Journal of Ethnopharmacology 138 (2011) 415–431

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Journal of Ethnopharmacology

journa l homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jethpharm

Traditional phytotherapy remedies used in Southern Rwanda for the treatment of

liver diseases

a,b b b c

Marie-Jeanne Mukazayire , Védaste Minani , Christopher K. Ruffo , Elias Bizuru ,

a a,d,∗

Caroline Stévigny , Pierre Duez

a

Université Libre de Bruxelles (ULB), Laboratory of Pharmacognosy, Bromatology and Human Nutrition, CP 205-9, B-1050 Brussels, Belgium

b

Institute of Research in Science and Technology (I.R.S.T.), Phytomedecine and Life Sciences Research Programme, P.O. Box 227, Butare, Rwanda

c

National University of Rwanda, Department of Biology, P.O. Box 117, Butare, Rwanda

d

Université de Mons (UMONS), Department of Therapeutic Chemistry and Pharmacognosy, Bât. Mendeleiev, Av. Maistriau, 7000 Mons, Belgium

a r t i c l e i n f o

a b s t r a c t

Article history: Ethnopharmacological relevance: Liver diseases represent a major health problem due to their complica-

Received 30 April 2011

tions and limited treatment possibilities. In Rwanda, given low accessibility to modern treatments, most

Received in revised form

people still rely on traditional medicinal plants. The symptomatology of many hepatic troubles (icterus)

10 September 2011

is evident for traditional healers who have a high probability of selecting efficient herbal medicines.

Accepted 16 September 2011

Objectives: To document medicines used in the treatment of “hepatitis” in Southern Rwanda with the

Available online 22 September 2011

knowledge, attitudes and practices related to liver disorder recognition, control and treatment.

Materials and methods: 56 traditional health practitioners, each a legal representative of an official associ-

Keywords:

Ethnopharmacology ation, were interviewed and participated in plant collection for the preparation of botanically identified

Ethnomedicine herbarium specimens.

Anti-hepatitis plants Results: 68 multi-component and 65 single-component herbal recipes were identified for the treatment of

Southern Rwanda liver diseases with a total of 86 different herbs from 34 families identified. The most represented were the

Asteraceae and the Lamiaceae. Crassocephalum vitellinum, Hypoestes triflora and Erythrina abyssinica were

the most widely used plants. The principle of polymedication for complex (i.e. multifactorial) diseases

(“Ifumbi” in Rwanda), is a constant in every traditional practice. It is striking that the Rwandese therapy

of liver diseases proposes so many single-herb preparations (49% of all herbal preparations). Some of

the recorded plants or other species from the same genus have previously been documented for liver

protection using various in vivo and in vitro models.

Conclusion: Herbal remedies for hepatitis are widely used and highly diverse in Southern Rwanda; further

chemical, pharmacological and toxicological studies are clearly required to rationally develop the most

important remedies.

© 2011 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction Africa (Mets et al., 1993; Dasnoy et al., 1997; Thomas et al.,

2011). In Rwanda, estimates from the University Hospital of Butare

The predominant liver pathologies in a given country depend indicate that viral hepatitis and its complications, cirrhosis and

on the lifestyle and economic conditions. Acute and chronic hep- hepatic carcinoma, represent 80% of all liver pathologies, the ninth

atitis, liver cirrhosis (LC) and primary hepatocellular carcinoma most common cause of morbidity (Musemakweli, 1999). Modern

(HCC) have become one of the major public health problems world- medicine is still quite limited in hepatic diseases prevention or

wide and are very common in Africa, especially in Sub-Saharan treatment, apart from vaccines and interferon ␣-2b, used against

some viral infections; the only drugs available are cholagogues,

choleretics, and drugs for cholesterolic lithiasis, N-acetyl-cysteine

and flavo-lignanes obtained from Silybum marianum (Evans, 2002).

Abbreviations: CCl4, carbon tetrachloride; HCC, primary hepatocellular carci-

This limitation of therapeutic options gives considerable interest

noma; IRST, Institute of Research in Science and Technology; LC, liver cirrhosis;

THPs, traditional health practitioners; WHO, World Health Organization. to the search for active compounds from plants traditionally used

∗

Corresponding author at: Laboratoire de Pharmacognosie, de Bromatologie et against liver diseases (Mukazayire et al., 2010; Jaeschke et al., 2011).

de Nutrition humaine, Institut de Pharmacie, Université Libre de Bruxelles (ULB),

Plants are an integral part of life in many indigenous communi-

Campus de la Plaine – CP205/9, Bd du Triomphe, B-1050 Bruxelles, Belgium.

ties, and Africa is no exception (Sidigia et al., 1995; Heinrich et al.,

Tel.: +32 26505172; fax: +32 26505430.

2009). Plant biodiversity plays major specific roles in the cultural

E-mail addresses: [email protected] (M.-J. Mukazayire), [email protected]

(P. Duez). evolution of local human societies (Mugabe and Clark, 1998) with

0378-8741/$ – see front matter © 2011 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2011.09.025

416 M.-J. Mukazayire et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 138 (2011) 415–431

plants being important for their ethnomedical uses amongst other

purposes. In Africa, as in many tropical countries, about 80% of the

rural population still depends on traditional herbal remedies due to

the limited availability and affordability of pharmaceuticals (WHO,

2002; Mueller and Mechler, 2005; Zirihi et al., 2005). The reasons

for acceptability and use of traditional medicine by indigenous

populations of developing countries have been well documented.

These include the accessibility to herbal medicines at consider-

ably reduced costs compared to imported medicines (Mueller and

Mechler, 2005) and a considerable trust in traditional healers cou-

pled to pride in local community knowledge (Mathur, 2003). The

number of plant users is very important and does not depend on sex,

age and socio-cultural level (Jouad et al., 2001). The use of indige-

nous plants in Africa plays an important role in the treatment of

a variety of disorders and is reflected by intense ethnobotanical

and pharmacological studies (Hedberg and Hedberg, 1982; Chhabra

et al., 1987; Ramathal and Ngassapa, 2001; Cos et al., 2002a,b).

Although it is a challenge for medicinal plants to meet the

modern criteria of quality control, efficacy and safety applied for

pharmaceuticals (Wagner, 1997), the phytochemical, pharmaco-

logical and toxicological profiles of the extracts should be a basic

requirement for the production of improved phytodrugs. This rep-

resents a huge and costly input for laboratory and clinical work. Fig. 1. Map of Rwanda highlighting the Southern Province where field work was

Nevertheless, the World Health Organization (WHO) recognizes carried out. Districts: 1. Gisagara, 2. Huye, 3. Kamonyi, 4. Muhanga, 5. Nyamagabe,

6. Nyanza, 7. Nyaruguru, 8. Ruhango (Steverwanda, 2010).

that the centuries-old use of certain plants as therapeutic resources

could be taken into account as a good indication of their activity

and possible harmlessness (WHO, 1993). The WHO considers phy- the eight districts (Nyanza, Ruhango, Muhanga and Kamonyi in

totherapy in its health programs and suggests basic procedures for 2004; Nyaruguru, Nyamagabe, Gisagara and Huye in 2008). The

the validation of drugs from plant origin in developing countries same number of informants were interviewed in each district. The

(Vulto and Smet, 1998; Rates, 2001). The research on medicinal study community lives near the Nyungwe forest and it has been

plant extracts used in folk medicine also represents an invaluable established, in other parts of Africa, that such communities pos-

approach for the development of new drugs (Rates, 2001). sess authentic information on the utilization of natural resources

Of the many diseases traditionally treated with medicinal plants, (Terashima, 2001; Kakudidi, 2004a,b). The national language of

hepatitis ranks amongst one of the most severe. In contrast to many the country was used. In some cases, monetary incentives were

other pathologies, the symptomatology of a number of hepatic given to compensate for time taken. In Rwanda, many traditional

conditions (icterus) is evident. Traditional healers can easily eval- healers are working in associations organized by the Ministry of

uate the response to treatments and thus select efficient herbal Health and the Institute of Research in Science and Technology

medicines (Pandikumara et al., 2011). There is thus a widespread (IRST). Through the legal representatives of associations, local heal-

use of traditional herbal remedies for the management of liver dis- ers were contacted and 56 of them, dispersed throughout the study

eases (Thabrew and Hughes, 1996; Stickel and Schuppan, 2007). area (7 per district), were interviewed on a voluntary basis. There

A scientific understanding of these plants however remains largely were 25 women and 31 men and the distribution of ages is shown

unexplored (WHO, 2002; Negi et al., 2008). Hence there is a need to in Fig. 2. Interviews and plant collection for the preparation of

collect ethnobotanical information on anti-hepatitis plants in order

to further evaluate their activity and safety as remedies.

The extent to which plant remedies are still used in the tra-

ditional treatment of hepatitis and the concepts underlying the

preparation of remedies specifically used for hepatitis patients are

poorly documented.

The present study was aimed at obtaining specific information

about the plants and plant parts that are used as antihepatitis

remedies in Southern Rwanda, how the plants are collected and

processed to make remedies, and how the remedies are adminis-

tered, and to whom. In order to collect this information, interviews

were conducted with traditional health practitioners.

2. Materials and methods

2.1. Study area and methodology

Two surveys were carried out, for a period of 10 days in June

2004 and 20 days in March 2008, in eight districts located in the

Southern Province of Rwanda (Kinyarwanda: Intara y’Amajyepfo).

The Southern Province encompasses the former provinces of Gikon-

goro, Gitarama, and Butare and is divided into eight districts,

with Nyanza as the capital (Fig. 1). The two surveys were car-

ried out with the same methodology and each concerned four of Fig. 2. Demographics of interviewed traditional healers.

M.-J. Mukazayire et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 138 (2011) 415–431 417

Fig. 3. Relationships between recipes and medicinal plants. Recipes are represented as circles, medicinal plants as diamonds; the size of the diamond is proportional to the

frequency of citation of a medicinal plant. The colors of diamonds correspond to the botanical family of the plant. In brackets, the part of the plant used (AP, aerial parts; F,

fruit; FL, flower; L, leaves; R, root; S, seed; STB, stem bark; WP, whole plant) (Shannon et al., 2003).

