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Home , 539 BC, Belshazzar, Fall of Babylon, Nabonidus, Neriglissar, Sennacherib

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Nabonidus, King of

Giulia Francesca Grassi (1757-1827), Nebuchadnezzar (Tate impression), ca 1795-1805. Color print, ink and watercolor on paper (543 x 725 mm; frame: 661 x 829 x 50 mm). © Tate Gallery, 2014 (Reference N05059).

It may seem anomalous to devote this col- ,5 Robert Koldewey,6 the past for ideological purposes is unde- umn, which should contain the portrait of and Ernest Renan7 are just some of the niable; as object, he—or rather his acts, at- someone who contributed to the issue’s many possible illustrious candidates. titudes, and dispositions—were reinter- main topic, to the last Neo-Babylonian There is basically one reason for the choice preted and transmitted to modern times king, having at disposal a considerable of : he is one of the very few through different literary testimonies. number of renowned scholars, explorers, characters involved with cultural heritage philologists, and archaeologists who could as both agent and object. As agent, he has Keywords: Nabonidus; Neo-Babylonian well have deserved this attention: Pietro been considered the first archaeologist Dynasty; Biblical and Parabiblical Litera- Della Valle,1 Carsten Niebuhr,2 Georg ever, and—even if his description as “ar- ture; Greek Historians; ; An- Friedrich Grotefend,3 Paul-Émile Botta,4 chaeologist” may be extreme—his use of cient in Modern Culture

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Nabonidus and the Neo-Babylonian Dy- Upon the latter’s death, in 556 BC, his very detriment of , the main deity of nasty young and weak son Lābāši-Marduk be- Babylon, and for his extended stay in the Before turning to these testimonies, a came the victim of a conspiracy after just Arabian oasis of Tayma11 following a mili- short history of his reign and that of his a few months of rule. One of the conspira- tary campaign to Lebanon, Transjordan, predecessors is necessary. It must be kept tors, Nabonidus (. Nabû-naʾid), as- and Arabia. in mind that this brief historical introduc- cended to the throne, apparently with no The reasons for his voluntary “exile”—stra- tion does not aim to evaluate the historical claim to legitimacy. Despite a number of tegic, religious, economic, or possibly a character of Nabonidus, nor to shed new arguments to the contrary (see e.g. mixture of all these explanations—have light on the evidence we already have.8 Dougherty 51-63; Mayer), Nabonidus’ kin- been long debated, but ultimately remain There are many open questions about his ship with the Babylonian royal line re- unclear. reign and his personality which will not be mains far from proven and does not in fact Somewhat clearer are the consequences discussed here, because they are beyond seem to be likely (see Beaulieu, The Reign that such a prolonged absence from the the scope of this paper. 67-86). Nabonidus’ father was a certain Babylonian capital entailed. In the first Nabû-balāṭsu-iqbi, otherwise unknown to place, Nabonidus aroused the hostility of The Neo-Babylonian Empire is conven- historical sources (68);9 his mother, who the priests of Marduk and the Babylonian tionally understood to begin with King Na- was far more relevant for Nabonidus’ ca- intellectual milieu, who kept repeating bopolassar (Akkad. Nabû-apla-uṣur), who reer, was Adda-guppi, probably an Ara- sharp criticisms of his absence, his malfea- in 612 BC was able to take , thus maean priestess from , and specifi- sance, and his “impiety” (in reference to inheriting a considerable part of the Neo- cally a devotee of the moon god . the loss of centrality of the Babylonian Assyrian Empire. His son Nebuchadnezzar Adda-guppi claimed, in her well-known god Marduk) in a remaining literary docu- (or Nebuchadrezzar; Akkad. Nabû- “autobiographical” inscription that was ment concerning his reign known as Verse kudurrī-uṣur) expanded the reign and af- actually promoted by her son after her Account.12 Secondly, he was forced to ap- firmed his control over the in its death,10 to have introduced her son to the point a substitute in Babylon; his choice entirety: in Jewish tradition, this monarch court (no mention is made of her hus- fell