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Home , British Royal Family, George V

MASARYK UNIVERSITY Faculty of Education

Department of English Language and Literature

The and WWI Bachelor Thesis

Brno 2015

Supervisor: Written by: Mgr. Zdeněk Janík, M.A., Ph.D. Jitka Thirkettle, DiS.

Prohlášení

Prohlašuji, že jsem bakalářskou práci zpracovala samostatně a použila jen prameny uvedené v seznamu literatury.

V Brně dne 29. března 2015 Jitka Thirkettle

Declaration I declare that I worked on this thesis my own and that I used only sources mentioned in the Bibliography section.

Brno, March 29, 2015 .……………………... Jitka Thirkettle

Acknowledgements

I would like to gratefully acknowledge the supervision of Mgr. Zdeněk Janík, M.A., Ph.D. I would like to thank him for his kind supervision of this thesis and his helpful advice and insightful comments on the text as well as literature recommendations.

I would also like to thank to my family for their immense support. Table of Contents

Introduction ...... 6

1 SITUATION PRIOR TO WWI ...... 8

1.1 ‘s Legacy ...... 8

1.2 King Edward VII´s Reign ...... 10

1.2.1 Edward VII and His Political Influence ...... 10

1.2.2 The King and the Army ...... 12

1.2.3 Foreign Affairs ...... 14

1.2.3.1 Anglo-French Relations ...... 15

1.2.3.2 Anglo-Russian Relations ...... 16

1.2.3.3 Anglo-German Relations ...... 18

1.2.3.4 Connections with Other Heads of States ...... 22

1.3 King George ...... 23

1.3.1 and Kaiser Wilhelm II ...... 24

1.3.2 George V and Tsar Nicholas II ...... 26

1.4 The Final Weeks before the Conflict...... 27

2 THE FIRST WORLD WAR ...... 30

2.1 War Onset ...... 30

2.2 The Course of War Concerning Britain...... 32

2.2.1 Home Front ...... 36

2.3 Involvement of the British Royal Family ...... 38

2.3.1 The King´s Public Engagement and Political Affairs ...... 38

2.3.2 Other Members of the British Royal Family ...... 43

2.4 Responses to Anti-German Tendencies...... 44

2.4.1 Changing the Family Name ...... 45

2.4.2 The Titles Deprivation Act...... 46 4

2.5 The King and the Other European Royals ...... 48

2.5.1 Rejection of the Tsar‘s asylum ...... 48

2.5.2 European Royal Families ...... 51

3 AFTERMATH OF THE WAR ...... 53

3.1 Implications for Survival of the Monarchy ...... 54

Conclusion ...... 56

Bibliography ...... 58

Appendices ...... 65

List of Figures ...... 65

5

Introduction

The night before Britain declared war on Germany, looking from his office Sir Edward Grey, the , remarked: ―The lamps are going out all over Europe, we shall not see them lit again in our lifetime.‖ Exactly one hundred years later the lights on churches, town halls, theatres, some of the British national institutions such as the Houses of Parliament, 10 Downing Street, the BBC and also were turned off to commemorate his words as he had realized that the war had become inevitable. More than sixteen million people all over the country participated in the campaign Lights Out by turning their lights off, leaving only a single light or candle to mark the centenary of the outbreak of the First World War. Candles were lit to remember men and women who gave up their lives in the conflict. On August 4th, Queen Elizabeth II attended the service of commemoration at Crathie Parish Church, near the royal residence of in and her grandson William, the Duke of Cambridge, joined the world leaders at a ceremony at St. Symphorien Cemetery in Mons, Belgium to mark the outset of the war. The aim of this thesis is to determine the reasons which led to the self-preservation of the British throne while the other monarchies fell. In view of the fact that some of the affairs of WWI have their roots in years and decades prior to the conflict, the thesis deals with three British sovereigns – Queen Victoria, Edward VII and George V. They are usually depicted as figureheads with no actual power for any significant measures. The thesis investigates the role of the British Royal Family before and during the First World War and assesses their influence in regards of domestic and foreign politics, relationships with other ruling monarchs, their subjects and their involvement prior and during the course of the war. The first chapter portrays Queen Victoria and her legacy as the Grandmother of Europe, as her descendants were sitting on the majority of European thrones, and her son King Edward VII, the Uncle of Europe, as they are often referred to. It depicts Britain´s substantial transformation from the splendid isolation to the treaties with France and Russia and observes King George V and his relationships with the German Kaiser and the Russian Tsar. These monarchs of the three leading countries, Britain, Germany and Russia, were actually first cousins. Though they held close relationships, it did not stop them fighting with each other when the war began. British King George V and Russian

