individual the Mashtul Pilot area (Figure 5-9) were drain line, but could be a blockage then derived. From Figure 5-8 of the further downstream. Hence the curves Fayoum, the parameters of hydraulic are highly suited for the preliminary PA, head above drain level, the rate of but for cause analysis more data are watertable drawdown and the depth of needed. Figure 5-10 shows the watertable below soil surface against application of this indicator: a number of time after irrigation are presented in curves obtained from monthly Table 5-2. observations in 1995 of draw down data are plotted together with the These curves and parameters can be appropriate Mashtul draw down curves. used to assess field data provided two Form this it may be concluded that the values are given: the watertable depth particular drainage system is performing and the number of days after irrigation satisfactorily. this was achieved. From all the curves reviewed during the If the data point falls within the upper study it became also clear that most of and lower boundary lines, the system the times the design water table depth performs as expected. If the point falls was achieved approximately six days above the line, the drain is not working after an irrigation. This then may serve well, and if it falls below one might as the target value or target rate for conclude that the system or drain was typical drainage systems in Egypt. over designed. Of course other factors

1.60 WTDDC 1.40 Upper b. 1.20 Lower b. 1.00 O1L28/1-92 0.80 O2L28/1-92

0.60 O3L28/1-92

0.40 O1L40/1-92 0.20 O2L40/1-92 Drain level Hydraulic head (m) 0.00 O3L40/1-92

-0.20 O4L40/1-92

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 O1L40/1-93 Days after irrigation O4L11/3-93 O3L22/3-92

Figure 5-7 Water table recession curves of the readings of the study observation wells

57

Ground surface

) 1.30 Initial water table WTDDC 0.80 Upper boundary 0.7 m 1 m Lower boundary 0.30 Drain level 0.4 m Hydraulic head (m -0.20 12345678 Days after irrigation

Figure 5-8 Typical water table drawdown curves for Fayoum

Watertable Drawdown After Irrigation Mash. WTDDC MASHTUL PILOT AREA Mash. Upper B.

drain spacing = 30m hydraulic head = 0.8m Drain depth = 1.7m Mash. Lower B.

1.7 Feb.-950 Ground level 1.5 -0.2 Initial WT level 1.3 -0.4 1.1 -0.6 » 0.5 0.9 -0.8 0.7 -1 0.5 -1.2 Hydraulic head (m) 0.3 -1.4 Watertable Depth (m)

0.1 Drain level » 0.8 m -1.6 -0.1 -1.8 12345678 Days after irrigation

Figure 5-9 Water table draw down curve of Mashtul Pilot area

58 Table 5-2 Different parameters of the Water Table Draw Down Curve Hydraulic head above drain Rate of watertable drawdown Depth of watertable below Days level (m) (m/day) soil surface (m) after Upper Upper Upper irrigation average lower b. average lower b. average lower b. b. b. b. 1 1.06 0.91 1.22 0.34 0.49 0.18 0.19 0.17 0.20 2 0.87 0.74 1.02 0.53 0.66 0.38 0.15 0.14 0.17 3 0.72 0.60 0.85 0.68 0.80 0.55 0.13 0.11 0.14 4 0.59 0.49 0.70 0.81 0.91 0.70 0.10 0.09 0.12 5 0.49 0.39 0.59 0.91 1.01 0.81 0.09 0.07 0.10 6 0.40 0.32 0.49 1.00 1.08 0.91 0.07 0.06 0.08 7 0.33 0.26 0.41 1.07 1.14 0.99 0.06 0.05 0.07 8 0.27 0.21 0.34 1.13 1.19 1.06 0.02 0.01 0.03 The shaded row represents the preferred day of taking a watertable reading.

Mash. WTDDC Watertable Drawdown After Irrigation Mash. Upper B. MASHTUL Pilot Area (OW7) Mash. Lower B. Nov. -94 Dec.-94 drain spacing = 30m hydraulic head = 0.8m Drain depth = 1.7m Feb.-95 Mar.-95 1.7 Apr.-950 Ground level Jun-95 Jul-95 1.5 Aug-95-0.2 Initial WT Depth Sep-95 1.3 -0.4

1.1 -0.6

0.9 -0.8

0.7 -1 Hydraulic head (m) (m)Hydraulic head 0.5 -1.2

0.3 -1.4

0.1 Drain level -1.6 (m) Depth Watertable

-0.1 -1.8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Days after irrigation

Figure 5-10 Application of WTDDC for performance assessment in Mashtul Pilot area

of the indicator: if it is needed to obtain WATERTABLE AS FUNCTION OF AREA a general impression about the This indicator has been used performance assessment in a large area traditionally in Egypt, under guidance of (e.g. a contract area as in EPADP the World Bank. However, it suffers, at procedure), observations could be on a the moment, from clear definition of the grid of 500 x 500 m. If it is needed to period during which the observations decide the need for maintenance or should be taken, and the area to be rehabilitation or a real idea about the considered is not clearly defined. performance assessment of an area the observations should be on a grid of In general, the frequency of smaller scale. measurement depends on the purpose

59 In all cases, all measurement locations Water table as function of time in the grid should be measured This particular method of assessing the preferably on the same day. In this water table behaviour is more suited for research, the data of the 6th day from long-term assessment. The method irrigation is taken as resulted from the aims at assessing the functioning of the watertable draw down curve of the drainage system through trend analysis. study area. An example of the application of trend The data is displayed in contour maps analysis is given in Figure 5-12. Eissa and from these the area under certain et al. (2001) considered various data water table depth can be determined. sets: daily observations, weekly Besides hard statistical data this method observations, monthly observations and also gives a visual image of the extent seasonal observations. In addition, of water logging. from the water table draw down analysis described below, it became clear that If during a critical growing period, under the water table at the 6th day from Egyptian conditions, 75% of the area irrigation was of prime interest. Hence has a water table less than 100 cm the assessment of the water table depth below the surface, it could be at the 6th day from irrigation is shown. considered as having an inadequately Generally this water table depth will be performing drainage system. about 20 cm higher than the water table Appropriate action is then to be taken. depth determined as average monthly Unfortunately most pilot areas yielded or seasonal water table depth. little data that could be used for this type of assessment. Hence there was More details of this procedure for also not enough data to refine the target analysing watertable data are found in values of the criteria to be used. Eissa et al. (2001).

Examples of the visual imagery obtained 5.5 Conclusions and are shown in Figure 5-11 and in Recommendations During the study period, performance assessment objectives, concept, Table 5-3 a calculation of area with definition, terminologies and indicators certain water table depths is given using are identified. Watertable is considered a different target level then described the unique indicator to be used for the above, indicating that a definite target assessment of the drainage system level, at a certain period has not been performance due to its independence determined yet. From Figure 5-11, it is from other factors. noticed that the watertable depths in both figures have a different trend. Also under the DRP project the following While the reading values of the 6th day activities have been achieved: after irrigation are increasing towards the west direction, they decrease in the • Conduct performance assessment for figure of the 10th of June in the northern three requests areas in Giza, direction. Alexandria and Luxor. • Introduce a modified procedure for Table 5-3 shows the percentage of the determination of q-h relations in watertable depth less than 0.70 m irrigated areas with small fields, below soil surface on the 10, 20 and 6th which are dominant in Egypt. day after irrigation in June as well as the • Derive the Water Table Draw Down monthly average for June. There are Curve (WTDDC), and its parameters significant differences between them as an effective indicator for which can give wrong decision for the performance assessment of the remedial of the poor performance of the drainage systems. drainage system. • Application of water Table draw down Curve in some pilot areas in Nile Delta and Fayoum to derive

60 three forms of watertable as derive their ranges, characteristics, indicators to assess the performance usage and applications. of the drainage systems and to

Table 5-3 Different percentages of application of the watertable as function of area indicator Location Watertable depth below soil surface (m) 6th day in June 6/10/1993 20/6/1993 Avg. June-1993 col2-1/2* 0.90 0.98 0.56 0.95 col2-4/5 0.76 0.88 0.65 0.88 col2-5/6 0.80 0.91 0.36 0.81 col2-8/9 0.78 1.12 0.97 1.03 col2-9/10 0.77 0.79 0.27 0.72 col3-1/2 0.61 0.51 0.66 0.59 col3-4/5 0.63 0.44 0.75 0.68 col3-5/6 0.71 0.58 0.65 0.61 col3-8/9 0.49 0.46 0.54 0.49 col3-9/10 0.60 0.61 0.73 0.68 col5-2/3 0.86 0.49 0.60 0.61 col5-3/4 0.67 0.45 0.64 0.55 col5-7/8 0.76 0.25 0.33 0.41 col5-12/13 0.78 0.26 0.36 0.47 col5-21/22 0.79 0.33 0.49 0.47 col5-22/23 0.76 0.37 0.47 0.50 Average 0.73 0.59 0.56 0.65 Total locations 16 16 16 16 number of readings > 0.7m** 11 5 3 5 WT deeper than 0.7 m % 69 31 19 31 * at collector 2 midway between lateral 1 and 2 ** 0.70m is the minimum allowable average watertable depth in Haress Pilot Area

61

N N a) 10-June-1993 b) Sixth day after irrigation

Figure 5-11 Application of the watertable as function of area indicator

Mashtul Pilot Area (OW 1. Unit 1) Seasonal Average Watertable Depth & The Depth at 6 day from Irrigation Drain Spacing = 15 m Drain Depth = 1.2 m

87 90 91 93 94 wint86 sum wint87 sum88 wint88 sum89 wint89 sum wint90 sum wint91 sum92 wint92 sum wint93 sum wint94 sum95

0.20

Seasonal Ground Level average 0.00

-0.20 Depth at 6th Design W.T depth day from -0.40 irrigation

-0.60 Linear (Seasonal -0.80 average)

-1.00

WTD Below Soil Surface (m) Linear Drain Depth (Depth at -1.20 6th day from irrigation) -1.40

Figure 5-12 Application of the watertable as function of time indicator

62 6. Rehabilitation

6.1 Introduction 3. Pipes, which demonstrate permanent overpressure, or are continually, Subsurface drainage systems were blocked with sediment. installed in Egypt to lower the water table, 4. Long term monitoring program of and remove salts from the plant root water tables, drain discharges, crop zone. The pipe drainage installation began yields, and soil and water salinity in Egypt in the 1940s. In the 1960’s, needs to be developed. lateral drains were installed at a fixed spacing of 60 m. Lateral drain spacing Contractors always implement currently varies from 20 to 80 m and rehabilitation works. The definition of depends on specified drainage design rehabilitation says that the rehabilitation criteria and soil hydraulic properties. The is the new construction done by plan of construction subsurface drainage contractors to bring the existing system system by EPADP is shown in Table 2-5. back to its former good functional state. However, there are indications that parts of the originally installed drainage systems Smedema et al. (1996) mentioned that in are not functioning properly. order to assess the need for rehabilitation only two parameters need to be Features of poor system performance considered: the water table depth in time include: reduced hydraulic capacity of the and over an area by certain percentage system; overpressure in the pipes; higher and the soil salinity. That is in addition to Manning’s roughness coefficients in the complaints and maintenance costs. pipes as a result of sedimentation; higher water tables; desalinisation; reduction in crop yields and a longer reclamation Indicators for rehabilitation period (DRI, 1993). The National Drainage Program (NDP) identified general indicators and criteria Many of the areas, which have been for the selection of new areas in need of provided with subsurface drainage system subsurface drainage and gives some since the sixties have problems which are additional indicators and criteria for areas related to sedimentation; the age; water in need for rehabilitation as: logging and salinity. These areas have passed their economical lifetime, which is 1. A water table less than 100 cm depth mostly 26 years. below soil surface in at least 75% of the area. The problems of those areas resulted from 2. Soil salinity (EC) exceeding 4 dS/m at the fact that maintenance is not helping 25 and 50 cm depth below soil any more. Considering, the lifetime of surface. those areas, the materials and tools used 3. Areas where decline in agricultural for implementation by that time and the production (about 20-30%) is concepts and criteria of both planning and reported due to high water table design, then, rehabilitation may be a must and/or saline conditions. (Rady 1993 and Salman 1995). 4. Effect of maintenance: cases where There is an urgent need to precisely intensive maintenance and flushing do identify the areas currently requiring not result in an improvement of the rehabilitation. Four strategies were existing situation. recommended for this process (DRI, 5. Farmers' views and willingness to pay 1993) as follows: with respect to rehabilitation (complaints). 1. Complaints by farmers should be 6. Age of the system. investigated with field observation. 7. Design and installation history. 2. Areas with any failure in the network

should be identified.

63

A joint EPADP/DRI workshop was held on Complaints collection March 1996, on performance assessment The current farmer’s complaints and rehabilitation. It became clear during procedure, can be explained as follows: the workshop, that in order to assess the need for rehabilitation, the following 1. The farmers who have complaints go indicators should be used: to the drainage sub centers at the drainage center and file their 1. The age of the systems; complaints. 2. The number of farmers’ complaints; 2. Submitted the written complaints to 3. Level of water table; the drainage engineer. The complaint 4. Soil salinity; contains the farmer’s name, the 5. Maintenance cost. location of the problem (the village’s name, the number of the collector),

and the nature of the complaint. DRI stared to study these indicators of rehabilitation in 1996 with the exception 3. The drainage engineer collects the of the last one. The maintenance cost was complaints and sends them to the studied by EPADP’s M&E project. The aim drainage center to be studied and of this study was to improve decision- solved. making process on which EPADP can base 4. The drainage centers put the their yearly programmes for rehabilitation. complaints in files and send a The research programme of DRI for standard complaints summary form to rehabilitation was implemented in two the drainage Directorate General. stages, each stage included some indicators. In the second stage of rehabilitation study (DRP) special arrangements have been In the first stage of rehabilitation study, followed to be able to collect complaint three indicators were tested in Santa area data by DRI staff from different drainage (central part of the Middle Delta) centers. The number of complaints for representing one of the old areas (the collectors, laterals and open drains was installation of subsurface drainage system collected on a monthly basis from started 20 years ago). These indicators drainage centers (Table 6-1) in the West, are farmer’s complaints, water table depth Middle, and East Delta, and Middle Egypt and salinity. The farmer’s complaints were for the period 1993 - 1996. These data collected at Santa areas (40,000 fed.) for were tabulated and summarised (Figure a period of five years before the study. At 6-1). the same time the measurements of water table depth and salinity were done for two 6.2 Analysis of Complaints in period of irrigation in midway between two Santa (stage 1 of the study) laterals and in the middle of each collector at both right and left sides. It was observed from the analysis of complaints that 40% of collectors under The research programme for rehabilitation monitoring were working without any in the second stage was implemented in a problems. The main problems observed large scale. DRI focused during this stage for the rest of the collectors were caused on studying two indicators: age of the by high water level and problems of weed drainage system and farmer’s complaints. growth in the open drains. The number of complaints was classified into four classes This chapter describes the results of the as: 1-10, 11-20, 21-30 and 31-40 study that started in 1995 and completed complaints. in 1998.

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Figure 6-1 Average number of complaints 1993-1996

Table 6-1 Overview of type of complaints Total no. of complaints Table 6-2 shows the frequency of No. of collectors with complaints complaints for the different Sub-Centers under study. It was noticed that the Blocked/garbage majority of the collectors with complaints Broken/collapsed do not exceed the first class (1-10 Collectors Sediment complaints). This means that there were no effective problems that lead to Trees/roots rehabilitation of the network. The rest of Blocked manhole the collectors represented by the rest of Open joints the classes mentioned in Table 6-2 were not in need for rehabilitation, even Other though, all these areas were planned for Total no. of complaints rehabilitation by EPADP based on the age No. of laterals with complaints as indicator only. Figure 6-2 shows the collectors with/without complaints. It was Laterals Sediment observed from the figure that Tukh Mazyd, Cut Belkeem and Shubrakass sub centers Other were in most need of rehabilitation according to the complaints by farmers. Total no. of complaints But at the same time, if the low number of Open drains Weed/sediment these complaints per collector was Other considered, one should have recognised that this number was less than 10 for most of the collectors during the last five

65 years. In other words, the number of not significant and these collectors were collected complaints for these areas was not in need for rehabilitation.

Table 6-2 Frequency analysis of complaints numbers of the drainage sub centers of Santa Drainage Center Class of Number of collectors for different Sub Centers Complaints Mehallet Shenrak Shubrakas Ekhnaway Tukh Belkeem Mit Number Rouh Mazyed Haway 1-10 22 28 46 35 42 50 31 11-20 0 0 4 2 8 2 0 21-30 0 0 2 1 2 0 0 31-40 0 0 1 0 0 0 0

90 80 70 60 50 40 30 No. of collectors of No. 20 10 0 Ekhnaway Shubrakas Mehalleyt Tukh Shenrak Belkeem Mit Haway Rouh Mazyed

Coll. with complaints coll. without complaints

Figure 6-2 The relationship between the number of collector's with/without complaints in different sub centers of Santa area

Generally, the results obtained from the 6.3 Analysis of Water Table Santa area revealed that the number of Depth in Santa complaints collected through five years were few compared to the served area. In any irrigated field provided with a Most of these complaints were solved by subsurface drainage system the rate of the sub centers. The total number of water table draw down depends mainly on complaints does not give a real picture soil hydraulic conductivity, drain depth about the need for rehabilitation in an and drain spacing. The desirable water area. In addition one needs to know the table depth is one that creates air water total collectors served by the sub center balance and does not create dry or wet and the number of complaints per stress on the plant roots. collector. It is noticed that the drainage criteria in the present design of all drainage projects in Egypt is based on the steady state 66

Hooghoudt equation. A design discharge for lateral drain is 1 mm/day. At the same 0 BELKEEM Soil Surface Hole 1 time the elevation of the water table -20 Hole 2 Average above drain level is 0.4 m. Then the -40 Average cycle average drain depth equals 1. 4 m below -60 87.5 -80 84 soil surface. The water table should be at 7 about 1 m below soil surface at the design -100 discharge. In areas with upward seepage -120

-140Water table depth (cm) the design discharge is increased by 0.5 1357911141618 or 1 mm/day (only in the Nile Delta). Days after irrigation Water table recession in different sub TUKH MAZYED centers of Santa area are illustrated in 0 Soil Surface Hole 1 Figure 6-3. Generally, it could be -20 Hole 2 Average Average cycle observed from this figure that: for -40 47 63 Belkeem; Tukh Mazyed, Eknaway and -60 Shubraks sub centers, the average water -80 table depth through the whole irrigation -100 cycle was 84 ; 63; 68 ; and 92 cm below -120 soil surface respectively. At the same time -140Water table depth (cm) 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 it was observed that the average water Days after irrigation table depth 6 days after irrigation was EKHNAWAY 87.5, 47, 60.5 and 59 cm below soil 0 Soil Surface Hole 1 surface for the same sub centers, -20 Hole 2 Average respectively. This means that these -40 Average cycle 60.5 collectors were not functioning well -60 68 according to the criteria defined for -80 Egyptian soils. -100 -120

For Mehallet Rouh sub center, it was -140Water table depth (cm) 1357911131517 observed that the average water table Days after irrigation depth for the whole irrigation cycle was 103 cm below soil surface. At the same 0 SHUBRAKAS time the average water table depth was Soil Surface Hole 1 -20 Hole 2 Average 103 cm below soil surface “6 days after -40 Average cycle 59 irrigation”. This means that the water -60 table depth coincides with the criteria -80 92 defined for Egyptian soils. This indicates -100 that the collectors under that sub center -120 were functioning well and were not in -140Water table depth (cm) 1 3 5 7 9 11131517 need for rehabilitation. Days after irrigation

From the above-mentioned results, it can MEHALLET ROUH 0 Soil Surface Hole 1 be said that, the water table draw down -20 Hole 2 Average curve after irrigation is a very important -40 Average cycle tool for defining to what extent recession -60 takes place. If the water table was still -80 103 103 high 6 days after irrigation this means -100 that the system was in need of -120 rehabilitation (main open drainage system -140Water table depth (cm) 1357911131517 is performing well). At the same time the Days after irrigation open drainage system must be maintained because if there was any backward flow to the subsurface drainage system it would create many problems. Figure 6-3 Water table recession in different sub centers of Santa area during irrigation cycle

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ground water during the study was about Salinity 2.0 dS/m in all sub centers. This means The electrical conductivity (EC) in dS/m that the salinity of the water table does was measured simultaneously with the not indicate any need for rehabilitation. water table depth in two auger holes for each sub center of the Santa area. The 6.4 Spatial Distribution of Age location of the measurement point was and Complaints in Different chosen at the midway between two Drainage Directorates (stage laterals. The average values of salinity ranged 1.59-1.69, 1.75-1.87, 1.72-2.64, 2 of the study) 1.8-2.57 and 1.59-2.86 for Belkeem, Tukh The distribution of complaints in the Mazyed, Ekhnaway, Shubrakas and period 1993-1996, per 10,000 fed (Figure Mehallet Rouh sub center respectively. At 6-4) shows that for 75% of the the same time, it was observed that observations the yearly number of salinity increased with time after complaints of the Drainage Centers is 35 irrigation. This comes from the fact that or less. The 90% cumulative frequency the receding of the water table with time occurs at approx. 45 complaints per year, makes the concentration of salts in the see Technical Report 103 (DRI, 2000a). water table increase as a result of evaporation. The average salinity of

70 100%

90% 60 80%

50 70%

60% 40 50% 30 Frequency 40%

20 30% 20% 10 10%

0 0% 5 101520253035404550556065More Complaints per year per 10000 fed

Frequency Cumulative %

Figure 6-4 Frequency distribution of complaints for the period 1993-1996

of the design areas) for the Drainage Complaints related to the year of Center. installation The average year of installation of a The Drainage Centers were arranged Drainage Center depends on the year of according to their average installation installation of the individual Design Areas year in five groups: 1960-1977 (areas (contract areas) within each Drainage more than 20 years old), 1978-1982, Center. The average year of installation 1983-1987, 1988-1992, and 1993-1997. was included in the complaints survey and An age of 20 years has been chosen was checked with the installation data because that is the period that farmers from the M&E database. From this have to pay the instalments for their database the installation year of the subsurface drainage system and it is design areas was taken and a weighted considered the lifetime of such a system in average was calculated (based on the size Egypt. For each group the average number of complaints in the period 1993-

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1996 was calculated. From Figure 6-5, it is years old. The reason for this could be clear that the Drainage Centers more that those areas are located in the south recently constructed have fewer of the Nile Delta, the highest part, with complaints than the older ones. The oldest stable clay soils, where less problems with areas, constructed between 1960-1977, water logging and salinity are to be seem to have a similar number of expected and where no drainage complaints as the systems of 10 to 15 envelopes are needed.

40

35

30

25

20

15 per 10,000 fed

10

Average complaints/yr (93-96) 5

0 1960-1977 1978-1982 1983-1987 1988-1992 1993-1997 Construction Period

Figure 6-5 Complaints related to system age

6.5 Conclusions and addition one needs to know the total Recommendations collectors served by the sub center and the number of complaints per collector. The main conclusion of the Workshop on Performance Assessment and The water table draw down curve after Rehabilitation (Smedema et al., 1996) irrigation is a very important tool for was that Rehabilitation can be considered defining to what extent recession takes equal to first time installation and that to place. If the water table was still high 6 assess the need for rehabilitation, water days after irrigation this means that the table depth and salinity indicators can be system was in need of rehabilitation (main used, with the standard design criteria as open drainage system is performing well). boundary values. The only difference At the same time the open drainage between rehabilitation and the installation system must be maintained because if of new systems is that the assessment of there were any backward flow to the complaints by farmers needs to precede subsurface drainage system it would the assessment of the other indicators. create many problems.

The results obtained from the Santa area To select (part of) sub center areas which revealed that the number of complaints are in need of rehabilitation, one could collected through five years were few simply list the Drainage Centers with the compared to the served area. Most of highest number of complaints per 10,000 these complaints were solved by the sub fed and start the pre-drainage survey in centers. The total number of complaints those areas. The result of the pre- does not give a real picture about the drainage survey would actually determine need for rehabilitation in an area. In 69 if rehabilitation is needed, based on the inspection of the open drains (water measured water tables and the soil level, weed, blockage), manholes salinity. (water level, sediment, damage), fields (waterlogged, crop condition, Not all the Drainage Centers with a high salt) and interviews with the farmers number of complaints do necessarily have who logged most of the complaints; the oldest Design Areas. The farmers in • Based on the rapid appraisal select the Egypt are paying for the installation of the areas where the problems can not be subsurface drainage systems. During 20 solved with (improved) maintenance; years after the construction instalments • Start a standard pre-drainage are paid by the farmers to the investigation in the selected areas in government through taxes levied by the order to determine the need for a agricultural co-operatives. The subsurface drainage system. The maintenance departments of EPADP decision should be based on the same remain responsible for the maintenance of criteria, used in new areas (without a systems during their lifetime. It would be drainage system). If needed, install difficult to rehabilitate (i.e. construct a new drainage systems as needed; new drainage system) in areas that • Implement the M&E improved haven't been repaid completely by the complaint assessment system in all the farmers, unless EPADP recognises that the areas, provided with subsurface original drainage system was not drainage systems in Egypt. The designed, installed, or maintained well complaint assessment system enough and waives the farmers the developed by the M&E project includes remaining instalments. detailed information on the location of the complaint source and the reason The complaint information from EPADP for the complaint. The results are used for this study was available only per stored in the M&E database; Drainage Center. Each Drainage Center • Repeat the exercise with the improved contains older and newer Design Areas complaints data from the M&E and it is not clear which Design Areas database. Show the spatial distribution generated the complaints listed for the of the complaints from the design Drainage Center. A more accurate areas instead of the Drainage Centers. complaint assessment can only be made when for each recorded complaint the associated Design Area is known as well. In that case pre-drainage investigation could start at specific Design Areas instead of in the whole Drainage Center.

The following recommendations for drainage complaint assessment can be made:

• Start a rapid appraisal in the Drainage Centers, which have an average age of more than 20 years. It is clear that that 75% of the yearly complaints observations of the Drainage Centers have an average number of complaints of 35 or less. Therefore, based on the data presented in Technical Report No. 103 (DRI, 2000a), as a first guideline, the following areas should be selected for their investigation to rehabilitation: South Ibrahemia, Zagazeg, Meet Ghamr, South Aga, Sheben el Kom, and South Kafr el Zayyat. The rapid appraisal should include the visual

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Research on Drainage Technology

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7. Drain Envelope

7.1 Introduction Since 1992 pre-wrapped synthetic envelope materials made from New technologies in machinery and polypropylene in the form of sheets are developed drainage materials have used in Egypt. Polypropylene (PP) as opened better possibilities for the envelope showed promising results under application of subsurface drainage Egyptian soil conditions if well designed, systems. In Egypt, numerous studies were manufactured, wrapped, transported, made to test existing drain envelope handled and constructed. Factors such as materials. Since 1978 the Drainage storage in direct sunshine and quality Research Institute (DRI) has been control tests are taken into consideration. performing research on synthetic drain Guidelines for design, manufacturing, envelopes in approximately eight pilot wrapping, storage, transportation, areas and in the laboratory with handling, in the field and construction of permeameters. Locally produced materials pre-wrapped coils with synthetic envelope were first introduced in the mid-eighties. under Egyptian conditions were The Egyptian Public Authority for Drainage established. Projects (EPADP) investigated the local production market of synthetic envelope An intensive study of drain envelope had material in 1990 and found sufficient been carried out since 1992 and continued material available to start introducing during the DRP and DRP2 projects. During synthetic envelopes in the construction of the inception phase of DRP Project the drainage systems. By 1995, EPADP study objectives of the drain envelope officially accepted synthetic drain research under DRP have been formulated envelopes as the standard for drain as follows: protection and prevention of invasion of sediment in the pipes. After 10 to 15 a. For design and selection years of continuous research by both procedures EPADP and DRI, synthetic envelopes are now accepted in Egypt, resulting in Identification of criteria to potential savings of 200 LE/fed (US$ determine the need for drain 130/ha), compared to gravel drain envelopes under certain soil envelopes, on the construction of drains if conditions; drain envelope protection is necessary. Preparing guidelines for design Drainage envelope materials have a dual of drain envelopes for use by function in the efficiency of subsurface EPADP. drainage systems. They are used to b. For laboratory research protect drain tubes against massive soil particle invasion and to facilitate the flow Testing and selecting the most of water into drainpipes by creating a promising local synthetic more permeable zone around drains. envelope material(s); Depending on the required function of the drain envelope, filtering, enhancement of Evaluating the performance of hydraulic performance, or mechanical/ the synthetic envelope samples construction related, a certain type of of excavations in both pilot material is selected. When the type of areas; material is known specific design criteria Evaluating of the Egyptian are then described for gravel and Standards of synthetic synthetic envelopes. All procedures are related to experience with those in Egypt. envelopes which prescribe synthetic materials properties Laboratory tests have played an important and handling of synthetic role in deriving standards for selection and design of drain envelopes. fabrics.