upon his son (Akkad. Bēl- became famous for the and capture band). If she had, as claimed, been born šarra-uṣur), who became governor of Bab- of in 587 BC, and for the ensu- under the last major Assyrian King - ylon and co-regent at the same time (the ing deportation of the city’s ruling class banipal, she was ninety-five years of age Belshazzar of the Book of ). (see e.g. Sack 53-59). when her son became ruler, and it is On October 12th, 539 BC, Babylon was Nebuchadnezzar was succeeded by his therefore likely that Nabonidus himself conquered by Persian troops, apparently son Evil-Merodach (Akkad. Amēl- or Awīl- was rather advanced in years at the time without any resistance. Cyrus entered the Marduk), who was murdered after only of his accession to the throne. city seventeen days later, putting an end two years of reign by his brother-in-law Nabonidus is famous for his attempts to to the Neo-Babylonian Empire, and to Na- (Akkad. -šarra-uṣur). bolster the cult of the moon god Sin to the bonidus’ reign. Belshazzar was possibly

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killed,13 while Nabonidus, no more in Tay- tesque picture of the king was immortal- motivation;17 but they were also related to ma, apparently escaped death.14 ized in a movie which is a milestone of the a desire to legitimate his rule, and to build silent era, Griffith’s Intolerance his authority upon the past, as suggested The Archaeologist/Antiquarian (1916). The main character during the fall by many scholars (cp. e.g. Beaulieu, The As stressed by Beaulieu (The Reign 139- of Babylon is Belshazzar, while Nabonidus Reign 138-43; Roaf; Garrison 46, with fur- 43), Nabonidus is the only Neo-Babylo- is shown announcing the discovery of the ther literature). nian monarch who makes references in his foundation stone of King Narām-Sîn (third Moreover, historical interest is not absent inscriptions to both Assyrian and Babylo- millennium BC). Griffith (1875-1948), who from Nabonidus’ reports, as admitted also nian monarchs, tracing an ideal royal line depicted Belshazzar in an unusually posi- by Goossens. In this context, it may be use- in which some kings are overlooked. This tive way, as the champion of tolerance, ful to have a look at some of Nabonidus’ practice testifies to his willingness to inter- had studied the most recent discoveries reports on his excavations, which could pret the past through a historical perspec- about Babylonian civilization before mak- have been taken, mutatis mutandis, from a tive, and to use it for political purposes. His ing this episode of his movie, and this was nineteenth century archaeological report. interest in the past is also manifested by evidently the picture of Nabonidus he got The episode of Narām-Sîn quoted in Intol- the excavations he undertook in several from his readings.15 erance is taken from an inscription of Na- cities, from to , and to and This image of Nabonidus as Romantic an- bonidus, possibly known by Griffith Harran, in order to restore/rebuild tem- tiquarian was corrected by Goossens in through the summary of Morris Jastrow ples. It is true that other kings before him 1948. Goossens rightly pointed out that (Drew 43; Jastrow 295; for the text, see reported identifying previous building the finding of the oldest foundations was now Schaudig, Die Inschriften 422, 438). phases in temples, and mentioned the necessary in order to properly rebuild the In this text, Nabonidus tries to date the kings involved in them—but his descrip- temples, and that Nabonidus was more foundations of the temple of the sun god tions are far more accurate and complete, engaged than his predecessors because in Sippar, which were laid by king Narām- and in some cases he even tries to date he was very religious. However, pietas Sîn who he thought reigned 3,200 years the monarchs who reigned before him alone is hardly responsible for the accu- before him. That timespan is overestimat- and whose buildings and artefacts he un- rateness and the interest in the past ed, since Narām-Sîn ruled in the twenty- earthed in his excavations. shown by the king, and for his archaeo- third century BC (according to the middle In nineteenth century literature, Naboni- logical activity, which were considered al- chronology), and he was not the son of dus’ interest for archaeology was overes- most maniacal in the nineteenth century16 , as stated by Nabonidus, timated: depicted as completely ab- and are still described as “bordered on but rather his grandson. However, this ef- sorbed in his diggings and antiquarian the obsessive” (Oates 131). Nabonidus’ fort of dating a predecessor is uncommon studies, he with this attitude was nearly concerns about the past, his predeces- for his time, and it does not seem to be accused of facilitating the conquest of sors, and the restoration of temples and connected with a religious explanation. Babylon by Cyrus (Hommel 779). This gro- cultic traditions certainly had religious

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In another report, Nabonidus narrates that ed the head of this statuette, and res- terested in his discoveries, and tried to he assembled many workers (the compe- tored its face. (Royal Chronicle III-IV20: create a bridge with the past.21 tence of his craftsmanship is stressed in Schaudig, Die Inschriften 592, 594; One may argue, of course, that his excava- several passages) in order to locate the translation by Schaudig, “The Restora- tions were not archaeological (Schaudig, foundations of the E’ulmaš Temple in Ak- tion” 158) “The Restoration” 155-61; “Nabonid”). kad. The efforts of his predecessor were However, a purely academic interest in ar- apparently unfruitful,18 as were his own ef- Besides the fact that the “respect to king- chaeology is a recent phenomenon, and it forts, at least for three years—but then (Na- ship” seems to be, once again, associated is even questionable if archaeology may bonidus speaks in first person): with a political interest in the past, this sec- be free from political and religious motiva- (The craftsmen) spoke to me: “We ond text is among the most ancient ones tions.22 Also the idea that his relation with have been looking for the founda­tion, that relate the restoration of an archaeo- history is not historical23 is rather problem- but we have not found it. But there logical artifact by specialized craftsmen atic because we are not dealing with a has been a downpour of rain and we (Podany 13). modern scholar. The idea that past peo- have seen (that) it has made a hole.” I Nabonidus had no successors, and he did ples had different cultures, and were not spoke to them as follows: “Dig in this not establish any archaeological school, “just like us” ultimately goes back to the hole until you have found the founda- but his methods were not significantly dif- Renaissance. Before the Renaissance, no tion there!” They dug in this hole and ferent from the ones used in archaeology break was perceived between the ancient they certainly found the foundation of for centuries to come and until some de- world and the modern one.24 Nabonidus the E’ulmaš (laid) by Narām-Sîn […] cades ago. Moreover, the two examples could see no break between Sargon, Ne- and they reported it to me. My heart quoted above seem to denote a certain buchadnezzar, and himself—quite the con- rejoiced and my face shone […]. (2.14 degree of personal involvement. Of trary, he considered himself their heir. If it II: Schaudig, Die Inschriften 456 (Ak- course, we are far from Fabrizio Del Don- is true that the modern study of the past kadian text), 464 (German translation); go’s rapture for the discovery of a bust of begins with the Renaissance, and modern translation by Schaudig, “The Restora- Emperor Tiberius in Miseno (Stendhal, La archaeology much later, it would be unfair tion” 160-61) Chartreuse de Parme, chapitre 7), and also to deny that the last Neo-Babylonian king far from the absent-minded antiquarian of did have a historical perspective, as well Another famous episode relates that he Romantic origin. However, Nabonidus’ as some perception of the importance found a statue of Sargon19 during the res- dramatic report about the discovery of the that cultural traditions may have for the toration of the Ebabbar temple in Sippar. foundation of Narām-Sîn is hardly the re- construction of a political identity—and for The head was broken, but sult of mere religious concern, which legitimating someone’s own power, an In order to revere the gods and to show could have been expressed in a shorter idea by no means out of fashion. respect to kinship, he (scil. Nabonidus) and less theatrical way. The king seems to Nabonidus likely deserves the place Paul summoned skilled craftsmen, renovat­ have been genuinely concerned and in- Bahn (1-2) and Alain Schnapp (13-18) gave