418 M.-J. Mukazayire et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 138 (2011) 415–431

Table 1

herbarium specimens were done on alternate days. The interviews,

Symptoms used to diagnose liver diseases according to the respondents (n = 56).

based on a prepared series of questions, were in the form of group

discussions, in groups of three to four practitioners, except for the Symptoms Number of respondents

traditional healers who preferred confidentiality. Each group dis-

Yellow eyes 56

cussion (7 per district) was centred on only one healer at a time. Yellow urine 56

Information was sought concerning their knowledge about liver Abdominal pain in the right side 34

Weakness 31

diseases, local names of plants used in the treatment of the dis-

Increased “volume of stomach” 25

ease, plant parts, methods of preparation, dosage, duration of use

Desire of vomiting 23

and any special condition/information about the drug. Medicinal

Pain in the knee 20

plants reported in this paper are those mentioned by at least five Yellow fingers 17

informants. Waste with bad odor 11

Blood vomiting 6

3. Results and discussion

2.2. Questionnaire

3.1. Treatment practices of traditional health practitioners (THPs)

The study followed principles laid out in the Declaration of

Helsinki (World Medical Association, 2008). The questionnaires

Eighty percent of the respondents claimed to have treated hep-

were divided into three sections: (i) personal information such as

atitis for up to 10–20 years, having acquired the knowledge mainly

name, age, sex, civil status, studies level, location and nationality

through training and/or parental inheritance. Fourteen percent

of the traditional practitioner; (ii) traditional medicine practice,

of respondents indicated that they gained knowledge of reme-

including information on specialty, duration of practice, origin

dies for liver diseases from neighbours or co-workers and 6%

of the therapeutic knowledge, diagnosis method, appreciation of

acquired knowledge from their own talent. Ninety-eight percent

cause and symptoms of liver diseases, side effects, interdicts and

of the respondents claimed to use only herbs while others used

dietary recommendations; and (iii) recommended recipes, herb

non-plants materials like honey, mainly as a support for herbs

vernacular names, plant part and processing, area of harvesting,

administration. THPs based their diagnostic on symptoms, prin-

herb combinations, additional non-plant ingredients, preparation

cipally yellow eyes (100% of THPs), yellow urine (100% of THPs),

methods, administration route and dosage of remedies, additional

abdominal pain in the right side (61% of THPs), weakness (55% of

practices and other treatment methods used for liver diseases.

THPs) and “increased volume of stomach” (45% of THPs); patients

Weights of plants used for preparing the recipes were estimated as

from local hospitals occasionally come to THPs with laboratory

described by Chifundera (2001). In all instances, informed consent

test results that are claimed to contribute to diagnosis (16% of

was obtained from the respondents to divulge information and,

THPs) (Table 1). The THPs principally considered viral infections

when consent was refused, no question whatsoever was forced on

and alcohol drinking (75% of THPs) followed by fat and “food toxins”

the individual.

(70% of THPs) consumption as the principal causes of liver diseases

(Table 2). Details of herbs and recipes used by the THP in multi-

component preparations are presented in Table 3 and Fig. 3. Many

2.3. Collection of herbal samples and plant identification herbs are used in single-herb recipes that are presented in Table 4.

All respondents claimed to have successfully treated non-

Interviewed traditional health practitioners participated in the complicated hepatitis on a weekly (39% of THPs) or monthly (23%

collection and identification of botanical specimens, visually iden- of THPs) basis. Only verbal instructions (97% of THPs) accompanied

tifying the plants claimed to be useful in managing the various the use of herbal remedies and no ceremonial nor magic practices

liver diseases. Voucher specimens were collected in duplicate and were reported. The duration of treatment was usually between two

carefully dried, using standard taxonomic/ethnobotanical proce- and four weeks (25% of THPs) without known serious side effects

dures, particularly recording important features for identification for 82% of THPs. Eighteen percent of the respondents were aware of

in the Herbarium, including the vernacular names. Each specimen side effects which occur in overdosage cases. The following herbs

included vital parts such as leaves, stems, flowers and fruits if were quoted as having side effects – Cissampelos mucronata, Clutia

available and was deposited in the National Herbarium of Rwanda abyssinica, Lysimachia ruhmeriana, Mitragyna rubrostipulata, Clema-

at the Institute of Research in Science and Technology (Butare, tis hirsuta and Crotalaria sp. (abortion; danger for children; THPs

Rwanda). For small herbaceous plants, whole specimens were usu- sensibly reduced dosages for pregnant women and children); Rubus

ally collected. Collected plant materials were identified at the same rigidus (vomiting); Lantana triflolia (abdominal disorder and pain);

herbarium, using relevant taxonomic literature and the African Rumex usambarensis and Plectranthus barbatus (diarrhea).

Plant Database, comparing with voucher specimens (Flore du Diagnosed “hepatitis” patients were mainly out-patients (96%

Rwanda, vols. I; II; III) (Troupin, 1985; CJB, 2011). The orders and of THPs). In the few instances of admission, the herbal clinic

families of flowering plants were classified on the basis of APG or residence of the practitioners served as the admission port.

(Angiosperm Phylogeny Group) III 2009 system (Elspeth et al., 2009).

Table 2

Causes of liver diseases according to the respondents (n = 56).

Causes Number of respondents

2.4. Graphing of data Virus 42

Alcohols 42

Fat and toxin in food 39

The relationships between recipes and herbs was graphed

Bad nutrition 37

as an interaction network using the software Cytoscape 2.8.0

Eating avocadoes in excess 28

(http://cytoscape.org), with the layout organic (Shannon et al., Entamoeba histolytica 25

2003). The Cytoscape file corresponding to Fig. 3 is available on Smoking 20

Poison 9

request from the senior author.

M.-J. Mukazayire et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 138 (2011) 415–431 419

Table 3

Multi-herbal recipes reported by respondents.

b

Recipe number Botanical name of plants (vernacular in Kinyarwanda) Preparation (decoction, maceration, Mode of administration

a

Family (part used, voucher specimen number) juice, infusion are made in water,

except where a solvent is mentioned)

c

1 Erythrina abyssinica Lam. ex DC. (Umuko) Fabaceae (STB, Decoct 1/2 kg of crushed stem barks of A small cup 3 times a day with 8 h

AP2652) Erythrina abyssinica and mix up 1 g of interval for one week

Hygrophilia auricurata (Schum) Heine (Gangabukari) the mixture of the three other leaves

Acanthaceae (L, RA28) (1:1:1) in 1 L. Filter and add a small

c

Cissampelos mucronata A. Rich. (Ishikashiki) quantity of honey.

Menispermaceae (WP, TG14420)

Acacia hockii De Wild (Umugenge) Fabaceae (FL or R, GT2692)

c

2 Erythrina abyssinica Lam. ex DC. (Umuko) Fabaceae (STB, Decoct 500 g of Erythrina abyssinica Half a cup 3 times a day with 8 h

AP2652) bark and mix with 300 mg each of 3 interval for 10 or 12 days

c

Bidens pilosa L. (Inyabarasanya) Asteraceae (WP, RA47) other plants grounded in a mortar, in

c

Chenopodium ugandae (Aellen) Aellen (Umugombe) 1 L.

Chenopodiaceae (L, TG5893)

Draceana steudneri Engl. (Igihondohondo) Liliaceae (L, GT16028)

c

3 Bidens pilosa L. (Inyabarasanya) Asteraceae (WP, RA47) Grind 1/2 kg of Erythrina abyssinica A small cup 3 times per day for 3 days

c

Coffea arabica L. (Ikawa) Rubiaceae (L, VM79) stem bark in a mortar and mix up with

c

Guizotia scabra (Vis.) Chiov. (Igishikashike) Asteraceae (L, 1 spoon of each other plant. Macerate

TG10482) and filter.

c

Crassocephalum vitellinum (Benth.) S. Moore (Isununu)

Asteraceae (L, RJ20568)

c

Chenopodium ugandae (Aellen) Aellen (Umugombe)

Chenopodiaceae (L, TG5893)

c

Erythrina abyssinica Lam. ex DC. (Umuko) Fabaceae (STB, AP2652)

c

4 Hypoestes triflora (Forssk.) Roem. & Schult. (Magaru) Macerate 350 g of fresh leaves of Half a glass 3 times a day for 7 days

Acanthaceae (L, TG14820) Hypoestes triflora in 1 L and mix up with

Mangifera indica L. (Umwembe) Anacardiaceae (L, one spoon of the juice squeezed from

TG16136) each of the three other plants. Filter.

Persea americana Mill. (Avoka) Lauraceae (L, TG946)

c

Lantana trifolia L. (Umuhengeri) Verbenaceae (L, RJ2035)

5 Faurea saligna Harv. (Umutiti) Proteaceae (L, GB912) Crush a handful of each plant in a 2 cups 2 times a day within 12 h for

Dodonaea viscosa Jacq. (Umunyuragisaka, Umusasa) mortar and macerate in 1 L of water. 1 week

Sapindaceae (L, GB648) Filter and boil.

6 Carica papaya L. (Ipapayi) Caricaceae (L, VM64) Macerate a handful of each plant One small cup 3 times a day within 8 h

c

Hypoestes triflora (Forssk.) Roem. & Schult. (Magaru) crushed in a mortar and in 1 L of water. of interval during 12 days

Acanthaceae (L, TG14820) Filter and boil.

c

Erythrina abyssinica Lam. ex DC. (Umuko) Fabaceae (STB, AP2652)

c

Chenopodium ugandae (Aellen) Aellen (Umugombe)

Chenopodiaceae (L, TG5893)

c

7 Hypoestes triflora (Forssk.) Roem. & Schult. (Magaru) Crush a handful of each plant in a A small cup 3 times a day

Acanthaceae (L, TG14820) mortar and macerate in 1 L of water.

c

Leucas martinicensis (Jacq.) R.Br. (Akanyamapfundo) Filter and boil. In some cases (not

Lamiaceae (L, MG5239) mentioned) the recipe can be

Silybum marianum (L.) Gaertn. (Igihwarara) Asteraceae (S, simplified to only Hypoestes triflora,

L, R, Fr, VM99) Leucas martinicensis and Chenopodium

Desmodium repandum (Vahl) DC. (Ituza, Umuvumo) ugandae.

Fabaceae (L, TG15365)

Draceana steudneri Engl. (Igihondohondo) Liliaceae (L, GT16028)

c

Chenopodium ugandae (Aellen) Aellen (Umugombe)

Chenopodiaceae (L, TG5893)

c

Erythrina abyssinica Lam. ex DC. (Umuko) Fabaceae (STB, AP2652)

c

8 Bidens pilosa L. (Inyabarasanya) Asteraceae (WP, RA47) Grind Erythrina abyssinica bark in a A small cup 3 times a day for 7 days

Melanthera scandens (Schumach. & Thonn.) Roberty mortar, mix with other herbs and

(Icyumwa) Asteraceae (L, VD10894) decoct in 1 L of water. Filter.

c

Erythrina abyssinica Lam. ex DC. (Umuko) Fabaceae (STB, AP2652)

c

Guizotia scabra (Vis.) Chiov. (Igishikashike) Asteraceae (L,

TG10482)

9 Musa acumunata Colla (Igitoki cy’ikakama) Musaceae Mix a handful of each plant and decoct 2 bottles of 1 L over 4 to 5 days

(Mucilage, VM58) in 1 L of water. Filter.

c

Erythrina abyssinica Lam. ex DC. (Umuko) Fabaceae (STB,

AP2652)

Vernonia lasiopus O. Hoffm. (Ivumavumo) Asteraceae (L, RA42)

c

Leonotis nepetifolia (L.) R.Br. (Igicumucumu) Lamiaceae (L, RJ20349)

c

Bidens pilosa L. (Inyabarasanya) Asteraceae (WP, RA47)

Persea americana Mill. (Avoka) Lauraceae (L, TG946)

c

Indigofera arrecta Hochst. ex A.Rich. (Umusororo)

Fabaceae (L, RM242)

420 M.-J. Mukazayire et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 138 (2011) 415–431

Table 3 (Continued)

b

Recipe number Botanical name of plants (vernacular in Kinyarwanda) Preparation (decoction, maceration, Mode of administration

a

Family (part used, voucher specimen number) juice, infusion are made in water,

except where a solvent is mentioned)

c

10 Crassocephalum vitellinum (Benth.) S. Moore (Isununu) Mix up 250 g of Indigofera arrecta, 250 g 1 glass 2 times a day for 7 days

Asteraceae (L, RJ20568) of Hypoestes triflora + 100 g each of all

Carica papaya L. (Ipapayi) Caricaceae (L, VM64) other plants. Decoct in 1 L of water.

c

Hypoestes triflora (Forssk.) Roem. & Schult. (Magaru) Indigofera arrecta and Hypoestes triflora

Acanthaceae (L, TG14820) are essential in the preparation.