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Tsar Nicholas II faced German Kaiser Wilhelm II only days after the outbreak of the war. The chapter also outlines the situation in the final weeks before the war. The second chapter describes the war events from the outbreak in 1914 to the armistice in 1918, including the anti-German campaign in Britain and the decisions of George V to change the family name to Windsor and his refusal to grant an asylum to the Russian Tsar and his family. The final chapter deals with the end of the war and with the implications for the British monarchy´s survival. The conclusion provides the view that the British Royal Family prioritized their own country and the preservation of their lineage over any other family ties and supported their subjects throughout the unfavorable times of the First World War.

7

1 SITUATION PRIOR TO WWI

At the end of the nineteenth century and at the beginning of the twentieth, Great Britain was considered to be one of the super-powers and during that period an area of the extended to one-fifth of the world´s surface. Queen Victoria, King Edward VII and King George V were the monarchs reigning in the years preceding the First World War. The foreign politics of Great Britain underwent significant changes from so called splendid isolation to the formalized treaties with other countries. Britain´s naval supremacy was affirmed and so was the role of the Great Britain as the leading industrial nation.

1.1 Queen Victoria’s Legacy

The new century in Britain was marked by the death of Queen Victoria (see Fig.1), the of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and the Empress of India. She was born on May 24, 1819 as the only child of Edward, and Victoria Maria Louisa of Saxe- Saafeld. She was crowned in 1838 and remains the longest reigning monarch in British history. Queen Victoria married her husband Prince Francis Charles Augustus Albert Emmanuel of Saxe Coburg-Gotha, who was her first cousin, in 1840. They had nine children and forty-two grandchildren and most of them married into reigning European royal families. This is the reason why Queen Victoria is often referred to as the Grandmother of Europe. (Victoria, r.1837-1901, n.d.). Her role as a monarch stays disputable. She is known for her very lengthy reign and for the fact that Britain was the world´s most powerful nation and a world superpower. By the end of her reign the British Empire consisted of one-fifth of the world´s surface. On the other hand, Queen Victoria is renowned for being a long-lasting grieving widow after losing the and for her inability to rule due to her perpetual sadness. Two Prime Ministers, Benjamin Disraeli and William Gladstone, were the main figures when those years of sadness were limiting her ability to reign. ―Her long reign had demonstrated that not even most determined monarch could prevent the draining away of direct political power‖. During her reign the monarchy´s power was converted into a new type of control, one of public appeal in which

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―monarchy became a rock of stability and security in a world of constant and bewildering change‖. (Cannon, Griffiths, 1998, p.577- 578). The main conflicts during Queen Victoria´s reign were the Irish uprising (1848), the Crimean War (1853-6), the Indian rebellion (1857) and the Boer Wars in (1881 and 1899-1902). She believed that peace is a necessary condition for prosperity and ensured her extensive family spreads all over Europe by intermarrying them to other ruling monarchies. As already noted, Queen Victoria had eight children who were born between 1840 and 1857. It is important to stress that Queen Victoria´s self-preservation, by way of planning marriages for her children, who then sat on most of the European thrones, succeeded. The first child of Queen Victoria was Victoria Adelaide Mary Louisa, born in 1840. She married Prince Frederick William of Prussia and later became The German Empress and Queen of Prussia. Their first son Wilhelm became the German Kaiser after the death of his father in 1888 and their daughter Sophia became the Queen of Greece. Queen Victoria´s first son was Albert Edward, who became King Edward VII in 1901. He married Princess Alexandra of and had six children; future King Edward VIII and King George V included. The third child was Alice Maud Mary who married Prince Louis of Hesse, became Grand Duchess of Hesse and had seven children. When she died in 1878, Queen Victoria took an important role in the upbringing of Alice´s children. The sixth child of Alice was Alix, who by her marriage to Tsar Nicholas II, became The Empress of Russia. The fourth child of Queen Victoria was Alfred Ernest Albert who married Grand Duchess Marie Alexandrovna of Russia. Their second child, Princess Marie (called Missy), became the Queen of Romania. The other children of Queen Victoria were Princess Helena Augusta, Princess Louise Caroline Alberta, Arthur William Patrick Albert, Leopold George Duncan Albert and the last child was Beatrice Mary Victoria Feodore. (Johnson Lewis, n.d.). This clearly indicates that Queen Victoria´s descendants were important figures either as sovereigns of the European countries, their consorts or as a part of European aristocracy (see Fig. 2). She died on January 22, 1901 at Osborne House on the Isle of Wight. Her son Albert Edward and the oldest grandson Wilhelm were present at the moment of her death. (Queen Victoria Dies, 2007). 9

Through her legacy Europe became interspersed with relationships on most of the European thrones. Despite the dereliction of her role as a ruling monarch after her husband´s death, her legacy in self-preservation remains.