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him, at the very beginning of The Cam- ropaedia by (fifth-fourth cen- tails, see Grassi 197-98). In his Jewish An- bridge , and in the tury BC) the kings who sat on the Babylo- tiquities, on the other hand, he affirms that first pages of La conquête du passé, re- nian throne before its fall are anonymous, after Lābāši-Marduk, Belshazzar “who was spectively. Actually, his name is nowadays they are two and were said to be father called Naboandelos26 by the Babylonians” known, apart from a restricted group of and son.25 (X, 1) took the throne and was defeated Assyriologists, mainly for his antiquarian In itself, king Nabonidus after seventeen years of reign (the number and archaeological interests. However, his was definitely still remembered: after the of years of Nabonidus’ kingship). The dif- most significant legacy in modern culture death of Cambyses (522 BC), two usurpers ferences between the two versions of Jo- is somewhat hidden under a name that is took the programmatical name of Nebu- sephus need explanation. not his own, but rather the name of his il- chadnezzar (III and IV), both pretending to Josephus evidently had before lustrious predecessor: Nebuchadnezzar, be Nabonidus’ sons. Even in Hellenistic him; but he must have had the as whom he apparently admired. Some an- Mesopotamia the memory of the king well, particularly the . It is cient writers maintained memory of the lived on: on the one hand, exponents of actually the Bible—and a set of biblical and king, even if they did not always record his the clerical milieu of Babylon were still parabiblical motifs emanating from the name. However, at a certain point some writing against him at the end of the fourth Jewish communities—that conditioned lat- narratives and motifs with Nabonidus as century BC (Dynastic Prophecy: see Gray- er traditions and perceptions about the the main character started circulating with son, Historical-Literary Texts 24-37); on , as well as our own percep- Nebuchadnezzar as protagonist. This is the other hand, the historian Berossos— tion. If asked who was the king of Babylon likely due to the fact that these stories whose account is preserved in works of during the fall of the city, our memory were transmitted by Jewish communities, Eusebius (third to fourth century AD) and would probably recall the scene of and if Nebuchadnezzar was well known to Josephus (first century AD)—and who was Belshazzar’s feast, perhaps through Rem- the Jews as the destroyer of Jerusalem active in between the fourth brandt’s brush. This happens because in and the source of Jewish exile in Babylon, and the third century BC, provides the cor- the Bible, no mention is made of Naboni- Nabonidus was not, since he was irrele- rect order of all the monarchs in the Neo- dus, and the last king of Babylon here is vant for the history of Judah. Babylonian dynasty. Belshazzar, who was historically never a The testimony of Josephus is quite inter- king, but just a crown prince. However, the Ailing Kings and Misplaced Names esting, because it reflects the problems situation of co-regency of Nabonidus and Greek historians seem to have had at least that this Jewish historian of the Flavian era his son may well have created ambiguity partial memory of the king, even if they do had to face in describing the fall of Baby- about the name(s) of the king(s) reigning not mention him by name. He and his son lon. In his Contra Apionem (I, 20), he over Babylon immediately before its fall, are possibly hidden behind the name quotes Berossus, and states that after the both among the Greek historians and in Labynetos in ’ Histories (I, 74, murder of Lābāši-Marduk, the kingship the Bible.27 77, 188; fifth century BC), and while in Cy- was conferred to Nabonidus (for more de-