73 c. For field research without envelope. The main reason for this was thought to be poor construction Evaluating the mechanical and of the 30 cm long concrete collector pipes hydraulic functions of synthetic (joints covered with tar impregnated envelopes used in Haress and burlap only), but no adequate explanation Mit Kenana pilot areas; for the same observation with the PVC laterals could be given. Nevertheless, the Evaluating the synthetic same report concludes that the previously envelope materials, which will used criteria of no need for an envelope be used in the new areas to be when the clay percentage is greater than implemented by EPADP. 40% was on the conservative side and 7.2 History of Drain Envelope could be lowered to greater than 30%1. Research in Egypt Since 1978 DRI has constructed with The construction of subsurface drains and EPADP several Pilot Areas in the Delta with the application of drain envelopes started different synthetic drain envelope in Egypt in the 1930’s in the old lands of materials (Sherishra, Mashtul (gravel the Nile Valley and Delta. This land is only), Harrara, Sarabioum, El Serw, characterised with cohesive soil of high Haress, Mit Kenana, and Abu Matamir). clay content and good structure. The concrete tile drains were laid manually In 1980, several envelope materials were and the gaps between the tiles were evaluated at Sherishra pilot area. The covered with gravel envelope material. most important conclusions were that the Later, when mechanisation of tile laying prewrapped drain tubes with synthetic took place on the scale of pilot areas envelopes did not show serious clogging (1960-1970) no envelope materials were problems as observed with concrete used (DRI, 1992a). Large-scale drainage drainpipes with and without gravel projects began in the Nile Delta in 1970. envelope (DRI, 1982).

Due to the size of drainage projects at A study has been carried out in 1981 at that time and the continuous increase in Mashtul pilot area where graded gravel gravel cost, it was necessary to take into was used in one treatment in heavy clay account the real need for gravel. The soil. The results indicated that gravel criteria used by EPADP involved using improved the hydraulic conditions in the gravel envelope in areas with soils having drain vicinity (DRI, 1983). a clay content of 40% or less. In practice, the need for drain envelope was linked Tests in the Sarabiom pilot area (DRI, with drain spacing. The criteria adopted by 1990a & 1992a) revealed that thin sheet EPADP are: of Typar wrapped around drain tubes had higher entrance resistance than (locally • No need for envelope at drain spacing produced) voluminous polypropylene of 40 m (clay soil) or less, materials. All materials were successful in • at drain spacing of 50 and 60 m a preventing sediment entering the pipe. drain envelope is needed. Experiments in the El Serw area, the pilot In 1978 DRI carried out a study to area of the ISAWIP Project, showed that recommend specifications for gravel knitted socks tended to get blocked over application in both the Nile Delta and time (clogging). Voluminous PP products Upper Egypt. The use of crushed gravel as locally produced did not show this envelope material in connection with soil tendency (DRI, 1992a; Metzger et al., texture in the investigated areas was 1992). suggested. An intensive study of drainpipe silting was carried out (Abdel Dayem Laboratory experiments started in 1987 1985) in the Nile Delta. Contrary to by DRI with upward flow permeameters expectations it was observed that in the heavy textured soils of the Eastern Nile 1 Delta considerable sediment was found in Confirmed in the Abu Matamir study (Abdel Hady et both the concrete and plastic lateral drains al. 2000).

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(Figure 7-1) in which various soil-envelope to process the fibres to sheets. The main combinations were tested with unstable results of this survey were: soils. In September 1989, investigations of potential synthetic envelope materials • Synthetic fibres are not produced in for the Haress and Mit Kenana pilot areas Egypt but several companies can were started (DRI, 1992a). produce non-woven needle punched sheets from imported fibres and are In 1990, EPADP decided to consider the doing so already. application of synthetic drainage materials • Not enough wastage of the carpet as an alternative envelope material and industry is available to prepare DRI started work to answer the following envelope material in sufficient questions: quantity, hence virgin material is to be used; 1. Which synthetic envelope material (s) • The companies differ in their facilities are suitable for Egyptian soil for producing these materials. conditions? 2. What are the possibilities to produce To further stimulate the introduction of synthetic envelope material locally, synthetic materials for drain protection, and is it economically feasible? EPADP ordered a wrapping machine from 3. What would be the most suitable Horman Co. in the Netherlands and technology to wrap the envelope installed it at the Tanta pipe factory of material around drainpipes? EPADP. The machine was initially used for wrapping of about 40 km of drainpipes for the Haress and Mit Kenana pilot areas. Subsequently it was used for all projects of EPAPD and more than one billion meter of drainpipe has been wrapped to date.

After assistance to setting up the envelope-wrapping machine at Tanta Testing drains factory (DRI, 1992a), DRI proceeded with with and drafting standards for the selection, use and storage of synthetic envelope without materials in Egypt (DRI, 1994): envelope at Abu Matamir • The effect of sunshine radiation on storage of pre-wrapped drain pipe coils under Egyptian climate conditions was studied and reported (Omara and Abdel Hadi 1997); • The need for drain envelopes in soils with less than 30% clay was confirmed in the Abu Matamir test area (Abdel Hadi et al. 2000); • A publication with guidelines for the Need, Design, Quality control, Transportation, Handling, and Construction of drain envelopes was A survey was made in 1990 among a produced (Vlotman and Omara 1998). number of Egyptian companies to assess An example of application was given the availability of synthetic materials that for the three areas of Trenchless could serve as drain envelope. The aim of Experiment (Omara and Abdel Hadi this survey was to determine what types 1998). of synthetic fibres are available and/or produced in Egypt and what facilities exist

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over the thin materials, which are susceptible to clogging.

Dabiya and Sarabiom areas. It is strongly recommended to use drain envelope with such structure-less sandy soils of both areas. Polypropylene envelope performed much better than tape fabric and Typar thin envelope.

Harrara area. The soils showed lower stability and it is recommended to use drain envelope. Imported polypropylene envelope showed better performance than polyester, polyacrylic, knitted Big “O” sock and Typar.

El-Serw area (ISAWIP). The soils tested showed different trends and stability. Therefore, it is recommended only in case of sandy loam soils to use drain envelope. All tested polypropylene envelopes performed well in comparison with knitted Big “O” sock, which is not recommended for such types of soils.

Figure 7-1 Upward flow permeameters in Haress Pilot Area. In 1992 the Haress pilot DRI laboratory area in the western part of the Nile Delta was constructed to test various synthetic envelope materials under field conditions. 7.3 Laboratory Experiments Drains without envelope material were constructed as well. Seven months, two Several drain envelopes were tested years, and five years after construction, against different soil samples excavation of the laterals were performed characterised by various soil textures for all treatments and replications. Virgin collected from different drainage project envelope materials and exhumed areas (i.e., Sherishra and Blad El-Aid, materials of the second and third Dabiya and Serapium, Harrara, El Serw excavation were tested in the laboratory (ISAWIP), Haress and Mit Kenana). The with a composite soil of the area. The most important findings of each area are most important results from the as follows: permeameter tests are that the voluminous needle punched materials The Sherishra and Blad El-Aid areas. The (PP290, PP310 and PP360) were heavy clay soils (clay content 60-70%), performing better than the thin woven such as those from Blad El-Aid do not (Big ‘O’ Sock) and spun bonded materials need drain envelope. However, these soils (Typar). Clogging of the envelope material are sensitive to erosion, due to their weak was observed in one replication of Typar structure. Use of drain envelope is in the laboratory, but this was not strongly recommended with unstable soils significant enough to conclude a clogging of the Sherishra area due to their poor danger based on laboratory results. The structure and low stability. Both thin pore size indices (O90) of the tested knitted Big “O” sock and voluminous mix synthetic envelope were tested also before of synthetic and flax fibres performed well and after construction to determine if with the Sherishra soils if the soil is not there was any clogging after. Significant too fine. The fine sandy soils of the increases of the pore size indices were Sherishra area (rich in CaCO3), the observed with the exhumed materials voluminous drain envelopes are preferable when compared with the virgin materials.

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The reasons for the increase in O90 could hydraulic indicators concluded that the be: imported thin envelope (socks) and the local thick envelope (pp360) gave the best • the way the exhumed materials were results. The local thick envelope (pp260) prepared for the test. Although the and the imported thin envelope (Typar) utmost care was taken not to stretch gave the worst hydraulic performance. the samples (washing out of sediment comprised soaking in pure water for 24 7.4 Field Experiments in Pilot hours, draining by gravity and drying Areas in the room) some accidental stretching could have taken place; The selection and design of the drain • the wrapping process might have envelope include two aspects of a affected the O90 (i.e. the envelope successful application: proper handling might be exposed to tensile stress and construction techniques. For this during the wrapping process); reason field trials should comprise the • the material was exposed to stress following distinctly different assessments: during installation causing stretch (most likely in the trencher box or at 1. pre-drainage soil and water the moment the pipe leaves the investigations. All factors that affect trencher box). the performance of drain envelopes and that determine the need for a In an area outside the pilot area it was drain envelope are to be determined observed (1998) during video inspection and properly documented such that immediately after construction that fibres years later valid judgements can be floated in the water. The materials used made by scientists not directly were recently manufactured and different involved and not familiar in detail with local conditions; from those used in the Haress pilot area. This loss of fibres may also cause an 2. construction quality control monitoring. Improper handling of increase in the O90. envelope material may lead to Mit Kenana Area. In December 1992, segregation of gravel particles or synthetic envelopes were first introduced damage to organic and fabric in Egypt on a large scale to evaluate their envelops. Use of improper machinery, hydraulic and mechanical functions at the construction under unfavourable soil- Mit Kenana Pilot area. Mit Kenana is a water conditions (smearing), in- representative pilot area for the eastern adequately protected joints and fringes of the Nile Delta. This study is couplers, and improper back fill dealing with laboratory and field procedures, etc. can lead to high verification, performance and assessment entrance resistance and/or sediment of two imported thin and five local thick in the pipe. Hence it is essential that synthetic envelopes. The measurements detailed monitoring of what is actually were performed for four years from happened during the construction summer 1993 until winter 1996. Different should take place, and this needs to criteria and indicators were used to be documented in published reports; evaluate the mechanical and hydraulic 3. post-construction quality control performance in both laboratory and field. investigations. The very first The laboratory results indicated that thin investigation after construction is sheet and fine envelope materials have a grade, elevation and integrity control tendency for blocking and clogging. The of the constructed drain lines. This non-woven needle punched PP materials may be done by rodding or pulling an showed better performance than thin inspection cage through the pipe, by sheets, however they both allow root video inspection and with elevation penetration in the field. The physical grade control equipment. When these properties of envelope materials seemed equipment are not available to change from year to year, especially excavations either randomly or at the O90, which will affect the envelope locations where construction material performance with time. The field

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Synthetic envelope design criteria (Dierickx 1992):

• 1 ≤ O90/d90 ≤ 2.5 for envelopes thickness ≤ 1 mm (filter function) • 1 ≤ O90/d90 ≤ 5 for envelopes thickness ≥ 5 mm (filter function) • O90 ≥ 200 µm (200 µm = 0.2 mm, hydraulic criterion to avoid clogging risk)

observations make one suspect poor laterals without envelope, as the entrance quality construction, should be done; resistance (re) and hence the three 4. performance assessment to assess parameters cannot be considered entrance resistance and sediment comparable or exchangeable performance occurrence. By installing observation assessment parameters; each has its own wells at appropriate locations (one merits or demerits. with access into the pipe, one just outside the envelope, one just outside The entrance resistance of the laterals the trench wall and one midway without envelope is less than the entrance between parallel drains) and resistance of the laterals with envelope measuring drain discharge at the materials. It is the same for the resistance same time as the other observations, coefficient, which is opposite to the entrance resistance may be assessed. drainage theories. This might be due to Sedimentation may be observed at the used materials which are fine based manholes, or with video inspection on the ratio of O90/d90 <1, which would equipment. It was found in the Haress lead to clogging or less than desirable pilot area that at least 6 replications hydraulic properties of the synthetic of measurement are necessary to end material compared to the surrounding soil. up with at least three valid or usable However, the trend of the entrance replications for assessment. resistance data of the laterals without envelope materials is going up, which

indicates that the entrance resistance is Haress Pilot Area increasing with time. This confirms the The study included five treatments where fact that these laterals need envelopes to drains were provided with synthetic decrease the entrance resistance but not materials (without envelope, needle with the O90/d90 ratios used, but rather punched PP290 (O90= 290 micron), PP310 ratios > 1. (O90= 310 micron), PP360 (O90= 360 , , micron), knitted Big O Sock (O90= 100 The results of the resistance coefficient ae micron) and Typar (O90= 90 micron) show that the Big’O’Sock had the highest which is a heat spun-bonded material. relative entrance resistance compared with PP-360 and PP-310. However, all Field tests showed that drains wrapped values were greater than typical values with different materials, seven months, mentioned in the literature, which would three and five years after installation, are mean that all used envelopes would have all essentially free of sediments. been classified as poor to very poor Measurements of hydraulic entrance performing. Yet, in none of the areas, resistance were used to evaluate the yield reduction or waterlogging was performance of the synthetic envelope observed. There were also no significant materials. Elaborate screening procedures amounts of sediment in the lateral drains. were used with the field data for the final It would therefore appear that the criteria analysis (Karaman et al. 1998). PP-310 published by Dieleman and Trafford (FAO, envelope performed better than PP-360 1976) need review. envelope and both of them had also better performance than the Big “O” socks. The Mit Kenana Pilot area ratio of entrance head loss and total head Similar results are reported, although loss (h /h ) and the resistance coefficient e t definite answers are difficult to derive due (a ) did not show the same behaviour e to the multiple objectives of the research amongst different envelopes, and the at Mit Kenana, which makes it hard to

78 separate which result can be attributed to Abu Matamir drain envelope differences only. Two Four collector drains were selected in Abu imported materials and five locally Matamir area in which clay percentage produced needle punched materials were varied between 5-50%. At each collector tested at Mit Kenana. The thin imported some shorter lateral drains (max. length material (Big’O’Sock) and the locally 100m) without envelope were constructed produced thick needle punched envelope adjacent to the drains with synthetic material (PP360) seemed to perform best envelope. The lateral discharge was hydraulically, while Typar and locally measured for each pair of laterals, and produced PP260 perform least also these drains were inspected by hydraulically (higher entrance resistance). rodding and video camera equipment. All materials seemed to perform well in Figure 7-2 shows an example of one pair prevention of fine sedimentation, while no of lateral drains in which the discharge of clogging of the envelope material was the lateral with envelope is higher than observed. the lateral without. The results confirmed the need for drain envelope at clay percentage less than 30%.

Lat. no. = 11 L = 100 m 'No env' Lat. no. = 12 L = 197 m 'with env.' 16

14

12

10

8

6 discharge (mm/d) 4

2

0 07/07/96 06/08/96 05/09/96 05/10/96 04/11/96 04/12/96 03/01/97 02/02/97 04/03/97 03/04/97 03/05/97 02/06/97 02/07/97 01/08/97 31/08/97 30/09/97 Date

Figure 7-2 Lateral discharge at Abu Matamir Area

7.5 Design Guidelines for coarser or thicker filter material, more Synthetic Envelopes in Egypt economical. Based on the typical range of problems soils, on typical Egyptian soils Often it is not practical to design a and on the typical characteristics of soil different envelope for each drainage unit, types the relevant d90 ranges for Egypt and certainly where the availability of were determined (Figure 7-3). Detailed locally manufactured synthetic envelopes design of synthetic envelopes with is still in its early stages, it is desirable to Egyptian Delta soils showed that a too limit the number of synthetic materials for large range of soils is not practical use with drain envelopes. However, for (Vlotman and Omara, 1998), and it was most western countries (USA and Europe), found that several classes are needed to there is such an abundance of synthetic limit the required number of standard filters available that designing site-specific synthetic envelopes (Table 7-1). envelopes is quite feasible, and, in case of

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Table 7-1 Ranges of selected d90 values of Egyptian soils for determination of O90 of the drain envelope material (after Vlotman and Omara 1998) d90 (Figure 7-3) Base soil description

< 60 µm fine soils > 30% clay: no need for envelope 60 - 200 µm soil range 1; standard synthetic envelope No 1 with O90 = 200 – 600 µm 200 - 500 µm soil range 2; standard synthetic envelope No 2 with O90 = 500 – 1,250 µm 500 – 3,000 µm soil range 3: broad range individual design necessary: use median d90 as lower limit and 2.5 * d90 as upper limit. > 3,000 µm gravel soils; no envelope needed

If it is known in advance that only d90 is closer to the fine or coarser synthetic envelopes are used and previous boundary of the ranges indicated in Figure experience was obtained in the area with 7-3, we will be able to make a better synthetic envelopes, a soil investigation judgement on the acceptability of offered which gives us the d90 based on sieve geotextiles for the drain envelope. analysis only could be enough (no hydrometer analysis needed). To use one, 7.6 Manufacturing of Synthetic or all five, of the methods to determine Envelopes in Egypt envelope need, we also need to know the Plasticity Index (PI), the hydraulic Approximately 11 synthetic materials conductivity, the percentage clay, and the (commercially available geotextiles) are SAR or ESP of the soil moisture extract. used world wide for drain envelopes. Each This is true in cases when we have no of these materials can be made from one previous experience with synthetic of nine polymers. The manufacturing envelopes in the area. However, it was process has four distinct steps: 1 - fiber recommended not to use a synthetic fabric preparation; 2 - web formation; 3 - web bonding; and finally, 4 - post treatment. with an O90 < 200 µm, and that if some clogging risk is accepted an O = 100 µm This can result in a considerable number of 90 different quality envelope materials for might be used. Since the O90/d90 ratio should be > 1 we are essentially not nonwoven needle punched envelope material. interested in soils that have a d90 < 100 - 200 µm. Depending on the process used by the The coarsest particle that can be manufacturers in Egypt, each determined with the hydrometer is the one manufacturer will develop their own based on the reading at one minute: procedures to achieve the desired O90 having a diameter of ± 0.026 mm (26 ranges indicated in Figure 7-3, as well as µm). The finest particle, which can be to meet the hydraulic criterion and various determined from sieving, is generally mechanical strength requirements, in the 0.074 mm, but sieves down to 0.034 mm most competitive way. EPADP has, for the exist (US Standard Sieve set). As it is not time being, selected the needle punched non-woven PP fabric as the most desirable likely that geotextiles with O90 < 100 µm will be recommended, determination of the for application with subsurface drainage d can be done for most cases by sieving based on DRI recommendations. Points 90 that need to be considered when preparing only. If d90 < 100 µm we can safely assume it concerns a clay soil with more for the production of synthetic envelope than 30% clay. material are: stretch and percentage of oil added should be minimal; tenacity and percentage of elongation of the fabrics; It is important to know the range of d90 crimp of fibres per cm (waves per cm); values in the area where a drainage 2 system is going to be constructed. By fibre length; punches per cm ; treating the knowing whether the median value of the fibres against UV; density of the material

80 in gm/cm3; and, quantity of needles per EPADP and has produced all pre-wrapped cm2. synthetic envelope material since that time. DRI performed various tests with the Pre-wrapped loose materials (PLM) as machine to assess locally produced used in the Netherlands and Belgium was materials (DRI, 1992a). DRI proceeded not recommended for Egypt. Rather with drafting standards for the selection, wrapping of sheets, using the principles of use and storage of synthetic envelope pre-wrapping loose materials with yarn, materials in Egypt. The standard provides guidelines for:

Recommended O90: • storage and transportation Soil range 1: 200 - 600 µm requirements of rolls of the Soil range 2: 500 - 1250 µm polypropylene sheet material (non- Soil range 3: to be woven, needle punched); determined • storage and transportation of the pre- individually but wrapped 80 mm diameter drainpipes; O90 > 500 µm • sampling of the material for laboratory tests; • sample preparation (conditioning); and was recommended because the method is • the test for the thickness more flexible and easier for maintenance determination, the mass per unit area and operation and it can be used for all determination and the pore size index pipe diameters (up to 200 mm outside (the O90 by dry sieving with sand diameter). In September 1991 the fractions). Horman band wrapping machine BWK 200T arrived at the Tanta pipe factory of

100% 60 µm 90% fine soils: 80% clay > 30% no envelope 500 µm 3000 µm 70% Recommended O90:

60% 200 µm 1 Soil range 1: 200 - 600 µm 50% Soil range 2: 500 - 1250 µm

40% Grav el Soil range 3: to be determined 2 3 cumulative % passing 30% individualy but O90 > 500 µm 20% clay 30 %

10%

0% 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 particle size in mm

Figure 7-3 Ranges of selected d90 values for use in the Egyptian Nile Delta

7.7 Installation of Pre-Wrapped for drain construction if gravel is to be Drain Tubes in Egypt used for envelope material. Firstly, the maximum diameter pipe that can be laid Installation of drains and drain envelopes by the V-plough and the vertical plough is can be done by hand or by machines. approximately 125 mm, which does not Both trenchers and trenchless machines allow placement of a gravel envelope with can lay the drain and envelope a minimum thickness of 75 mm. Secondly, simultaneously. It is not advisable to the flowability of gravel envelope material consider trenchless methods (V-plough) in the funnel (which may result in

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stagnation of gravel supply) is lower than Tensile > 80 lbs (ASTM 1682) or > with trenchers, which will limit the chance strength2 6 kN/m on successful placement of gravel Tensile > 6 kN/m envelopes with trenchless installation strength methods. Synthetic envelopes can be laid joints conveniently with both trench and trenchless methods. Joint > 150 mm in longitudinal overlap direction, join-ed by tape or A factor that reduced the potential of sewing failure of the envelope was to not start Tear > 200 N (45 lbs., ASTM D- pumping from the subsurface drains strength 1777, NB this procedure is during construction, as was experienced in (Grab-) for textiles, not necessarily Pakistan (Vlotman et al. 1999). This geotextiles) prevented initial high gradients and the Puncture > 5.5 N for Class B initial inflow of sediment immediately resistance geotextiles, according following construction was reduced. By AASHTO M288-90. (ASTM starting up the pumping of the new D-4833-88) system slowly during construction (i.e. reducing the water table to drain level Weathering After exposure the over a period of say one week), high geotextile should still meet gradients near the drain and envelope are the minimum requirements prevented and the trench back fill can as above. Generally UV consolidate slowly, preventing influx of deterioration takes place after the material has fines into the drainpipe and reducing the 2 formation of sinkholes substantially. To received 800 MJ/m of overcome the problems experienced in Mit sunlight. Egypt receives approx. 6.86 GJ/m2 Kenana, the speed of the trencher was 2 kept high (5m/min), and the trench was annually. Hence 800 MJ/m back filled immediately by pushing soil on is reached after 42 days of the trencher box, which would slide down average radiation. in the trench, preventing it from collapsing. Under normal Egyptian Class B geotextiles are used with smooth conditions farmers will backfill the trench. graded surfaces having no sharp, angular Also essential for the successful working projections and sharp, angular aggregate of geotextile is good contact between base is not used. Compaction requirements are soil and the fabric (Koerner et al. 1996). light (<95% AASHTO T99) and trenches Gaps tended to fill with mud (i.e. fine are less than 3 m in depth. Class A sediments) and clog the geotextile. geotextiles are used where installation stresses are higher than Class B 7.8 Quality Control applications (i.e. very coarse sharp One can design the perfect drain envelope angular aggregate is used, a heavy degree based on the foregoing criteria, but many of compaction [> 95% of AASHTO T99] is things can still go wrong during transport specified, or the depth of the trench is and installation of the drain envelope. greater than 3 m [10 ft].). Class A Therefore, apart from the retention and materials require puncture strength > hydraulic design criteria the synthetic 17.7 N (AASHTO M288-90). material also needs to comply with a number of mechanical and strength It should be noted that it is normally the criteria (tentative values): duty of the manufacturer to provide the details of material characteristics, based on routine testing performed by the manufacturer. As the status of the use of

2 6 kN/m is a minimum value for drain envelope application. It should be noted that for other applications of synthetic generally higher values are required (i.e. > 10 kN/m)

82 geotextiles in Egypt is still in its early and maintenance program will protect the development, DRI assists with obtaining drainage investment. Flushing, or jetting, some of the necessary material can be done at high (50 bar), medium and properties, as well as, arrange quality low (20 bar) pressures. Flushing drains control tests of the materials for the with high-pressure water jets are a proven immediate future. For regular use and method of flushing soil and removing specification of geotextiles as envelope chemical deposits and plant roots from material EPADP will have to come to an drains in the Netherlands and the USA. Jet agreement with the various manufacturers cleaning may also improve the functioning as far as quality control of the material of some drain envelopes as the jets force delivered. Materials may be tested for water out through the drain perforations. strength characteristics. The action is similar to “developing” a well. However, in drains without an In view of some observations made in the envelope, or those with a gravel envelope, literature concerning the weathering of it was found that high pressure jetting the geotextiles, and the effects of both could lead to increased inflow of sun-light and high temperatures on sediments (DRI, 2000c). Iron ochre may material properties it is not recommended be removed in some cases by jet cleaning, that geotextile be stored under any but in other cases, it must be removed by condition for long periods. Koerner (1994) chemical treatment. Grass et al. (1975) recommended that geotextiles should not describe the removal of oxides of iron and be exposed to sunlight for more than 14 manganese (black deposits in drains) days. No exact duration was mentioned using sulphurous acid. Sulphurous acid is for storage, but it would seem that a strong reducing acid made by combining storage less than a year should be used as sulphur dioxide gas and water inside a the initial guideline. DRI performed a drain, but may have downstream study to obtain more information on this environmental impact and should (Omara and Abdel-Hadi 1997). One of the therefore be used cautiously, or not. most relevant findings of this research was that pre-wrapped coils can be stored 7.10 Costs of Synthetic Materials in direct sunshine for a maximum period in Egypt of about five months in winter and three months in summer. EPADP has constructed up to June 1998 around 382,000 feddans with subsurface All efforts in selecting and designing an drainage systems at a total cost of EGP appropriate drain envelope may be in 214 million. From 1998 - 2012 EPAPD vain, unless proper attention is being paid foresees construction of drainage systems to quality control during wrapping of the in another 1,194,000 feddans at an envelope around the drainpipe, during estimated cost of 1,771 million EGP transport of pre-wrapped drainpipes, and (EPADP 1998). Presently EPADP installs during handling in the field. Under no approximately 70,000 fed/yr. In the 5- condition should it be allowed that drain year plan of 2007 - 2012, this production envelopes with holes are being installed. is estimated to be 100,000 fed/yr. It takes only one hole to render a complete section of the drainage system EPADP determined the costs of drain non-functional because of sedimentation construction for pipes without envelope on in the drainpipe. Suggestions to assure 1127 LE/km pipe, for a pipe with a the integrity of the drain envelope by standard gravel envelope (5 cm around an using proper stitching and/or sewing 80 mm nominal diameter pipe) 5,145 techniques, as well as field lifting LE/km and for pipes with a synthetic techniques are given by Vlotman and envelope 3,127 LE/km (DEMPIV 1995). Omara (1998). This was based on the average production rate of trencher machines manufactured 7.9 Envelope Maintenance between 1990 – 1995 (production without envelope and with synthetic envelope was Regular inspection and evaluation of the taken the same at 353.85 m/h, while performance of the drains and the production with gravel envelope is only implementation of a regular inspection 147.49 m/h). Assuming that on average

83 there is 100 m of lateral drain installed of the HFG method for the same, under per feddan then the difference between Egyptian conditions. Technical Reports no. gravel and synthetic envelope is 202 89 (Vlotman and Omara, 1998) and no. LE/fed. The additional cost for envelope 105 (Abdel Hady et al, 2000) describe all construction is 200 LE/fed for synthetic the findings of envelope research. envelopes and 402 LE/fed for gravel envelopes. It was found that Poly Propylene needle punched materials, locally produced, ISAWIP analysed the costs of installing performed best in the field and laboratory drainage systems based on four contract (i.e. PP 310 and 360), while some of the areas in which they installed 7,670 km thinner materials such as Typar and lateral drains of 75 mm diameter (ISAWIP Big’O’Sock had higher entrance resistance 1994). A total of 147 km was installed than the PP material. Thinner materials with synthetic envelopes at a cost of C$ are also more prone to clogging. 142,611 (material and wrapping), which at the prevailing exchange rate amounts Wrapping of the material around the pipes to LE 356,500. This is 2,425 LE/km or was sometimes inadequate, or the 242.5 LE/fed material costs. material was damaged during transport to the field. This should be prevented, and Recent inquiries at EPADP concerning the repaired in the field before the drainpipe is tender prices of synthetic materials laid. An independent laboratory should revealed that tender prices for the check the strength of newly developed envelope material vary between 1–1.5 needle punched materials, as long as LE/m drainpipe or 100–150 LE/fed. Gravel quality certificates are not issued by tender prices vary at the moment between manufactures in Egypt. 2.5–3 LE/m drain pipe for a 50 mm surrounding of the 80 mm diameter pipe Application of synthetic envelope materials (material and transport costs). Installation saves about 200 LE/fed compared to costs for gravel were reported to be close gravel envelopes at 1999 price levels. to 0.5 LE/m or 50 LE/fed. Drains with gravel envelope would cost LE 300– The need for drain envelopes in soils with 350/fed and with synthetic envelops 150- less than 30% clay was confirmed in the 200 LE/fed. Abu Matamir area.