Desmodium repandum (Vahl) DC. (Ituza, Umuvumo)

Fabaceae (L, TG15365)

Ocimum lamiifolium Hochst. ex Benth. (Umusura)

Lamiaceae (L, TG16239)

c

Erythrina abyssinica Lam. ex DC. (Umuko) Fabaceae (L, AP2652)

c

Indigofera arrecta Hochst. ex A.Rich. (Umusororo)

Fabaceae (L, RM242)

c

11 Lantana trifolia L. (Umuhengeri) Verbenaceae (L, RJ2035) Mix up a handful of each plant with Half a cup 3 times per day for 1 week

Ocimum lamiifolium Hochst. ex Benth. (Umusura) Erythrina abyssinica stem bark crushed

Lamiaceae (L, TG16239) in mortar and decoct in 1 L of water.

Markhamia lutea (Benth.) K.Schum. (Umusave) Filter.

Bignoniaceae (L, GT5968)

c

Erythrina abyssinica Lam. ex DC. (Umuko) Fabaceae (STB,

AP2652)

Persea americana Mill. (Avoka) Lauraceae (L, TG946)

12 Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench (Amasaka) Poaceae (S, RB112) Mix up a handful of each plant in 3 L of A small cup of tea 3 times a day for

c

Hypoestes triflora (Forssk.) Roem. & Schult. (Magaru) water and put at boiling point. Filter. 1 week

Acanthaceae (L, TG14820)

Rubus rigidus Sm. (Imikeri) Rosaceae (L, GT336)

c

Indigofera arrecta Hochst. ex A.Rich. (Umusororo)

Fabaceae (L, RM242)

c

Leucas martinicensis (Jacq.) R.Br. (Akanyamapfundo)

Lamiaceae (L, MG5239)

c

Crassocephalum vitellinum (Benth.) S. Moore (Isununu)

Asteraceae (L, RJ20568)

Berkheya spekeana Oliv. (Ikigwarara) Asteraceae (L, MM64)

c

Erythrina abyssinica Lam. ex DC. (Umuko) Fabaceae (STB,

AP2652)

13 Vernonia lasiopus O.Hoffm. (Ivumo, Ivumavumo) Mix a handful of each plant, decoct in 2 glasses a day during 6 days or 2 cups

Asteraceae (L, RA42) 2 L of water and filter. per day for 3 days

Indigofera arrecta Hochst. ex A.Rich. (Umusororo) Fabaceae

(L, RM242)

c

Lantana trifolia L. (Umuhengeri) Verbenaceae (L, RJ2035)

c

Hypoestes triflora (Forssk.) Roem. & Schult. (Magaru)

Acanthaceae (L, TG14820)

c

Crassocephalum vitellinum (Benth.) S. Moore (Isununu)

Asteraceae (L, RJ20568)

c

Guizotia scabra (Vis.) Chiov. (Igishikashike) Asteraceae (L, TG10482)

c

Melanthera scandens (Schumach. & Thonn.) Roberty

(Icyumwa) Asteraceae (L, VD10894)

c

Chenopodium ugandae (Aellen) Aellen Umugombe)

Chenopodiaceae (L, TG5893)

Dodonaea viscosa Jacq. (Umunyuragisaka, Umusasa)

Sapindaceae (L, GB648)

14 Mangifera indica L. (Umwembe) Anacardiaceae (L, Grind 500 g of Erythrina bark in a 3 cups a day for 3 days

TG16136) mortar and mix up with 100 g of each

c

Leonotis nepetifolia (L.) R.Br. (Igicumucumu) Lamiaceae (L, other plant. Macerate in 2 L of water

RJ20349) and filter.

c

Guizotia scabra (Vis.) Chiov. (Igishikashike) Asteraceae (L,

TG10482)

Draceana steudneri Engl. (Igihondohondo) Liliaceae (L, GT16028)

c

Chenopodium ugandae (Aellen) Aellen (Umugombe)

Chenopodiaceae (L, TG5893)

c

Crassocephalum vitellinum (Benth.) S. Moore (Isununu)

Asteraceae (L, RJ20568)

c

Erythrina abyssinica Lam. ex DC. (Umuko) Fabaceae (STB,

AP2652)

15 Desmodium repandum (Vahl) DC. (Ituza, Umuvumo) (L, Crush a handful of each plant, add 1 L Half a cup 3 times a day for 1 week

TG15365) of water and decoct with 500 g of

c

Indigofera arrecta Hochst. ex A.Rich. (Umusororo) Erythrina abyssinica stem bark. Filter.

Fabaceae (L, RM242)

Berkheya spekeana Oliv. (Ikigwarara) Asteraceae (L, MM64)

c

Leucas martinicensis (Jacq.) R.Br. (Akanyamapfundo)

Lamiaceae (L, MG5239)

c

Chenopodium ugandae (Aellen) Aellen (Umugombe)

Chenopodiaceae (L, TG5893)

M.-J. Mukazayire et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 138 (2011) 415–431 421

Table 3 (Continued)

b

Recipe number Botanical name of plants (vernacular in Kinyarwanda) Preparation (decoction, maceration, Mode of administration

a

Family (part used, voucher specimen number) juice, infusion are made in water,

except where a solvent is mentioned)

c

Crassocephalum vitellinum (Benth.) S. Moore (Isununu)

Asteraceae (L, RJ20568)

c

Erythrina abyssinica Lam. ex DC. (Umuko) Fabaceae (STB,

AP2652)

16 Berkheya spekeana Oliv. (Ikigwarara) Asteraceae (L, MM64) Grind a handful of each plant in 1 L of One small cup every 8 h for 1 week

c

Leucas martinicensis (Jacq.) R.Br. (Akanyamapfundo) water, boil and filter.

Lamiaceae (L, MG5239)

c

Chenopodium ugandae (Aellen) Aellen Umugombe)

Chenopodiaceae (L, TG5893)

Desmodium repandum (Vahl) DC. (Ituza, Umuvumo)

Fabaceae (L, TG15365)

Indigofera arrecta Hochst. ex A.Rich. (Umusororo) Fabaceae

(L, RM242)

17 Markhamia lutea (Benth.) K.Schum. (Umusave) Grind 500 g of Erythrina abyssinica bark 1 glass 2 times a day for 7 days

Bignoniaceae (L, GT5968) in a mortar and mix up with 100 g of

Rubus rigidus Sm. (Imikeri) Rosaceae (L, GT336) each other plant. Macerate in 1 L and

Draceana steudneri Engl. (Igihondohondo) Liliaceae (L, filter. GT16028)

c

Guizotia scabra (Vis.) Chiov. (Igishikashike) Asteraceae (L,

TG10482)

Indigofera arrecta Hochst. ex A.Rich. (Umusororo) Fabaceae

(L, RM242)

c

Erythrina abyssinica Lam. ex DC. (Umuko) Fabaceae (STB, AP2652)

c

18 Leonotis nepetifolia (L.) R.Br. (Igicumucumu) Lamiaceae (L, Mix a handful of each plant in 1 L of 2 glasses a day for 3 days

RJ20349) water, boil and filter.

Dodonaea viscosa Jacq. (Umunyuragisaka, Umusasa)

Sapindaceae (L, GB648)

c

Hypoestes triflora (Forssk.) Roem. & Schult. (Magaru)

Acanthaceae (L, TG14820)

c

Guizotia scabra (Vis.) Chiov. (Igishikashike) Asteraceae (L,

TG10482)

Chenopodium ugandae (Aellen) Aellen. (Umugombe)

Chenopodiaceae (L, TG5893)

c

19 Melanthera scandens (Schumach. & Thonn.) Roberty Crush 350 g of each plant in 2 L of 2 bottles over 4 days

(Icyumwa) Asteraceae (L) water and one glass of banana wine,

Draceana steudneri ENGL. (Igihondohondo) Liliaceae (L, heat until boiling point and filter. GT16028)

c

Hypoestes triflora (Forssk.) Roem. & Schult. (Magaru)

Acanthaceae (L, TG14820)

c

Crassocephalum vitellinum (Benth.) S. Moore (Isununu)

Asteraceae (L, R J20568)

20 Rubus rigidus Sm. (Imikeri) Rosaceae (L, GT336) Grind 500 g of Erythrina abyssinica bark 1 cup 3 times a day for 1 week

c

Coffea arabica L. (Ikawa) Rubiaceae (L, VM79) in a mortar and mix up with one spoon

c

Erythrina abyssinica Lam. ex DC. (Umuko) Fabaceae (STB, of the juice from all other plants. Boil

AP2652) in 1 L of water and filter.

Persea americana Mill. (Avoka) Lauraceae (L, TG946)

Bidens pilosa L. (Inyabarasanya) Asteraceae (WP, RA47)

Indigofera arrecta Hochst. ex A.Rich. (Umusororo) Fabaceae

(L, RM242)

c

Leonotis nepetifolia (L.) R.Br. (Igicumucumu) Lamiaceae (L,

RJ20349)

Chenopodium ugandae (Aellen) Aellen. (Umugombe)

Chenopodiaceae (L, TG5893)

21 Acanthus pubescens (Thomson ex Oliv.) Engl. (Igitovu) Triturate a handful of each plant in 1 L 1 glass a day

Acanthaceae (L, NP8) of water and 1 glass of banana wine.