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Giulia Francesca Grassi Josephus did his best to reconcile the two least, in the case of Nebuchadnezzar, driv- cerning the latter in the Bible (2 and 4 testimonies, and considered Belshazzar en out of human society and dwelling Dan.). In fact, it is known that Nabonidus holds an MA in Sciences of Cultural the alias of Nabonidus. The name Belshaz- with the wild beasts), both of them are fostered a great consideration for dreams Heritage (Archaeology) from the zar was the first of Nabonidus’ literary aided by a Jew, and both of them are al- and that he is “the only Neo-Babylonian University of Udine, and a PhD in aliases: once the historical memory of the lowed to recover their health by abandon- ruler who reports dreams in his inscrip- Sciences of Antiquity from the same Neo-Babylonian Dynasty was completely ing impious behaviour and praying to the tions and who claims to have made impor- university. She is currently a research lost, the aliases became several: in the lists “true” God.28 Another parallel is the termi- tant decisions based on their ominous assistant in the Department of Semitic provided by the Byzantine chronographer nology used for the idols described in 5 content” (Beaulieu, The Reign 218). In in- Studies at the University of Marburg. George Syncellus/Syncellos, the aliases of Dan., during Belshazzar’s feast, and in the scription 13 he pretends to have left Her main research interests include Nabonidus became three, and none of Prayer of Nabonidus (for more details, see after a nightmare; in inscription 1, after de- Semitic epigraphy, , the them is related to the Neo-Babylonian dy- Grassi 190-91). claring himself “the strong delegate of interactions between the Ancient Near nasty, but rather to the Median and Ach- Almost all scholars agree that Nebuchad- Nebuchadnezzar and Neriglissar, my royal East and the Greco-Roman world, and aemenid ruling houses (see Grassi 199). nezzar’s madness is the reinterpretation of predecessors,” he reports an interesting anthroponomastics. She is the author Not explicitly being mentioned in the Bi- Nabonidus’ disease;29 which was not, dream in which he declares to have seen of several articles on these topics, and ble, Nabonidus—differently from his son however, insanity. Even the critical Verse his predecessor Nebuchadnezzar, whom authored the book Semitic Onomastics Belshazzar—does not occur in later Jewish Account does not state that Nabonidus he asked to relate favorable signs for his from Dura Europos. The Names in Greek traditions. But he was not entirely can- was mad, albeit his strange behavior is of- accession to the throne (see Beaulieu, The Script and from Latin Epigraphs (Padua celled out by the biblical author of Daniel, ten stressed. Possibly some aspects of the Reign 152, 110-12). 2012). who just provided him with another kind nature of the king, perceived as odd, and Curiously enough, the usurper Naboni- email: [email protected] of alias: Nabonidus lies behind the king his erratic life (the stay in the desert at Tay- dus, who considers himself the true politi- who in the Bible is said to be the father of ma) produced this legend of madness/ cal successor of Nebuchadnezzar, and Belshazzar, Nebuchadnezzar. disease and retirement from the civil world seeks in this dream “a posthumous confir- The tale of Nebuchadnezzar’s madness in (cp. Beaulieu, “Nabonidus the Mad King” mation of his rule by his prestigious pre- 4 Dan. is very close to the tale of Naboni- 137-38), a retirement that in the case of the decessor” (Beaulieu, The Reign 112),31 is dus’ disease, as found in some Aramaic Bible is represented by a king eating transmitted to later cultural traditions fragments from Qumran Cave 4 pub- “grass as oxen” (4 Dan., 25 and 33; and mostly with the name Nebuchadnezzar. lished in 1956 by Milik, the so-called “4Q Nebuchadnezzar is actually disguised as It is Nabonidus who ultimately lurks be- Prière de Nabonide,” a fragmentary and an oxen in the short story Le taureau blanc hind the lonely, troubled king errant in the difficult Jewish narrative text. The similari- by Voltaire30). Another example of the in- desert, well-known from the Bible, and ties with the madness of Nebuchadnezzar fluence of the memory of Nabonidus in later on from the color prints by William in the Book of Daniel are striking: both the portrait of Nebuchadnezzar resides in Blake (see Seymour, “The Artistic Legacy”), kings are afflicted by a disease for seven the importance accorded to the interpre- and from the third opera—and first master- years, both of them are in the desert (or at tation of dreams in the two episodes con- piece—of young Verdi.32