1.2 King Edward VII´s Reign

King Edward VII (see Fig.3) was born on November 9, 1841 at Buckingham Palace. He succeeded his mother on the throne after her death in 1901 at the age of fifty-nine. Just as Queen Victoria was considered to be the Grandmother of Europe, Edward VII was often referred to as the Uncle of Europe. After his mother´s reign, who after the death of her husband drew back, not only from the actual ruling but from her subjects too, the King´s public appearances represented a completely different approach. He was well known for his leisure activities such as racing horses, theatres, food, drinking, smoking and travelling. (Donoghue, 2008). During his reign he visited many countries such as Spain, , France, Germany, , Italy, India, Tibet, Denmark, and Austria to strengthen his connections and relations. ―He was a supreme man of the world, shrewd and benign, though quick to approve or condemn. He had friends in almost every country in the world, not least in his own country.‖ (Lee, 1927, p.3). In 1863 he married Princess . They had six children, but only five reached their adult age. They lived in Marlboro House in London and used as their country residency.

1.2.1 Edward VII and His Political Influence

It is very hard to define the exact power and function of a constitutional monarch, especially when the Constitution of United Kingdom is not written. Lee (1927, p. 32) claims that „The constitutional monarch reigns, but does not govern; he has little power although great influence; and he respects the laws and customs which deprive him of arbitrary power of action―.1 King Edward VII realized and accepted that the policies were the functions of ministers and not his, but this certainly did not mean that he was not politically active. The sovereigns of other states, such as Greece, Portugal or

1 In 1689 the Parliament decided to place the King under its influence by the Bill of Rights. (Lee, 1927, p.33) 10

Denmark were often asking for his advice and it was also his mother, Queen Victoria, who finally demonstrated great interest in his opinions at the end of her reign. He reserved the right to be consulted regarding political affairs and to express his assessments and intended on asserting his authority in certain branches of the government and wisely did so via the proposal of names of possible candidates to their offices. In case of disagreement of any appointment, he never created obstructions or a deadlock. Forty years prior to his accession to the throne he closely followed European events and made personal contact with a lot of influential rulers and statesmen. He usually stood by his ministers and did not agree with any sort of criticism regarding their actions. He closely observed their performances and openly demonstrated his disapproval in case of his discontent; he followed his mother´s decisions and wanted to be informed about home and foreign affairs. (Lee, 1927, p.36-38). Hibbert (1976, p. 207) declares that Edward VII was not prepared to limit himself only to public speeches and ceremonial matters. Domestic or colonial interests were not of much concern to him and he also hated talking about free trade, yet he was always interested in the army, the navy and above all, in foreign affairs. He cites the Italian Foreign Minister´s comments regarding the King´s prodigious reputation in that field: ―He [Edward VII] is, and this one cannot deny, the arbiter of Europe´s destiny, the most powerful personal factor in word´s policy and as he is for peace, his overall approach will serve above all to maintain harmony between the nations.‖ (Hibbert, 1976, p.247) Edward VII also insisted on maintaining the royal prerogatives, the discretionary powers in the hand of the . Lee (1927, p.39-47) describes that the King refused to be only ―a mere signing machine‖ and was particularly attracted by the prerogative of mercy. On several occasions he directed an instantaneous release of prisoners or changed their sentence.2 But during his reign most of his prerogatives were challenged by the Prime Minister and ironically it was the Conservative Party that made the most significant attacks – the cession of territory and the dissolution of Parliament. The only one that was never tested was the prerogative of the declaration of war. He was determined to reassert the royal functions over which Queen Victoria had lost control. Namely, he opened the Parliament on February 14, 1901 and did so every year of his reign. He requested that the King´s Speech be submitted to him for corrections and strongly opposed the speech being distributed to the Press before the actual opening of

2 The cases of Mr.Arthur Lynch, Mr.George Edalji, Frederick Ponsonby, etc. (Lee, 1927, p.40-43) 11 the Parliament. Edward VII demonstrated his determination to be an active part in the affairs concerning his country and despite of the government´s restrictions, he tried to maintain his power.