From the foregoing figures it is seems Neither gravel nor synthetic drain conservative to assume cost savings of envelopes need maintenance if designed 50% on the material and installation costs properly. Sediments may enter the pipe together, when using the gravel envelope through holes in the fabric or through installation costs. Savings of LE 200/fed improper gradation of the gravel are a reasonable estimate. Hence it may envelope. Hence, it may be necessary to be concluded that when using the yearly flush drains occasionally. Medium pressure production figures of 70,000 – 100,000 flushing equipment with a hydraulic power fed/yr, EPADP can safe 14 million EGP per feeding system is recommended for use. year if all lateral pipes to be installed were in need of a drain envelope. In conclusion, it may be mentioned that Egypt is well on its way of using locally 7.11 Conclusions and produced synthetic envelops as the de- Recommendations factor drain envelop in the 21 Century. Since 1978 DRI has performed drain The most important conclusions and envelope research in the field and in the recommendations are: laboratory. From 1994 – 2001 the DRP Project was involved in the studies to • Quality control at the wrapping plant finalise many of the findings as well as to should not only focus on material perform some new experiments to characteristics that determine determine the applicability of the clay processing quality) e.g. bandwidth, criterion for the determination of the need tensile strength, open spots, etc), but for envelope material and the applicability also on characteristics that determine

84

material functions (e.g. pore size index (O90), mass/area, thickness permeability, etc). • For pilot area research a much more intensive pre-drainage investigation is necessary such that the appropriate envelopes (if needed) are selected for the prevalent soil. Results would then not be as varied and difficult to interpret as was the case now with various pilot areas. statistical analysis of both field and laboratory data should be considered to determine significant difference between treatments. • Three replicates of envelope treatments are not enough with pilot area research. A minimum of six replicates is recommended. • The position of the observation well with respect to the drain or envelope has a major effect of the he/ht ratio. Therefore, the distance from the observation to the soil-envelope interface should always be reported. Install observation wells always at the same distance from the soil-envelope interface. A difference in placement of 10 cm can cause 100% change in the he/ht ratio. • The permeameter tests without envelope (base soil only) clearly illustrated the influence of the entrance resistance of the drain tube. The entrance resistance was decreased considerably when non-woven needle- punched polypropylene envelope materials were used. • Root development in some cases caused severe blocking of the drains. Recent video inspection showed roots in drainpipes at many locations within one year after construction.

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8. Flushing of Subsurface Lateral Drains with Medium and High Pressure Machines in Egypt

8.1 Introduction to the high pressure, some disturbance problems in the soil around the laterals, Drain clogging can have a serious which produced even more sedimentation influence on the efficiency of the afterwards. Moreover, it is difficult to subsurface drainage system. Both lateral maintain a uniform speed for the discharge and the ground water level will movement of the flushing hose during the be affected by such clogging. flushing process, which decreased the Consequently, significant reduction in the flushing efficiency. Therefore, medium crop yield and degradation of soil pressure machines of 20 - 40 bar pressure properties may result. Therefore, routine at the pump have been suggested to maintenance is necessary to ensure replace the high pressure ones. acceptable performance of the system and to extend its lifetime. A study was conducted to compare the performance and cost of flushing Maintenance of subsurface drainage machines with different pressure force at systems became a major concern in Egypt their outlets. Field experiments were because of the large areas provided with carried out in three locations in Western such systems yearly. The Egyptian Public Delta which includes sediment removal Authority for Drainage Projects (EPADP) efficiency, effect of using flushing pressure includes within its organizational structure on the soil around drain pipes and time maintenance departments, centers and rate of the hose movement during sub-centers. Each drainage sub-center is advancing and withdrawal stages. responsible for the routine and preventive Economic evaluation for both machines is maintenance of the subsurface drains in also studied. an area of 5,000 feddan. The sub-center staff who work very closely with farmers, are provided with flushing machines and Types of machines used for inspection and cleaning tools. In principle, maintenance in Egypt the subsurface drainage system should be EPADP bought 325 flushing high-pressure flushed twice every year. When farmers units for maintenance since 1984. The notice any malfunctioning of the system, types of these machines are as follows: they report to the staff of the maintenance center to carry out the necessary Table 8-1 Flushing equipment of EPADP corrective repair and flushing if necessary. Number of Delivery machines year The first trials for maintenance of the Mastan Broek 25 1985 system were done in the past by pushing H . Barth 20 1989 a jointed bamboo rod through the pipes to Mastan Broek 250 1992 loosen deposits. Nowadays, jet flushing is Carl platz 30 1992 a very effective technique for cleaning Total 325 drainpipes and improving their performance. It removes sediments and obstructions and cleans the perforations of The performance of high-pressure the drainpipes. The large volume of water machines was not adequately evaluated. flushes the loosened sediments to the The high-pressure caused disturbance in down stream end of the pipe or the the soil and movement of the fine soil downstream manhole of collector pipes. particles, which may clog the drain envelope or the drain, pipe itself as High-pressure flushing machines, of about mentioned in international literature (Bons 80 bar pressure at the pump, have been and Van Zeijts 1991). Many countries used in Egypt since 1984 to remove supported the idea of using medium sediments in subsurface drain laterals. pressure flushing machines instead of high However, such machines may cause, due pressure ones to overcome its

87 disadvantages. Therefore, in 1994 the conditions in the Western areas Drainage Research Institute (DRI) took of the Nile Delta, Egypt. the initiative to buy a medium pressure flushing machines to test its performance 8.2 Assessment for Flushing under Egyptian conditions. At the same Machines time, a joint program was prepared by DRI and EPADP to test medium and high An experimental field study aims at pressure flushing machines to compare comparison and evaluation of using the efficiency and advantages and medium and high-pressure machines for disadvantages of both under Egyptian flushing of field drains of the subsurface conditions. drainage systems in Egypt was done in three areas. The selection of the areas was done in cooperation with EPADP to Research objective represent different soil textures and The research objective was formulated as lateral pipe materials in Western Delta, follows: namely EL Gorn, El Lawaya and Harrara in Beheira Governorate as shown in Figure To study the effect of using jet 3-1. El Gorn has clay to silty clay soils, El flushing machines with Lawaya has clay soil and Harrara has different pressures (medium - sandy clay loam to sandy loam soils. Table high) regarding to its efficiency 8-2 shows the soil texture of these areas. & costs under varying local Table 8-2 Soil texture analysis of study areas Area Profile Depth of Clay % Silt % Sand % Texture sample Elgorn 1 0-50 38.60 60.90 0.50 Silty clay loam area 50-100 44.90 55.10 0.00 Silty clay 100-140 57.60 37.40 5.00 Clay 2 0-50 52.20 36.80 11.00 Clay 50-100 53.90 46.10 0.00 Silty clay 100-142 60.00 31.10 8.90 Clay 3 0-50 42.50 42.50 15.00 Silty clay 50-100 61.50 23.50 15.00 Clay 100-135 47.10 38.90 14.00 Clay Ellawaya 1 0-50 61.90 16.60 21.10 Clay area 50-100 65.30 34.20 0.50 Clay 100-141 64.20 29.80 6.00 Clay 2 0-50 52.80 29.50 17.70 Clay 50-100 51.50 30.80 17.70 Clay 100-141 52.80 38.80 8.40 Clay 3 0-50 58.90 33.10 8.00 Clay 50-100 62.20 29.80 8.00 Clay 100-141 65.30 32.70 2.00 Clay Harrara 1 0-50 24.60 6.25 68.90 Sandy clay area loam 50-100 18.40 7.90 73.70 Sandy loam 100-145 15.20 11.10 73.70 Sandy loam 2 0-50 26.30 9.50 64.20 Sandy clay loam 50-100 27.90 14.30 57.80 Sandy clay loam 100-125 24.60 7.90 67.50 Sandy clay loam 3 0-50 18.40 20.60 61.00 Sandy loam 50-100 31.10 15.70 53.20 Sandy clay loam 100-132 18.40 23.80 57.80 Sandy loam

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To evaluate both types of flushing MEDIUM PRESSURE (MP) FLUSHING machines, several field measurements MACHINE (HOMBURG, TYPE) were taken (DRI, 2000c). The equipment in this case is hitched to the three-link system of an agricultural 8.3 The Tested Flushing Machines tractor and driven by its power take off (Figure 8-2). The maximum and operation A flushing machine consists mainly of a pump pressure had 50, 35 bar hose and a nozzle with a pump at the respectively. other end of the hose. The amount of the flow and the exit pressure at the hose 8.4 Study Achievements depend on the type of the machine. Two different types of jet flushing machines Sediment Removal Efficiency (SRE) are used. Two different methods have been used to determine the sediment removal efficiency HIGH PRESSURE (HP) FLUSHING inside the lateral drainpipes: MACHINE (H.BARTH, TYPE) All details of the machine are available in • Measuring the thickness of sediments Technical Report 99 (DRI 2000c). The before and after flushing (Thickness maximum and operation pump pressure method). for this machine (Figure 8-1) had 85, 80 • Comparing the weight of the flushed bar respectively. This pressure had to be sediment and the estimated original reduced to .25 to .50 during the total weight of the sediment inside withdrawal stage to facilitate the hose the lateral (Weight method). movement.

Figure 8-1 High Pressure flushing machine

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Table 8-3 Sediment removal efficiency (SRE) based on thickness Elgorn Area Coll. Lat. Flushing Thickness of SRE% No. No. machine sediment (cm) Before After 19 6 MP 2 0 100 2 0 100 22 1 MP 10 0 100 10 0 100 24 1 MP 10 0 100 10 0 100 24 1 MP 10 0 100 10 0 100 10 6 HP 3 1 66.7 1 0.5 50 16 2 HP 2 1 50 Figure 8-2 Medium Pressure flushing 2 0.5 75 machine 19 1 HP 7 0 100 THICKNESS METHOD 8 0 100 The sediment removal efficiency (SRE) in WEIGHT OF SEDIMENT METHOD different laterals at the studied areas This method depends on measuring the under the use of medium and high weight of the total suspended solids pressure machines are shown in Table 8-3 (TSS), W2, for successive samples of the at Elgorn area. It is noticed that the SRE water discharged at lateral outlet during amounted to 100% in all laterals flushed hose advancement and withdrawal stages, by MP machine, even though most of (DRI, 2000c). A sample calculation of that those laterals were completely blocked by weight W2 for lateral (19 - 6) at Elgorn sediments. On the other hand SRE values area is shown in Table 8-4. The total amounted to 100% only in one lateral and weight of sediments inside the lateral decreased to about 50% in the other two before flushing, W1, is estimated from the laterals when using the HP machine. This initial thickness measured using the means that the HP machine is not only following assumptions: less efficient, but in some cases the blockage by sediments increases after • A uniform thickness of sediments flushing. along the lateral that is equal to the average of the two measure values; It is clear that high flushing efficiency is • Constant average bulk density based expected for MP machine, while the use of on soil texture analysis above the HP flushing machine may result in more drainpipes; sedimentation for same cases. These findings were in agreement with the The outflow discharge through lateral findings of Brinkhorts et al. (1983) who perforations is neglected. mentioned that with the use of high pressure machines sedimentation occurred Table 8-4 is an example to illustrate the in the drains that were flushed while for steps of calculating the weight W1 before medium pressure machines no or little flushing and calculation of the SRE%. sedimentation occurred in the drain pipes There is clear discrepancy in the results after flushing. The efficiency of flushing shown in Table 8-4. This may be due to generally decreases in light soils, errors in one or more of the above however, medium pressure machines assumptions. produce better results.

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Table 8-4 Sediment removal efficiency (Weight method) Elgorn area Flushing Lateral R h Area L Volume Bulk W1 W2 SRE machine density m m m2 m m3 gm/cm3 kg kg % MP 19-6 0.05 0.025 0.002 108 0.166 1.53 254 39 15 MP 22-2 0.05 0.100 0.008 146 1.147 1.57 1800 74 4 MP 24-1 0.05 0.100 0.008 170 1.335 1.55 2072 131 6 MP 24-2 0.05 0.100 0.008 110 0.864 1.56 1346 118 9 HP 10-6 0.05 0.020 0.001 133 0.149 1.52 225 53 24 HP 16-3 0.05 0.020 0.001 150 0.168 1.50 251 94 37 HP 19-1 0.05 0.075 0.006 163 1.030 1.54 1587 94 6 Where: R= Radius of Pipe h = height of sediment L = Length of lateral W1 = Weight of sediment before flushing W2 = Sediment removal during flushing

Effect of flushing pressure on soil Regularity of hose speed stability The sediment removal efficiency during Texture analysis for the soil around drain the flushing process is affected by the pipes have been carried out before and regularity of the hose speed inside the after flushing by both machines (MP, HP) laterals. The average speed of the hose to study the effect of the flushing movement has been measured in the pressures on the soil stability. A sample of different sites along the lateral during the the variation of clay, silt and sand flushing process. contents due to flushing for all sections at Elgorn area is shown in Figure 8-3 and From Table 8-5, it is clear that the Figure 8-4 using HP and MP machines average speed of the hose movement for respectively. The positive difference shows laterals flushed by MP machine reached an increase in the content while the about 25.06 m/min. Maximum and negative difference indicates a decrease minimum deviations % of the speed are due to migration of the particles of a 49.6 and -30, respectively. Table 8-6 specific component from the soil. shows that the average speed of the hose movement for all laterals flushed by HP In general, it is clear that the use of HP machine is about 28 m/min. Maximum machine results in higher differences of and minimum deviations % of the speed the soil texture around drain pipes are 235 and -73, respectively. compared to the MP machine. This reflects a higher tendency in the particle The irregularity of the hose movement movements when the HP machines are speed in the case of using HP machine is used. However, no consistent relationship mainly due to thrust forces, which slow exists between the resulting differences in down the movement during the soil texture and kind of soil and/or lateral withdrawal stage. The entry high speed type, for the same machine. That could be could be for the ineffective cleaning of the attributed to the variety and interference pipe. It is however, understood that the between many factors that control such speed of advancement and withdrawal of process such as the variation from section the HP machine can be manually to another. controlled. Therefore, experience is necessary to keep a regular speed, which is not always available.

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80 80 Location 10-6 (1) Before flushing Location 10-6(2) Before flushing 70 After flushing 70 After flushing 60 60 50 50

% 40

% 40 30 30 20 20 10 10 0 0 Clay% Silt % Sand % Clay% Silt % Sand %

80 80 Locatin 16-3(1) Before flushing Location 16-3(2) Before flushing 70 After flushing 70 After flushing 60 60 50 50

40 % 40 % 30 30 20 20

10 10

0 0 Clay% Silt % Sand % Clay% Silt % Sand %

80 80 Location 19-1(1) Before flushing Location 19-1(2) Before flushing 70 After flushing 70 After flushing 60 60 50 50 40 %

% 40 30 30 20 20 10 10 0 0 Clay% Silt % Sand % Clay% Silt % Sand %

Figure 8-3 Soil texture around drainpipes, before and after flushing at Elgorn area (HP Machine)

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80 80 Location 19-6(1) Before flushing Location 19-6(2) Before flushing 70 70 After flushing After flushing 60 60

50 50 % % 40 40

30 30

20 20

10 10

0 0 clay % silt % sand % clay % silt % sand %

80 80 Location 22-1(1) Before flushing Locatio 22-1(2) Before flushing 70 70 After flushing After flushing 60 60 50 50 % % 40 40 30 30 20 20 10 10 0 0 clay % silt % sand % clay % silt % sand % 80 80 Location 24- Before flushing Location 24-1(2) Before flushing 70 70 1(1) After flushing After flushing 60 60 50 50 % % 40 40 30 30 20 20 10 10 0 0 clay % silt % sand % clay % silt % sand % 80 80 Location 24-2(1) Before flushing Location 24-2(2) Before flushing 70 70 After flushing After flushing 60 60 50 50 % % 40 40 30 30 20 20 10 10 0 0 clay % silt % sand % clay % silt % sand %

Figure 8-4 Soil texture around drain pipes, before and after flushing at El Gorn area (MP machine)

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Table 8-5 MP flushing machine

Area Lateral Average speed Max. Deviation Min. Deviation (m/min) % % Elgorn area 19-6 28.0 11.8 -22.0 22-1 19.0 10.0 -13.0 24-1 27.0 49.6 -29.0 24-2 26.0 26.2 -14.0 Ellawaya area 2-5 30.6 14.4 -9.0 2-6 25.0 44.0 -16.0 5-3 23.0 21.7 -17.4 Harrara area 12-1 24.0 7.1 -5.4 12-2 25.0 10.0 -30.0 14-5 23.0 6.0 -6.0 Avg=25.06 Max = 49.6 Min = 30.0

Table 8-6 HP flushing machine

Area Lateral Average speed Max. Deviation Min. Deviation (m/min) % % Elgorn area 10-6 23 78 -48 16-3 40 50 -53 19-1 43.0 235.0 -44.0 Ellawaya area 2-7 31.0 87.0 -71.0 2-8 23.0 83.0 -65.0 7-3 38.0 45.0 -32.0 Harrara area 6-9 11.9 145.0 -73.0 12-4 22.5 28.0 -28.0 14-2 19.9 46.0 -35.0 Avg = 28 Max = 235 Min = -73

8.5 Cost Comparison 8.6 Conclusions The economic evaluation of HP and MP Field experiments were conducted to flushing machines, which are used, for evaluate and compare the two kinds of maintaining the subsurface drainage machines, which are used for flushing the systems is considered to be as important lateral drainpipes. The first one is as their technical specifications and operated under high pressure (>60 bar at analysis of actual performance of such pump), while the second one is operated machines (Table 8-7). under medium pressure (20-40 bar at pump). Field experiments have been Table 8-7 Cost comparisons for the HP carried out in three different areas in the and MP machines West of the Delta, namely: Elgorn, Ellawaya and Harrara. Subsurface High Medium Cost Description pressure pressure drainage systems in these areas include machine machine different kind of pipes materials and soil Initial and depreciation 22.03 19.27 types. Economic evaluation for both types costs. of flushing machines is also conducted to Operation and 22.41 11.94 compare the total costs of the two maintenance costs. machines under local circumstances. Crop damage cost. 8.31 4.16 Portable pump and water 1.70 1.70 The conclusions of this research are tank cost. summarized as follows: Overhead costs. 2.74 1.45 Total cost (LE/hr) 57.19 38.52 1. Considering the thickness of the Total cost (LE/m) 0.20 0.13 sediments inside lateral drain pipes before and after flushing process, the sediment removal efficiency achieved

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by using medium pressure flushing for highly economic and efficient flushing machine is higher than that of the for similar conditions. high-pressure machine. For the (MP) machine this efficiency reached 100% in most cases for the three areas considered, while for the (HP) machine it ranged between 50 to 100% at Elgorn area, -150 to 75% at Ellawaya area (the negative sign means the increasing of sedimentation inside drain pipe after flushing), and (12.5 to 67%) for Harrara area. This means that the HP machine is not only less efficient, because sediment almost always entered the draw immediately after flushing and in some cases the sediments increased after flushing. 2. Soil stability around the drainpipe of laterals as affected by the different pressures has not been clearly identified by field measurements. This may be due to the complex nature of such phenomenon, which is controlled by different parameters. The drains flushed with the HP machine had again sediments in the pipe after flushing while this was less the case with the MP machine. 3. The obtained results showed almost regular speed of advance and withdrawal for the flushing hose inside the drain pipes in case of using (MP) flushing machine, while the movement of the flushing hose with the (HP) flushing machine was irregular with significant reduction in the withdrawal speed of the flushing hose, flushing efficiency is greatly decreased if the operating pressure for (HP) machine is dropped to only 25% of design pressure during hose withdrawal. 4. The economic evaluation of the two machines (MP, HP) showed that the total costs of the (MP) flushing machine are less than the costs of the (HP) flushing machine by about 33%. Manpower, fuel and crop damage costs are the main causes for such difference.

From the conclusions of this study, it is recommended to use medium pressure flushing machines, particularly in light soil

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9. Salinity Measurement with EM38

9.1 Introduction salinity samples were analysed in the DRI laboratory for extracted past soil salinity Soil salinity is usually defined and (ECe) and compared with the readings of assessed in terms of the laboratory EM38 (EC ). measurement of electrical conductivity of a the extract of a saturated soil-paste The soil salinity is measured in Egypt on sample (ECe) at 25°C. This is because it large scale during the pre-drainage is easy to measure the electrical investigations. The soil samples at 0.1 m conductivity of ionised solutes in an to 2 m depth are taken from the auger aqueous sample. The saturation holes of 2 m depth. Human errors in percentage (SP) is the lowest water/soil collection and sampling of such large ratio suitable for the practical laboratory amount of soil samples are expected. It is extraction of readily dissolvable salts in doubtful that the soil salinity in two soils. As the water/soil ratio approaches locations of a 500X500 m grid gives an that of field conditions, the concentration accurate impression of salinity of that and composition of the extract approaches area. The ECe method is accurate, but that of soil water. Soil salinity can also be time consuming and errors also can be determined from the measurement of the expected. Furthermore, volumes sampled electrical conductivity of a soil-water are relatively small, and the confidence sample (ECw). This measurement can be that such small volume is representative made in the laboratory or in the field. Soil for entire areas is rather small. The salinity can also be determined from the electromagnetic induction (EM) technique electrical conductivity of the bulk soil is an alternative for the determination of (ECa). The latter can be determined with the soil salinity. The EM38 soil salinity electromagnetic induction devices such as device of the Canadian firm Geonics is the the EM38. Corwin and Rhoades (1989) most commonly used (Figure 9-1). proposed to measure the electrical conductivity of the saturated soil-paste The main advantages of the EM38 device directly (ECp). compared to the soil sampling method are: Testing the Geonics EM-38 as new equipment is one of the activities of the • Fast and simple operation (easy to DRP2 project. The objectives of this study carry and no soil sampling is needed); were: • Low operation costs; • Limited effect of spatial variability due • To introduce the electromagnetic to a large probed soil volume. induction for soil salinity measurement technique to DRI; However, the EM-38 device needs to be • To compare the use of EM38 technique calibrated for different soil, salinity, with the traditional soil sampling moisture and temperature conditions. The method (Cost, operation and EM-38 device has been successfully tested accuracy); in several countries. • To give guidelines for the use of the EM38 device. 9.2 Principles of operation

A training program for using the EM38 The instrument works on the principles of instrument has been conducted for 6 electro-magnetic induction. The EM-38 engineers from DRI in April 1999 for two has a transmitter coil on one end and a weeks. The training was done in two receiver coil on the other end. When the different areas of different soil texture and instrument is switched on, the transmitter salinity. The calibration of the EM38 coil is energised with an alternating instrument in different soil salinity, current that creates a magnetic field that moisture and temperature was elaborated constantly changes. This is called the in 25 locations in the Hamoul area in the primary magnetic field. The primary Kafr El Sheikh Governorate. The soil magnetic field is in the space around the

97 instrument, so also in the ground. It magnetic field. This is called the induces small electrical currents in the secondary magnetic field as shown in soil. These currents generate their own Figure 9-2.

Feature Specification. Measured quantity Apparent conductivity of the ground in mS/m Range of conductivity 0-30, 100, 300, 1000 mS/m Instrument precision +3% of full scale deflection Primary field source Self contained dipole transmitter Sensor Self contained dipole receiver Intercoil separation 1 m Frequency of operation 13.2 kHz Power supply 9 V transistor radio battery Battery life 30 hrs Dimensions Instrument 103 x 12 x 2.5 cm Case 140 x 19 x 9 cm Weight Instrument 2.5 kg, Shipping 9 kg Source: McNeill 1986.

Figure 9-1 EM38 specifications, device shown in vertical mode

EM38 TRANSMITTER COIL

PRIMARY MAGNETIC FIELD LINES

EDDY CURRENTS

R ECEIVE SECONDARY MAGNETIC FIELD T RANSMIT LINES ECONDARY PRIMARY P+S MAGNETIC MAGNETIC FIELD FIELD

Figure 9-2 Primary and secondary magnetic currents

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Figure 9-3 Horizontal modes reading during instrument preparation

The instrument can be used in two The horizontal response function is the orientations: vertical (Figure 9-1) and most important one because Figure 9-4 horizontal (Figure 9-3). Understanding of shows that the response is highest the response functions of the vertical and immediately adjacent of the instrument horizontal positions of the instrument, is (this is normally in touch with the soil) the key for understanding the nature of and becomes gradually smaller. About the average soil conductivity as displayed 70% of the responses come from the top by the EM38 instrument (DRI 1999). 75 cm of the soil. The vertical response function is more complicated in shape. The response is zero at the bottom of the instrument (this is normally on top of the r (z) 0 soil). The response reaches its peak at about 35 cm and becomes gradually d 0.3 smaller. At the same time 70% of the HORIZONTAL response comes from the first 1.5 m of RELATIVE the soil (two times the distance of the 0.6 (m) RESPONSE horizontal response function). After 1.5 m the vertical response is constantly two 0.9 VERTICAL times higher than the horizontal response. RELATIVE In preparing the EM-38 for operation, this RESPONSE instrument characteristic comes back 1.2 when setting “Instrument zero”. The knobs are adjusted in such a way that at 1.5 m above soil surface, the reading in 1.5 vertical position is two times that in the horizontal position (Figure 9-3).

9.3 Calibration of the EM38 The first actual calibration exercises with Figure 9-4 Vertical and horizontal the EM38 were done in an area of the Kafr response El Sheikh Soil Improvement Project

(KESSIP). They established three pilot blocks A, B and C to test the influence of water management and soil improvement

99 measures on heavy saline clay. The The subsurface drainage system in block A project area is located in the coastal part was selected for the calibration of the middle delta region, about 130 km experiment. The has a collector pipe north of Cairo (Figure 3-1). The KESSIP running through the middle of the full area was part of coastal plain with heavy length of the blocks (approximately 1400 saline clay soils. Sedimentation of the m), serving laterals of about 200 m length coastal plain has taken place over the each in both sides. The lateral spacing flood of the Nile River. The area was varied between 30 and 60 m. reclaimed from lake Burullus in 1960.

Unit A1 Unit A2 Unit A3 Unit A4 P10 P9 A P5 Secondary 44 A31 A41 Drain A11 A13 A21 P8 A34 A Block A 45 A15 S1 A25 A42 Collector H2 M1 M2 M3 M4 EC1 A32 P1 EC2 EC4 A22 S3 A16 S2 A35 EC3

A12 A23 A26 A36 A43 A46 A14 A17 A33 P7 P3 A24 P6 Field A1-1 Tertiary Tertiary Irrigation Drain Canal

Collector H4 P2

Field Road Secondary Irrigation Canal Main Drain and Road Main Irrigation Canal

P1 Location photo 1 and view direction EC1 EC measurement location M1 Manhole observation S2 Soil sample location

Figure 9-5 Layout and locations of measurements in the pilot block A

Block A is divided into four units with 25 0.40, 0.55, 0.75, 1.00, 1.40, 2.00 m) in measurement locations which were each location. A mixture of soil sample allocated according to statistical approach was collected from three auger holes of 5 from the previous measurements during m spacing. The samples were analyzed for the EM38 training course (DRI, 1999). The soil salinity (ECe). layout and locations of measurements in the pilot block A are shown in Figure 9-5. Temperature measurements EC increases approximately 2% for every Soil sampling 1 degree Celsius rise in temperature. Soil Soil samples were taken by auger hole at temperature fluctuates most within the different depths up to 2 m. Ten layers soil depth that is covered by the EM-38. were sampled (0.05, 0.10, 0.20, 0.30, The temperature in the topsoil fluctuates

100 throughout the day. Keeping this in mind, taken as dependent variable in a linear one can understand that the temperature regression analysis. profile of the soil is always changing. Regular measurements of the soil Calibration method no. 1 temperature profile are therefore very In this method, 10 soil sample layers were important. collected from the study area. The ECe The effect of temperature was considered values were determined in the laboratory by measuring the soil temperature at 50 throughout these layers. The eventual cm from the field level. The temperature weighted average ECe were determined to is measured by using soil temperature relate the results of the laboratory with probe. the measured ones by EM38. The calibration is considered for both vertical and horizontal directions. Moisture measurements The extent to which the pores are filled In vertical direction the regression with moisture affects the current flow. equation obtained was: With a constant amount of salt in the soil water, the Apparent Conductivity will go ECev = 1.929 + 0.232 ECav up with decreasing moisture content. (r2= 0.63) where n = 25 Usually above field capacity, the ECa remains constant. For horizontal direction the regression equation is: The moisture content of the soil changes over time. It would be most convenient if ECeh = 3.158 + 0.228 ECah (r2= 0.47) where n = 25 the measured ECa every time at field capacity, to keep this factor constant for all monitoring surveys. This is possible where, when monitoring salinity changes in single EC , EC are the calculated salinity in fields, where the surveyor controls ev eh vertical and horizontal irrigation scheduling. For large scale directions respectively in monitoring, this is not possible. dS/m ECav, ECah are the measured salinity in 9.4 Calibration Procedure vertical and horizontal Two types of calibration for the EM-38 directions by the EM38 were applied: respectively in dS/m

1. Weighted average ECe profile; The results show that the regression 2. Weighted average using moisture coefficient (r2) is higher for the relation classes. with ECev and ECav than between ECeh and Both methods are used to compare EM38 ECah, without introducing the moisture and measurements with soil sample ECe at the temperature corrections (Figure 9-6). calibration locations. Right after the EM38 There are other factors to be considered measurement, soil samples are taken during the calibration of the EM38 such as from the soil profile at the same location temperature correction; clay content in a radius of 2.5 meter. The average ECe correction; moisture content correction, value of these the three soil samples is etc.