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Notes 3 Carsten Niebuhr in 1778 part in a famous experiment 5 Botta’s “heir” and a friend, 7 The great French writer produced accurate copies promoted by the Royal the English archaeologist and Orientalist Ernest Renan 1 Pietro Della Valle (1586-1652) of the trilingual (Old Persian, Asiatic Society, at the and politician Austen Henry (1823-92) has been sharply traveled for twelve years in Elamite, Akkadian) texts suggestion of Fox Talbot: Layard (1817-1894), excavated criticized for his ethnical (and Asia (Turkey, Palestine, Persia, of Persepolis, which were They were given a copy and Nineveh where political) theories. However, , Oman) during the used in 1802 by the classical of an Akkadian inscription he found the palace of his work made an important 17th century. He provided scholar and philologist Georg and asked to provide and the famous contribution to Oriental important descriptions and Friedrich Grotefend (1755- a translation. The four library of Assurbanipal. For studies, and particularly reports of the places he 1853) to lay the foundation translations were essentially Layard, see Fales and Hickey; to Semitic epigraphy: In visited, which may be found of the decipherment of similar (the versions of Larsen. 1867, he presented to the in his book Viaggi di Pietro : by supposing Rawlinson and Hincks were Académie des inscriptions et Della Valle il Pellegrino (cp. that the inscriptions probably the closest), and Akkadian 6 The German architect belles-lettres, of which he was Della Valle, with introduction contained some royal names cuneiform was considered and archaeologist Robert a member, his project aimed and commentary), published of the , deciphered. See e.g. Bahn Koldewey (1855-1925) at publication of the Corpus with enormous success he was able to identify the 108-09; Larsen, esp. 468-69; excavated Babylon, and inscriptionum semiticarum mostly after his death. For a names of Darius and Xerxes Schmitt 722-23. developed modern (CIS). On this project of short biography, see Micocci. in the Old Persian texts, as archaeological methods (in Renan, apparently his favorite well as some royal titles, and 4 The French-Italian particular, a new method in one (“De tout ce que j’ai fait, 2 Carsten Niebuhr (1733- to establish the phonetic archaeologist Paul-Émile excavating mud bricks). For c’est le Corpus que j’aime le 1815) was a German traveler, values of some signs. In Botta (born Paolo Emiliano Koldewey’s excavations, see mieux”), see Dupont-Sommer versed in both languages 1835 and again in 1844, the Botta; 1802-1870), son of Seymour, “Robert Koldewey.” (the quotation is taken from and sciences (mathematics, British Orientalist (and army the historian Carlo Botta, page 539); on Renan, see astronomy, geography), and officer) Henry Creswicke was French consul in . recently van Deth. known for his participation Rawlinson (1810-1895) During his mandate he did as cartographer and copied a long trilingual text, excavations in Nineveh 8 The bibliography on geographer to the Danish inconveniently positioned (Kuyunjik) and later, with Nabonidus is endless and expedition to Arabia of 1761, on a cliff hanging 122 meters greater success, in Dur cannot be fully cited in this of which he was the only from the ground in Behistun Sharrukin (Khorsabad), where paper. For the history of survivor. For the life and (), and was thus able to Botta located the palace of Nabonidus and his reign, travels of Carsten Niebuhr, provide a translation of the Sargon II—the first Assyrian the most important study see, e.g., Wiesehöfer and Persian text. Later on, in 1857, palace to be unearthed. The is Beaulieu, The Reign. For Conermann, and particularly Rawlinson himself—together great majority of his finds a shorter study, see e.g. Lohmeier in that volume. with the Irish reverend and were sent to where they Beaulieu, “King Nabonidus”; Assyriologist Edward Hincks were displayed for the first Dandamayev. Still very useful (1792-1866), the German- time in 1847: the was is Dougherty. French Assyriologist Jules the first museum in Europe (or Julius) Oppert (1825- that displayed Assyrian ––› 1905), and William Henry monuments (see Parrot). For Fox Talbot (1800-1877) who Botta, see Parrot; Larsen, esp. was far better known as a 28-53. photography pioneer—took