Leucas martinicensis (Jacq.) R.Br. (Akanyamapfundo)

Lamiaceae (AP, MG5239)

Vernonia amygdalina Delile (Umubilizi) Asteraceae (L, RM508)

c

Vernonia kirungae R.E.Fr. (Igiheriheri) Asteraceae (L, RJ15502)

c

Vernonia lasiopus O.Hoffm. (Ivumavumo) Asteraceae (L, RA42)

c

22 Dracaena steudneri Engl. (Igihondohondo) Liliaceae (STB, Crush a handful of each plant and boil 1 bottle a day for 12 days

GT16028) in 3 L of water.

c

Monechma subsessilis (Oliv.) C.B.Clark (Umubazi)

Acanthaceae (R, BD206)

c

Ludwigia abyssinica A.Rich. (Umuzigangore) Onagraceae

(R, MR23)

c

Aspilia africana (Pers.) C.D.Adams (Icyumwa, Kizimya

muliro) Asteraceae (L, MJ12)

Chenopodium ugandae (Aellen) Aellen. (Umugombe)

Chenopodiaceae (L, TG5893)

422 M.-J. Mukazayire et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 138 (2011) 415–431

Table 3 (Continued)

b

Recipe number Botanical name of plants (vernacular in Kinyarwanda) Family (part Preparation (decoction, maceration, Mode of administration

a

used, voucher specimen number) juice, infusion are made in water,

except where a solvent is mentioned)

23 Ranunculus multifidus Forssk. (Kazingashya) Ranunculaceae (L, Macerate a handful of fresh leaves with 1 tea spoon 3 times daily

MM24) 1 L of water.

Crotalaria mesopontica Taub. (Umuyogera, Akayogera) Fabaceae (L,

GM5895)

24 Allium cepa L. (Igitunguru gitukura) Liliaceae (Bulb, VM65) Decoct a handful of each plant with 3 L 1 glass a day

c

Hypoestes triflora (Forssk.) Roem. & Schult. (Magaru) Acanthaceae of water.

(L, TG14820)

c

Erythrina abyssinica Lam. ex DC. (Umuko) Fabaceae (STB, AP 2652)

Helichrysum odoratissimum (L.) Sweet (Manayeze) Asteraceae (L, GM5890)

c

Crassocephalum vitellinum (Benth.) S. Moore (Isununu) Asteraceae

(L, RJ20568)

c

25 Dracaena steudneri Engl. (Igihondohondo) Liliaceae (L, GT16028) Crush a handful of each plant with 1 L Half a glass 3 times daily

c

Vernonia amygdalina Delile (Umubilizi) Asteraceae (L, RM508) of water and one glass of banana wine

c

Microglossa pyrifolia (Lam.) Kuntze (Umuhe) Asteraceae (L, AP3287) and decoct.

c

Hypoestes triflora (Forssk.) Roem. & Schult. (Magaru) Acanthaceae

(L, TG14820)

c

Bidens pilosa L. (Inyabarasanya) Asteraceae (WP, RA47)

c

Crassocephalum vitellinum (Benth.) S. Moore (Isununu) Asteraceae

(L, RJ20568)

c

Ludwigia abyssinica A. Rich. (Umuzigangore) Onagraceae (L, MR23)

26 Myrica kandtiana Engl. (Morella kandtiana (Engl.) Verdc. & Polhill) Crush a handful of each plant and 2 glasses a day

(Isubyo) Myricaceae (L, RB380) decoct with 1 L of water.

c

Bidens pilosa L. (Inyabarasanya) Asteraceae (WP, RA47)

c

Crassocephalum vitellinum (Benth.) S. Moore (Isununu) Asteraceae

(L, RJ20568)

c

Leucas martinicensis (Jacq.) R.Br. (Akanyamapfundo) Lamiaceae (AP, MG5239)

c

Hypoestes triflora (Forssk.) Roem. & Schult. (Magaru) Acanthaceae

(L, TG14820)

c

Erythrina abyssinica Lam. ex DC. (Umuko) Fabaceae (STB, AP2652)

c

27 Leucas martinicensis (Jacq.) R.Br. (Akanyamapfundo) Lamiaceae (AP, Crush a handful of each plant and 1 glass a day

MG5239) decoct with 1 L of water.

c

Vernonia lasiopus O.Hoffm. (Ivumavumo) Asteraceae (L, RA42)

c

Guizotia scabra (Vis.) Chiov. (Igishikashike) Asteraceae (L, TG10482)

c

Hygrophila auriculata (Schumach.) Heine (Gangabukari)

Acanthaceae (L, RA28)

Indigofera arrecta Hochst. ex A.Rich. (Umusororo) Fabaceae (L, RM242)

c

Vernonia amygdalina Delile (Umubilizi) Asteraceae (L, RM508)

c

28 Vernonia amygdalina Delile (Umubilizi) Asteraceae (L, RM508) Crush a handful of each plant and 1 bottle a day

c

Vernonia lasiopus O.Hoffm. (Ivumavumo) Asteraceae (L, RA42) decoct with 1 L of water.

Hygrophila auriculata (Schumach.) Heine (Gangabukari) Acanthaceae

(L, RA28)

Markhamia lutea (Benth.) K.Schum. (Umusave) Bignoniaceae (L,

GT5968)

Rubus rigitus Smith (Imikeri) Rosaceae (L, GT336)

29 Clematis hirsuta Guill. & Perr. (Umunkamba) Ranunculaceae (L, Crush a handful of each plant and 1 coffee cup twice daily

TG1340) decoct with 1 L of water.

Vernonia fontinalis S.Moore (Umubimbafuro) Asteraceae (L, MM59)

c

Vernonia lasiopus O.Hoffm. (Ivumavumo) Asteraceae (L, RA42)

c

Leucas martinicensis (Jacq.) R.Br. (Akanyamapfundo) Lamiaceae (AP, MG5239)

c

Indigofera arrecta Hochst. ex A.Rich. (Umusororo) Fabaceae (L,

RM242)

Lantana trifloria L. (Umuhengeri) Verbenaceae (L, RJ2035)

Hygrophila auriculata (Schumach.) Heine (Gangabukari) Acanthaceae

(L, RA28)

c

Bidens pilosa L. (Inyabarasanya) Asteraceae (WP, RA47)

Solanum nigrum L. (Urusogo) Solanaceae (L, MM29)

c

30 Crassocephalum vitellinum (Benth.) S. Moore (Isununu) Asteraceae Crush a handful of each plant and Half a glass 3 times daily

(L, RJ20568) decoct with 1 L of water.

c

Leucas martinicensis (Jacq.) R.Br. (Akanyamapfundo) Lamiaceae (AP, MG5239)

c

Hypoestes triflora (Forssk.) Roem. & Schult. (Magaru) Acanthaceae

(L, TG14820)

c

Microglossa pyrifolia (Lam.) Kuntze (Umuhe) Asteraceae (L, AP3287)

c

Vernonia amygdalina Delile (Umubilizi) Asteraceae (L, RM508)

c

31 Vernonia lasiopus O. Hoffm. (Ivumavumo) Asteraceae (L, RA42) Crush a handful of each plant and 1 coffee cup 3 times daily

c

Leucas martinicensis (Jacq.) R.Br. (Akanyamapfundo) Lamiaceae (AP, decoct with 1 L of water. MG5239)

c

Crassocephalum vitellinum (Benth.) S. Moore (Isununu) Asteraceae

(L, RJ20568)

c

Bidens pilosa L. (Inyabarasanya) Asteraceae (WP, RA47)

M.-J. Mukazayire et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 138 (2011) 415–431 423

Table 3 (Continued)

b

Recipe number Botanical name of plants (vernacular in Kinyarwanda) Family (part Preparation (decoction, maceration, Mode of administration

a

used, voucher specimen number) juice, infusion are made in water,

except where a solvent is mentioned)

c

32 Acanthus pubescens (Thomson ex Oliv.) Engl. (Igitovu) Crush a handful of each plant and 1 coffee cup 3 times daily

Acanthaceae (L, NP8) decoct with 1 L of water.

c

Crassocephalum vitellinum (Benth.) S. Moore (Isununu) Asteraceae

(L, R J20568)

c

Erythrina abyssinica Lam. ex DC. (Umuko) Fabaceae (Fl, AP2652)

Helichrysum odoratissimum (L.) Sweet (Manayeze) Asteraceae (L, GM5890)

c

Hypoestes triflora (Forssk.) Roem. & Schult. (Magaru) Acanthaceae

(L, TG14820)

33 Rubus rigidus Smith (Imikeri) Rosaceae (L, GT336) Crush a handful of each plant and 1 glass twice daily

c

Hypoestes triflora (Forssk.) Roem. & Schult. (Magaru) Acanthaceae decoct with 1 L of water.

(L, TG14820)

Markhamia lutea (Benth.) K.Schum. (Umusave) Bignoniaceae (L, GT5968)

c

Guizotia scabra (Vis) Chiov (Igishikashike) Asteraceae (L, TG10482)

Aloe myriacantha (Haw.) Schult. & Schult. f. (Igikakarubamba)

Liliaceae (Aloaceae) (L, GT6773)

34 Ocimum lamiifolium Hochst ex Benth (Umusura) Lamiaceae (L, Crush a handful of each plant and 1 glass 3 times daily

TG16239) decoct with 1 L of water.

c

Microglossa pyrifolia (Lam.) Kuntze (Umuhe) Asteraceae (L, AP3287)

c

Leucas martinicensis (Jacq.) R.Br. (Akanyamapfundo) Lamiaceae

(AP, MG5239)

c

Crassocephalum vitellinum (Benth.) S. Moore (Isununu) Asteraceae

(L, RJ20568)

c

35 Dracaena steudneri Engl. (Igihondohondo) Liliaceae (L, GT16028) Crush a handful of each plant and 1 bottle a day

Berkheya spekeana Oliv (Ikigwarara) Asteraceae (L, MM64) decoct with 1 L of water.

Ocimum gratissimum L. (Umwenya) Lamiaceae (L, BD231)

c

Coffea arabica L. (Ikawa) Rubiaceae (L, VM79)

Lantana trifloria L. (Umuhengeri) Verbenaceae (L, RJ2035)

Markhamia lutea (Benth.) K. Schum (Umusave) Bignoniaceae (L,

GT5968)

36 Hygrophila auriculata (Schumach.) Heine (Gangabukari) Crush a handful of each plant and 1 glass twice daily

Acanthaceae (L, RA28) decoct with 1 L of water.

c

Leucas martinicensis (Jacq.) R.Br. (Akanyamapfundo) Lamiaceae

(AP, MG5239)

Myrica kandtiana Engl. (Morella kandtiana (Engl.) Verdc. & Polhill)

(Isubyo) Myricaceae (L, RB380)

c

Coffea arabica L. (Ikawa) Rubiaceae (L, VM79)

c

37 Clematis hirsuta L. (Umunkamba) Ranunculaceae (L) Crush a handful of each plant and 1 coffee cup twice daily

Vernonia fontinalis S. Moore (Umubimbafuro) Astaraceae (L) decoct with 1 L of water.

c

Coffea arabica L. (Ikawa) Rubiaceae (L, VM79)

c

Ludwigia abyssinica A. Rich. (Umuzigangore) Onagraceae (L, MR23)

Ocimum gratissimum L. (Umwenya) Lamiaceae (L, BD231)

38 Ocimum gratissimum L. (Umwenya) Lamiaceae (L) Crush a handful of each plant and 1 coffee cup twice daily

c

Vernonia lasiopus O. Hoffm (Ivumavumo) Asteraceae (L, RA42) decoct with 1 L of water.