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Calibration Method 1 Calibration Method 1 (Vertical Mode) (Horizontal Mode)

40 40

30 30 Y Y 20 20 Predicted Y Predicted Y 10 10 ECev in dS/m ECeh indS/m 0 0 0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15 EC av in dS/m EC ah in dS/m

Figure 9-6 Calibration method 1, vertical and horizontal modes

specific trend. To improve the relationship Calibration method no.2 the data are classified according moisture This method depends mainly on defining content in ascending order and the relationships between ECe and ECa under correction of moisture and temperature different classes of moisture content. were introduced to ECa according McNeill (1986). Figure 9-7 shows the relationship between ECa and ECe for all surveyed sites. It is observed that the data are not following a

80

70

60

50

40

30 ECe (Lab.) dS/m 20

10

0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 ECa (EM38) dS/m

Figure 9-7 The relationship between ECa (EM38) and ECe (Lab results)

The regression analysis between ECa and that the moisture contents in classes no. 2 ECe was done for vertical and horizontal and 3 are near the field capacity of such modes (Table 9-1). It is observed that clay soil. At the same time if the moisture better regression is obtained with content exceeds the boundary conditions inclusion of moisture classes. The prevailed in class 3 the interceptor for y moisture class no. 2 (< 32.237- 38.909%) coordinate (a) will have negative sign. The gives the highest regression coefficient (r2 obtained results could be valid under the = 0.85) followed by class no. 3 (Table conditions of the area under study. 9-1). This could be attributed to the fact

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Table 9-1 Relationship between ECa and ECe under different moisture content (Abdel Ghany et al, 2000) Moisture Moisture Boundaries n Regression Equation R2 Regression Equation R2 Class % (Vertical Mode) (Horizontal Mode)

1 25.655 - 32.237 5 ECe = 1.633 + 3.464 Eca 0.53 ECe = - 3.281 + 4.953 Eca 0.58 2 <32.237 - 38.909 5 ECe = 1.281 + 2.129 Eca 0.85 ECe = - 3.182 + 1.877 Eca 0.69 3 <38.909 - 45.581 10 ECe = 2.945 + 2.027 Eca 0.72 ECe = 3.139 + 1.982 Eca 0.69 4 <45.581 - 52.253 5 ECe = - 0.643 + 2.125 Eca 0.67 ECe = - 0.335 + 2.299 Eca 0.67

9.5 Guidelines for calibration The difference between the two readings at right angle of each other should not be The foregoing results were presented at a more then 5%. If it is more, select special EM38 workshop in February 2000 another, nearby, location for the (Vlotman 2000). During discussions it calibrating measurement, such that the became clear that one of the reasons for difference is less than 5%. This will the somewhat low regression coefficients enhance good calibration results. obtained in the KESSIP area could be the averaging of three soil samples taken Then soil samples are to be taken from 0- within a range of 5 meter around the 30, 30-60 and 60-90 cm depth. Soil location of the EM38 reading. This should salinity of the samples can be determined not be done because the decay of signal directly from the saturated paste, with the strength of the EM38 in horizontal modified method proposed by Rhoades et direction is not known, but is likely similar al. (1999). to those in vertical direction (Figure 9-4). Since the shapes in horizontal direction Calibration should be done following the are not known, weighing factors cannot be procedures that resulted in the equations applied. given by Rhoades and repeated in Vlotman (2000). If no satisfactory New procedures for calibration were regression coefficient results (at least 0.7 presented in Delhi and those are given but values in the range 0.8 – 0.9 should below. be possible), then firstly it should be checked whether common errors with To get a good calibration equation at least operation of the EM38 have not occurred. five, but preferably more, EM38 readings Secondly, procedures of determining ECa and corresponding ECa derived from ECe and ECe should be checked. Finally, it values measured from soil samples in the should be checked whether, temperature, laboratory should be obtained at low, soil moisture content, and percent clay medium and high salinity conditions. This were within acceptable deviations. means a minimum of 15 sets per equation. To achieve this it is essential that a field be surveyed with the EM38 first, to identify the locations of low, medium and high salinities. A fairly dense grid should be used and locations should be easily identifiable. Conditions in the field should be close to optimum (not to wet and not to dry), and texture uniform (which may be known from previous soil surveys). Once the 15 (or more) locations have been identified, EM38 readings (one vertical, one vertical at right angle, one horizontal and one horizontal at right angle) should be taken.

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10. Video Inspection

The research activities of DRI’s covered • Laterals PVC of 80 mm and cement of drainage department could benefit 100 mm diameters with and without considerably from the use of new envelopes technology for quality control of • Collectors with different diameters and subsurface drainage system construction. materials One of these new technologies is the video inspection equipment. With such equipment the inspection of pipe drainage systems (both lateral and collector drains) is possible over their full length, without laborious excavations. A video camera attached to a rod is inserted into the drain pipe and a video image can be viewed on a television screen on site and/or recorded on a video tape. In such a way the pipe

The selected areas were in Western Delta region including Abu Matamir, Harrara, and El Gorn areas.

The survey results by video equipment at the previous areas are recorded in three video tapes and also shown in Table 10-1. can be inspected for damages and blockages such as sediments and root penetration.

The covered drainage department received on August 15, 1998 the video equipment which was purchased from the DRP Project. A training program of 10 days was arranged for some engineers from both DRI and b. Pilot and experimental areas EPADP by the Also, the video equipment was used to PearPoint company. inspect lateral drains at several studied areas during DRP and DRP2 projects. 10.1 Video Inspection Results These areas are Haress 1 and 2, Abu Matamir, and Harrara areas (see Figure a. During training period 3-1). An example of the inspection is The following conditions of both lateral shown in Table 10-2 at Abu Matamir area. and collector drains were inspected by The video equipment were used only to video camera equipment. inspect the studied pairs of lateral drains with/without envelope material at collector • Dry and wet conditions 2, 4, 6 and 8.

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Table 10-1 Results of video inspection during training period Area Lateral Length Coll. M.H. Envelope Status No. No. No condition 13 100 8 4 Without Some sediments in the bottom of the pipe A hump of sediments

Suspended roots in the water

A lot of sediments inside the pipe 14 365 8 4 Polypro- Free of sediments pylene There is a bend on the pipe, the camera could not continue 15 100 8 4 Without The survey could not complete because a problem in the light head

160 8 4 Polypro- Full of sediments Abu pylene Matamir The survey could not complete because a problem in the collector 16 132 8 4 Polypro- Free of sediment pylene Suspended roots in the water

Some sediment in the bottom of the

pipe

A lot of suspended roots with bend in the pipe Sediments in the bottom of the pipe 22 160 5 6 Polypro- Sediment inside the collector pipe pylene There is a bend in the collector Sediments inside the collector pipe 2 100 4 4 Polypro- Free of sediment pylene There is a bend in the pipe and full of tree-roots Free of sediment Full of tree-roots Suspended sediments 1 174 4 4 Polypro Free of sediment pylene Bend in pipe 3 160 4 4 Polypro Sediment at the bottom of the pipe pylene There is a bend in the pipe 18 150 8 9 Sock Full of sediment Bend in the pipe and the camera could not continue

19 150 8 9 Polypro- Full of sediment, the camera could not Harrara pylene continue

10 150 8 6 Knitted Full of sediment sock A bend in the pipe and the camera could not continue

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Table 10-2 Video inspection results of lateral drains with/without envelope at Abu Matamir area Lateral M.H. Collector Length Envelope Status No. No. No. Conditions 3 2 2 86 With No problem 4 2 2 100 Without The camera stacked at 50 m 9 3 2 163 With cam.stop because lateral was dry 10 3 2 100 Without 13 4 2 101 The lateral had a lot of sediment 14 4 2 269 With The lateral is very clean up till 185 m, the camera stopped after that because there is a problem 1 1 4 100 Without There is a problem at 93 m 2 1 4 204 With There is some sediment at 113 m cam.stop 3 1 4 224 With There is sediment at 80 m and cam.stop 4 1 4 100 Without There is a problem at 17.5 m and cam.stop 7 2 4 100 Without There is sediment at 88.2 m and cam.stop 8 2 4 196 With There is a problem at 31.9 m cam.stop 13 4 4 100 Without The lateral has broken part at 2.5 m 14 4 4 166 With There is a problem at 128 m cam.stop 17 5 4 121 With The camera did not work because it is dry 18 5 4 100 Without Camera did not work because it is dry 7 3 6 100 Without The outlet of the lateral was broken 8 3 6 213 With There was sediment cam.stop at 62.5 m 9 4 6 100 Without There was sediment along this lateral 10 4 6 175 With cam.stop at 17 m. lots of roots stuck to it 10 3 8 215 With cam.stop at 132.6 m there was a problem 9 3 8 100 Without There was a lot of sediment 15 4 8 100 Without Lateral completely blocked from the outlet 16 4 8 132 With Problems with roots 20 5 8 196 With Camera did not work because it is dry 19 5 8 100 Without 21 6 8 100 Without Lot of sediment 22 8 241 With cam.stop at 81 m problem with roots 23 6 8 207 With Problem with the roots 24 6 8 248 Without Lot of sediment 25 7 8 100 Without Problem at 16.1 m 26 7 8 269 With Problem at 99 m 27 8 8 100 Without cam.stop at 70 m because of roots 28 8 8 210 With Camera did not work because it is dry 30 8 8 265 With There are some roots 29 8 8 100 Without There is blockage at 20 m 32 9 8 266 With There is a problem with the entrance 31 9 8 100 Without There is a lot of sediment

For future measurements the use of a classification of sediments visible with the camera is recommended, for example:

1. Sediment in bottom of pipe, stirred up by camera; 2. Sediment pushed in front of camera occasionally, but camera can still pass (… mm sediment); 3. Camera cannot pass, amount of sediment is (i) … mm, (ii) pipe 1/2 full, or (iii) pipe completely blocked.

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11. Trenchless Drainage

11.1 Introduction trenchless drainage installation and its hydraulic performance. Subsurface drainage installation problems were encountered in unstable sandy soils 11.2 General Background at the fringes of the Nile Delta and Nile Valley. These problems were aggravated In Western Europe and North America, the with the presence of high water table or use of trenchless drain techniques has upward artesian pressure. The collapsing expanded rapidly in the past 20 years. In trench walls caused misalignment the Netherlands approximately 2/3 of the problems as permanent damage to the length of laterals are installed by drainpipes. The high water table led to an trenchless machines. The most important inflow of sediment-rich water into the reason for this development is that it is drainage pipes during construction that 15-25% cheaper than the trenching can cause plastic drainage tubing to float. technique (Zeijts and Naarding, 1990). Therefore, the introduction of the There are two types of ploughs for the trenchless drainage technique in areas trenchless installation technique, the with unstable soils, was needed. vertical plough and the V-plough.

In the summer of 1996 the first trenchless The V-plough slices through the soil and drainage experiment was implemented in lifts it temporarily. The drainage pipe is Egypt with modern trenchless machinery. fed through one of the blades of the A Mastenbroek model 35/20 V-plough plough and is laid under the lifted soil. trenchless machine was leased from the After installation the lifted soil falls back Dutch contractor ‘Van Kessel’. The and hardly any disturbance of the ground experimental areas were located in the level can be observed. With a V-plough North Behaira Directorate in the Western there is no need to backfill a trench. part of the Delta, close to Damanhur as shown in (Figure 3-1). The vertical plough rips through the soil, breaks it and lifts it somewhat to place the Funds were allocated for the lease of a pipe. The drainage pipe is fed through a trenchless machine to use on a limited hollow part of the vertical blade. Also with scale in trial areas. The objectives of the this technique no backfill is needed, but trenchless experiment have been defined the plough that ripped the soil apart as (DRP, 1995): leaves a crack after passage through which irrigation water can enter3. The • Determination of the feasibility of cracks left by the V-plough are much trenchless installation under Egyptian smaller. Another disadvantage of the irrigated conditions; vertical plough is the possible smearing • Installation facility in unstable soils; and compaction of the soil at certain • Reducing drainage installation costs; depths below field level, as has been • Reducing the risk of ‘piping’ and reported from the United Kingdom and the smearing due to improper blinding and Netherlands (Naarding, 1979). These backfill of lateral drains. disadvantages were enough to recommend the V-plough for Egypt rather The hydraulic performance of the V- than the vertical plough. plough installed systems was compared against those installed by means of the trencher installation technique. Water table draw down curves were used as indicator of the hydraulic performance of 3 the drainage systems. Large cracks will increase the surface runoff losses of each irrigation. Moreover, the irrigation water The objective of this chapter is to that enters through the cracks could cause ‘piping’ summarize the Egyptian experience with – a drainage discharge through the soil instead of the drain – with the risk of soil erosion.

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11.3 Methods of Installation, operator were included. Third, a frequency Monitoring and Calculations analysis of field observation lengths showed that 10% was at 15 m and 90% During installation a major part of the of the length at 100 m. So, observations data collection was devoted to assess the less than 15 m and more than 100 m were effects of the typical features encountered excluded. Forth, a frequency analysis on in small-scale irrigation systems on V- the speed of the machine showed that plough drain construction. The 10% of the speed values occurred at observations can be divided in two main 1,200 m/hr and 3,243 m/hr was the value components: a time motion/ efficiency at 90% of the data. Values lower and study and an intensive study of all factors higher were screened out. that could affect the net pipe laying performance of the machine. The remaining 805 data points that were deemed to be the final set, from which The time spent on all aspects of the most values that could have bias were construction process such as maintenance removed, are shown in Figure 11-1. time, breakdown time, lunch and rest time Throughout the complete screening of the operators, organizational delays, process the slope of the linear trend lines plough installation time, pipe changing varied only slightly, while the regression time, etc. was determined. For the coefficient never became higher than intensive study, the fields were sub- 0.05! Only minor differences were divided in much smaller sections. A total observed between the three areas. No of 2,121 observations were available. An second order or third order relationship as observation is a section of the field where reported by van Zeijts and Naarding conditions remained constant. Average (1990) and de Wilde (1992) are apparent. net speed (or performance) in m/hr was calculated from the time it took from the beginning of a section to the end of the Soil texture section. Other measured parameters Based on the typical soil characteristics for included soil moisture, texture and each of the three areas the average penetration resistance. speeds for the heavy, medium and light textured soils were 2,330 m/hr, 2,308 11.4 Factors Affecting V-plough m/hr and 2,455 m/hr respectively. This is Production opposite of the expectations (van Zeijts and Naarding 1990, de Wilde 1992) which The speed of the machine is based on the were that sandy soils would require more time that the machine is actually installing power to pull the plough through, or in the drainpipe. The time losses due to different wording, with the same power, manoeuvring the machine, laser speed would be less in sandy soils. adjustment, maintenance, changing pipe, etc. is excluded from the net time. Net time is referred to as the speed of the Soil moisture content machine. Soil moisture content by weight was determined cumulatively up to 1.75 m with increments of 0.25 m depth and Installation depth (drain depth) plotted against the observed speed Speed as function of depth was plotted for (Figure 11-2). Clearly the relationships all data and for each of the three areas between speed and soil moisture is more where drains were installed. The 1,503 pronounced when only the top layer of observations that remained after the first 0.25 m is considered, and no relationship two screening steps showed a moderate exists anymore when the average soil decrease in speed with increase in depth. moisture content over a depth of 1 meter However, it was postulated that a number or more are considered (up to 1 m shown of factors still could bias these in Figure 11-2). Soil moisture profiles relationships and the following screening showed the anticipated shapes according steps were further applied: first, speeds at theoretical considerations (DRI/DRP TR93, less than one meter drain depth were 2000) for 1 - 7 days after irrigation except excluded. Second, only results of one for three observations of 6 days after

110

irrigation, which looked more, like the irrigation. typical soil moisture curve one day after

AllAll threethree area, areas n ,= n=805 805 3500

3000

2500

2000

1500 Speed of the machine (m/hr.) 1000 1.00 1.10 1.20 1.30 1.40 1.50 1.60 1.70 1.80 Drain Depth (m)

Figure 11-1 Example of speed as function of depth for all areas together

measurement (Figure 11-3b) is not as Soil resistance and penetration test expected; actually no relationship is The resistance of the soil is a major factor observed. that can influence the speed of the machine. To see whether there is a relationship between cone resistance and Days after irrigation and number of the speed of the machine, the cumulative mesqa’s crossed force (or total force) as measured with the The data were grouped by observations Eijkelkamp cone penetrometer is with equal number of days after irrigation. compared with speed. Even after applying No relation was obvious, also not when the 6 screening steps the total, or sub groupings per depth ranges were cumulative, penetration force from 0 - made. 0.25 and 0 - 0.5 m showed trends the reverse of the expected. The relationship Using the 805 observations the average between speed and penetration resistance speed dropped from 2,450 m/hr with no for 0 - 0.75 m is shown in Figure 11-3a. mesqas or other small ditches to cross to 2,150 m/hr when 3 mesqas had to be It may be that the effect of the soil crossed. resistance beyond the 0.75 m depth, which could not be measured, was such Speed and land cover that it would have shown a better relationship than the one in Figure 11-3a. When speed was compared for the 10 different land covers encountered, rice Statistics on the drain depth at the with a low average speed of 1,150 m/hr locations where soil samples were taken based on 12 observations, and vegetables were: average depth 1.35 m, min. depth with an average speed of 2,520 m/hr 1.05 m and max. depth 1.65 m. Also the based on 292 observations were the relationship between measured soil extreme values, while others were moisture content at the three depths and the corresponding penetration resistance between 2,000 – 24,00 m/hr, including fallow land. Hence crop cover did not

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seem to matter too much even though in rice field and in nursery beds had a major particularly in wheat and maize the crop effect on speed primarily due to loss of seemed to bunch in front of the plough. grip of the track. Wet land surface, such as in just planted

0.0 to 0.25 m 0.0 to 0.50 m 5000 4000

4000 3000

3000 2000 2000 Speed (m/hr) Speed (m/hr) 1000 1000

0 0 0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 Moisture content Moisture content

0.0 to 0.75 m 0.0 to 1.00 m 5000 5000

4000 4000

3000 3000 2000 2000 Speed (m/hr)

1000 Speed (m/hr) 1000 0 0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0 0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 Moisture content Moisture content

Figure 11-2 Speed as function of soil moisture content

11.5 Practical Experiences and 3 days after irrigation 12%, 3%, 8% and 3% of the laterals could not be In this section observations made in the completed, but when irrigation had taken field but not necessarily the result of place 4 or more days before installation all detailed measurements are reported laterals were completed. (DRI/DRP TR92, 1997).

Weight and ground pressure Moving through recently irrigated Trenchless machines are heavier than fields lateral trenchers. For instance, typical As expected there was some relationship lateral trencher machines weigh approx. between installation speed and number of 12 tons, a collector 26 tons, and the V- days after irrigation. This was however not plough used in the experiment was 32 very pronounced. Occasionally the tracks tons. The V-plough had a ground pressure would slip but installation could continue of 0.30 kg/cm2. Trenchers in Egypt have in most cases. At deeper installation a ground pressure of not more than 0.25 depths, 1.50 and 1.70 m, the plough had kg/cm2. During the experiment no to sometimes be raised before the disadvantages due to the higher soil machine was able to pull the plough pressure were observed. Visual inspection through the soil again (2 cm, 5 cm, up to after the construction of the drainage 20 cm in some cases). A small number of system showed there is no difference laterals (1% of 660 laterals totally between crops above the drains and the constructed) could not be completed crops adjacent to them. because the field was too wet. At 0, 1, 2

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All 6 screening procedures applied: 31 data points All 6 screening procedures applied: 31 data points for each depth range. for each depth range.

depth 0 - 0.25 m depth 0 - 0.5 m depth 0 - 0.25 m depth 0.25 - 0.5 m depth 0 - 0.75 m Linear (depth 0 - 0.75 m) depth 0.5 - 0.75 m Linear (depth 0 - 0.25 m) Linear (depth 0 - 0.5 m) Linear (depth 0 - 0.25 m) Linear (depth 0.25 - 0.5 m) Linear (depth 0.5 - 0.75 m)

3100 3.50

2900 2 3.00 2700 2.50 2500 2.00 2300

2100 1.50

1900 1.00

1700 speed of the machine (m/hr.) machine the of speed 0.50 penetration resistance N/cm 1500 0.00 0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% Cumulative Penetration value for selected depth range in MPa-m Moisture content per w eight

Figure 11-3 The speed of the machine as function of soil resistance

drain alignment. One of the tracks would Type of tracks go across the ditch and when it lost more To reduce slipping of the tracks the V- than 50% of its traction the V-plough was plough was equipped with special ‘APEX’ not able to pass the ditch. plates (Figure 11-4), with delta shaped enlargements. Tracks with these type of The parallel crossing of ditches could be plates can be used on dry fields with easily avoided by adjusting the location of minimal extra vibrations and give the upstream end of the drain slightly. In sufficient traction on wet fields. practice the upstream end of the drain only has to be moved a few meters to Crossing of ditches avoid crossing of a ditch. If crossing is The fields in the experimental areas are inevitable, then it would be better to cross small and divided by a network of open the ditch as perpendicular as possible with ditches, either for irrigation or drainage the V-plough. This will give an ‘S’-shaped purposes. It was observed that the V- horizontal squiggle in the drain line but plough experienced problems when a ditch the performance of the drain will not be was close to and almost parallel to the affected by this ‘horizontal misalignment’. APEX plate

Track chain

APEX REGULAR TRACK

Figure 11-4 Regular tracks and tracks with ‘APEX’ plates

along the lateral. However, in most cases Trench backfill and crop damage farmers did not want the roller to be used No backfilling of trenches is necessary to reduce crop damage. Even without the with the V-plough, while, if so desired, the use of the roller, crop damage is less than wedge of soil lifted can be pushed back by with trenchers. The width of a trencher the front end roller on the return trip and V-plough are almost the same, 2.60

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and 2.95 meter respectively. The V- outlet depth of 1.30 and 1.50 m were plough has as an advantage that the soil easy to install with the V-plough but an and the crop in the plough are only lifted. outlet depth of 1.70 m gave occasional Some crops do seem to recover after problems. If a ridge or ditch embankment trenchless installation, while others died is located close to the start of the lateral within a few days (especially cotton with a the total installation depth, 1.70 plus the height of 50 cm or more). The reduced height of the ridge, becomes more than crop damage of the V-plough seems only the maximum installation depth of the V- a minor advantage. plough. When that happens the knifes of the plough don’t cut the topsoil anymore but the soil is pushed away by the upper Maximum installation depths part of the plough, increasing the The maximum installation as guaranteed ploughing resistance enormously (Figure by the machine manufacturer is 1.80 m, 11-5). A maximum outlet depth of 1.60 m the same as for lateral trenchers. That proved more appropriate when ridges are depth, however, can only be reached on a encountered. smooth and dry field. Laterals with a

Installation depth (normal) Installation depth (too deep)

Figure 11-5 Installation depth: normal and deep

11.6 Comparison Between age the V-plough is approx. 2.3 faster. Trencher and Trenchless This comparison is also not completely fair Installation because the trenchers in use in Egypt are poorly maintained, while the V-plough was Production comparison despite its age in a very good condition. Probably this particular V-plough should The average gross production of the V- be compared with a trencher in Egypt of plough trenchless machine was calculated around 6 to 7 years old, somewhere in- as 615 m/hr. This production was between the newest ones of 2 years old compared with the production data on and the ones of 11 years old, the age of trenchers of the ORU as shown in Figure the V-plough. Trenchers of that age have 11-6. It is clear that the V-plough is an average production rate of approx. 375 approx. 1.5 times faster than the best and m/hr and compared to that figure the V- newest trencher, model 1994. However, plough is 1.6 times faster. the V-plough was much older than two years. Compared to trenchers of the same

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Mastenbroek 1985

Inter Drain 1993 Trenchless Inter Drain 1990

Mastenbroek 1990

Hoes 1982

Barth 1982

Dynapac 1987

Steenbergen 1986

Hoes 1978

Steenbergen 1979

Barth 1975

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 Average gross installation rate m/hr

Figure 11-6 Gross production V-plough compared to trencher

For this cost comparison the excavator will Cost comparison be treated as a separate item. As A cost comparison between the two mentioned before, good installation techniques included the following practice with trenchers requires also an components: excavator. The real cost comparison will be between the capital and maintenance • Capital costs. Trenchless machines costs of the V-plough and the trencher. are more expensive than trenchers. The Mastenbroek model 35/20 V- The cost comparison between the V- plough used for the experiment would plough and the trencher was done in cost approx. LE 1,278,000 at 1996 close co-operation with EPADP. The price levels, and a Mastenbroek 26/15 calculations were based on the following trenchers LE 994,000 (EPADP/DEMP IV, capital and maintenance cost data 1996); supplied by machine manufacturers and assumptions: • Maintenance costs. The more important part of the cost comparison • Capital costs: V-plough: LE 1,278,000, is most probably the maintenance trencher: LE 994,000, excavator: LE component. V-ploughs have less 391,000; moving parts than trenchers and are • Depreciation period: V-plough: 12 expected to have less maintenance. On years, trencher: 10 years, excavator: the other hand, the V-plough is subject 15 years; to higher forces because it is pulling • Rest value after depreciation: 40%; instead of digging. The components of • Maintenance costs: V-plough: 13% of the V-plough are stronger and heavier, the new price per year, trencher: and might well be more expensive; 15%, excavator: 10%; • Interest: 6%; • Other costs. The cost comparison • Total available working day per year: between both techniques should also 198; include the hydraulic excavator needed • Effective time per working day: 4 hrs. for trenchless installation. However,

installation with a trencher would be With this data the following operational much improved if also for that costs were determined: V-plough LE technique an excavator is used. 547/hr (including excavator), and trencher

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LE 408/hr. The ORU measured similar parameters were calculated for each curve gross productions for the V-plough and separately. Each draw down curve was the trencher. With the gross production divided into three parts as shown in the operational costs per kilometre- (Figure 11-7), as follows: the rising water installed drain can be calculated: LE table, the fast-falling part and the slowly 874/km for the V-plough, and LE falling part. The hydraulic head change 1,049/km for the trencher. rate was calculated for each part or several parts together for the first part, It was concluded that the costs per km of was calculated by subtracting the head the trenchless construction techniques are after irrigation from the head before 25% lower than the trencher techniques irrigation. The head change rate for the (Nasralla, 1997). second part was calculated by subtracting the head of the first point of the first 11.7 The Hydraulic Performance of tangent to the head of second point of the V-plough and Trencher first tangent and divided by the time from the first point to the second point. As mentioned, DRP introduced the V- plough method of constructing subsurface The hydraulic head draw down rate for the drains in Egypt. DRP, the DEMPIV project third part is called falling rate-2, was and the Government of Egypt purchased calculated as substracting of the head of one V-plough machine. The machine was the first point of the second tangent to the handed over to the Egyptian Public head of the second point of the second Authority of Drainage Projects (EPADP), tangent and divided by the time from first who continues experimenting with it on point to the second point. The most various types of soils. EPADP has important factors, which affect the requested DRI to have the DRP project measured draw down curves were support a study on the performance of the considered to be the construction data, drains constructed with the V-plough and the soil hydraulic conductivity, the compare this with the performance of hydraulic head one day after irrigation, drains constructed with the well- and the installation method. established trenching method (DRP, work plan and budget, 2000). DRI/DRP2 have made detailed plans for this and planned Hydraulic performance comparison to collect the first batch of data from light The total number of observations for textures soil in Haress area and of Heavy summer season is 178 (92 observations in clay soils in the Kafr El Sheikh area. The fields that have V-plough-installed drains in the Haress area have been systems and 86 observations in fields that constructed, while those in the Kafr El have trencher-installed systems) and the Shiekh area were scheduled for number of observations for winter season construction by EPADP during the first half is 520 (242 observation for V-plough and of 1999. 278 observation for trencher). The main two crops of the summer season are Cotton and Maize, while the two main The draw down rate crops of the winter season are Berseem The watertable drawdown curves are used and Wheat. to evaluate the hydraulic performance of the subsurface drainage system, which is In order to study the effect of installation now installed, by trencher and trenchless method on the hydraulic performance of machines. The watertable depth was subsurface drains, draw down curves, of measured by means of observation wells 5 systems, which differ in the installation meters away from the drains. The method only are compared. Figure 11-8 measurement points were chosen to be show a plot for all the data, classified by far away from any irrigation canal or open installation method only. The plots show ditch that may affect the water table that the average falling rate was slightly fluctuation. higher for trencher-installed systems than those for the V-plough systems. Close In order to compare the resulting large examination of the systems, included in number of drawdown curves, several the study, show that no systems are

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exactly identical. Thus, criteria for defining identical systems are needed.