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––› 9 Nabonidus has been 12 The product of the 14 Berossos tells us that the 16 According to Hommel, 20 Of the four literary texts considered the chief intellectual and the religious king, after surrendering in the Nabonidus’ archaeological dealing with Nabonidus’ of an Aramaean tribe milieu, it was written after the siege of , was sent interest conducted him “zu reign (; (Dandamayev), or even a fall of Babylon. A real piece into exile in (cp. einer wahren Manie” (778). Verse Account; Dynastic brother or half-brother of of propaganda, it describes Verbrugge and Wickersham, prophecy; Royal Chronicle), (Mayer)— the reign of Nabonidus in F10b, 61), while the Chronicle 17 He also installed his the Royal Chronicle is the although there is absolutely negative terms, magnifying of Nabonidus or Nabonidus daughter En-nigaldi-nanna only one which provides no evidence for this. Cyrus’ merits (for the Verse Chronicle (a chronographic as high priestess of the moon chronological information Account, see Schaudig, Die text, preserved on one god in Ur, a practice well- about the building activities 10 For this text and its literary Inschriften 563-78). For the tablet, which describes the documented before him, but of the king. For this text, see genre, see Longman 97-103. new theology of Nabonidus events of Nabonidus’ reign no more current in his time Schaudig, Die Inschriften Adda-Guppi is considered and his difficult relationship from his accession to the (Beaulieu, The Reign 122-23). 590-95. by Mayer an Assyrian with the intellectuals, see period following the fall of princess, but, as in the case of Beaulieu, “Nabonidus the Babylon; for the text, see 18 He goes so far as to quote 21 As observed by Schnapp Nabonidus’ father, there is no Mad King.” Grayson, Chronicles 104-11) unlikely—and presumably about the restoration of the proof of a royal origin. states that he was captured invented—inscriptions (cp. Ebabbar of Larsa, “Le roi 13 According to the Bible (5 in Babylon. The so-called Schaudig, “Nabonid” 475-78; (scil. Nabonide) ne désire 11 For the archival and literary Dan.), Belshazzar was killed in Dynastic Prophecy (II, 20-22) “The Restoration” 155) of his pas seulement faire effectuer sources about Nabonidus’ circumstances which mix up confirms Berossus’ statement predecessors confessing des recherches pour sojourn in Tayma, see historical events and folktales that Nabonidus was sent into their failure. However, he was identifier un lieu hautement Beaulieu, The Reign 149-85. (see Grassi); we lack any exile (Grayson, Historical- apparently also interested in chargé de symbolisme, un For the recent excavations Akkadian source concerning Literary Texts 25). actual ancient inscriptions: monument qui atteste de in Tayma, see e.g. Hausleiter. the end of Belshazzar. quite a few of those were la continuité du pouvoir. For the North-Arabian 15 On Griffith’s interest in copied during his reign Il cherche explicitement à inscriptions of Nabonidus, the last discoveries from as can be shown by their s’installer dans la longue see Hayajneh; Müller Babylonia, his readings, and respective colophons. See durée et l’expression and al-Said, “Nabonid in the image of Nabonidus recently Bartelmus and Taylor. du temps ici revêt une taymanischen Inschriften”; (portrayed by actor Carl dimension matérielle. La “Nabonid in thamudischen Stockdale, 1874-1953) and 19 At least, a statue that he fouille est nécessaire non Inschriften.” Belshazzar (portrayed by thought was that of Sargon: seulement pour découvrir actor Alfred Paget, 1879- Schaudig denies the le lieu de mémoire, mais 1925) in the movie, see Drew possibility that it was a statue aussi et surtout pour le faire 43-45. The movie, which of Sargon, and he takes this fonctionner.” (18). in its author’s aim was a deposit of Sippar as a pia manifest against intolerance, fraus, arranged by the priests ––› is formed by four episodes: or the intellectuals of the city a contemporary story; Jesus’ (“The Restoration” 158). mission; Bartholomew Day; and the fall of Babylon. For this movie, see Drew.