Dodonaea viscosa Jack (Umunyuragisaka, Umusasa) Sapindaceae (L)

c

Hypoestes triflora (Forssk.) Roem. & Schult. (Magaru) Acanthaceae

(L, TG14820)

c

39 Erythrina abyssinica Lam. ex DC. (Umuko) Fabaceae (FL, AP2652) Crush a handful of each plant and 1 bottle a day

c

Hypoestes triflora (Forssk.) Roem. & Schult. (Magaru) Acanthaceae decoct with 1 L of water.

(L, TG14820)

c

Guizotia scabra (Vis) Chiov (Igishikashike) Asteraceae (L, TG10482)

Markhamia lutea (Benth.) K. Schum (Umusave) Bignoniaceae (L, GT5968)

c

Crassocephalum vitellinum (Benth.) S. Moore (Isununu) Asteraceae

(L, RJ20568)

c

Microglossa pyrifolia (Lam.) Kuntze (Umuhe) Asteraceae (L,

AP3287)

Ocimum lamiifolium Hochst ex Benth (Umusura) Lamiaceae (AP, TG16239)

c

Vernonia lasiopus O.Hoffm. (Ivumavumo) Asteraceae (L, RA42)

c

Bidens pilosa L. (Inyabarasanya) Asteraceae (L, RA47)

c

Dracaena steudneri Engl. (Igihondohondo) Liliaceae (L, GT16028)

Aloe myriacantha (Haw.) Schult. & Schult.f. (Igikakarubamba)

Liliaceae (Aloaceae) (L, GT6773)

c

40 Vernonia lasiopus O.Hoffm. (Ivumavumo) Asteraceae (L, RA42) Crush a handful of each plant and Half a bottle twice daily

c

Hygrophila auriculata (Schumach.) Heine (Gangabukari) decoct with 1 L of water.

Acanthaceae (L, RA28)

c

Bidens pilosa L. (Inyabarasanya) Asteraceae (WP, RA47)

c

Crassocephalum vitellinum (Benth.) S. Moore (Isununu) Asteraceae

(L, RJ20568)

424 M.-J. Mukazayire et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 138 (2011) 415–431

Table 3 (Continued)

b

Recipe number Botanical name of plants (vernacular in Kinyarwanda) Preparation (decoction, maceration, Mode of administration

a

Family (part used, voucher specimen number) juice, infusion are made in water,

except where a solvent is mentioned)

c

41 Crassocephalum vitellinum (Benth.) S. Moore (Isununu) Crush a handful of each plant and 1 glass twice daily

Asteraceae (L, RJ20568) decoct with 1 L of water.

c

Erythrina abyssinica Lam. ex DC. (Umuko) Fabaceae (FL, AP2652)

c

Vernonia lasiopus O.Hoffm. (Ivumavumo) Asteraceae (L, RA42)

c

Guizotia scabra (Vis) Chiov (Igishikashike) Asteraceae (L, TG10482)

c

Lantana trifolia L. (Umuhengeri) Verbenaceae (L, RJ2035)

c

42 Guizotia scabra (Vis) Chiov (Igishikashike) Asteraceae (L, Crush a handful of each plant and 1 glass twice daily

TG10482) macerate with 1 L of water.

c

Erythrina abyssinica Lam. ex DC. (Umuko) Fabaceae (FL,

AP2652)

Markhamia lutea (Benth.) K.Schum (Umusave)

Bignoniaceae (FL, GT5968)

c

43 Hypoestes triflora (Forssk.) Roem. & Schult. (Magaru) Grind a handful of each plant in a 1 glass twice daily

Acanthaceae (L, TG14820) mortar, add to 250 ml of cold water

c

Clerodendron myricoïdes R.Br (Umukuzanyana) and filter.

Verbenaceae (L, TG1328)

Maesa lanceolata var golungensis Hiern (Umuhanga)

Myrsinaceae (L, DG7529)

c

44 Erythrina abyssinica Lam. ex DC. (Umuko) Fabaceae (FL, Decoct Dodonaea viscosa (2 spoons of 1 glass twice daily

AP2652) leaves powder) and a handful of each

c

Guizotia scabra (Vis) Chiov (Igishikashike) Asteraceae (L, plant in 2 L of water and filter. TG10482)

c

Hypoestes triflora (Forssk.) Roem. & Schult. (Magaru)

Acanthaceae (L, TG14820)

c

Ludwigia abyssinica A. Rich. (Umuzigangore) Onagraceae

(L, MR23)

Anisopappus africanus (Hook.f.) Oliv. & Hiern

(Umuretezaho) Asteraceae (L, MR2092)

Markhamia lutea (Benth.) K. Schum (Umusave)

Bignoniaceae (FL, GT5968)

Dodonaea viscosa Jack (Umunyuragisaka, Umusasa)

Sapindaceae (L, GB648)

45 Maesa lanceolata var golungensis Hiern (Umuhanga) Decoct a handful of each plant with 1 L 1 glass twice daily

Myrsinaceae (L, DG7529) of water and add to 1 glass of banana

c

Hypoestes triflora (Forssk.) Roem. & Schult. (Magaru) wine.

Acanthaceae (L, TG14820)

Mytragyna rubrostipulata (K. Schum.) Havil (Hallea

rubrostipulata (K. Schum.) Leroy) (Umuzibaziba) Rubiaceae

(L, TG1437)

c

Vernonia amygdalina Delile (Umubilizi) Asteraceae (L, RM508)

c

Vernonia lasiopus O. Hoffm. (Ivumavumo) Asteraceae (L, RA42)

c

Crassocephalum vitellinum (Benth.) S. Moore (Isununu)

Asteraceae (L, RJ 20568)

c

Guizotia scabra (Vis) Chiov (Igishikashike) Asteraceae (L, TG10482)

c

Erythrina abyssinica Lam. ex DC. (Umuko) Fabaceae (STB, AP2652)

c

46 Dracaena steudneri Engl. (Igihondohondo) Liliaceae (STB, Grind a handful of each plant in a 1 glass twice daily

GT16028) mortar, add to 1 L of cold water and

c

Erythrina abyssinica Lam. ex DC. (Umuko) Fabaceae (FL, filter. AP2652)

c

Crassocephalum vitellinum (Benth.) S. Moore (Isununu)

Asteraceae (L, RJ20568)

c

Coffea arabica L. (Ikawa) Rubiaceae (L, VM79)

c

47 Dracaena steudneri Engl. (Igihondohondo) Liliaceae (STB, Grind a handful of each plant in a 1 glass of one bottle a day with a total

GT16028) mortar, boil in 1 L of cold water. of 12 days or 12 bottles

c

Monechma subsessilis (Oliv.) C.B.Clark (Umubazi)

Acanthaceae (R, BD206)

c

Ludwigia abyssinica A. Rich. (Umuzigangore) Onagraceae

(R, MR23)

c

Aspilia africana (Pers.) C.D.Adams (Icyumwa, Kizimya

muliro) Asteraceae (L, MJ12)

2 c

Chenopodium ugandae (Aellen.) Aellen. (Umugombe)

Chenopodiaceae (L, TG5893)

c

48 Vernonia amygdalina Delile (Umubilizi) Asteraceae (L, Grind a handful of each plant in a 3 glasses daily with a total of 30 days

RM508) mortar, add to 1 glass of banana wine

Ocimum gratissimum L. (Umwenya) Lamiaceae (L, BD231) and filter.

M.-J. Mukazayire et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 138 (2011) 415–431 425

Table 3 (Continued)

b

Recipe number Botanical name of plants (vernacular in Kinyarwanda) Preparation (decoction, maceration, Mode of administration

a

Family (part used, voucher specimen number) juice, infusion are made in water,

except where a solvent is mentioned)

c

49 Vernonia amygdalina Delile (Umubilizi) Asteraceae (L, Boil a handful of each plant with 1 L of One glass 3 times daily with a total of 6

RM508) water, filter, add 1 glass of banana days or 6 bottles

c

Lantana trifolia L. (Umuhengeri) Verbenaceae (L, RJ2035) wine.

c

Guizotia scabra (Vis) Chiov (Igishikashike) Asteraceae (L,

TG10482)

Ocimum lamiifolium Hochst ex Benth (Umusura) Lamiaceae

(L, TG16239)

Vernonia crudia Klatt (Umukurazo) Asteraceae (L, MM37)

c

×

50 Vernonia lasiopus O. Hoffm. (Ivumavumo) Asteraceae (L, Decoct the mixture of plants (1:1:1, 1/2 2 half a bottle per day with a total of

RA42) kg total) with 2 L of water. 12 days or 12 bottles

c

Bidens pilosa L. (Inyabarasanya) Asteraceae (L, RA47)

c

Acanthus pubescens Thomson ex Oliv) Engl (Igitovu)

Acanthaceae (L, NP8)

c

51 Crassocephalum vitellinum (Benth.) S. Moore (Isununu) Boil 150 g of each plant in 5 bottles of 3 glasses per day with a total of 10–15

Asteraceae (AP, RJ20568) water, filter, add 1 glass of banana bottles

c

Bidens pilosa L. (Inyabarasanya) Asteraceae (AP, RA47) wine.

c

52 Vernonia amygdalina Delile (Umubilizi) Asteraceae (L, Decoct a handful of each plant in 3 L of 2 glasses a day for 8 days

RM508) water, filter, add 1 glass of banana

c

Clematis hirsuta Guill. & Perr. (Umunkamba) wine.

Ranunculaceae (L, TG1340)

Lantana triflolia L. (Umuhengeri) Verbenaceae (L, RJ2035)

c

Clutia abyssinica Jaub. et Spach. (Umutarishonga)

Euphorbiaceae (L, TG6234)

c

Rumex abyssinicus Jacq (Umufumbageshi) Polygonaceae

(L, BG1408)

c

Pavetta ternifolia (Oliv.) Hiern. (Umumenamabuye)

Rubiaceae (L, RA44)

Leucas martinicens (Jacq) R.Br. (Akanyamapfundo)

Lamiaceae (L, MG5239)

c

Microglossa pyrifolia (Lam.) Kuntze (Umuhe) Asteraceae

(L, AP3287)

Rumex usambarensis (Engl) Danmer (Umufumbageshi)

Polygonaceae (L, MG5867)

c

Geniosporum rotundifolium Briq (Umusekerasuka)

Lamiaceae (AP, RJ20401)

c

Clerodendron myricoïdes R.Br (Umukuzanyana)

Verbenaceae (L, TG1328)

c

Vernonia lasiopus O. Hoffm. (Ivumavumo) Asteraceae (L,

RA42)

Mytragyna rubrostipulata (K. Schum.) Havil (Hallea

rubrostipulata (K. Schum.) Leroy) (Umuzibaziba) Rubiaceae

(L, TG1437)

c

Erythrina abyssinica Lam. ex DC. (Umuko) Fabaceae (STB, AP2652)

c

Ludwigia abyssinica A. Rich. (Umuzigangore) Onagraceae

(L, MR23)

c

53 Guizotia scabra (Vis) Chiov (Igishikashike) Asteraceae (L, Crush a handful of each plant and 1 glass a day for 7 days

TG10482) macerate in 1 L of water.

c

Rumex abyssinicus Jacq (Igifumba) Polygonaceae (L, BG1408)

c

Crassocephalum vitellinum (Benth.) S. Moore (Isununu)

Asteraceae (L, RJ20568)

c

Erythrina abyssinica Lam. ex DC. (Umuko) Fabaceae (L,

AP2652)

54 Grewia platyclada K. Schum. (Umurokombe) Tiliaceae (L, Express the juice from a handful of 2 soup spoons a day

TG316) each plant and add to 1 L of water.