Tangent 1

Tangent 2 Falling Falling part 1 part 2

time Rising Falling part part

Figure 11-7 A schematic of a typical water table draw down curve, showing the various stages that can be observed during an irrigation drainage unit

The large amount of measured data in the area near the drain. It is worth makes the comparison of individual events mentioning that falling-rate-1 takes into for different systems impossible. Thus, the account the early period, (of the drainage collective approach, described in above event) where most of the water, which section, for data classification, is used enters the drain, comes from the area instead. First the draw down curves was near the drain. Variation of rate-2 and divided into two main subsets according to rate1-2 is not as clear. This can be the installation method. Then, each referred to the fact that, these two subset was classified according to the parameters take the effect of flow in the hydraulic conductivity groups G1, G2, G3, area far from the drain, which does not G4 and G5 (Table 11-1). Then, each reflect the effect of the installation subset was divided into more subsets method. according to the initial hydraulic head at the start of drainage events (h1, h2, h3, Table 11-1 The initial hydraulic head and h4 groups). groups Initial h1 h2 h3 h4 The average falling rate-1 for the trencher hydraulic and V-plough installed-systems, for h1 head group, are plotted for each G-group, in group Figure 11-9, for the summer season. It Group < 0.21 0.22m - 0.43m - > can be seen from the relationship that the range m 0.43m 0.60m 0.60m average falling rate-1 of the trencher- installed systems is higher than that for the V-plough-installed systems by 10- Figure 11-10 also shows the relationship 25%. This variation can be referred to the between the average falling rate-1 for the fact that the V-plough-installed systems trencher and V-plough installed-systems, exhibit more resistance to the water flow for h2, h3, and h4 groups, respectively,

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for the summer season and winter season. variation can be referred to the fact that The trencher-installed systems average the measurements took place shortly after was higher than the V-plough average by installation (0-4 months), thus the trench 0-25%. However, the average falling- area for the trencher-installed system was rate-1 for the same G-group increased probably not settled yet completely. with the increase of the h-group from h1 Thus, the trencher-installed system had to h4. higher permeability than the rest of the soil. Another possibility is that smearing Similar to the summer season, the in the area near the drain for V-plough average falling-rate-1 for the trencher- systems may have caused reduction in installed systems were higher than those permeability in that area. of the V-plough-installed systems. However, the variation between the trencher and the v-plough was lower. The maximum variation in average falling- rate-1 did not exceed 15%. This rate

Summer Season Winter Season

0.008 0.008 0.006 0.006 0.004 0.004 0.002 0.002 0 0 Falling rate (cm/hr) Falling rate (cm/hr) V-Plow V-Plow Trencher Trencher Installation Method Installation Method

Figure 11-8 Comparison of the average draws down rate in case of trencher and V- plough during the summer and winter season (all data)

Rising head (h1) < 0.21 m Rising head (h2) = 0.21 - 0.43 m 0.01 0.01 0.008 0.008 0.006 0.006 0.004 0.004 0.002 0.002 0

0 ratecm/hr Falling Falling rate cm/hr < 3.0 6.0 m/d m/d m/d 1.5- 4.5- 0.50 < 3.0 6.0 1.5- m/d 4.5- m/d m/d 0.50 Hydraulic conductivity Group Hydraulic conductivity Group Trencher V-plow Trencher V-plow

Rising head (h3) = 0.44 - 0.60 m Rising head (h4) > 0.66 m 0.01 0.01 0.008 0.008 0.006 0.006 0.004 0.004 0.002 0 0.002 0 Falling ratecm/hr Falling < m/d m/d m/d m/d m/d 3.0 6.0 m/d m/d m/d 1.5- 4.5- 0.50 < 0.50 0.5-1.5 1.5-3.0 3.0-4.5 4.5-6.0 Hydraulic conductivity Group Hydraulic conductivity Group Trencher V-plow Trencher V-plow

Figure 11-9 Comparison of the average draws down rate in case of trencher and V- plough during the summer season for h1, h2, h3 and h4

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Rising head (h1) < 0.21 m Rising head (h2) = 0.21 - 0.43 m 0.01 0.01 0.008 0.008 0.006 0.006 0.004 0.004 0.002 0.002 Falling rate cm /hr Falling rate cm /hr 0 0 12345 12345

Hydraulic conductivity Group Hydraulic conductivity Group Trencher V-plow Trencher V-plow

Rising head (h3) = 0.44 - 0.60 m Rising head (h4) > 0.66 m

0.01 0.01 0.008 0.008

0.006 0.006 0.004 0.004

0.002 0.002 Falling rate cm/hr Falling Falling rate cm /hr 0 0 12345 12345 Hydraulic conductivity Group Hydraulic conductivity Group

Trencher V-plow Trencher V-plow

Figure 11-10 Comparison of the average draws down rate in case of trencher and V- plough during the winter season for h1, h2, h3 and h4

11.8 Guidelines for the detailed specifications for the type of Implementation of Field track plates (‘APEX’); Drains in Egypt • Add ground pressure requirements in any future tenders (for trenchers Guidelines based on the V-plough EPADP presently specifies a ground pressure of 0.25 kg/cm2), unless experiment further research on crop production The trenchless construction technique for over drains show significant yield subsurface lateral drains was introduced reduction along drain alignments to overcome the construction problems in installed with the V-plough (with a unstable and heavy clay soils that are 2 ground pressure of 0.30 kg/cm ); were experienced with traditional • The maximum installation depth of trenching techniques in the fringes of the 1.70 m below soil surface is sufficient Nile Delta in Egypt. The experiment for tender specifications (maximum showed that the viability of the V-plough outlet depth EPADP is 1.50 m). All trenching techniques for those soil bidders for the trenchless experiment conditions as well as that application tender guaranteed a maximum depth under irrigated conditions is quite of 1.80 m; possible. • The net installation speed of 2,200 is recommended, at installation depths The following observations and between 1.30 and 1.50 below soil conclusions can be considered as surface (dry fields, > 4 days after guidelines for the subsurface drainage irrigation). installation by the V-plough techniques in • It was observed that the V-plough irrigated condition: experienced problems when a ditch • Use of the oriented requirements in with water was close to and almost the tenders, instead of detailed parallel to the drain alignment. The specifications of individual machine parallel crossing of ditches could be parts, like engine power or type of easily avoided by adjusting the propulsion. An exception are the

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location of the upstream end of the drain slightly; • Quality control should start with prevention. After installation the rodding method should be used on a selected number of laterals. For some laterals the actual installed levels can be measured with the recently purchased hydrostatic grade verification equipment of EPADP.

Guidelines based on the hydraulic performance The hydraulic performance of field drainage systems installed by both trencher and V-plough has been studied in sandy loam soil, using the water table drawdown five meters away from the drains an indicator of the hydraulic performance. The following observations can be summarized:

• The most important factors, which affect the hydraulic performance of field drains, are the soil hydraulic conductivity, the irrigation quantity, and the installation method. • The initial water table rises, one day after irrigation can be used as indicator for the irrigation quantity. • The fast drawdown rate (rate-1) indicates the hydraulic conditions, when the water table is high in the vicinity of the drain (shallow water table conditions). For deeper water table conditions, (rate-2 and rate1-2) better represent the hydraulic performance. • In light texture soils similar to Haress area, the compaction of the area near the drain due to V-plough installation does not seem to be critical.

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Crop Production and Water Management

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12. Agricultural Production in Heavy Clay Areas

Heavy clay soils represent approximately possibly upward seepage. 260,000 feddan in the Nile Delta. Immediately after the Second World War Soon after the work started it was clear Egypt started with reclamation of areas that problems in the heavy clay areas surrounding the lakes in the Northern from maximum crop production point of Delta. By the mid seventies most of the view could not be attributed to drainage areas had been separated from the lakes problems only. Hence, the scope of this for 20 –30 years, but waterlogging was study was enlarged to include water, soil, prevalent. Since the mid eighties agronomical and environmental aspects. advances have been made with draining and reclaiming most of these areas. Initially five areas in the northern part of Consultants that visited these areas in the the Nile delta and one area in the Fayoum mid eighties and again in December 2000 near lake Qarun were identified for remarked upon their visible perusal. During the work three more areas improvements. for scrutiny were identified. All these areas are: 12.1 Problem Description • Hamul area (Kafr El Sheikh Soil Over a period of three years, DRI has Improvement Project (KESSIP) and collected information pertaining to the Zawia project); study entitled drainage solutions for • Fayoum area (El Robh El Sharqi Pilot problematic heavy clay soils. This activity Area); was crowned by a multi-disciplinary • Damietta area (Damietta Dairy consultancy in November 2000. Drainage Project); Problematic heavy clay soil was defined as • South El-Hossania (El Rowad Area); a clay soil with more than 40% clay, low • North Sinai area (Tina Plain area); hydraulic conductivity (<0.1 m/d) and • Edco area in Western Delta (Beheira with problems such as salinity, alkalinity, Governorate near Alexandria); difficult installation of subsurface pipe • ISAWIP project area; drains in sticky clays, hard pans, and • The research farm of the Soil Water underlain by saline groundwater with and Environment Research Institute

Lake Burullus Mediterranean Sea Mediterranean Sea El-Halafy Heavy clay soil Heavy clay soil Lake Manzala Kessip Edco heavy clay soil ISAWIP El Rowad Tina Plain

Damanhur El-HossaniaEl Eman Tarek

Tanta

Shibin el Kom Zagazig Ismailiy a

Benha

Edco Heavy Clay Soil Heavy Clay Soil Cairo Tina Plain El- Hos s ania ISA WIP

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(SWERI) at El-Serw; and known, but should be made accessible • The El Halafy monitoring area of the to farmers; M&E project with EPAPD in the KESSIP project area. Surface Drainage,

Surface drainage in Zawia • The role of EPAPD pertains only to surface drainage during the initial reclamation and soil improvement 12.2 Observations Related to 4 Drainage years (10 – 15 years) . After that the Egyptian traditional subsurface • Subsurface drainage systems in drainage design may become feasible (heavy) clay soils at a depth of 1 – 1.5 and sustainable. The main criteria for m do not perform well in unripened potentially well functioning subsurface soils; drains at economical spacing seems to • Subsurface drainage in virgin or be a ripened (heavy) clay soil with unripened (heavy) clay soils does not hydraulic conductivity greater than 0.1 work; m/day; • Shallow surface drains in combination • A mole drainage system should not be with sub-soiling or mole drains allow regarded as being equivalent to the effective reclamation of the top 60 cm; traditional subsurface drainage system • Mole drains (at 50 – 70 cm depth and such as constructed in Egypt. It’s 1 – 3 m spacing) in combination with a objective should be different namely: subsurface lateral system at 1 – 1.5 m to drain surface layers (i.e. up to 60 depth and 20 – 40 m spacing work cm) and remove salts during the satisfactorily when saturated hydraulic reclamation process. If mole drains conductivity of the soil is greater than collapse after 3 months but have 0.1 m/d; accommodated leaching for crop • When hydraulic conductivity is less germination and crop establishment than 0.1 m/d traditional subsurface then they served their purpose well. (PVC) perforated pipe drainage does Mole drains do not have to remain not work well; a shallow surface functional for several years. Farmers drainage system with appropriate should have ready access to mole mechanical soil treatment (e.g. mole drainage technology and equipment; drains and/or sub-soiling) is • (EPADP) faced problems during the recommended; installation of subsurface drainage • Mole drains have great potential for system in the heavy clay soils; high reclamation purposes, but this is not draught requirements and sticky clay used widely in Egypt; not loosening from the digging chain of • The (old) truth that clay soils should the trencher. In addition early have deep drains is not deemed valid experience with the installed drainage anymore with the latest knowledge of systems showed poor performance. reclamation techniques and crop EPADP applied the technique of growth needs;

• Field drainage should be manageable 4 There is evidence from SWERI experiments that by farmers and should be constructed soils can be reclaimed in two years with proper by them: appropriate technology is management and no fallow periods.

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spraying the trencher box with water One of the ideas is that the government to reduce friction with the soil and thus takes care of the reclamation process for reduce draught requirements. EPADP longer years using some non-traditional suggested altering the shape of the salt-tolerant crops or fodder crops in the digging chain elements to enhance framework of large projects (for example: release of the excavated soil (Croon, animal production). This will help in 1997). As far as is known the latter reducing the reclamation period. The new was not tried. DRI suggested using the owners, after that time, can use the land V-plough drainage machine for with lower risk and higher economic construction in heavy clay soils. yields.

Water Trencher box

12.3 Reclamation In the reclamation process, a farmer or owner is the key to the sustainability of all One of the approaches dealing with the the processes. Thus, farmer participation reclamation program is to use the saline and training in the whole process from the and/or saline alkaline soil as it is. start is essential for sustainable Consequently, the selection of an production. economic salt-tolerant crop is essential to be used under such conditions. This must 12.4 Soil Reclamation and be taken into consideration for the long- Improvement term programs, which can include producing such crops using updated The conditions under which sub-soiling is technology like genetic engineering. This desirable are clear, but the standard approach will be the main approach in the application of EALIP through its soil long run, as scarcity of fresh water will improvement program should be add more importance to such approach. reviewed. In a large number of situations, However, scarcity of water, although mole drainage may be a more effective reported, should not be a problem in the application to help with (initial) soil next decade in the Northern Nile Delta, improvement. Far more attention needs to while North Sinai and Toshka are not yet be paid to concurrent improvement of the operational. organic matter content, through appropriate crop selection and cropping The government program in the patterns specifically designed for rapid reclamation process is dealing with soil improvement of the general soil structure within the first years of reclamation then in (heavy) clay areas. distributing land to stakeholders. They have a complete reclamation process As mentioned in Egyptian literature, the using the traditional cropping pattern, sub-soiling is a frequent process that which, in some cases, does not work well. overcomes clay pan, hardpan and plough

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layer. All three of these types of and amshout do not have a positive effect impermeable clay layers require, in order on ripening (reclaiming the soil) due to to develop, either steady irrigation or continuous submergence. Both crops are steady agricultural use for at least 5 – 10 seemingly tolerant to salt; however, the years. This does not seem to have dilution of salt due to flooded conditions occurred in most of the areas under study. reduces the soil salinity measured to a The occurrence of impermeable layers much lower actual salinity level. True salt may not be as common as the intensity of tolerant crops could have a better effect sub-soiling seems to imply. by improving the permeability of the soil profile with their roots. Without exception farms managed privately perform better than government- 12.5 Irrigation Water Management managed areas, with exception perhaps the farms managed by young graduates. Subsidised privatisation and management of readily available (free) advice on best management practices has the best potential to lift marginally producing heavy clay lands to full potential. It is estimated that the reclaimed areas presently produce 25% or less of their potential.

The standard practice of reclamation during 3 – 5 years of rice in the summer and fallow in the winter, although seemingly effective, is not recommended, certainly not in areas with highly saline groundwater. Maintaining a net downward One of the most important factors in water movement through the root zone is controlling salinity is an adequate supply essential for effective and rapid of irrigation water such that a net reclamation/desalinisation. Hence, year- downward water movement through the round cropping (summer and winter, root zone is maintained year-round. About which implies year-round irrigation) is 90% of the literature consulted does not recommended. Deficit irrigation during the report irrigation quantities applied. reclamation period, however, may do more harm then good because plants We must therefore assume that drainage evapotranspiration accelerates salinisation quantities reported are a direct reflection when there is no net downward water of the amount of irrigation water applied movement through the root zone. and no other conclusions can be drawn about efficiencies of spacing, depth, or type of system (mole, surface, subsurface).

Preparing ranges of indicator values for drainage or water management efficiency is recommended.

12.6 Synergy and Good Governance Synergy is to create added value by mutual strengthening of separate activities. Good governance in the context of this study may be described as transparent and accountable government The standard reclamation with rice and/or actions to improve crop production by all amshout is not recommended because rice parties (ministries, ministerial

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N- input: N- exported: - N from fertiliser - N in crop yield (exported - N from farm yard from the field) manure - N leached with irrigation - N from N- fixation by water legumes ( in this - N denitrification and case berseem) volatalisation - N mineralised from - N incorporated in soil soil organic matter organic matter departments, institutes, private • Nutrient factors (nitrogen, phosphate) companies and farmers) involved. It and toxic elements; would seem that the various development • Diseases, etc.; stages during reclamation and • Interactions between the above improvement of heavy clay soil for optimal mentioned factors. production are highly compartmentalised. It is recommended to give the complete It will be useful to quantify potential yield reclamation process in the hands of one as well as the negative effect on potential organisation then subcontracts certain yield with available simulation models. In activities. this way, the most important factors can be identified and, after quantification, the 12.7 The Crop Production Model sustainability of the cropping systems in use in Egypt during successive stages of To model the effect of different constraints reclamation can be evaluated and to optimal crop production a model that improved. will allow individual assessment of the different aspects affecting maximum yield This will also shed light on the efficiency was presented. The crop production model on some nutrient management practices is conceptual but is also supported by (efficiency of fertilisers for crop various computer models. The production, amendments of organic presentation of the conceptual model is to matter). This relates to environmental build awareness amongst engineers and issues as well: e.g. nutrient (nitrate) researchers that there is a fast pool of leaching under irrigation conditions. knowledge available from agricultural scientists that has not been tapped for its Making an exercise like this will provide potential to enhance the physical information (quantification) on the interventions of civil engineers. nutrient flows in specific Egyptian cropping systems, and e.g. for nitrogen, its The model assumes that there is a dependence on input of N-fertilizers, on N- potential crop yield which is a function of fixation by berseem, or the importance of genetics and climatic conditions. Genetics available (soil) organic matter as a source and climate are assumed to be fixed for for nitrogen. As a result it will be known certain regions and hence cannot be what the efficiency is of the fertilizers controlled by the physical and agronomic used in Egypt. interventions proposed in this report. 12.8 Recommended Reclamation Due to favourable climatic condition (high Scenario radiation incidence and favourable temperature) potential crop production in Taking into account all factors which could Egypt can be high. It seems worthwhile to together enhance ripening, structuring make an inventory of the factors that and leaching of the heavy clays soils it impair high potential yields. These factors seems worthwhile to distinguish several include: stages in the reclamation process, going from a saline to a less saline production • Water restriction; system. The nature of both land • Salt (also affects water and nutrient reclamation techniques as well as uptake); agronomic cultural practices should be

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dependent on the stage of development. • Growth of less tolerant and more The main objective is a gradually profitable crops: sugar beet, cotton reclamation in depth rather than trying to wheat. make the whole profile at the same time • Development of sustainable cropping available for plant growth. It should be systems (crop rotations), taking into stressed that in the successive stages a account nutrient balances and organic close co-operation should exist between matter input. technical (infrastructure, drainage, soil improvement), agronomic and social The only reclamation feature that has disciplines. As there are no areas seemingly not received enough attention reclaimed from the lake or sea now, the in Egypt is that of special cropping pre-stage, which involves initial pumping patterns and land use during stages 1 and of the area and construction of the main 2 mentioned above. Private investors infrastructure, is left out as a step in the seem to use the crop amshout, instead of recommended reclamation. In all areas rice for reclamation purposes. The pros reviewed, the pre-stage is passed and and cons of this need to be further most areas are in either stage one or two, investigated, as well as using new crops from characteristics point of view. Time such as alfalfa, etc. wise they are all beyond the maximum years indicated, except perhaps Tina Plain, 12.9 Research although in this area the agronomic It seems most lands covered by this study aspects have been neglected while are at the brink of high production. Only engineering aspects took precedence. The concerted government input/investment in long reclamation periods are caused by private enterprises (with special emphasis lack of coordination between disciplines for small land owners in those areas and long-term follow-up by various (subsidising) can result in elevating the extension services. present level of production 25% to 75% of the potential production in 5 years and to 1ST STAGE (1-3 YEARS) 90% in 10 years. Note that present • Surface drainage/irrigation. production levels have been reached since • Use of true halophytes combined with about 1985; before 1985 it seems these gypsum or other amendments. areas remained essentially waterlogged, • Concentrating on improvement of the or waste land or had fish ponds as the first 10-20 cm of the profile. main land use.

From all indications, it is clear that the 2ND STAGE (3-5 YEARS, 4 – 8 YEARS problems in the heavy clay soils are not a CUMULATIVELY) single factor. Problems concern crop • Mole drainage and surface drainage. variety, water management, soil • Use of salt resistant/tolerant plants reclamation, soil improvement, soil which improve the structure of the soil fertility, socio-economic and and soil fertility by nitrogen fixation, environmental impact. Hence, research have strong root system (making should be multi-disciplinary and joint pores to improve leaching and efforts between key research institutes stimulate biological activity, organic (DRI, SWERI, Desert Research Center, matter). Field and Forage Crop Research Institutes) • Gypsum application. and key departments in the two main • Increasing ripening and structuring soil ministries involved (MALR and MWRI), to 50- 60 cm. such as GARPAD, EALIP, and EPAPD (also • Crops: berseem, alfalfa, rice, wheat, North Sinai Development Authority). grass species.

3RD STAGE • Subsurface drainage if needed in addition to existing surface drainage systems in place.

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13. Controlled Drainage

13.1 Introduction the rice fields to an extent that the standing water cannot be compensated by The problem of implementing drainage fresh irrigation water, the farmers plugged system in rice areas was realized soon the drainpipes using plant leaves and after the start of the World Bank mud. The problems that were created supported large-scale drainage program in are: the Nile Delta in 1970 (Abdel Dayem 1995). The problem occurred as a result 1. Drainage water is backing-up in the of the mixed crop pattern in the Nile Delta subsurface drainage system and where rice is cultivated with cotton and causing a poor growing environment maize in the area served by the same for the other crops sharing the same collector drain. The water requirements of collector drain with rice; rice and other crops are distinctly 2. The dirt used for plugging the pipes different. Rice is a wet-foot crop requiring often slipped into the pipes causing continuous standing water in the field, serious maintenance problems. while the other crops need good control of the water table below the root zone. Several studies to develop more As the implementation of the conventional appropriate drainage techniques for rice drainage system causes rapid drainage of growing areas were started. The major objective was to minimize the drainage

COTTON COTTON

MAIZE MAIZE

RICE RICE

Conventional system Modified system

Figure 13-1 Comparison between layout of controlled and conventional drainage system

flow from the rice field (controlled principle. By the mid 90’s there were two drainage) and at the same time allow free developments in Egypt which affected the drainage flow from the other crop fields implementation of the modified drainage (conventional drainage). A modified systems: drainage system layout was developed as shown in Figure 13-1. An investigation 1. The abandonment of mandatory crop program was conducted from 1977 until consolidation in 1992, leaving the 1979, while, during the period 1980-1988, farmers free to choose the crops they the concept of the modified drainage like. Hence, the block system of land system was developed and tested both in use could not be imposed any more; experimental fields and in pilot areas. A 2. The government plans to involve total of 5,400 ha was constructed farmers in the on-farm water according to the modified drainage system management and make them more

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responsible of operation and • To define the factors which determine maintenance of the irrigation and the maximum manageable area (from drainage systems. controlled drainage point of view) to be served by one sub-collector. The aspect of free non-consolidated cropping patterns decreases the chances The applicable objectives were: for implementing modified drainage • systems. However at the same time, the Involving framers in implementation move to stimulate farmers' participation in and operation of controlled drainage on-farm water management may help to system; • introduce these systems. The Egyptian Encouraging farmers' participation in Public Authority for Drainage Projects accepting the concept of controlled (EPADP) is moving towards farmer’s drainage through Water User participation in the operation and Association or Collector User Groups; • maintenance of the subsurface drains. Facilitating the face to face contact This is one of the requirements for between all parties (representative successfully operating the modified from organizations) involved in system. DRI therefore, followed up on a controlled drainage through meetings suggestion of the Advisory Panel on Land and workshops; • Drainage, to investigate the possibility of Establishing multi-disciplinary team applying the modified drainage system from the stakeholders' involved in design and principle of operation under water management (EPADP, IIP, MALR the new conditions. and farmers) to apply the controlled drainage, monitor the results and The previous studies carried out by DRI report about success/failure. focused on the validity of the controlled drainage concept from the point of view of The approach of controlled drainage study saving irrigation water. The new studies was divided into five stages: that were started since 1995 with • Drainage Research Programme (DRP and In 1996, an attempt was made to DRP2) focused on the awareness about study the role of farmers in operating benefits among farmers and acceptance of and maintaining controlled drainage the technique by farmers and the drainage rather than focussing on saving water; • authority. In 1997, the study was in areas under the improved irrigation project (IIP) 13.2 Objectives and Stages where Water Users Associations (WUA) are available. In the year 1997 an IIP The main goal of controlled drainage is to area was selected, and the study minimise the drainage flow from rice fields focused on measuring physical (controlled drainage) by consolidating rice parameters rather than evaluating the areas on sub-collector and in the same organisational aspects; time allowing free drainage flow from the • In 1998, the study was in an area other crop fields (conventional drainage). under IIP, and it focused on the interaction with few key individuals The general objectives of controlled (key persons) that facilitated the drainage during DRP and DRP2 were: introduction among farmers. Also, prepare desk study to know the actual • To investigate the applicability and area served by sub-collector in the Nile feasibility of controlled drainage under Delta; Egyptian conditions with the ultimate • In the year 1999, the idea of purpose of saving fresh water exchanging the experiences with resources; other parties involved in water • To evaluate the possibility to apply management and farmers through controlled drainage on a large scale; workshops; • To familiarise DRI engineers with • In 2000, the recommendations of the participatory research and evaluation workshop are considered to apply techniques; controlled drainage on a large scale.

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Also, literature review to determine 13.3 Field Studies during DRP and optimal size of farmer water DRP2 Projects (1995-2001) management organisation. The studies carried out in Balakter area (Beheira Governorate) and El Qahwagy area (Kafer El Sheikh Governorate) during 1996 to 1999, see Figure 13-2.

Balaqtar 1996/1997 El Qahawaghy 1998

Figure 13-2 Location of Balakter and El Qahwagy areas

In Balaqter during 1996, the farmers were In 1998, Focus Discussions1 were held in organised in Collector User Groups (CUG) El Qahwagy with the key persons who are specially created for the purpose of playing important role in the rural managing controlled drainage with the community. A few physical parameters help of the Agricultural Co-operatives and were also measured in special study areas EPADP. Five CUG's were formed on five that were monitored to increase the sub collectors that were subsequently awareness and the trust among farmers to closed using the device gates during the apply the controlled drainage. rice season. Farmers elected one leader for each CUG (DRI, 1997). A multi-disciplinary team was established from different parties of EPADP, IIP and In 1997, the Semi-structure interviews MALR under umbrella of DRI in 1999. (SSI)5 was held, face to face between the farmers who are organised in CUG and the The Participatory Rapid Appraisal (PRA) farmers who are organised in WUA under technique was applied to evaluate the the umbrella of DRI, EPADP and IIP. The farmers' interaction and multi-disciplinary controlled drainage system was applied in team in Balakter and El Qahwagy areas. two areas following the one WUA (DRI, 1998).

5 A semi-structured interview is one of the Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) tools.

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13.4 Results WATER SAVING AT NATIONAL LEVEL The rice area in the Nile Delta is estimated Water savings in rice fields as one million feddan and the period of "The farmers are usually willing to see the cropping season is approximately 100 benefits from irrigation more than days. The total water losses due to drainage". drainage by conventional system may reach to (1.05 * 109 m3) of irrigation water per rice season (DRI, 1985). On the WATER SAVING ON FARM LEVEL other hand, the studies of DRI during the The results of irrigation water saving due period (1996-2000) confirmed that the to the application of controlled drainage application of control drainage with IIP differ from one area to another. It could save about 2,502 m3/feddan of depends on the soil texture, the variety of irrigation water. This quantity of saved seeds, the time of rice growing season, water could be used to irrigate the new etc. Globally, saving of water hasn't any reclaimed areas, which increase the side effect on rice yield. Also, the results portion of cultivated land in Egypt. of the previous studies showed that there was no big difference with the present results. In general, it is observed that Economic benefits on farm level controlled drainage saves about 32-48% TIME SAVING of the irrigation water. Applying Irrigation It was found that saving of water will not Improvement Project (IIP) could save have a direct positive effect on farmers 21% through lining mesqas, using one income under IIP condition, so the pump, time scheduling irrigation for every farmers might not be motivated enough to farmer (DRI 1998). look after their drainage when water is continuously available to them. Table 13-1 Considering the combined effect of IIP and shows the saving in time due to applying controlled drainage, it is noticed that both controlled drainage as compared to methods together could save more conventional drainage and also due to the irrigation water than the other areas reduction in the number of irrigation gifts. without IIP and Controlled drainage.

Table 13-1 Total irrigation time for both conventional and controlled drainage (without IIP) (With IIP) Item Conventional Modified Conventional Modified Total rice area (feddan) 14.75 111.13 23 56.35 Total irrigation time for rice (hour) 750 3,801.6 526.62 887.25 Time of irrigation (hour/feddan) 49.50 27.73 22.9 15.72

Saving in time (hour) 44% 32%

Table 13-2 Cost saving in irrigation water (DRI, 1997&1998) (without IIP) (With IIP) Average costs of irrigation Conventional Modified Conventional Modified Renting pump (LE/feddan) 197 111 90 90 Owning pump (LE/feddan) 59.25 33.75 - - Saving in costs (LE/feddan) 43% 0

Table 13-1 reveals that saving in irrigation more awareness to the farmers towards time was 44% in the area without IIP rationalization of irrigation water used in during 1996 rice season (DRI, 1997), and the area provided with IIP. At the same 32% in the area with IIP during rice time application of controlled drainage season in 1997 (DRI, 1998). This helped in saving irrigation water through significant difference was due to the fact adding less water to the standing water that the application of IIP helped in giving layer instead of adding new irrigation gift.