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22 25 29 ––› “[…] archaeology is always As regards the elder king, Literature on the Prayer 32 Nabucodonosor (later Works Cited political. I argue that scholars the first remarkable detail is of Nabonidus, as well as ), opera in four parts, should not try to deny this that he is said to have led a that concerning the relation was composed by Verdi Adler, William, and Paul fact or obscure it behind successful war against Syria between the two texts, is to a libretto by Temistocle Tuffin. The Chronography of a veil of false objectivity.” and Arabia ( I, 5, endless: see e.g. Beaulieu, Solera (after Nabucodonosor, George Syncellus. Oxford: (McGuire XI). The recent book 2), information that well fits “Nabonidus the Mad King”; play by Auguste Anicet- , 2002. by McGuire offers further with the well-known fact that Collins, Daniel 217-18; “4Q Bourgeois and Francis Print. literature and stimulating Nabonidus actually left for Prayer”; Eshel 887-88; Flint; Cornue), and first performed examples. a military campaign in 553 Kratz; Lemaire 126-28. in Milan at La Scala on Bahn, Paul G. Cambridge BC to Lebanon, Transjordan, 9 March 1842. The first Illustrated History of 23 30 E.g. Schaudig, “Nabonid” and finally Northern Arabia, “Conte philosophique,” Le Nabucco was baritone Archaeology. Cambridge: 493: “Ähnlich, wie die where he lived for ten taureau blanc was published Giorgio Ronconi (1810-1890). Cambridge University Press, Grabungen Nabonids nicht years. For Nabonidus and in 1774. In this masterpiece, 1996. Print. eigentlich archäologisch Belshazzar in Herodotus and “le seul conte de critique sind, ist der Umgang mit der Xenophon, see Grassi 195-97. biblique du XVIIIe siècle” Bartelmus, Alexa, and Geschichte nicht eigentlich (Pomeau, XXXV), Voltaire Jon Taylor. “Collecting historisch.” 26 Note that Nabonidus is mixes characters and and Connecting History: called Nabonnios in Contra situations of the Bible in a Nabonidus and the Kassite 24 On the birth of Apionem, Naboandelos in narrative full of humor and Rebuilding of E(ul)maš of archaeology and perception Jewish Antiquities; the name vivacity. The metamorphosis (Ištar)-Annunītu in Sippar- of the past, see Schnapp. To of Nabonidus, as well as the of Nebuchadnezzar into oxen Annunītu.” Journal of put it with Panofsky’s poetic name of other Babylonian lasts for seven years, and Cuneiform Studies 66 (2014): words: “The Middle Ages kings, is often distorted in it is caused by the prophet 113-28. Print. had left antiquity unburied the Greek testimonies (see Daniel. On the intertextuality and alternately galvanized Grassi). of Le taureau blanc, see Beaulieu, Paul-Alain. The and exorcised its corpse. The Cotoni. Reign of Nabonidus King of Renaissance stood weeping 27 For Belshazzar and his Babylon 556-539 B.C. New at its grave and tried to role in ancient and medieval 31 We may also note that Haven: Yale University Press, resurrect its soul. And in one testimonies, see Grassi. Nabonidus reverts to some 1989. Print. fatally auspicious moment it cultic practices from the succeeded” (113). 28 In the Prayer of Nabonidus time of Nebuchadnezzar ---. “King Nabonidus and the we have only the diviner (Beaulieu, The Reign 122-23). Neo-Babylonian Empire.” who suggests Nabonidus to It is interesting to notice Civilizations of the Ancient pray to God, but it is likely that also Saddam Hussein Near East. Ed. Jack M. Sasson. that the lost part of the work considered himself deeply Vol. 2. New York: Scribner, contained the exaltation of bound to Nebuchadnezzar 1995. 969-79. Print. the true God as in 4 Dan. (see (cp. e.g. Fales 172). Collins, “4Q Prayer” 86). ––›

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