Ranunculus stagnalis Hochst ex A. Rich (Kazingashya)

Ranunculaceae (L, VD917).

c

55 Musa acuminata Colla (Igitoki cy’ikakama) Musaceae Mix one bunch of Musa acuminata 3 tea spoons 3 times daily

(Mucilage, VM58) mucilage in 1 bottle of water, add 500 g

c

Crassocephalum vitellinum (Benth.) S. Moore (Isununu) of the mixture of crushed plants, add to

Asteraceae (L, RJ20568) 3 bottles of banana wine, filter and

c

Plantago palmata Hook (Imbatabata) Plantaginaceae (L, evaporate to about 3 L. PK2365)

c

Rumex usambalensis (Engl) Danmer (Umufumbageshi)

Polygonaceae (L, MG5867)

c

56 Melanthera scandens (Schum. et Thonn.) Roberty Crush a handful of each plant and Half a glass 2 times daily for 7 days. Fat,

(Icyumwa) Asteraceae (L, VD10894) decoct with 1 L of water. alcohol and salt are prohibited during

c

Erythrina abyssinica Lam. ex DC. (Umuko) Fabaceae (STB, treatment and the patient must have

AP2652) absolute rest

c

Crassocephalum vitellinum (Benth.) S. Moore (Isununu)

Asteraceae (L, RJ20568)

Gynura scandens O. Hoffm (Ikizimyamuliro) Asteraceae (L, TG12658)

426 M.-J. Mukazayire et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 138 (2011) 415–431

Table 3 (Continued)

b

Recipe number Botanical name of plants (vernacular in Kinyarwanda) Preparation (decoction, maceration, Mode of administration

a

Family (part used, voucher specimen number) juice, infusion are made in water,

except where a solvent is mentioned)

c

57 Clematis hirsuta Guill. & Perr. (Umunkamba) Crush a handful of each plant and 1 glass per day with a total of 1.5 to 3 L

Ranunculaceae (L, TG1340) decoct with 1 L of water.

c

Thalyctrum rynchocarpum Dillon ex A. Rich (Ubugomboro)

Ranunculaceae (L, TG1416)

c

Erythrina abyssinica Lam. ex DC. (Umuko) Fabaceae (FL, AP2652)

c

Vernonia amygdalina Delile (Umubilizi) Asteraceae (L,

RM508)

Leonotis nepetifolia (L.) R.Br (Igicumucumu) Lamiaceae (L, RJ20349)

c

Ocimum urticifolium ROTH (Umwenya) Lamiaceae (L, MM21)

c

58 Crassocephalum vitellinum (Benth.) S. Moore (Isununu) Crush a handful of each plant and 1 glass a day

Asteraceae (L, RJ20568) macerate with 1 L of water.

Triumfeta cordifolia A. Rich. (Umushyigura) Tiliaceae (L, NG11)

c

Embelia schimperii Vatke (Umukaragata) Myrcinaceae (L, CA2215)

c

Lysmachia ruhmeriana Vatke (Umuyobora) Primulaceae (L, RJ2381)

c

59 Erythrina abyssinica Lam. ex DC. (Umuko) Fabaceae (FL, Crush a handful of each plant and 2 soup spoons a day with a total of one

AP2652) macerate with 1 L of water. bottle

c

Allophyllus africanus P. Beauv. (Urutete, Umutwetwe)

Sapindaceae (L, BG547)

Lantana triflolia L. (Umuhengeri) Verbenaceae (L, RJ2035)

c

60 Hypoestes triflora (Forssk.) Roem. & Schult. (Magaru) Mix and decoct a handful of each plant 1/2 glass twice a day

Acanthaceae (L, TG14820) with 1 L of water.

Desmodium repandum (Vahl) DC (Ituza, Umuvumo)

Fabaceae (L, TG15365)

c

Hygrophila spiciformis Lindau (Gangabukari) Acanthaceae

(L, MJ800)

c

61 Vernonia thompsoniana Oliver et Hiern (Urukurazo) Crush a handful of each plant and 1 glass a day

Asteraceae (L, BJ1325) macerate with 1 L of water.

c

Lantana trifolia L. (Umuhengeri) Verbenaceae (L, RJ2035)

c

Vernonia hochstetteri Sch. Bip. ex Walp (Uruhombo)

Asteraceae (L, MG5966)

c

Vernonia lasiopus O. Hoffm. (Ivumavumo) Asteraceae (L,

RA42)

Sorghum bicolor (L) Moench (Amasaka) Poaceae (S, RB112)

c

62 Vernonia amygdalina Delile (Umubilizi) Asteraceae (L, Mix and decoct a handful of each plant Half a glass twice a day for 7 days

RM508) with 1 L of water + 1 glass of banana

c

Vernonia lasiopus O. Hoffm. (Ivumavumo) Asteraceae (L, wine. RA42)

c

Vernonia kirungae R.E. Fries (Igiheriheri) Asteraceae (L, TG15502)

c

Leucas martinicensis (Jacq.) R.Br. (Akanyamapfundo)

Lamiaceae (L, MG5239)

Acanthus pubescens Thomson ex Oliv) Engl (Igitovu)

Acanthaceae (L, NP8)

c

63 Guizotia scabra (Vis) Chiov (Igishikashike) Asteraceae (L or Crush a handful of each plant and Half a glass twice a day with a total of

FL, T.G. 10482) macerate with 1 L of water. 1.5 L

c

Urtica massaica Mildbr. (Igisura) Urticaceae (R or L, BP297)

c

64 Rumex usambalensis (Engl) Danmer (Umufumbageshi) Squeeze the juice of fresh leaves (1 Half a bottle a day with a total of 30

Polygonaceae (L, MG5867) handful for each plant) and mix with days

c

Centella asiatica Urban (Gutwikumwe) Apiaceae (WP, 1 L of water. DP1032)

c

Clutia abyssinica Jaub. et Spach. (Umutarishonga)

Euphorbiaceae (L, TG6234)

c

Digitaria abyssinica (Hochst ex A. Rich) Stapf (Urwiri)

Poaceae (WP, TG14598)

c

Triumfetta cordifolia A. Rich. (Umushyigura) Tiliaceae (L, NG11)

c

65 Mytragyna rubrostipulata (K. Schum.) Havil (Hallea Mix and decoct the fresh crushed 1 glass a day

rubrostipulata (K. Schum.) Leroy) (Umuzibaziba) Rubiaceae leaves with 1 L of water and 1 glass of

(L, TG1437) banana wine.

c

Erythrina abyssinica Lam. ex DC. (Umuko) Fabaceae (L, AP2652)

c

66 Conyza sumatransis (Retz) E.K. Walker (Bambuba) Squeeze the juice of fresh leaves (1 1 spoon twice a day until the end of

Asteraceae (L, MR1418) handful for each plant). jaundice

c

Plectranthus barbatus Andrews (Igicunshu) Lamiaceae (L,

TG7212)

67 Ocimum lamiifolium Hochst ex Benth (Umusura) Lamiaceae Mix and decoct a handful of each plant Half a glass twice a day until the end of

(L, TG16239) with 1 L of water. jaundice

c

Vernonia lasiopus O. Hoffm. (Ivumavumo) Asteraceae (L, RA42)

M.-J. Mukazayire et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 138 (2011) 415–431 427

Table 3 (Continued)

b

Recipe number Botanical name of plants (vernacular in Kinyarwanda) Preparation (decoction, maceration, Mode of administration

a

Family (part used, voucher specimen number) juice, infusion are made in water,

except where a solvent is mentioned)

68 Vernonia crudia Klatt (Umukurazo) Asteraceae (L, MM16) Mix and decoct the fresh crushed 3 glasses a day with a total of 12 days

Lantana triflora L. (Umuhengeri) Verbenaceae (L, RJ2035) leaves with 1 L of water and 1 glass of or 12 bottles

c

Guizotia scabra (Vis) Chiov (Igishikashike) Asteraceae (L, banana wine.

TG10482)

Ocimum lamiifolium Hochst ex Benth (Umusura) Lamiaceae

(L, TG16239)

c

Vernonia amygdalina Delile (Umubilizi) Asteraceae (L, RM508)

a

Part of the plant used (AP, aerial parts; F, fruit; FL, flower; L, leaves; R, root; S, seed; STB, stem bark; WP, whole plant).

b

Weights of plants used for preparing the recipes can be estimated from Chifundera (2001) as follows: a handful (20–35 g of fine powder or 50 g of coarse plant material);

one pinch (3–5 g of fine powder); a handful of crushed fresh whole herbaceous plant or leaves (130–150 g); one local bottle (720 ml); one glass (200–250 ml). One cup

corresponds to about half a glass.

c

Indicates herbs previously reported for liver disorders treatment in Northern and Western Rwanda (Van Puyvelde et al., 1977; Van Puyvelde, 1988; Mungarurire, 1990;

Rwangabo, 1993; Nahayo et al., 2010).

Table 4

Mono-herbal recipes reported by respondents.

b

Botanical name of plants (vernacular in Kinyarwanda) Preparation (decoction, maceration, juice, infusion are Mode of administration

a

Family (part used, voucher specimen number) made in water, except where a solvent is mentioned)

Acacia hockii De Wild (Umugenge) Fabaceae (R, One spoon of powder mixed with one cup of black tea. One cup a day for one week GT2692)

c

Acanthus pubescens (Thomson ex Oliv) Engl (Igitovu) Crush 3 handfuls of fresh leaves and mix up with banana One and half glass twice a day for one week

Acanthaceae (L, NP8) wine. Filter.

Albizia adianthifolia (Schumach) W.F.Wright Crush a handful of leaves and mix up with one bottle of One bottle a day for two weeks

(Umusange) Mimosaceae (L, MV53) water. Boil and filter.