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COST SAVING El Khawaled area, belonging to Kafer El • Irrigation costs saving Shiekh governorate, was selected for this The farmers who haven't Irrigation case study. EPADP prepared two layouts, Improvement Project will accept easily the one as a conventional system and the controlled drainage concept and its other as controlled drainage, with an benefits more than the farmers who have increased numbers of sub-collectors. The IIP. The reason of that can be seen in results proved that the total costs were Table 13-2 where the saving in irrigation increased with 27.18% in case of using water reached to 43% in an area that modified system. The results proved that hasn't IIP and zero6 in an area that has 43% would be saved in irrigation cost, this IIP. But in fact, an IIP area has two means that the net return would be about advantages. First, less irrigation working 16% to the farmers. hours and second less fuel consumption. This means less maintenance, longer life Soil salinity and crop yield of the pumps and more saving in money to WUAs' every year. According to the results of the soil samples analysis in 1996 and 1997, and • Net return of rice crop the evaluation made during 1996 to 2000 Total net returns were higher in the IIP (through the farmers' questionnaires, areas than the conventional drainage checklist and application of PRA tools), it area. Within the IIP areas, the total cost was observed that there was no significant was the same regardless the type of effect on soil salinity for both modified or drainage system used. This could be conventional drainage system as shown in explained by the fact that farmers in IIP Table 13-4. areas are charged fixed rate regardless It is observed that the average rice crop the amount of water used for irrigation Table 13-3. yield obtained in the areas under controlled system in 1996 and 1997 were Although the inflow measurements 2.62 and 2.77 ton/feddan respectively. It showed significant saving in the amount of reached 2.18 and 2.95 for the irrigation water, but this had no reflection conventional system for the same years on the total cost per feddan. As expected, respectively as shown in Table 13-4. The the total cost per feddan was high in the results of the statistical analysis showed areas with conventional irrigation system. that there is no significant difference There was no significant difference in crop between the crop yield in both controlled yield between conventional and modified and conventional systems. systems (Hamza et al. 2000). Water table depth Case study (El Khawaled area) The study carried out during 1996 and According to the activities of the work plan 1997 included measurements for the of the controlled drainage study, the DRI water table depth. The results obtained study team co-operated with EPADP's showed that the water table depth for team to design the drainage system with other crops (Maize-Cotton) under sub-collectors and gates. This aimed at: conventional drainage is not affected by closing the sub-collectors for rice crop • Designing an area together with (controlled drainage). This could be EPADP according to the modified explained by the fact that all the collectors concept; under conventional drainage were not • Determining the costs of that design closed, which removed any seepage of comparing the conventional one. water from the neighbouring areas under controlled drainage. At the same time the study team did not force the farmers with

6 controlled area to close the sub-collectors The farmers are involved in WUA paying a fixed fee all the time because they were free and per feddan per year according to the agreement among them. The fee includes other operational voluntary to open or close the gates as and maintenance costs and on the long-term they wish. Fortunately, all the farmers of replacement of the pump. controlled collectors do not open the

133 collectors during the whole rice season. soil surface throughout the rice season This means that all the farmers accepting and the standing water layer remains for and willing to apply controlled drainage longer time on the soil surface at the during the rice season. Figure 13-3 shows controlled drainage area. that the water table remains close to the

Table 13-3 Net return (LE/feddan) of rice crop in different studies cases Improved Irrigation Conventional Item (IIP) Irrigation Conventional Controlled Conventional drainage drainage Drainage Total cost 778 778 908 Total return 1,400 1,410 1,410 Net return 622 632 502

Table 13-4 Average soil salinity in the root zone and crop yield under controlled and conventional drainage conditions Drainage Crop yield Soil depth Soil samples method Year Ton/fed. (cm) Initial Middle Final (dS/m) (dS/m) (dS/m) 0-25 2.06 1.66 1.70 Controlled 1996 2.62 25-50 1.90 1.5 1.57 Drainage 0-25 2.55 1.75 1.30 1997 2.77 25-50 2.70 1.95 0.93 0-25 1.84 2.67 2.45 Conventional 1996 2.18 25-50 2.05 1.83 2.40 Drainage 0-25 1.35 2.55 1.10 1997 2.95 25-50 1.40 2.75 1.16

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Staff Readings

16.00

14.00

12.00

10.00

8.00

6.00

Staff reading (cm) reading Staff 4.00

2.00

Ground surface

0.00 01/07 07/07 13/07 19/07 25/07 31/07 06/08 12/08 18/08 24/08 30/08 05/09 11/09 17/09 23/09 29/09 05/10 11/10 Date

Water table depth (m)

0.15 Ground surface

-0.05

-0.25

-0.45 W.T.D (m) W.T.D -0.65

-0.85

-1.05 01/07 07/07 13/07 19/07 25/07 31/07 06/08 12/08 18/08 24/08 30/08 05/09 11/09 17/09 23/09 29/09 05/10 11/10 Date

Figure 13-3 Standing water layer and water table depth in rice field under controlled drainage condition

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Nile Delta

2000

1800

1600

1400

1200

1000

Length (m) 800

600

400

200

0 0 25 50 75 100 125 150 Area Served (Feddan) Total Area Served (Feddan): 626227 Percentage of Sub-Collectors 15.93%

Figure 13-4 Area served and length of sub-collectors in the Nile Delta of Egypt

Frequency Analysis for Area Served By Sub-Collectors in Nile Delta

1000 120.00%

900 100.00% 800

700 80.00% 600

500 60.00%

400 Cumulative % Frequency in no. 40.00% 300

200 20.00% 100

0 .00%

Figure 13-5 Frequency analyses for areas served by sub-collectors in the Nile Delta of Egypt

The results of this study revealed that the Desk study percentage of the area served by sub- The main objectives of the desk study collectors in East, Middle and West Delta were: is about 16%. There is a direct proportion between the area served and the length of • To define the percentage of sub- the sub-collectors as shown in Figure collectors regarding to the collectors 13-4. for some areas; • To know the minimum and maximum It was found that the actual size of an areas to be served by one sub- area served by one sub-collector varies collector in Egypt. between 10 and 40 feddan. Also, the cumulative frequency in Figure 13-5 shows that more than 80% of the sub-

136 collectors serve an area less than 40 contribution during application (DRI, feddan (DRI, 2000b, TR No. 111). 2000d, TR No 108).

The results illustrated that the team quite Optimum size of organizations succeeded to introduce and apply the The team members of controlled drainage controlled drainage in Balakter area on a study together with a Dutch consultant larger scale among the farmers. from ILRI prepared a literature review report about the optimum size of organisations. The optimum area served CONTROLLED DRAINAGE UNDER by sub-collector depends mainly on socio- LIBERATION POLICY economic, hydrologic, engineering and There are two types of Agriculture Co- farmer management conditions. The operatives in the Egyptian villages, the results illustrated that the base level Agriculture Reform Co-operative and the water management organisations, and Agriculture Credit Co-operative. The 7 hence the drainage units, should be kept secondary sources shown in Figure 13-6 small in the beginning, when the task and reveal that the holding size which is less responsibilities of those involved are not than 3 feddan are concentrated in clear to all. Small units are more costly to Agriculture Reform Co-operative, while the construct. The actual size of a unit should big holding (more 5 feddan) are found in be a compromise between costs of Agriculture Credit Co-operative. The main construction, optimal layout given local reason in this difference refers to the fact topographical condition and the need to that the holdings under agriculture reform work with small organisations at the first are divided in two to three plots in stages of development. It is recommended different areas while in Credit Co- to involve farmers in every step of operative the lands are not separated. The decision making (ILRI&DRI, 2001). interviews (Semi-structure interview, Group discussion, Direct observation and Case study) showed that the farmers Integrated Programme under reform Co-operative are still After many years from field studies on a following the crop rotation in spite of the small scale in Egypt, the controlled Liberalization law. Also, the group drainage study reached a stage in which discussion showed that these farmers are further involvement of the Ministry of willing to apply the controlled drainage. Water Resource and Irrigation (MWRI) and Although the farmers under credit the Ministry of Agriculture and cooperatives were convinced by the Reclamation (MALR) is required. To controlled drainage but they can't apply it enhance integrated water management in because of the following reasons: general and make controlled drainage more effective, advisory services towards • They need to cultivate maize, cotton the farmers and organizing farmers should and rice during a season; be a combined effort of the MWRI and • Their lands may locate in one sub- MALR. DRI organized a workshop in April collector; 1999 (DRI, 2000d) to establish a mode of • The house demands (like maize or cooperation between MWRI which are vegetables); represented by the Egyptian Public • They need to cultivate crops, which Authority for Drainage Project (EPADP)/ give fast return and stay shorter time Irrigation Improved Project (IIP) and in their land (like vegetables). MALR (Agriculture Extension Service) (AES). One of the important achievements So, the main constraints face the of the workshop was the formation of an introduction and application of the interdisciplinary team from different controlled drainage on large scale is rice parties (drainage maintenance, IIP, AES consolidation on sub-collector inside the and Agriculture Co-operatives) in Balakter area under credit cooperatives. area (11,500 fed.) under the umbrella of DRI to spread the controlled drainage concept on a larger scale with the farmers' 7 Tools of PRA method

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FARMERS' AWARENESS AND • The period of awareness was too short KNOWLEDGE (40 hours / 4 months); Balakter area is divided into six Co- • Balakter has many villages (more than operatives; three of them are Co- 75 villages) and the distance between operatives belong to the agriculture credit. them are far; Each Co-operative served an area of about • The attendance of the farmers in the 1,732 feddan. Also, it has 13 villages in awareness meetings were too low (4- average, which are far from each other's. 10 farmers per meeting); The population is about 94,255 • The multi-team worked part time; inhabitants (DRI, 2001). • The time of awareness' meetings was not suitable due to the daily routine for PRA evaluation clarified that the farmers. It was observed that the best awareness was great in some villages, time to meet farmers is between 12 - while in other villages it was very poor 14 PM and after 7 PM; because: • The participants of the multi-team were too little compared with the case in Balakter area (10 persons).

380 12 117

El Nomairy

90 150 60

El Prince 4

10 350 30 55 75 El Wakeel

108 69 15 400 538

Balakter Gh.

Co-operatives 134 355 474 50 20

Balakter Sh.

265 523 59 48 16

El Roda

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 > 1 Fed. 1 -<3 Fed. 3 -<5 Fed. 5 -<10 Fed. >10 Fed.

Size of Tenure

Figure 13-6 Frequency of holders by holding size

13.5 Conclusions and KEY PERSONS The key persons are the people who can Recommendations influence on the others inside the rural • The DRI studies during (1977-1987) communities. The key persons could be focused on the validity of the religious people, head of big families and controlled drainage concept from the leader of WUA’s. Using key persons are a point of view of saving irrigation water. good way of disseminating information. The new studies within the Drainage The number of interviews was rather Research Programme (DRP and DRP2) lower when the key persons were used focused on the awareness about only than the farmers. The farmers' benefits of modified drainage system awareness about controlled drainage was and how to make the farmers accept high through key persons, so it's this technique. important not ignore the role of them. • The controlled drainage saves 32-48% of the irrigation water depending on

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many factors as soil, plant variety, rice • The awareness of controlled drainage growing period, etc. The water table should be given during winter season, under conventional drainage is not where the most of farmers don't have affected by the closing of the sub- overload of fieldwork. collectors under controlled drainage. • The drainage design for new areas and • The IIP without controlled drainage rehabilitation of old areas should could save about 21% of the irrigation include more sub-collectors to water during the rice season. Also, it overcome the problem of rice saves 32-44% of the irrigation time. consolidation and the Agriculture • The net return (LE/feddan) of rice crop Liberalization Law. is higher in the IIP area than in the • The farmers should be involved in the conventional irrigated areas. layout and execution of subsurface • The modified system design will drainage system. This will help them increase the total costs to 27.18% but to know how the system is working. these extra costs can be covered by direct and indirect benefits. • The total water loss through drainage by conventional system may reach (1.05 * 109 m3) of irrigation water during rice season. On the other hand, DRI's studies confirmed that the controlled drainage with IIP could save 2,502 m3/feddan. It means that the quantity of saved water can be used to irrigate about 0.42 feddan. • The results showed that farmers who applied the controlled drainage on smaller scale in 1996, 1997 and 1998 have good knowledge and skills toward application of controlled drainage. Also, all farmers able and willing to apply controlled drainage during the rice season. • On a large scale, the application needs more time, more awareness, more participation with farmers and more cooperation between different authorities (EPAD, IIP and MALR). • The key persons such as religious people, head of big families and leader of WUA are a good way of disseminating information.

The recommendations extracted from the study are:

• The role of key persons in the villages must not be ignored when introducing a new technology. • The organizations of water and agriculture are the best place for disseminating the controlled drainage in the rural community. • It's necessary to make one organization (WUA) be responsible and supervise irrigation and drainage management.

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Research Management

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14. Computer Network and Information System

14.1 Introduction with the DWIP and MADWQ projects. Since October 1997, DRI has e-mail, One of the immediate objectives of the Intranet and Internet connectivity via the DRP and DRP2 projects was to enhance main computer of the network. The planning, monitoring and evaluation at specifications of the network are shown in DRI. This considered both technical and Box 14-1. non-technical aspects. To support the technical work, a technical database facility was developed known as the Data Box 14-1 Specifications of the network Information System (DIS). For the Layout: one Dell PowerEdge 4200 network managerial tasks, six separate databases server, approx. 40-50 clients and one DEC Alpha were built, which together form the Workstation. Management Information System (MIS). Network type: Ethernet, 10-BaseT (unshielded twisted pair) and 10-Base2 (coaxial). DECrepeater 90C: 10-Base2, coaxial thin- All databases were developed using the Ethernet, six lines. Maximum length of one line Microsoft Access database program and = 185 m, maximum number of computers = 30. consist of a front-end and a back-end. The DECrepeater 90T: 10-BaseT, Unshielded back-end is kept on the SQL server and Twisted Pair (UTP), 8 lines available, 4 used. Maximum length = 100 m. contains all the data. The front-ends are Other parts of hub: power unit; DECbridge 90, the input screens, the search screens and connector for thick-Ethernet AUI, planned for a the reports. The front-ends cannot be connection to NWRC computer centre on the viewed in design view; this is done to ground floor; DECserver 90M, terminal and printer server for UNIX/VMS. protect the database from any accidental changes in the design by users. Assigning different privilege levels to different groups of staff prevents sensitive data to come in the wrong hands and regulates Three staff members of DRI were trained entry and editing of data by authorised to be the administrators of the network. persons only. For example, the secretary Their tasks are, among other things, to has the authority to enter and edit data maintain the server, the network and the (under the supervision of the database Intranet; to solve problems with hardware administrator), while a researcher can and software and to provide user support; only view the data. and to make regular backups of the data of the server. A Network Maintenance In order to implement this information Manual was produced by the project as a system institution-wide, the computer reference document for the network and network had to be improved. This will be PC administrators at DRI. The manual has described first. This is followed by a brief information unique for DRI's network, introduction of the Management such as network configuration, WinNT Information System (details in Abdel installed options, and software settings. Gawad et al. 2001). A separate section will be devoted to the activity database, Intranet which was set up to be the major As part of the network, an Intranet was management tool for technical activities. set up (see Figure 14-1). The intranet Then the technical Data Information provides information interesting for DRI. System (DIS) will be presented. The The latest management decisions can be chapter ends with a description of the found, as well as electronic newsletters Information Technology Unit, which was and software upgrades. The intranet established to make the Information contains links to the Management Systems sustainable. Information System and the Data Information System. 14.2 Network Early 1997 DRP started implementing a computer network in DRI, in co-operation

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Government of Egypt and to obtain periodic overviews of budgets against expenditures. The database has separate reports for different levels of management and, if so desired, can provide study leaders with the financial status of their studies. The user can request specific reports to be made as necessary. At present financial accounting of the Dutch funded projects according to DGIS guidelines is fully implemented. Options for GOE accounting are built-in but have not been used to date. Budgets for any period can be entered in the base

currency of the project (i.e. a three year Figure 14-1 DRI Homepage project budget, or an annual budget, or even budgets for a period of four months). Only designated staff can enter or modify 14.3 Management Information budgets. The accountant department can System enter the expenditures in an easy way. Several reports are available, like a The Management Information System monthly overview of bills, a budget versus consists of six databases. Each database expenditure report, and a summary report serves a specific management task for which can be helpful for planning which specific information is required. purposes. These databases are: Users are potentially all staff, except that • Financial database (Findat) the sections that they can view are limited • Publications database by the privileges set in both the back-end • Human Resource database on the SQL server, as well as in the front- • Inventory database end of the program. • Contacts database • Activity database Publications database The publication database documents the publications produced by DRI staff for inclusion in the catalogue, for retrieval in the future and for use in reference lists. It can also catalogue publications of interest for research work at DRI. For the latter one can think of cataloguing the papers in proceedings of workshop, conferences, etc. These are usually not referenced in libraries, as they only reference the proceedings and not its contents. In addition, publications can be retrieved and inserted in this database from other electronic databases made available through other libraries. Examples of inserted data are the DRI library, DRAiN Figure 14-2 Financial database (a collection of drainage related abstracts) Financial database (FINDAT) and the CDS library (over 5,500 entries on The objective of Findat (Figure 14-2) is to a wide range on social studies, economics, manage the various accounts (foreign and rural and urban participation, women in local currency) of projects and of the development, etc.).

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Technical Report templates are available and a graphical 100 Technical Note overview of all DRI publications in a 90 Ph-D thesis particular period can be produced (see 80 Other 70 Figure 14-3). Master thesis 60 Manuals 50 Management Reports, 40 Human Resource database Projects 30 Management Report, The Human Resource Database was DRI 20 Lectures designed to support the Human Resources 10 Journals and Periodicals Unit in DRI with their tasks. The database 0 Consultancy Report 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 keeps the records of all employees, with Conferences & Workshop information about education, followed Figure 14-3 DRI Publications courses and workshops, and publications. The database also contains detailed information about courses, conferences For each record, information like name of and workshops, which are suitable for authors, title, year of publication, abstract DRI. In this way, the Human Resources and reference to library and catalogue Unit can inform the researchers about the code is available. It is possible to browse possibilities of a new course or an through all records or through the records interesting conference. Furthermore, the of a selected library. It is also possible to Human Resources Unit can make a search for a specific publication or for a training plan based on the information in certain topic. Several reports and this database.

Figure 14-4 Employee information in the Human Resource Database

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researchers and studies of DRI. There are Inventory database three main levels of interaction in the The purpose of the inventory database is database: to keep track of all the equipment purchased through foreign funded projects • Top and Middle Management incl. and through government funds. For each Team Leaders; inventory item, information like • Study Leaders and Unit Heads; and, responsible person, condition, • Researchers. manufacturer, and information about the status of duty free imported equipment For each level, the activity database has a are stored. It is possible to browse different menu and different access through the records, or to search for a privileges. Due to its importance as a certain item. Different reports are management tool for technical activities, available to give an overview for the the Activity database will be discussed in management. more detail below.

Contacts database 14.4 Activity Database The purpose of the contact database is to In the database several levels of activities keep track of all contacts of DRI. It is are distinguished, in order to come to possible to browse through the database, measurable indicators or benchmarks or search for a specific person or during a study or activity: company. This database has search engine on the intranet. After typing the • Project. This can also be a main name to search for, the intranet returns activity or a stand-alone study. It is the records matching this name. the level at which invoices to clients are sent; • Study. A project may comprise Activity database various studies of which we want to The purpose of the activity database is to keep track individually; keep track of the planning and activities of

Figure 14-5 Study planning in the Activity database

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• Activity. A study comprises various The project planning can be detailed in a activities of which progress is (annual) study work plan. In these annual measurable and which need to be plans, the activities and sub-activities for planned in detail; each study are scheduled. The information • Sub-activity. For instance a report from the project plan is automatically may go through various measurable shown in order to make the planning levels of completion and this can be easier. In the study work plan, staff can split at activity level; be assigned to work on the particular • Task. This is the lowest level of study. A protection is built in to prevent differentiation and is particularly for the over assignment of staff. If a staff the researcher to fill in. Detailed member is assigned more than 100% monthly planning can take place. during a certain period, a message will appear and the percentage has to be adjusted. Management To accommodate easy access to planned When the planning has been inserted in activities at the lower database levels, and the database, the progress can be filled in make progress reporting easy, it is on monthly basis. There are two types of essential that the overall planning up to reports available for the management activity level is made at the beginning of a level: progress reports and timesheet new project or study. This project plan reports. NB the times worked on a certain encompasses the whole duration of the activity are inserted in the database via project, and shows the planned beginning the timesheets that are filled monthly. and end times of studies and activities. Data of the timesheets is transferred to Also the percentage involvement of a staff the activity database as will be described member will be decided at this stage, but later. can be adjusted when needed.

Figure 14-6 Example of a timesheet

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The progress reports can give detailed Based on the progress and (adjusted) information per study, or a summary for a monthly planning a progress report for the whole project. The basis of this report is management can be printed. This was the estimation of the status of the sub- already discussed above. The study leader activities by the study leader. Based on or unit head can insert remarks this estimation, the status for activities, concerning constraints experienced during studies and projects is calculated. The the month, or any other remark. duration of the sub activity is taken as a weight factor. In this way, the overall The study leader or unit head is allowed to performance of the activity, study, or (pre-) view and print certain reports, like project can be expressed in a percentage. the original work plan, the progress report The percentage of the actual status is and the total time spent on his/her study. compared to the percentage that should have been finished according to the Another tool to help the study leader or planning. Based on this calculation, a unit head is the section Comments. Study remark is placed next to the activity to members can give their comments about indicate if is on schedule, ahead, or if it a certain task. Everybody from the study has a delay. can view these comments, or add a new comment. It is also possible to attach a The timesheet reports give an indication file to the comment. If this file is placed how much time is spent per person, per on a shared folder, the team members can study and/or per project. The actual times access this file. In this way, the minutes of a meeting can easily be distributed, or Possible remarks on progress: team members can work together on one On schedule report. not scheduled yet cancelled delayed Researchers finished on time severe delay The basis of the Activity Database is that slightly delayed every month the study team members, ahead i.e. the researchers, fill in their progress start delayed and check the planning for next month. are retrieved from the timesheets, which In this planning they estimate how much are available since February 1999. The time is spent on the various studies or actual times can be easily compared with projects. Tasks assigned by the study the time that should be spend according leader or unit head will automatically to the assignments in the annual study appear in the planning, as well as the plan. percentages set in the annual study plan.

At the end of the month, everybody has to Study leaders and unit heads submit his or her timesheet. The The study leader or unit head has to timesheets are a file in Excel. This file can update the detailed work plan each month be opened through the database, or (fill in progress of last month and adjust directly in Excel. Name, year and month next month’s planning if necessary). This should be selected. The file shows some is called the monthly study plan. By general studies, but if necessary another default the information of the annual plan study can be selected with drop down is shown and this can be adjusted. Each menus. For each day, the number of (sub) activity is broken down in worked hours per study should be filled in. measurable tasks. For each task, the start At the end of the month, the timesheet and end date is estimated, and the can be sent to a central Excel file by percentage to be completed at the end of clicking on the Send button. This file has next month. A study leader or unit head to be imported in the database by the can assign tasks to study or unit database administrator. This is done with members.

148 the help of a macro in the database. The laterals (length, slope) or about irrigation timesheet is shown in Figure 14-6. canals and drains (length, design parameters). Regional data covers a 14.5 Data Information System certain area, e.g. a field, or a collector block (yield, cropping pattern). Other data Data are typically generated in field includes all other non-geographic data, offices. The oldest data is stored on such as the time-motion data collected paper; in reports. More recent data (till with the trenchless experiment. 1995) is available in digital format, i.e. Lotus or Quattro spreadsheet files. After The DIS is constructed of two parts, the 1995 field data is stored in Excel File Storage System (FSS), where data spreadsheets and Access databases. files, line, regional and other data can be stored, and the Database Management Field data files are distributed among System (DBMS), for the storage of point many staff members and in many offices. data (see Figure 14-7). Several copies of the same data sets are circulating and different staff members have validated identical copies or different copies of the same data. Retrieval (i.e. Procedure of data Files,line, regional Point data finding in old, personal, files) of particular & other data data can be very time consuming. The data has to be located (person, office,

report), and if needed it has to be entered Administrators FSS Intranet DBMS

Extract Extract

into a spreadsheet or database. When view Copy different versions of the data have been located it has to be determined which set User of data is the most accurate one (raw data, Researcher or External Client validated data). To overcome these problems the Data Information System was developed. The Data Information System (DIS) is Figure 14-7 Design Philosophy of DIS meant to serve the following needs: The File Storage System is implemented • To give various staff a good insight in on the Windows NT network server. A which data is collected, where, with folder hierarchy was constructed in a which frequency and for what purpose; shared folder, with subfolders for pilot • To give access to the data by DRI areas and measured parameters. Much of researchers; the old data in spreadsheets is stored in • To screen data soon after collection; these folders. Some of this data was later • To monitor timely collection, also added to the DBMS, especially the processing and screening; more current data that is expected to be • To prepare annual data release used for analysis. Other data not suitable reports, if so desired; to store in the DBMS can also be found • To make data available in user-friendly here, such as cropping pattern charts. A manner to planners and policy makers description of the available data is put on in MPWWR. the Intranet, and links are given to the files in the shared folders. Examples of the field data that are stored in the FSS are DIS design philosophy shown in Box 14-2. Four different data types that are collected by the Covered Drainage Department can At this stage the DBMS contains data of be distinguished: (i) point, (ii) line, (iii) the Covered Drainage Department only. regional, and (iv) other data (non- Its design has been based on the geographic). Most of this data is point measured variables themselves, data, i.e. measured at a point (water independent of area specific conditions. level, soil sample, etc.). Line data could Of course details about the location of the contain information about collectors and variable are stored as well. Through such

149 a flexible design the database can be end and end-users do not have the easily expanded to cover other permissions to access the DIS on the SQL departments of the DRI, with other types Server back-end. This was done to protect of measured variables. It consists of a the integrity of the data stored. master database with the collected field data, of which extracts data can be made Box 14-4 Examples of tables in DBMS for specific purposes. The kind of data that can be found in the DBMS is shown in Box 1. Table: Area; Includes regions in Egypt, pilot areas, units in pilot areas, etc. 14-3. 2. Table: Location; Includes location of measurements or samples e.g. the coordinate Box 14-2 Field data stored in FSS system in which the x and y coordinates are Field data that are stored in the FSS: expressed. • Collectors and laterals: length, slope, diameter, 3. Table: Measurement; Place where the fixed envelope type; information on the measurements are stored. • Irrigation canals and drains: irrigation schedule, Each measurement has one record. length, design parameters; 4. Table: Measurement History; This table • Field or collector block: yield, cropping pattern, contains the actual measured value of the fertiliser applied, irrigation schedule; measurement. • Drainage Centers: complaints, year of 5. Table: Parameter; This table is used to store construction, number of collectors, area with the parameter that is being measured or subsurface drainage. sampled, e.g. watertable depth or ECe of the soil. 6. Table: Validation Status; In this table the Box 14-3 Field data stored in DBMS status of the validation of a measurement result Field data that are stored in the DBMS: or a sample result are stored. • Groundwater: level or piezometric head, salinity; The procedure to obtain data from the • Soil: salinity, other chemical parameters (cations, anions, pH, etc), moisture content, database is to request the database hydraulic conductivity; administrators to extract the desired data. • Outfalls collectors and laterals: discharge, The administrator will prepare a special salinity effluent; query to extract the data in a format • Manholes: water level, salinity; desired by the user. These can be one-off • Canals and open drains: discharge, salinity extracts or part of an extracts schedule. irrigation and drainage water; The extracts are formatted as MS Excel • Crops: yield, rooting depth; spreadsheets or MS Access databases and • Meteorological: temperature, wind speed, are used directly with the MS Office evaporation, and sunshine duration. applications by the end-user. It was impossible to determine and design the Like the databases in the MIS, there is a exact format and data content of the back end with tables and a front end built extracts in advance, during the design in Access. The basic structure of the back phase of the DIS, because the number of end is simple: 22 tables, 9 views, one possibilities is endless. database diagram, and one stored procedure to import measurement data. When most data was added to the Examples of the tables included in the database, a linkage with maps has been DBMS are shown in Box 14-4. established. Already all data points have their GPS coordinates. The linkage with The front end contains the connection to the maps is two-fold: firstly for the the SQL Server back-end and one macro. potential user to quickly identify on a map The macro is used to import of Egypt where and which data are measurements. The size of the front-end available (this may be done on Intranet), is less than 30KB so it can be used from a and secondly to display data in a GIS shared network resource without package, or Surfer. performance penalties. Although this front-end will be expanded and improved For more information about the design of in the future it was never the intention to DIS, it is referred to technical report 117 make this a front-end for end-users. There (El Refaie et al., 2001). are no user forms or reports in this front-

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14.6 Data Entry Spreadsheet Table 14-1 Examples of parameters used in the field sheet A special Microsoft Excel spreadsheet was ID Parameter Description developed in Excel 2000 (though it should ADSAR Adjusted Sodium Absorption Ratio also work in version 97) to enter the C% Clay Percentage measurement data of pilot areas. The Ca Calcium spreadsheet is meant for the field staff in CaCO3 Calcium Carbonate the pilot areas and can store the typical CD Collector Discharge pilot area data of one month. Each month Cl Chlorine the spreadsheet is returned to the CO3 Carbonate database administrator at the head office EC Electrical Conductivity who will use the previously described ETPAN Pan evaporation macro and stored procedure to load the HCO3 Bicarbonate measurement data into the DBMS. HFG Hydraulic Faluire Gradiant K Hydraulic Conductivity The spreadsheet consists of five Ka Potassium sheets/pages, of which three are visible LD Lateral Discharge for the user and two are hidden: LDS Lateral Discharge Salinity Mg Magnesium 1. General. The sheet for the general Na Sodium measurement data. These are nRH% Minimum Relative Humidity measurement values that don't need nTEM Minimum Temperature any processing before they can be PH PH entered in the database. Examples are PI Plasticity Index shown in Table 14-1. Almost 40 S% Sand Percentage variables have been pre-programmed. SAR Sodium Absorption Ratio New ones can be added by the user. Si% Silt Percentage If so desired a special input sheet can SO4 Sulphate be prepared upon request. SunH Sunshine hours TDS Total Dissolved Salts 2. Discharge. Special sheet for WindS Wind speed discharge measurements with a bucket WTD Water Table Depth and a stopwatch. The only difference WTL Water Table Level between this sheet and the General xRH% Maximum Relative Humidity sheet is that instead of the measured xTEM Maximum Temperature value the bucket volume and the wTEM Wet Temperature measured time are entered. The sheet dTEM Dry Temperature calculates the discharge in l/s. If the Rain Rainfall drain is submerged a value of –1 litter CDS Collector Discharge Salinity should be entered in the volume field; GWS Groundwater Salinity IR infiltration rate 3. WTD. The Water Table Depth sheet. Here the water table level is calculated 5. ExportData. In this hidden sheet the from the level of the top of the data of the first three sheets are observation well in mMSL and the rearranged and copied. Here the range measured depth from this top to the ExportData is defined that is used by water level. If the well is dry then the the ImportSpreadsheet macro to load value of 1,000 should be entered in the data into the DBMS. This sheet the WTD field. This results in a combines all the entered data in the calculated value of –1,000 m MSL in first three sheets. The sheet has 1,500 the WTL field; rows for data storage. If more data has to be entered for one month then 4. LookUp. Hidden sheet with the lookup a second copy of the spreadsheet lists used in the three sheets above. could be used for the remaining The lookup lists are linked through locations. queries to the DIS on the SQL Server, using an ODBC system data source The spreadsheet is designed in such a way with the name DIS. that input data is automatically verified.

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To increase the user friendliness, the user The Information Technology Unit can easily select parameters from drop develops, operates and maintains down lists. Some fields have formulas to the databases containing all calculate an entry that the user cannot technical, administrative, and change (e.g. the Field Code) or to financial information related to the calculate a default entry that the user can Institute that can assist the overwrite (e.g. Measurement Date/Time). Director and Department Heads in making decisions and monitor There are two date/time fields on each implementation of projects. As input page, the Measurement Date/Time well as, it maintains and manages and the Entry Date/Time. The user can the computers and the computer enter here only the date and leave the network (hardware and software) time at 00:00 or the time can be in the Institute. specified. Entering the time is only needed to make the measurement unique, a The Information Technology Unit is a constraint set in the DBMS. The real time supportive function. Due to its importance can be used or any value to differentiate it is directly supervised by the Director of the records from each other. the Institute. It is recommended that the unit consists of four persons: a head of When a location is entered in the first the unit, and three subordinates column of each data entry page then a responsible for respectively the check is done if this location is in the pilot Management Information System, the area. On the LookUp page the range Data Information System and the Locations contains a list of the locations in Technical Support. In order to support this the DBMS with the area they belong to. unit, a manual has been developed which Since the Area entity in the DBMS is explains the unit function and the position recursive the location can belong to a structure. Also the job descriptions are smaller area (e.g. a unit) that is part of a provided. bigger area (e.g. pilot area). For this application it is assumed that the Institute Director recursion is only one level deep so the location is either directly part of a pilot Head of IT Unit area or of an area one level below it. The two area columns in the LookUp page MIS Officer DIS Officer TS Officer represent the area of the location and the parent area of that area. Both columns are searched when a user enters a location. Figure 14-8 IT Unit position structure

The empty version of the data entry 14.8 Conclusions measurement spreadsheet is Since 1997, DRI has a good computer approximately 3.7MB. The filled version is network. This made it possible to only some 500KB bigger because the implement the Management and Data formatting of empty cells already takes up Information System, which both proved to most of the space. When compressed with be very helpful tools to support Winzip both files are reduced to some managerial and technical activities. 700KB, small enough to be transported on a normal floppy disk. The Management Information System consists of six databases, each serving a 14.7 The Information Technology specific management task. With the MIS, Unit it is easier to perform managerial tasks, To ensure the sustainability of the as it supplies all the information needed to information systems and the network, an make good decisions. For example, the Information Technology Unit was set up. Publications database is a good tool to The mission of the unit is stated as keep track of DRI publications and search follows: for other publications in different libraries and the Inventory database is a useful method to keep track of project and

152 government inventories at DRI. The Human Resource database is a helpful information technology method to organize all DRI information and employees' information to help managers' decision-making related to the Human Resources at DRI.

The activity database appeared to be an important tool to manage technical activities. It keeps track of the planning and activities of studies and researchers at DRI. It is possible to enter several levels of planning, and to indicate the progress of activities. In timesheets the time researchers spend on the various studies is recorded. Several reports are available to inform the management, study leaders and unit heads.

Organizing the technical data to be stored, validated and easily accessed is very important for researchers achievement and the technical Data Information System is a good tool to do so at DRI. It consists of a Folder Storage System (FSS) and a Database Management System (DBMS). For the FSS a folder hierarchy was constructed in a shared folder. In this folder line, regional, and other data are stored. The DBMS consists mainly of point data. This data is entered through a spreadsheet in Excel. Through a macro it is uploaded to the database on the server.

All databases are developed with a front- end and a back-end. The back-end is kept on the SQL server and contains all the data. This back-end has limited access. The front-end is developed in Access and contains the forms, queries and reports. For the user it is not possible to change the design of the front-ends. For the DIS the user even does not have access to the front-end. The database managers can make database extracts on request.

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References

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Aart, R. van and J.G. van Alphen. 1994 Procedures in Drainage Surveys. In: H.P. Ritzema (Ed.) Drainage Principles and Applications. ILRI Publication 16: 691-724. Abdel Dayem, M. S., Y. Abdel Aziz, and F. M. Ramadan 1996. Rehabilitation of Subsurface Drainage Systems in Egypt. Proceedings of the Workshop on the Evaluation of Performance of Subsurface Drainage Systems - 16th congress on irrigation and Drainage, Cairo, Egypt. Abdel Dayem, M.S. 1995. Report on the status of implementing modified drainage systems in rice growing areas. Presented to: the Advisory Panel on Land Drainage and Drainage Related Water Management. Drainage Research Institute. March 1995 Abdel Dayem, M.S.; Ritzema, H.P. 1990. Verification of drainage design criteria in the Nile Delta, Egypt. Irrigation and Drainage Systems, 4: 117-131,1990 Kluwer Academic Publisher. Netherlands. Abdel Dayem, S. 1985. Investigation of pipe clogging and need for envelope materials in subsurface drainage. Pilot Areas and Drainage Technology Project, Technical Report No. 28. Drainage Research Institute, Giza, Cairo, Egypt, 104 pp. Abdel Gawad, S., Omara, A., Abdel Ghany, M.B., and Walbeek, M.M. (Eds.). 2001. Workshop Proceedings on Institutional Strengthening and Organisational Development of Government Research Organisations. Cairo, Feb. 19, 2001. DRP2 Report. Drainage Research Institute, El Kanater, Egypt, Mar. 2001. 134 pp. Abdel Ghany, M.B; Hussein, A. M.; Omara, M. A.; El Nagar, H. M., 2000. Testing electromagnetic induction device (EM38) under Egyptian condition. EM38 Workshop Proceedings, New Delhi, February 4, 2000. Edited by Vlotman , W.F., ILRI, The Netherlands. Abdel Hadi, A.M, Omara, A. and Vlotman, W.F. 2000. An Investigation of Clay Percentage at the Abu Matamir Area for Envelope Need Determination, Egypt. Drainage Research Institute, El - Kanater, Egypt, Technical Report TR 105, Drainage Research Programme Project (DRP), Dec. 2000. Amer, M. H. and N. A. de Ridder. (Eds) 1989. Land Drainage in Egypt. Drainage Research Institute, Cairo, Egypt, 377 pp. Bons, A. and Van Zeijts, T.E.J. 1991. Jet flushing a method for cleaning subsurface drainage systems. Information Paper 28 After Government Service for Land and Water Use, Utrecht ,The Netherlands Bos, M.G., D. H. Murray-Rust, D.J. Merrey, H.G. Johnsen, and W.B. Snellen. 1993. Methodologies for Assessing Performance of Irrigation and Drainage Department. Brinkhorts, W ; Linde, K.V.D and Scholten, J. 1983. Experiences with jet flushing of drains in lauwersmeen , pp 25, Lelystad, The Netherlands. Cohen, J. 1977. Ch 8: F-test on means in the Analysis of Variance and Covariance. In: Statistical Power Analysis for the behavioural Sciences, Rev. Ed. Academic Press; 273 – 406. Corwin, D.L. and Rhoades, J.D. 1989. Establishing Soil Electrical Conductivity - Depth Relations from Electromagnetic Induction Measurements. Presented at EM Conference, April 1989, Mooroopna, Department of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Victoria, Australia. Croon, F. 1997. Drainage of Heavy Clay Soils in Egypt, Drainage Research Institute, El Kanater, Egypt, consultancy report, Drainage Research Programme Project (DRP), Sep. 1997, 28+ pp DEMP IV. 1995. Comparison Gravel Filter-Envelope Material on Quality and Economic Aspects. Drainage Executive Management Project IV, R.B.A. 1995-24 LIP, Operational Research Unit, EPADP, Cairo, Egypt. 20 pp. DRI. 1982. Shereishra pilot Area. Excavation of lateral drains. Pilot Areas and Drainage Technology Project, Drainage Research Institute, Delta Barrage, Cairo, Egypt. 24 pp. plus annexes. DRI. 1983. Progress report on the need of envelope materials for lateral drains. Pilot Areas and Drainage Technology Project, Technical Report No. 86. Drainage Research Institute, Delta Barrage, Cairo, Egypt.

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DRI. 1985. Monitoring the performance of a drainage system with modified layout and comparison with conventional system (summer 1984). Technical Report No.30, Drainage Research Institute, NWRC, Delta Barrage, Egypt. DRI. 1987a. Mashtul Pilot area-Physical description. Tech. Report No. 57, Pilot Areas and Drainage Technology Project, Advisory Panel on Land Drainage in Egypt, Giza, Egypt. DRI. 1987b. Drainage Criteria Study at Mashtul Pilot Area. Part IV: Lateral Drain Discharge and its Salinity. Technical Report no. 59. Drainage Research Institute. July 1987 DRI. 1990a Monitoring of a subsurface drainage system in the Ismailia area. Pilot Areas and Drainage Technology Project, Technical Report No. 65. Drainage Research Institute, Delta Barrage, Cairo, Egypt. DRI. 1990b. Drainage Criteria at Mashtul Pilot Area (Final report). Drainage Research Institute (DRI), El-Kanater, Cairo, Egypt, January 1990. DRI. 1992a Review of the Envelope Materials Studies. Pilot Areas and Drainage Technology Project, Technical Report No. 75 Drainage Research Institute, Delta Barrage, Cairo, Egypt. Mar. 92. 49+ pp. DRI. 1992b. Subsurface drainage design for Haress Pilot Area. Technical report No. 70, March 1992; Delta Barrages, Cairo, Egypt. DRI. 1992c. Pre-drainage investigation in Mit Kenana Pilot Area. Pilot Area and Drainage Technology Project, Technical Report No 71. Drainage Research Institute, Delta Barrage, Cairo, Egypt DRI. 1992d. Subsurface drainage design for Mit Kenana Pilot Area. Pilot Areas and Drainage Technology Project, Technical Report No. 72. Drainage Research Institute, Delta Barrage, Cairo, Egypt DRI. 1993. Renewal of Drainage Systems in Egypt: Research and operational initiatives. Drainage Research Institute, Cairo, Egypt. March 1993. 54pp DRI. 1994. Egyptian Standards for locally produced polypropylene envelope materials made as sheets for wrapping drain tubes in Egypt. First edition. Drainage Research Institute, Delta Barrage, Cairo, Egypt. DRI. 1997. Operation of the Modified Drainage System by Collector User Groups in Balakter Area (Rice Season, 1996). Drainage Research Project (DRP). Drainage Research Institute. Technical Report 95. 24 pp. DRI. 1998. Controlled Drainage through Water User Associations (Rice Season 1997). Drainage Research Institute. Technical Report 102. Drainage Research Project (DRP) DRI. 1999. Consultancy Training Report EM38 Lecture Notes. DRP2. Drainage Research Institute, Delta Barrages, POB 13621/5, Cairo, Egypt. DRI. 2000a. Overview of sub-surface drainage complaints in Egypt, 1993-1996. Technical Report 103. Drainage Research Project II, Drainage Research Institute, NWRC, Delta Barrages, Cairo, Egypt. DRI. 2000b. Controlled Drainage System Desk study for surveying of sub-collectors In the Nile Delta. Technical Report 111. Drainage Research Institute, NWRC, Delta Barrage, Egypt. DRI. 2000c. Flushing of Subsurface Drainage Laterals with Medium and High Pressure Machines in Egypt. Drainage Research Institute, El -Kanater, Egypt, Technical Report TR 99, Drainage Research Programme Project (DRP). DRI. 2000d. Farmer Participation in Drainage Management. Technical Report 108. Drainage Research Project II, Drainage Research Institute, NWRC, Delta Barrages, Cairo, Egypt. DRI. 2001. Farmer Participation in Drainage Management. . Technical Report 111. Drainage Research Project (DRP2). Drainage Research Institute, NWRC, Delta Barrage, Egypt. DRI/DRP. 1997. Practical Experiences with Trenchless Drainage (V-plough) in Egypt. Technical Report No. 92. Drainage Research Programme, Drainage Research Institute (DRI), Delta Barrage, Cairo, Egypt. Drainage Research Programme Project (DRP). January 1997. 55+ pp.

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DRI/DRP. 2000. Detailed Analysis of Trenchless Drainage Construction (V-plow) under Irrigated Conditions. Drainage Research Institute, El -Kanater, Egypt, Technical Report TR 93, Drainage Research Programme Project (DRP), 30+ pp DRP. 1995. Inception report. Drainage Research Programme Project (DRP). Drainage Research Institute (DRI), Delta Barrages, Cairo, Egypt. DRP. 2000. DRP 2 Workplan and Budget 2001, Drainage Research Institute, El Kanater, NWRC Bldg. Cairo, Egypt, November 2000 EALIP, 2000. Reclamation of heavy clay soils in the ISAWIP project area. Summary report made by EALIP consultants Eissa, M. 2001. Watertable Drawdown Curve of Mashtul, Haress & Mit Kenana Pilot Areas. Drainage Research Institute, El -Kanater, Egypt, Technical Report TR 104, Drainage Research Programme Project (DRP), Dec. 1998. (draft). Eissa, M., P.J. Hoogenboom, M. Abdel Ghany, and A.W. Tahun. 1996. Determination of Q-H relations of field drains under Egyptian conditions. Proceedings Workshop on the Evaluation of Performance of Subsurface Drainage Systems 16th ICID Congress, Cairo, Egypt. El Rafaie, G.G., Abdel Hady, A., Gamal El Din, H., Hoogenboom, P. 2001. Design of Data Information System. DRP2 Technical report 117, Drainage Research Institute, El Kanater, Egypt, 42 pp. EPADP. 1998. Achievements of EPAPD for 25 years since 1973. EPADP, Cairo, Egypt. 36 pp (Arabic). EPADP/DEMP IV. 1996. Trenchless Drainage Experiment: capacity, efficiency, and economic aspects. Egyptian Public Authority for Drainage Projects, Giza, Egypt. Drainage Executive Management Project IV (DEMP). November 1996. 25 pp (draft). FAO. 1976. “Drain Testing.” FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper No. 28, Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations, Rome, Italy. 172 pp. FAO. 1980. Drainage design factors. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy Irrigation and Drainage paper. no. 24. Feddes, R. A. 1971. Water, heat, and crop growth. Med. Landbouwhogeschool, Wageningen, pp. 184 Gallichand, J., Marcotte, D., Prasher, S.O., and Broughton, R.S. 1992. Optimal Sampling Density of Hydraulic Conductivity for Subsurface Drainage in the Nile Delta. Agricultural Water Management, 20 (1992), pp. 299-312 Goins, T., J. Lunin, and H. L. Worley 1966. Water table effects on growth of tomatoes, snap beans, and sweet corn. Amer. Soc. Agr. Eng., Trans. 9:530-533. Grass, L.B., A.J. MacKensie and L.S. Willardson. 1975. Inspecting and cleaning subsurface drainage systems. USDA ARS Farmers Bulletin No. 2258. U.S. Government Printing Office. Washington, D.C. Hamza A. M., Abdel Ghany, M.B., Kandil, H., Lashin, I. 2000. Socio-Economic Aspects under Controlled Drainage and improved Irrigation Systems in Rice fields. Paper for International Conference on Wadi Hydrology. Sharm El Sheikh, Egypt, 21-23 November, 2000. Hamza, A. M. 1998. EPADP,S Development and achievements . Seminar Drainage Training Center, Tanta, Egypt. ILRI & DRI, 2001. Size Of Farmers' Water Management Organisations. Literature review, in preparation of controlled drainage units in Egypt (working paper prepared for DRP2). Wageningen, Netherlands. ISAWIP 1994. Integrated Soil and Water Improvement Project (ISAWIP), Final Report, April 1994. Egyptian Public Authority for Drainage Projects, Ministry of Public Works and Water Resources, Cairo, Egypt, 203+ pp. Karaman, H.G., Omara, M.A., and Vlotman, W.F. 1998. Envelope Research in Haress Pilot Area, Volume 2, Hydraulic Perfromance Assessment (Field Study), 1993 - 1996. Drainage Research Institute, El -Kanater, Egypt, Technical Report TR 97, Drainage Research Programme Project (DRP), Jun. 1998, 30+ pp. Khalil, B., Abd Al Halim, A. A., Vlotman, W.F. and Akkermans, L.M.W. 2001. Lecture Notes Pilot Area Statistics Course, DRP2, DRI, April 14 – 28, 2001.

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Koerner, G.R., Koerner, R.M, and Wilson-Fahmy, R.F. 1996. Geotextile Filter Design Critique. In: Bhatia, S.K., and Suits, L.D. (Eds.). Proc. Symposium on Recent Developments in Geotextile Filters and Prefabricated Drainage Geocomposites, ASTM special technical publication STP-1281. West Conshohocken, PA., USA, pp. 165-181. Koerner, R.M. 1994. Designing with Geosynthetics. 3rd edition, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, USA, pp 1 - 313 (pp. 783). McNeill, J.P. 1986. Geotronics EM38 Ground Conductivity Meter; Operating Instructions and Survey Interpretation Techniques. Technical Note TN-21, Geonics Ltd, Mississauga, Ontario, Canada, 16+ pp. Metzger, J. F., Gallichand, J., Amer, M.H., and Brichieri-Colombi, J.S.A. 1992. Experiences with Fabric Envelope Selection in a Large Subsurface Drainage Project in Egypt. In: Vlotman (Ed.) Proceedings of 5th International Drainage Workshop, Lahore, Pakistan, ICID, IWASRI, 1992, Vol. III, 5.77 - 5.87. Naarding, W.H. 1979. Trench Versus trenchless drainage techniques. Proceedings of the International Drainage Workshop edited by J. Wesseling ILRI pub. 25, po Box 45. Wageningen, The Netherlands, pp. 543-560. Nasralla M. R. 1997. Evaluation of Modern Technology for Subsurface Drainage in Egypt. MSc thesis in Civil Engineering, Irrigation and Hydralic Department, Faculity of Engineering, Ain Shams Univeristy, Cairo, Egypt. Omara, M.A, and Abdel-Hadi, M.A. 1997. The Effect of Sunshine Radiation on Storage of Some Synthetic Envelope Materials under Egyptian Climatological Conditions. Drainage Research Institute, El -Kanater, Egypt, Technical Report TR 94, Drainage Research Programme Project (DRP), Dec. 1997. 74 pp. Omara, M.A, and Abdel-Hadi, M.A. 1998. Drain Envelope Need and Design for Awad, Kharbotly and Abu-Matamir Areas. Drainage Research Institute, El -Kanater, Egypt, Technical Report TR 91, Drainage Research Programme Project (DRP), Jun. 1998, 39+pp. Oosterbaan, R. J. 1994. Agricultural drainage criteria. In: H. P. Ritzema (ed.), Drainage principles and applications. ILRI Publication 16 (second edition), International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement (ILRI), Wageningen, pp. 635-689. Oosterbaan, R.J. 1987. Report of consultancy assignment to the pilot areas and drainage technology project of the Drainage Research Institute, Egypt, March 1987. International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement, Wageningen, the Netherlands Pedhazur, E.A. 1982. Multiple Regression in the Behavioral Sciences, 2nd ed. Holt, Rinehart and Winston; 279 –304, 449-450, 513. Rady, M. A. 1993. Main policies and guideline for rehabilitation of tile drainage networks. Egyptian Authority for Drainage Project (EPADP), Cairo, Egypt. April 1993. 24pp. Rhoades, J.D., Chanduvi, F. and Lesch, S. (Eds.). 1999. Soil Salinity Assessment. Methods and Interpretation of Electrical Conductivity Measurements. Irrigation and Drainage Paper No. 57, FAO, Rome, Italy, 153 pp. Salman, A.F. 1995. Rehabilitation policies and priorities of field drainage. Egyptian Authority for Drainage Projects (EPADP), Cairo, Egypt. March 1995. 18pp. Small, L. E. and M. Svendsen. 1992. A Framework for assessing irrigation performance. Working Paper on Irrigation Performance 1. Washington, D. C. : International Food Policy Research Institute. Smedema, L. K., Abdel Dayem S.M., Vlotman W.F, Abdel Aziz, A., And Van Leeuwen H. 1996. Performance assessment of Land drainage system. 16 th congress on irrigation and Drainage. Workshop on the evaluation of performance of subsurface drainage systems pp: 3-16 Cairo, Egypt. Smedema, L.K. and W.F. Vlotman. 1996. Performance assessment of drainage systems. Proceedings of Workshop on Performance Assessment of Drainage Systems, DRP2/Drainage Research Institute (DRI), Cairo, Egypt. Tovey, R. 1964. Alfalfa growth as influenced by static and fluctuating water tables Amer. Soc. Agr., Eng., Trans.7:310-312.

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Ven, G. A. 1983. Design of subsurface drainage systems in the Zuyderzee Project and in Egypt. January 1983, Technical Bulletin No. 11, Drainage Research Institute (DRI), Delta Barrages, Cairo, Egypt. Vlotman, W.F. (ed.) 2000. EM38 Workshop Proceedings. New Delhi, India, Feb. 2001, Special report ILRI, 93 pp. Vlotman, W.F., Willardson, L.S., and Dierickx, W. 1999. Envelope Design for Subsurface Drains. International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement (ILRI), Draft Feb. 99, Wageningen, The Netherlands, 260+pp. Vlotman, W.F.and Omara, A. 1998. Drain Envelope Need, Design and Quality Control. Drainage Research Institute, El -Kanater, Egypt, Technical Report TR 89v2, Drainage Research Programme Project (DRP), Oct. 98, 81 pp. Wesseling, J. 1974. Crop growth and wet soils. In: J. van Schilfgaarde (ed.), Drainage for agriculture. Agronomy 17, American Society of Agronomy, Madison, pp.7-38. Wilde, de J.G.S. 1992. Productive Capacity of Trenching and trenchless Machines when Lying Subsurface Drains. Agricultural Water Management, Vol. 21, 45-56. Williamson, R. E. and J. R. Carrekar 1970. Effect of water table levels on evapotranspiration and crop yield. Amer. Soc. Agr. Eng., Trans. 13:168-170, 176. Zeijts, van T.E.J. and Naarding W.H. 1990. Possibilities and Limitations of Trenchless Pipe Drain Installation in Irrigated Areas. In: Installation of Pipe Drains, Information Paper 21, Govt. Service for Land and Water Use, Utrecht, The Netherlands. 10 - 22.

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Publications by DRP and DRP2

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Project Management Reports Al Maghrabi, O.M. 2001. Design Manual Financial Database. DRP 2 Management Report. Drainage Research Institute, El Kanater, Egypt, (draft). Al Maghrabi, O.M. and Walbeek, M.M. 2001. Design Manual Activity Database. DRP 2 Management Report. Drainage Research Institute, El Kanater, Egypt, (draft). Al Maghrabi, O.M. and Walbeek, M.M. 2001. Design Manual Human Resource Database. DRP 2 Management Report. Drainage Research Institute, El Kanater, Egypt, (draft). Al Maghrabi, O.M. and Walbeek, M.M. 2001. Design Manual Inventory Database. DRP 2 Management Report. Drainage Research Institute, El Kanater, Egypt, (draft). Al Maghrabi, O.M. and Walbeek, M.M. 2001. Design Manual Publication Database. DRP 2 Management Report. Drainage Research Institute, El Kanater, Egypt, (draft). Vlotman, W.F. 2001. Fifth Progress Report, October 1, 2000 – March 31, 2001. Drainage Research Institute (DRI), Drainage Research Project II (DRP2), Cairo, Egypt. Apr. 2001, 60 pp. Vlotman, W.F. and Abdel Latif. M.M. 2001. Financial Database Manual, Version 4. (Findat 4). DRP 2 Management Report. Drainage Research Institute, El Kanater, Egypt, (draft) Walbeek, M.M. 2001. Activity Database Manual, Version 1. DRP 2 Management Report. Drainage Research Institute, El Kanater, Egypt, Jan 2001, 23 pp. Walbeek, M.M. 2001. Human Resource Database Manual, DRP 2 Management Report. Drainage Research Institute, El Kanater, Egypt, (draft). Walbeek, M.M. 2001. Inventory Database Manual, Version 3.4. DRP 2 Management Report. Drainage Research Institute, El Kanater, Egypt, Jan 2001, 25 pp. Walbeek, M.M. 2001. Publications Database Manual, Version 2.0x. DRP 2 Management Report. Drainage Research Institute, El Kanater, Egypt, Jan 2001, 31 pp. DRI/DRP2 staff. 2000. Workplan and Budget 2001. Drainage Research Project II (DRP2), Cairo, Egypt. Nov. 2000, 50+ pp. Shaalan, T. 2000. Organisation Manual Marketing Unit. Drainage Research Institute, El Kanater, Egypt Shaalan, T. 2000. Organisation Manual Human Resource Unit. Drainage Research Institute, El Kanater, Egypt Shaalan, T. 2000. Organisation Manual IT Unit. Drainage Research Institute, El Kanater, Egypt Vlotman, W.F. 2000. Third Progress Report, October 1, 1999 – March 31, 2000. Drainage Research Institute (DRI), Drainage Research Project II (DRP2), Cairo, Egypt. Apr. 2000, 49 pp. Vlotman, W.F. 2000. Fourth Progress Report, April 1 - September 30, 2000. Drainage Research Institute (DRI), Drainage Research Project II (DRP2), Cairo, Egypt. Oct. 2000, 60 pp. Cortenbach, F.P.M. 1999. Trip Report. Drainage Research Project II (DRP2), Cairo, Egypt. Jul. 1999, 12+ pp. (included in second Progress Report, Vlotman 1999b). Cortenbach, F.P.M. 1999. EM38 Lecture Notes. Drainage Research Project II (DRP2), Cairo, Egypt. Jul. 1999, 36+ pp. DRI/DRP2 staff. 1999. Workplan and Budget 2000. Drainage Research Project II (DRP2), Cairo, Egypt. Nov. 1999, 31+ pp. DRP staff. 1999. DRP Final Report, Dec 1, 1994 - Sep. 30, 1998. Drainage Research Project (DRP), Cairo, Egypt. Aug. 1999, 71 pp. DRP2 staff. 1999. Video Inspection Equipment Training. Drainage Research Programme Project (DRP), Cairo, Egypt. Mar. 1999, 9+ pp. Vlotman, W.F. 1999. First Progress Report, October 1 - March 31, 1998. Drainage Research Institute (DRI), Drainage Research Project II (DRP2), Cairo, Egypt. Apr. 1999, 50 pp. Vlotman, W.F. 1999. Second Progress Report, April 1 - September 30, 1999. Drainage Research Institute (DRI), Drainage Research Project II (DRP2), Cairo, Egypt. Oct. 1999, 85 pp.