Allophyllus africanus P. Beauv. (Urutete, Umutwetwe) Crush a handful of fresh leaves and macerate with 1 L of One and half glass a day for one week

Sapindaceae (L, BG547) water. Filter.

c

Aspilia africana (Pers.) C.D.Adams (Icyumwa, Crush 5 g of fresh leaves. Boil with 2 L of water. Filter. One bottle a day for 12 days

kizimyamuliro) Asteraceae (L, MJ12)

c

Aspilia kotschyi (Schultz Bip ex Hochst) Oliver Decoct a handful of fresh leaves in 3 L of water. Filter. One glass 3 times a day for one week

(Umuretezaho) Asteraceae (L, GB761)

c

Bidens pilosa L. (Inyabarasanya) Asteraceae (L or WP, 50 g of dry leaves powder are boiled with 2 L of water. Half a bottle twice a day for 12 days

RA47) Filter.

Bothriocline longipes (Oliv. & Hiern) N.E.Br. (Uruhehe) Crush 50 g of fresh leaves. Boil with 1 L of banana wine and One glass twice a day for one week

Asteraceae (AP, GB760) filter.

Carduus nyassanus (S.Moore) (Mugabudasumbikwa, The juice squeezed out from the crushed leaves or roots. 1 spoon twice a day for one week

Ikigwarara) Asteraceae (L or R, EK1127)

c

Centella asiatica (L.) Urban (Gutwikumwe) Apiaceae Crush 350 g fresh aerial parts or whole Plant. Boil with 1 L 1 glass a day for one week

(WP, DP1032) of water and filter.

c

Chenopodium ugandae (Aellen) Aellen (Umugombe) Crush 250 g of leaves and boil with 1 bottle of water. Filter. One bottle a day for 12 days

Chenopodiaceae (L, TG5893)

c

Cissampelos mucronata A. Rich. (Ishikashiki) Decoct a handful of leaves with 1 L of water. Add to one One glass 3 times a day for 12 days

Menispermaceae (L, TG14420) glass of banana wine. Filter.

c

Clematis hirsuta L. (Umunkamba) Ranunculaceae (L, Crush 150 g of dry leaves and boil with 1 L of banana wine. One glass twice a day for 8 days TG11340) Filter.

c

Clerodendron myricoïdes R. Br (Umukuzanyana) Crushed 350 g of dry leaves and boil with 1 L of banana One glass twice a day for 8 days

Verbenaceae (L, TG13288) wine. Filter.

c

Clutia abyssinica Jaub. et Spach. Var. pedicellaris Decoct a handful of leaves with 1 L of banana wine. Filter. One glass a day for one week

(Umutarishonga) Euphorbiaceae (L, TG6234)

c

Conyza sumatransis (Retz) E.K. (Bambuba, Wambuba) The juice squeezed out from the crushed leaves. One spoon twice a day until the end of the

Asteraceae (L, MR1418) symptom “icterus”

c

Crassocephalum vitellinum (Benth.) S. Moore (Isununu) Crush a handful of leaves and stem. Boil in 2 L of water and Half of glass twice a day for 12 days

Asteraceae (L or ST, RJ20568) add one glass of banana wine. Filter.

Desmodium repandum (Vahl) DC (Ituza, Umuvumo) Crush a handful of fresh leaves. Boil with 2 L of water and One glass a day for one week

Fabaceae (L, TG15365) filter.

c

Digitaria abyssinica (Hochst ex A. Rich) Stapf (Urwiri) Crush a handful of fresh leaves. Boil with 1 L of water and Half a bottle a day for 30 days

Poaceae (WP, TG14598) filter.

c

Dracaena steudneri Engl. (Igihondohondo) Liliaceae (L Crush a handful of leaves and boil with three bottles of One bottle a day for 12 days

or STB, GT16028) water. Filter.

c

Embelia schimperii Vatke Christiaensen Crush a handful of fresh leaves and macerate with 1 L of One glass 3 times a day for one month

(Umukaragata) Myrsinaceae (WP, AR2215) water.

c

Erythrina abyssinica Lam. ex DC. (Umuko) Fabaceae (L Crush a handful of the fresh Stem bark and macerate with Half a glass a day for one week

or STB, AP2652) 1 L of water.

c

Guizotia scabra (Vis) Chiov (Igishikashike, Icyumya) Decoct 5 g of fresh leaves with 1 L of water. Filter. One glass a day for 4 days.

Asteraceae (L, TG10482)

Gynura scandens O. Hoffm (Ikizimyamuliro) Asteraceae Crush 5 g of fresh leaves and boil with 2 L of water. Filter. One and half glass twice a day for one week

(L, TG12658)

Helichrysum odoratissimum (L) Less (Manayeze) The juice squeezed out from the crushed leaves. One spoon twice a day for one week

Asteraceae (L, GM5890)

Helinus mystacinus (Ait.) E. Mey. (Umubimbamfuro) Crush a handful of fresh leaves and boil with 250 ml of One spoon twice a day

Rhamnaceae (L, GT3662) water. Filter.

c

Hygrophila auriculata (Schumach.) Heine Decoct a handful of fresh leaves or roots with 1 L of water One spoon twice a day with 8 h interval for

(Gangabukari) Acanthaceae (L or R, RA28) and filter. one week

428 M.-J. Mukazayire et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 138 (2011) 415–431

Table 4 (Continued)

b

Botanical name of plants (vernacular in Kinyarwanda) Preparation (decoction, maceration, juice, infusion are Mode of administration

a

Family (part used, voucher specimen number) made in water, except where a solvent is mentioned)

c

Hygrophila spiciformis Lindau (Gangabukari) Decoct a handful of fresh leaves with 1 L of water and filter. One glass a day for one week

Acantaceae (L, MJ800)

c

Hypoestes triflora (Forssk.) Roem. & Schult. (Magaru) Crush a handful of fresh leaves and boil with 1 L of water. One glass a day for one week

Acanthaceae (L, TG14820) Filter.

Ipomea wightii (Wallich) Choisy (Umuryanyoni) Crush a handful of fresh leaves and macerate with 1 L of One glass a day for 2 days

Convolvulaceae (L, RM2263) water. Filter.

c

Lantana trifolia L. (Umuhengeri) Verbenaceae (L, Crush a handful of fresh leaves and macerate with 2 bottles One and half glass a day for one week

RJ20335) of water. Filter.

c

Leonotis nepetifolia (R.Br) Aiton (Igicumucumu) Decoct a handful of fresh leaves with 2 bottles of water and One glass a day for one week

Lamiaceae (L, RJ20349) filter

c

Leucas martinicensis (Jacq.) R.Br. (Akanyamapfundo) Decoct a handful of fresh leaves with 1 L of banana wine One and half glass 2 times a day for one

Lamiaceae (L, MG5239) and filter. week

c

Ludwigia abyssinica A. Rich. (Umuzigangore) Decoct a handful of the fresh leaves with one bottle of One bottle a day for 12 days

Onagraceae (R, R23) water and filter.

Maesa lanceolata var golungensis Hiern (Umuhanga) The juice squeezed out from the crushed leaves. One half glass a day for one week

Myrsinaceae (L, WG7529)

c

Melanthera scandens (Schum. et Thonn.) Roberty Decoct 2 handfuls of fresh leaves with 2 L of water and One and half glass twice a day for one week

(Icyumwa) Asteraceae (L, VDVP10894) filter.

c

Microglossa pyrifolia (Lam.) Kuntze (Umuhe) Crush 350 g of fresh leaves and macerate with 2 L of water. One glass twice a day for 8 days

Asteraceae (L, AP3287) Filter.

c

Mitragyna rubrostipulata (Hallea rubrostipulata) Decoct a handful of fresh leaves with 2 L of water and 1 L of One glass a day for one week

(K.Schumann) Havl (Umuzibaziba), Rubiaceae (L, banana wine TG14379)

c

Musa acuminata Colla (Igitoki cy’ikakama) Musaceae Decoct one bunch of Musa acuminata mucilage with one 3 spoons 3 times a day

(Mucilage, MV58) bottle of water. Add 1 L of banana wine and filter.

Ocimum gratissimum L. (Umwenya) Lamiaceae (L, Crush 50 g of fresh leaves. Boil with 1 L of water and filter. One glass a day for one week

B231)

Ocimum lamiifolium L. (Umusura) Lamiaceae (L, Decoct a handful of fresh leaves with 250 ml of water and One glass twice a day

TG16239) one glass of banana wine.

c

Ocimum urticifolium Roth (Umwenya) Lamiaceae (L, Decoct 50 g of crushed fresh leaves with 1 L of water and One glass a day for one week

BD231) filter.

Oxygonum sinuatum (Hochst. & Steud. ex Meisn.) Macerate 50 g of whole plant powder with 1 L of water. 2 spoons 3 times a day

Dammer (Ubuhandanzovu), Polygonaceae (WP, Filter.

RJ20635)

Pavetta ternifolia (Oliv.) Hiern (Umumenamabuye) Crush 150 g of dry leaves and boil with 1 L of banana wine. One glass twice a day for 8 days

Rubiaceae (L, RA44) Filter.

c

Plantago palmata Hook (Imbatabata) Plantaginaceae Crush 50 g of leaves. Mix up with 1 L of water and 1 glass of 3 spoons 3 times a day

(L, PK2365) banana wine.

c

Plectranthus barbatus Andrews (Igicunshu) Lamiaceae The juice squeezed out from a handful of crushed leaves. One spoon twice a day until the end of the

(L, T7212) symptom “icterus”

Pycnostachys sp. (Umutsinduka) Lamiaceae (L, The juice squeezed out from a handful of crushed leaves. One and half glass twice a day for a week

AFX1592) Add 1 bottle of water and 1 glass of banana wine.

Ranunculus stagnalis Hochst ex A. Rich, (Kazingashya) The juice squeezed out from the crushed leaves. One tea spoon twice a day for a week

Ranunculaceae (L, VDV9107)

Rhoicissus tridentate (L.f.) Wild et Drumond (Umumara) Crush and decoct 2 handfuls of fresh or dry leaves with 3 One and half glass a day for a week

Vitaceae (L, BP2735) bottles of water. Filter.

c

Rumex abyssinicus Jacq, (Igifumba, Umufumba) The juice of 50 g of crushed leaves is mixed up with one 3 spoons 3 times a day for a week

Polygonaceae (L, MG5867) glass of banana wine.

c

Rumex usambalensis (Engl) Danmer (Umufumbageshi) Crush and decoct a handful of fresh leaves with 1 L of Half bottle a day with a total of 4 liters

Polygonaceae (L, BG1408) water and one glass of banana wine.

Solanum nigrum L.(Urusogo) Solanaceae (L, MM29) Crush and decoct 50 g of fresh leaves with 1 L of water. Half glass twice a day for a week

Filter and add one cup of honey.