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DRI staff. 1998. Proposal for Extension of Drainage Research Programmes (DRP2), Oct 1, 1998 – June 30, 2001. Drainage Research Institute (DRI). June 1998. 35 pp. DRI/DRP staff. 1998. Sixth Progress Report, July 1 - December 31, 1997. Drainage Research Institute (DRI), Drainage Research Programme Project, Cairo, Egypt. Jan. 1998, 34 pp. DRI/DRP staff. 1998. Seventh Progress Report, January 1 - June 30, 1998. Drainage Research Institute (DRI), Drainage Research Programme Project, Cairo, Egypt. Aug. 1998, 79 pp. DRI/DRP/EAP staff. 1998. Manual for Drainage Research Institute of the Staff Appraisal System. Drainage Research Institute (DRI), Drainage Research Programme Project, Cairo, Egypt. May 1998, 43 pp. (English and Arabic). DRI/DRP2 staff. 1998. Workplan and Budget 1999. Drainage Research Project II (DRP2), Cairo, Egypt. Nov. 1998, 29+ pp. DRI/DRP staff. 1997. Project Brief for Presentation at Drainage Panel, Drainage Research Institute (DRI), Drainage Research Programme Project, Cairo, Egypt. Feb. 1997, 4 pp. DRI/DRP staff. 1997. Fourth Five-Year Plan, 1997 - 2002 Drainage Research Institute (DRI), Drainage Research Programme Project, Cairo, Egypt. Aug. 1997, 50+pp. (Draft) DRI/DRP staff. 1997. DRI Annual Plan and Budget 97-98. Drainage Research Institute (DRI), Drainage Research Programme Project, Cairo, Egypt. Aug. 1997, 95 pp. DRI/DRP staff. 1997. Fifth Progress Report, January 1 - June 30, 1997. Drainage Research Institute (DRI), Drainage Research Programme Project, Cairo, Egypt. Aug. 1997, 30+ pp. DRI/DRP staff. 1997. Workplan and Budget 1998. Drainage Research Programme Project, Cairo, Egypt. Nov. 1997, 95+ pp. DRI/DRP/EAP staff. 1997. Organisational Manual. Drainage Research Institute (DRI), Drainage Research Programme Project, Cairo, Egypt. Aug. 1997, 60+ pp. (English and Arabic). DRI/DRP staff. 1996. 2nd Progress Report DRP, Drainage Research Institute (DRI), Drainage Research Programme Project, Cairo, Egypt. Jan/Jun. 1996, 70 pp. DRI/DRP staff. 1996. 3rd Progress Report DRP, Drainage Research Institute (DRI), Drainage Research Programme Project, Cairo, Egypt. Jul. 1996, 54 pp. DRI/DRP staff. 1996c. Work Plan and Budget 1997, Drainage Research Institute (DRI), Drainage Research Programme Project, Cairo, Egypt. Nov. 1996, 72 pp. DRI/DRP staff. 1995. Draft Administrative and Project Procedures for the Drainage Research Programme Project, Drainage Research Institute (DRI), Drainage Research Programme Project, Cairo, Egypt. April 1995, 36+ pp. DRI/DRP staff. 1995. Inception Report Drainage Research Programme. International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement (ILRI)/Drainage Research Institute (DRI), Drainage Research Programme Project, Cairo, Egypt. July 1995 135 pp. DRI/DRP staff. 1995. Work Plan and Budget 1996, Drainage Research Institute (DRI), Drainage Research Programme Project, Cairo, Egypt. Nov. 1995, 44 pp. DRI/DRP staff. 1995. Evaluation of Tender “Trenchless Drainage Experiment in Egypt”, Drainage Research Institute (DRI), Drainage Research Programme Project, Cairo, Egypt. Dec. 21, 1995, 15+ pp. DRI/DRP staff. 1995. Study Tour on Trenchless Drainage in the Netherlands, Drainage Research Institute (DRI), Drainage Research Programme Project, Cairo, Egypt. Dec. 1995, 13 pp. DRI/DRP staff. 1994. Annual Plan and Budget 1995, Drainage Research Institute (DRI), Drainage Research Programme Project, Cairo, Egypt. Dec. 1994 10+ pp. ILRI staff. 1994. Drainage Research Programme of the Drainage Research Institute. Consultants Proposal. Wageningen, June 1994, 23+pp.

Technical Reports Abdel Gawad, S., Omara, A., Abdel Ghany, M.B., and Walbeek, M.M. (Eds.). 2001. Workshop Proceedings on Institutional Strengthening and Organisational Development of Government Research Organisations. Cairo, Feb. 19, 2001. DRP2 Report. Drainage Research Institute, El Kanater, Egypt, Mar. 2001. 134 pp.

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Abdel Ghani, M.B., Abdel Hakim, G., Amer, M.H., Amer, S., Gomaa M.H.A.F., Mamoud, S.E.D.A., Moukhtar, M.M., Shawky, M.E., Omara, A., Oosterbaan, R.J., Smit, A.L., and Vlotman, W.F. 2001. Reclamation, Improvement, Management of Clay Soils for Optimal Crop Production. DRP 2 Technical Report TR 118. Drainage Research Institute, El Kanater, Egypt, 105 pp. (draft). El Refaie, G. G., Abdel Hady, A., Gamal El Din , H.,Hoogenboom, P. 2001. Design of Data Information System. DRP 2 Technical Report TR 117. Drainage Research Institute, El Kanater, Egypt, 42 pp. Hussein, A. Assessment of the Soil Salinity with EM38 device, 2001. DRP 2 Technical Report TR 116. Drainage Research Institute, El Kanater, Egypt, Oct. 2000, 25+ pp. (draft). Lashin, I, and Kenawy, M. 2001. Controlled Drainage System, Participatory Rural Appraisal, Rice Season 2000. DRP 2 Technical Report TR 114. Drainage Research Institute, El Kanater, Egypt, 37+ pp (draft). Nashralla, M.R., Hanafy, K. and El Saadany, H. 2001 Vplough Haress. DRP 2 Technical Report TR 115. Drainage Research Institute, El Kanater, Egypt, .. pp. (draft). Abdel Hakim, G., Abdel Ghany, M.B., Omara, M.A. 2000. Drainage of Heavy Clay Soils: Review of El Robh El Sharqi Pilot Area Fayoum. DRP 2 Technical Report TR 109. Drainage Research Institute, El Kanater, Egypt, 34 pp. Abdel Hakim, G., Aly, A.A., Khalil, B. 2000. Drainage of Heavy Clay Soils: Review of Actual Situation at Tina Plain Area North Sinai. DRP 2 Technical Report TR 110. Drainage Research Institute, El Kanater, Egypt, 24 pp. Abdel Hakim, G., Hussein, A., Khalil, B.E.M. 2000. Drainage of Heavy Clay Soils: Review of Actual Situation at Lake Edco Area. DRP 2 Technical Report TR 113. Drainage Research Institute, El Kanater, Egypt, 35pp. Ragab, M., Kenawy, M. and Khalil, B. 2000. Controlled Drainage System, Deskstudy for surveying of sub-collectors in the Nile delta. DRP2 Technical Report TR 111. Drainage Research Institute, El Kanater, Egypt DRI. 2000. Farmer Participation in Drainage Management. Technical Report TR 108. Drainage Research Project II, Drainage Research Institute, NWRC, Delta Barrages, Cairo, Egypt. Abdel Hakim, G., Hussein, M.H.,. 2000. Drainage of Heavy Clay Soils: Review of Damietta Dairy Drainage Project, Technical report TR 107. Drainage Research Institute, El Kanater, Egypt, 52 pp. Abdel Hadi, A.M, Omara, A. and Vlotman, W.F. 2000. An Investigation of Clay Percentage at the Abu Matamir Area for Envelope Need Determination, Egypt. Drainage Research Institute, El - Kanater, Egypt, Technical Report TR 105, Drainage Research Programme Project (DRP), Dec. 2000. Abdel Hakim, G., Khalil, B. 2000. Drainage of Heavy Clay Soils: Review of Actual Situation at El Rowad Area, South El Hossania, Technical report TR 112. Drainage Research Institute, El Kanater, Egypt, 40 pp. Hussein, M.H., Hoogemboom, P., Hussein, A. 2000. Drainage of Heavy Clay Soils: Review of Actual Situation at Kafr El Sheikh/El Hamul Area (incl. Zawia). DRP 2 Technical Report TR 106. Drainage Research Institute, El Kanater, Egypt DRI/DRP2. 1999. Proceedings of the Integrated Water Management Workshop, Conrad International Hotel, Cairo, Apr 8. 1999. Drainage Research Institute, El Kanater, Egypt. 87 pp. Hoogenboom, P.J. 1999. Network and PC Maintenance Manual. Drainage Research Institute, El Kanater, Egypt, December 1999. Abdel Ghany, M.B. and Abdel-Fatah, M. 1998. Design Criteria for (Mashtul) Pilot Area after 14 Years of Subsurface Drainage System. Drainage Research Institute, El -Kanater, Egypt, Technical Report TR 87, Drainage Research Programme Project (DRP), Dec. 1998. (Draft). Abdel Ghany, M.B., Gamal El Dien, G., and Abdel El Ghafar, E. Khalil, B. 1998. Design Criteria for (Haress & Mit Kenana Areas) Delta fringes. Drainage Research Institute, El -Kanater, Egypt, Technical Report TR 88, Drainage Research Programme Project (DRP), Dec. 1998. (Draft). Abdel Hady, A., Omara, M.A. and Vlotman, W.F. 1998. Envelope Research in Haress Pilot Area, Volume 1, Need for Envelope Verification, Performance Assessment (Excavations &

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Permeameter, 1992 – 1997). Drainage Research Institute, El -Kanater, Egypt, Technical Report TR 90, Drainage Research Programme Project (DRP), Oct 1998. 86 pp. (earlier referred to as Abdel Hady et al. 1996). Abdel Hady, A., Omara, M.A. and Vlotman, W.F. 1998. Laboratory and Field Testing of Drain Envelopes of Mit Kenana Pilot Area. Drainage Research Institute, El -Kanater, Egypt, Technical Report TR 100, Drainage Research Programme Project (DRP), Mar 1998. (Draft). Eissa, M. and Shaban, M. 1998. Watertable Drawdown Curve for the Fayoum. Drainage Research Institute, El -Kanater, Egypt, Technical Report TR 96, Drainage Research Programme Project (DRP), Dec. 1998. 29+ pp (earlier referred to as Eissa and Shaban 1997). Eissa, M. 2001. Watertable Drawdown Curve of Mashtul, Haress & Mit Kenana Pilot Areas. Drainage Research Institute, El -Kanater, Egypt, Technical Report TR 104, Drainage Research Programme Project (DRP), Dec. 1998. (draft). Hanafy, K., Abdel Ghany, M.B., and El-Salahy, A.R. 1998. Flushing of Subsusrface Drainage Collectors with Medium and High Pressure Machines in Egypt. Drainage Research Institute, El - Kanater, Egypt, Technical Report TR 99, Drainage Research Programme Project (DRP), Dec 1998. Karaman, H.G., Omara, M.A. and Vlotman, W.F. 1998. Hydraulic Resistance of Drain Envelopes of Mit Kenana Pilot Area. Drainage Research Institute, El -Kanater, Egypt, Technical Report TR 101, Drainage Research Programme Project (DRP), Mar 1998. (Draft). Karaman, H.G., Omara, M.A., and Vlotman, W.F. 1998. Envelope Research in Haress Pilot Area, Volume 2, Hydraulic Perfromance Assessment (Field Study), 1993 - 1996. Drainage Research Institute, El -Kanater, Egypt, Technical Report TR 97, Drainage Research Programme Project (DRP), Jun. 1998. (draft), 30+ pp. Omara, M.A, and Abdel-Hady, M.A. 1998. Drain Envelope Need and Design for Awad, Kharbotly and Abu-Matamir Areas. Drainage Research Institute, El -Kanater, Egypt, Technical Report TR 91, Drainage Research Programme Project (DRP), Jun. 1998, 39+pp. (earlier referred to as Omara et al. 1996). Ragab, M., and Lashin, I. 1998. Testing of Rehabilitation Procedures in Santa Area, Gharbia Governorate. Drainage Research Institute, El -Kanater, Egypt, Technical Report TR 98, Drainage Research Programme Project (DRP), Sep. 1998, 16+ pp. (earlier referred to as Ragab and Abdallah 1997). Shaban, M, Lashin, I and van Hoffen, R. 1998. Controlled Drainage through Water Users Associations (Rice Season 1997). Drainage Research Institute, El -Kanater, Egypt, Technical Report TR 102, Drainage Research Programme Project (DRP), July 1998, 30+ pp. Vlotman, W.F., and Omara, M.A. 1998. Drain Envelope Need, Design and Quality Control. Drainage Research Institute, El -Kanater, Egypt, Technical Report TR 89v2, Drainage Research Programme Project (DRP), Oct. 1998, 81 pp. (v1: Vlotman and Omara 1996). DRI/DRP staff 1997. Practical Experiences with Trenchless Drainage (V-plow) in Egypt. Drainage Research Institute, El -Kanater, Egypt, Technical Report No. TR 92, DRI/DRP, Jan. 1997, 50+ pp Lashin, I.A. and Abdel Ghany, M.B. 1997. Operation of the Modified Drainage System by Collector User Groups in Balakter Area (Rice Season 1996). Drainage Research Institute, El -Kanater, Egypt, Technical Report TR 95, Drainage Research Programme Project (DRP), Mar. 1997. 24+ pp Nasralla, M.R., and Vlotman W. F. 2000. Detailed Analysis of Trenchless Drainage Construction (V-plow) under Irrigated Conditions. Drainage Research Institute, El -Kanater, Egypt, Technical Report TR 93, Drainage Research Programme Project (DRP), Sep. 1997. (draft), 30+ pp Omara, M.A, and Abdel-Hady, M.A. 1997. The Effect of Sunshine Radiation on Storage of Some Synthetic Envelope Materials under Egyptian Climatological Conditions. Drainage Research Institute, El -Kanater, Egypt, Technical Report TR 94, Drainage Research Programme Project (DRP), Dec. 1997. 74 pp. Ragab, M., and Abdallah. 2000. Overview of sub-surface complaints in Egypt, 1993-1996. Drainage Research Institute, El -Kanater, Egypt, Technical Report TR 103, Drainage Research Programme Project (DRP), Jan. 2000. (draft), 13+ pp.

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DRI/M&E staff. 1996. Background Material and Discussion Papers for Performance Assessment Workshop March 20, 1996. Advisory Panel on Land Drainage and Drainage Related Water Management. Steering Committee Group 1, Delta Barrage, Egypt. 50+ pp. Lashin, I. A., Abdel Ghany, M.B., and El-Salahy, A.R. 1996. Collector User Groups with Modified Drainage System in Balakter Area (Rice Season 1996). Drainage Research Institute, El -Kanater, Egypt, Technical Report TR 95, Drainage Research Programme Project (DRP), Dec 1996, 29 pp. Smedema, L.K., and Vlotman, W.F. (Eds.). 1996. Proceedings Performance Assessment Workshop, March 20. 1996. Drainage Research Institute (DRI) and Advisory Panel on Land Drainage and Drainage Related Water Management. Steering Committee Group 1, Kanater, Egypt. Drainage Research Programme Project (DRP), Jun. 96, 67 pp.

Technical Papers Khalil, B., Abd Al Halim, A. A., Vlotman, W.F. and Akkermans, L.M.W. 2001. Lecture Notes Pilot Area Statistics Course, DRP2, DRI, April 14 – 28, 2001. Eissa, M.A.M. and Shaalan, T. 2001. Human Resources in Drainage Research Institute. In: Abdel Gawad et al. (Eds). Workshop Proceedings on Institutional Strengthening and Organisational Development of Government Research Organisations. Cairo, Feb. 19, 2001. DRP2 Report. Drainage Research Institute, El Kanater, Egypt, Mar. 2001. 11- 28. El Azzazi, M. 2001. IS and OD in Egypt, Experiences and Opportunities. In: Abdel Gawad et al. (Eds). Workshop Proceedings on Institutional Strengthening and Organisational Development of Government Research Organisations. Cairo, Feb. 19, 2001. DRP2 Report. Drainage Research Institute, El Kanater, Egypt, Mar. 2001. 11- 28. Gamal El Din, G. 2001. The Information Technology. In: Abdel Gawad et al. (Eds). Workshop Proceedings on Institutional Strengthening and Organisational Development of Government Research Organisations. Cairo, Feb. 19, 2001. DRP2 Report. Drainage Research Institute, El Kanater, Egypt, Mar. 2001. 11- 28. Ibrahim, E.H. and El Ganzouri, A. 2001. Introduction to Quality Standards and ISO 9000. In: Abdel Gawad et al. (Eds). Workshop Proceedings on Institutional Strengthening and Organisational Development of Government Research Organisations. Cairo, Feb. 19, 2001. DRP2 Report. Drainage Research Institute, El Kanater, Egypt, Mar. 2001. 11- 28. Khater, A.R. and Fikry, A. 2001. An Overview of RIGW's Organizational Strengthening Program (1994-1998) In: Abdel Gawad et al. (Eds). Workshop Proceedings on Institutional Strengthening and Organisational Development of Government Research Organisations. Cairo, Feb. 19, 2001. DRP2 Report. Drainage Research Institute, El Kanater, Egypt, Mar. 2001. 11- 28. Shaalan, T. 2001. Introduction to Marketing as a Tool for Developing a Customer-driven Organisation; Implementation at the Drainage Research Institute (DRI). In: Abdel Gawad et al. (Eds). Workshop Proceedings on Institutional Strengthening and Organisational Development of Government Research Organisations. Cairo, Feb. 19, 2001. DRP2 Report. Drainage Research Institute, El Kanater, Egypt, Mar. 2001. 11- 28. Van der Zande, A. 2001. Alterra: a Dynamic Water Research Institute in a Changing NW Europe. In: Abdel Gawad et al. (Eds). Workshop Proceedings on Institutional Strengthening and Organisational Development of Government Research Organisations. Cairo, Feb. 19, 2001. DRP2 Report. Drainage Research Institute, El Kanater, Egypt, Mar. 2001. 11- 28. Walbeek, M. M., Vlotman, W.F. and Abdel Gawad, S. 2001. Institutional Strengthening in DRI. In: Abdel Gawad et al. (Eds). Workshop Proceedings on Institutional Strengthening and Organisational Development of Government Research Organisations. Cairo, Feb. 19, 2001. DRP2 Report. Drainage Research Institute, El Kanater, Egypt, Mar. 2001. 11- 28. Abd El Ghaffar, E. Moh. El Khonly and Hany Lofty. 2000. Effect of Installation Method on the Hydraulic Performance of Lateral Drains. Proc. of the AgEng 2000 Conf. Warwick, UK, July 2 –7, 2000. Abdel Fattah, M., Abdel Ghany, M.B., and Abdel Gawad, S.T. 2000. Design Criteria of Heavy Clay Soils in Old Lands in Egypt. Proc. 8th International Drainage Workshop, Jan 31 - Feb 4, 2000, New Delhi, India, Vol I, 475 – 492.

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Abdel Ghany, M. B., Hussein, A. M., Omara, M. A., and El Nagar, H.M. 2000. Testing Electromagnetic Induction Device (EM38) under Egyptian Condition. In: Vlotman (Ed.) EM38 Workshop Proceedings, Special Report ILRI, pp. 49 – 55. Nasrallah, M.R., Abdel Ghany, M.B. and Amer, M.H. 2000. Introduction of the Trenchless Techniques (V-plow) in Egypt. Proc. 8th International Drainage Workshop, Jan 31 - Feb 4, 2000, New Delhi, India, Vol I, 447 - 464. Omara, M.A, Abdel Ghany, M.B., and Abdel Gawad, S.T, 2000. Subsurface Drainage System Performance in Egyptian Old Land, Proc. 2000 USCID International Conference, Challenges Facing Irrigation and Drainage in the New Millennium, June 20-24,2000, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA, Vol. II, 349 – 362. Omara, M.A. and Vlotman, W.F. 2000. Drainage in Egypt: Pipes, Envelope and Machinery for the 21st Century. Proc. 8th International Drainage Workshop, Jan 31 - Feb 4, 2000, New Delhi, India. Vol. I, 569 - 586. Omara, M.A., Abdel Ghany, M.B, and Abdel Gawad, S.T. 2000. Internal Clogging of Synthetic Envelopes and its Effect on their Performance in Calcareous Soils. Proc. 8th International Drainage Workshop, Jan 31 - Feb 4, 2000, New Delhi, India, Vol. I, 325 - 336. Vlotman, W.F. 2000. Calibrating the EM38. In: Vlotman (Ed.) EM38 Workshop Proceedings, Special Report ILRI, pp. 1 – 22. Vlotman, W.F. 2000. IRRIGAINAGE, Rethinking Irrigation and Drainage Design. Proc. 8th International Drainage Workshop, Jan 31 - Feb 4, 2000, New Delhi, India. Vol. II, 175 - 192. Lashin, I., van Hoffen, R.A. and Abdel Ghany, M. B. 1999. Farmers Participation and Controlled Drainage in Rice Fields. Paper prepared for Workshop on Farmers Participation in Irrigation and Drainage. Advisory Panel Project on Water Management & Drainage (APP), Cairo, Apr. 10, 1999. 9 pp. Abdel Hadi, A.M., Hussein, M.H., Omara, M.A. Field and Laboratory Assessment of Synthetic Drain Envelopes in Unstable Soil, Mit Kenana Pilot Area, 1999 Proceedings of International Conference on Integrated Management of Water Resources in the 21st Century, Cairo, Egypt Nov 21-25, 1999 Omara, M.A., Vlotman, W.F., Drain Envelope, State of the Art in Egypt, Proceedings of International Conference on Integrated Management of Water Resources in the 21st Century, Cairo, Egypt Nov 21-25, 1999 Hassan, M.H., Nasralla M.R.,.Hoogenboom, P.J. Trenchless Drainage Technology in Egypt. Proceedings of International Conference on Integrated Management of Water Resources in the 21st Century, Cairo, Egypt Nov 21-25, 1999 Abdel Ghany, M.B., Gamal El Din, G., Abdel Ghaffar, E. Technology of Subsurface Drainage - Implementation in Areas near the Delta Fringes. Proceedings of International Conference on Integrated Management of Water Resources in the 21st Century, Cairo, Egypt Nov 21-25, 1999 Kenawy, M.A., Abdel Ghany, M.B., Abdel Nasser, G. Subsurface Drainage Systems and Improving Soil Environment. Proceedings of International Conference on Integrated Management of Water Resources in the 21st Century, Cairo, Egypt Nov 21-25, 1999 Rady, A.A., El Dessouky, H.A., El Refaie, G.G., Kandil, H.M., Abdel Gawad, S.T. Guidelines for Safe and Sustainable Use of Drainage Water Irrigation in the Nile Delta. Proceedings of International Conference on Integrated Management of Water Resources in the 21st Century, Cairo, Egypt Nov 21-25, 1999 Karaman, H.G., Omara, M.A., and Vlotman, W.F. 1998. Performance Assessment of Synthetic Envelope Materials of the Haress Pilot Area, Egypt. 7th International Drainage Symposium. A Technology Update in Drainage and Water Table Control. Orlando, Florida, USA, Mar 8 - 11, 1998. 192-203. Nasralla, M.R., and Vlotman W. F. 1998. Trenchless Drainage Construction (V-plow) under Irrigated Conditions, Egypt. 7th International Drainage Symposium. A Technology Update in Drainage and Water Table Control. Orlando, Florida, USA, Mar 8 - 11, 1998. 321-329. Ragab, M.A., Abdel Ghani, M.B., and Lashin, I.A. 1998. Studies in the Rehabilitation of Subsurface Drainage Systems in Egypt. 7th International Drainage Symposium. A Technology Update in Drainage and Water Table Control. Orlando, Florida, USA, Mar 8 - 11, 1998, 697-704.

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Abdel Ghany, M.B, Lashin, I, Vlotman, W.F., and El Salahy, A. 1997. Farmers Participation in the Operation of Modified Drainage System. Proc. Jubilee Symposium ILRI 40 and ICLD 35. Towards Integration of Irrigation and Drainage Management, Nov25-26, 1996. Publ. Apr 97. Wageningen, The Netherlands. 81-94. Hassan, M. H., and Hoogenboom, P. J. 1997. Practical Experiences with Trenchless Drainage in Egypt. 7th ICID International Drainage Workshop. Penang, Malaysia. Nov 17 - 21, 97, Proc. Vol. 2. P20.1 – 15. Kenawey, M.A., Abdek Ghani, M.B., and Omara, M.A. 1997. Hydraulic and Economic Impacts of Subsurface Drainage Systems in Mit Kenana Pilot Area. 7th ICID International Drainage Workshop. Penang, Malaysia. Nov 17 - 21, 97 Proc. Vol. 2. S1.1 – 12. Abdel Ghany, M.B., Abdel Dayem, M.S. and Nasralla, M.R. 1996. Impact of Drainage on Ground Water Table, Soil Salinity and Crop Yield. Proc. of the 6th Drainage Workshop on Drainage and Environment. Lublijana, Slovenia, Apr. 21 - 29, 1996. pp 706 - 717. Eissa, M., Hoogenboom, P.J., Abdel-Ghany, M., and Tahun, A.W. 1996. Determination of Q-H Relations of Field Drains under Egyptian Conditions. . Proceedings Workshop on the Evaluation of Performance of Subsurface Drainage Systems. 16th ICID Congress, Cairo, Egypt Sep 15 - 22, 1996, pp 95 - 104. Omara, M.A., Vlotman W.F., and Abdel Hadi, A. 1996. Performance Assessment of Synthetic Envelope Materials through Laboratory and Field Testing in Egypt. Proceedings Workshop on the Evaluation of Performance of Subsurface Drainage Systems. 16th ICID Congress, Cairo, Egypt Sep 15 - 22, 1996, pp 229 - 244. Smedema, L.K., Abdel Dayem, S.M., Vlotman, W.F., Abdel Aziz, Y, and van Leeuwen, H. 1996. Performance Assessment of Land Drainage Systems. Proceedings Workshop on the Evaluation of Performance of Subsurface Drainage Systems. 16th ICID Congress, Cairo, Egypt Sep 15 - 22, 1996, pp 3 - 16. Vlotman, W.F. and Safwat Abdel Dayem. 1996. Performance Assessment of Subsurface Drainage Systems. GRID Issue 9, Oct 1996, pp 4 - 5. Abdel-Ghany, M.B., Nasser, Gamal, A. and Vlotman, W.F. 1995. Performance of Selected Parameters in DRI Pilot Areas. Proceedings of Annual Conference of the National Water Research Center, Cairo, Egypt, Dec 22-23, 1995, Research Papers, 16 pp.

Consultancy Reports Dirix, A. 1998. ODS-2 Assessment Report, Oct97 – Oct 98. Report for Guidance Group. Internal Report. Drainage Research Programme Project (DRP), Drainage Research Institute (DRI), Cairo, Egypt, Oct 98, 16pp. EAP staff. 1998. DRI Internal Reporting System. Drainage Research Institute, El -Kanater, Egypt, Consultancy Report, Drainage Research Programme Project (DRP), May 1998. 14+ pp. Croon, F. 1997. Drainage of Heavy Clay Soils in Egypt, Drainage Research Institute, El -Kanater, Egypt, Consultancy Report, Drainage Research Programme Project (DRP), Sep. 1997. 28+ pp. Jaspers, A.M.J. 1996. Consultancy Report Training Component Inception Report (2nd part of assignment). Drainage Research Programme Project, DRI, Cairo, Egypt. Jan. 1996. 39 pp. Vaes, R. A.M. 1996. Debriefing Note Consultancy on DRI Institutional Strengthening, Cairo, 8 - 26 May 1996., Drainage Research Institute (DRI), Kanater, Egypt. 46 pp. Vaes, R. A.M. 1996. Strategy Paper on DRI Institutional Strengthening. June/July 1996. Drainage Research Institute (DRI), Kanater, Egypt. 60+ pp. E.A.P. staff. 1995. Report on the workshop on Management Development Strategy for DRI, June 28, 1995. Drainage Research Institute (DRI), Drainage Research Programme Project, Cairo, Egypt. July 1995 13 pp. (English. & Arabic). Jaspers, A.M.J. 1995. Consultancy Report Training Component Inception Report (first part of assignment). Drainage Research Programme Project, DRI, Cairo, Egypt. April 1995 12+ pp. Ubels, J. 1995. Review of Institutional Issues in Relation to the Drainage Research Institute. Mission Report. Drainage Research Programme Project, DRI, Cairo, Egypt. March 1995. 22 pp. Ubels, J. 1995. Mission Report. Drainage Research Programme Project, DRI, Cairo, Egypt. June 1995. 13 pp.

171 van Zeijts, T.E.J. 1995. Introduction of Trenchless Drain Installation in Egypt (mission report). Drainage Research Programme Project, DRI, Cairo, Egypt. June 1995 34+ pp.

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