Solenostemon platostomoides (Robyns & Lebrun) Crush and decoct a handful leaves with 1 L of water. Filter. One glass twice a day for 12 days

Troupin (Umusura) Lamiaceae (L, GJ31)

Sorghum bicolor (L) Moench (Amasaka, Isaka) Poaceae Crush and macerate 50 g of fruits with 1 L of water. Filter. One glass a day for a week

(Fr, RB 112)

c

Thalyctrum rynchocarpum Dillon ex A. Rich The juice squeezed out from crushed fresh leaves is added One glass a day for a week. Fat, alcohol and

(Ubugomboro, Uruhungangeli, Akanyaruhima) to a cup of banana wine and 1 L of cold water. salt are prohibited during the treatment

Ranunculaceae (L, TG14616)

c

Triumfetta cordifolia A. Rich. (Umushyigura) Tiliaceae Crush and macerate a handful of fresh leaves with one One half glass 3 times a day for a week

(L, NG11) bottle of water. Filter.

c

Urtica massaica Mildbr. (Umusurasura, Igisura) Crush and macerate 50 g of fresh leaves in 2 bottles of One glass a day for 4 days

Urticaceae (L or R, BP2997) water.

c

Vernonia amygdalina Delile (Umubilizi) Asteraceae (L, Crush and Decoct a handful of fresh leaves with 2 L water One glass a day for one week

RM508) and filter.

Vernonia crudia Klatt (Umukurazo) Asteraceae (L, Decoct a handful of leaves with 1 L of water and one glass One glass 3 times a day for 12 days

MM16) of banana wine. Filter.

Vernonia fontinalis Moore (Umubimbafuro) Asteraceae Decoct a handful of fresh leaves with1 L of water. Filter. One glass 3 times a day for one week

(L, MM59)

c

Vernonia hochstetteri Sch. Bip. ex Walp (Uruhombo) Crush and Macerate a handful of fresh leaves with 1 L of One glass a day for one week

Asteraceae (L, MG5966) water.

c

Vernonia kirungae R.E. Fries (Igiheriheri) Asteraceae (L, Decoct a handful of crushed fresh leaves with 1 L of water One glass and half twice a day for one week

TG15502) and 500 ml of banana wine.

c

Vernonia lasiopus O. Hoffm. (Ivumavumo) Asteraceae Macerate a handful of fresh or dry crushed leaves with 1 One glass a day for one week

(L, RA42) bottle of water. Filter.

M.-J. Mukazayire et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 138 (2011) 415–431 429

Table 4 (Continued)

b

Botanical name of plants (vernacular in Kinyarwanda) Preparation (decoction, maceration, juice, infusion are Mode of administration

a

Family (part used, voucher specimen number) made in water, except where a solvent is mentioned)

c

Vernonia pogosperma Klatt (Umubimbafuro) Crush a handful of fresh leaves and mix up with 1 L of One glass twice a day for 12 days

Asteraceae (L, RJ20360) water.

c

Vernonia thompsoniana Oliver et Hiern (Urukurazo) Macerate a handful of crushed fresh leaves with one bottle One glass a day for a week

Asteraceae (L, BG1325) of water.

a

Part of the plant used (AP, aerial parts; F, fruit; FL, flower; L, leaves; R, root; S, seed; STB, stem bark; WP, whole plant).

b

Weights of plants used for preparing the recipes can be estimated from Chifundera (2001) as follows: a handful (20–35 g of fine powder or 50 g of coarse plant material);

one pinch (3–5 g of fine powder); a handful of crushed fresh whole herbaceous plant or leaves (130–150 g); one local bottle (720 ml); one glass (200–250 ml). One cup

corresponds to about 1/2 glass.

c

Indicates herbs previously reported for liver disorders treatment in Northern and Western Rwanda (Van Puyvelde et al., 1977; Van Puyvelde, 1988; Mungarurire, 1990;

Rwangabo, 1993; Nahayo et al., 2010).

Furthermore, 96% of the traditional health practitioners claimed et al., 2005; Shahjahan et al., 2005; Singh et al., 2006; Lin et al.,

to have treated referral cases usually from orthodox hospitals (49% 2008; Mukherjee et al., 2009; Xu et al., 2009); (ii) by CCl4 and d-

of THPs) and from other herbal clinics. Only a few of the practi- galactosamine in rats (Ocimum gratissimum and Ocimum basilicum)

tioners (20%) have referred cases to other centres. This seems to (Lin et al., 1995); (iii) by CCl4 and acetaminophen in rats and/or

corroborate their claim of having successfully treated the disease mice (Vernonia amygdalina, Carica papaya, Bidens pilosa) (Babalola

with herbal remedies. Apart from herbal therapy, traditional prac- et al., 2001; Rajkapoor et al., 2003; Iwalokun et al., 2006; Yuan et al.,

titioners also recommended their patients take appropriate dietary 2008); (iv) by acetaminophen and thioacetamide in rats (Hygrophila

measures such as fat (65% of THPs) and alcohol (25% of THPs) auriculata) (Singh and Handa, 1995; Shanmugasundaram and

d

restricted diets. Venkataraman, 2006); (v) by CCl4, acetaminophen, ethanol, -

galactosamine, iron and Amanita phalloides in rats and mice

(Silybum marianum) (Chih et al., 1996; Pradhan and Girish, 2006);

3.2. Dosage forms and routes of administration

and (vi) by CCl4 and acetaminophen in guinea pigs and rats (Ocimum

lamiifolium, Crassocephalum vitellinum, Guizotia scabra and Vernonia

Dosage forms include liquid preparations (decoctions, infusions

lasiopus) (Mukazayire et al., 2010). An antihepatitis C activity has

or macerates), juices obtained by steaming or crushing the plant

also been demonstrated for Embelia schimperi that acts on the HCV-

material followed by squeezing and solid preparations, including

Protease (Hussein et al., 2000). For all the other plants cited in the

dry powdered materials. All the preparations were taken orally. In

present survey, practically no information is available on eventual

most cases, the use of a given drug preparation was continued up

effects on liver diseases. The efficiency and safety of these plants

to at least three days after symptomatic relief was achieved.

still require scientific assessment to rationalize their use. When

advocating herbal therapy for alternative management of diseases,

3.3. Herbal recipes for the therapy of liver diseases

the potential toxicity of proposed herbs should always be a concern

(Jouad et al., 2001). For example, on an in vitro rat precision-cut

Sixty-five single-herb preparations (Fig. 2) and 68 herbal

liver slices model, three of the herbs frequently cited here (Guizo-

recipes, mostly containing over two components, were reported

tia scabra, Microglossa pyrifolia and Vernonia lasiopus) were found

for use in the treatment of liver diseases (Table 3, Fig. 3), giving

hepatotoxic (Mukazayire et al., 2010), warranting further safety

a total of 86 different herbs. These plants belong to 34 botani-

investigation. The eventual use of these three herbs in traditional

cal families, the most represented families being Asteraceae (23

medicine should be quite cautious and ideally be accompanied by

species), Lamiaceae (9 species), Fabaceae (5 species), Acanthaceae

monitoring of the patient hepatic function.

(5 species) and Ranunculaceae (4 species). Previous studies have

also reported many mono-component recipes (Haddad et al., 2003;

Kareru et al., 2007) and the advantage of combining several herbs, if 4. Conclusion

any, has never been investigated. The principle of polymedication

is a constant in every traditional practice and relies on a general To the best of our knowledge, ethnobotanical surveys of medic-

idea that “complex drugs are needed to treat complex (i.e. multifac- inal plants in Southern Rwanda for the treatment of hepatitis have

torial) diseases”, a principle known in Rwanda under the name of not yet been published. The present inventory therefore repre-

“Ifumbi”. It is striking to note that the Rwandese therapy of liver dis- sents a contribution of the natural flora of Southern Rwanda to

eases proposes so many single-herb preparations (49% of all herbal a global approach in controlling hepatitis. This survey has clearly

preparations). identified 86 herbs used in traditional remedies and, according

General ethnobotanical investigations, previously carried out in to the respondents, Crassocephalum vitellinum, Hypoestes triflora

the areas of Western and Northern Rwanda and directed towards and Erythrina abyssinica were the most widely used plants. Pre-

collecting recipes, without emphasis on particular types of diseases, vious surveys made in different regions (Northern and Western

showed that the Asteraceae and Lamiaceae were the botanical fam- Rwanda) had reported 49 of these herbs but with different associ-

ilies mostly used in these regions. These studies (Van Puyvelde et al., ation of plants and varied modes of preparation, suggesting spread

1977; Van Puyvelde, 1988; Mungarurire, 1990; Rwangabo, 1993; but also very local traditional knowledge. The following endemic

Nahayo et al., 2010;) enumerated 76 plants used in liver diseases, plants commonly used as antihepatitis in Southern Rwanda are

49 of which were also mentioned in the present Southern Rwanda original to the present study and have never been cited before:

survey. Vernonia hochstetteri, Vernonia fontinalis, Desmodium repandum,

Using various in vivo and in vitro models, some of the plants used Solenostemon platostomoides, Geniosporum rotundifolium, Thalyc-

in Rwanda, or other species from the same genus, have been pre- trum rynchocarpum, Ranunculus stagnalis and Grewia platyclada

viously investigated against an hepatotoxicity induced (i) by CCl4 (Table 3).

in rats and/or mice (Hypoestes triflora, Acanthus ilicifolius, Solanum This research has shown that, in Southern Rwanda, liver dis-

nigrum, Leucas hirta, Indigofera sp., Myrica rubra) (Van Puyvelde eases are still frequently treated by means of herbal remedies.

et al., 1989; Babu et al., 2001; Singh et al., 2001; Manjunatha Many indigenous plants still not known are used and deserve to

430 M.-J. Mukazayire et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 138 (2011) 415–431

be studied. On the basis of our data, it is possible to discern that Heinrich, M., Edwards, S., Moerman, D., Leonti, M., 2009. Ethnopharmacological field

studies: a critical assessment of their conceptual basis and methods. Journal of

(i) Southern Rwandese traditional health practitioners possess a

Ethnopharmacology 124, 1–17.

huge knowledge of medicinal plants, already confirmed by some

Hussein, G., Miyashiro, H., Nakamura, N., Hattori, M., Kakiuchi, N., Shimotohno, K.,

previous experimental studies; (ii) herbal remedies for hepatitis 2000. Inhibitory effects of Sudanese medicinal plant extracts on hepatitis C virus

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are widely used in this region; (iii) Southern Rwanda shows a high

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diversity of herbal medicines which have a clear potential, both sci-

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entific and commercial, to be further explored from the chemical, amygdalina on acetaminophen-induced hepatic damage in mice. Journal of

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pharmacological and toxicological points of view. The goal of such

Jaeschke, H., McGill, M.R., Williams, C.D., Ramachandran, A., 2011. Current issues

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survey of medicinal plants used for the treatment of diabetes, cardiac and renal

tion of interesting phytomedicines and preservation of bio-cultural

diseases in the North centre region of Morocco (Fez–Boulemane). Journal of

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