1.2.2 The King and the Army

The King as an official head of the army took great interest in the course of events regarding the army. During his reign three significant changes took place. The first one concerned reforms in the army, the second one reforms in the navy and the third change was the actual creation of the Territorial Army. They seemed to be money consuming and unnecessary at that time but soon history showed how critically substantial these measures became during the next decade and his son´s reign. After the Boer Wars3 Edward VII realized the army is in need of changes. In October 1903 he wrote to Lord Roberts, the Commander-in-Chief of the Forces, to make sure that efficiency would be secured in case of the troops were sent on active service as he saw some deficiencies in the training. For the administrative reforms of the War Office, the King suggested to the Prime Minister, to appoint the Committee for reorganisation4. It was decided that a new system consisting of the Defence Committee and an Army Council would be formed to replace the previous dual control of the Commander-in-Chief and the Secretary of State for War. The chairman of the Secretary for War would directly answer to Parliament. ―At the same time the disappearance of the Commander-in-Chief would leave unquestioned the position of the as nominal head of the army.‖ (Lee, 1927, p.193-196) Edward VII was frequently putting forward his suggestion for appointments of senior army officers and expected to be consulted before any of them were made official. He, for instance, urged Mr. Haldane to apppoint his brother, the Duke of Connaught, Field-Marshal Commander-In-Chief and High Commissioner in the Mediterranean. The Duke resigned only two years later claiming his position to be „unnecessary and a mistake―. The King persuaded Lord Kitchener to accept this post.(Lee, 1927, p.496-497). He took great interest in the Army Order, sending his

3 The Boer Wars were conflicts in 1899-1902 between Britain and the Boers (forces of the South African Republic and the Republic of Orange Free State) over the territories in South Africa resulting in the Britain´s victory. (Pretorius, 2011) 4 Members of the committee were Lord Esher, Sir John Fisher and Sir George Sydenham Clarke. (Lee, p.194-5) 12 questions to the Secretary for War and expecting prompt answers and was also extremely concerned about a new scheme suggesting a dual system based on men enlisting for nine years in the general army service and three years in the reserve forces. (Lee, 1927, p.205). In 1904 the Admiralty was viewing the reforms in their field, for instance the plan for new fleet bases5. These and other changes were early pressed on the King´s notice by Lord Fisher, First Sea Lord. When the Liberal party came to power in 1905, the tendencies to reduce this plan became obvious. One , three destroyers and four submarines were eliminated from the project and the King commented: ―Evidently the cheese-paring policy of the Government is also to be extended to the navy‖ (Lee, p.330). But before the Conservative government left the office, the decision to construct the first Dreadnought was approved. The King and the Prince of were present at its launch and the scheme to build another two was agreed. With his disturbing observation of the German army enlargement, Fisher decided to concentrate the Channel, Mediterranean and Atlantic fleets into the North Sea to be close to Germany, their potential enemy. The King agreed and backed Fisher in later opposition against the Foreign Office. (Lee, 1927, p.328-333). Mr. R. B. Haldane became the new Secretary of State for War in 1905. ―From the moment of his taking office to the inception and development of his territorial scheme, Mr. Haldane found a firm friend, if at times a critical one, in the King, who was as anxious as the Secretary of State for War to see the army at the highest pitch of efficiency.‖ (Lee, 1927, p.495). Both of them shared this determination of the Territorial Army formation. When Mr. Haldane proposed to the King an outline of the Bill of the Territorial and Reserve Forces Act, he received his approval and was promised further support on this matter.6 The Bill, despite some criticism, passed through the Parliament. On the contrary, the King did not hesitate to express his disapproval, for example when he found out that no special training was planned for the Territorial Artillery in case of mobilization. When he received the reply from Mr. Haldane supported by reports of the

5 The Home Fleet was to become the Channel Fleet (12 battleships) and the old Channel Fleet converted into the Atlantic Fleet (8 battleships) with its base at . The Mediterranean Fleet (8 battleships) was to retain its base at . (Lee, 1927, p.330) 6 . Haldane´s scheme aimed ―to adapt the Reserve Forces Act to training special contingents to serve with regulars when needed and to enlarge the ambit of the Army Reserve as a striking force.‖ (Lee, 1927, p.501). 13 senior military experts7 and replied that if these soldiers were not perfectly trained, their value would vanish. (Lee, 1927, p.505) The King proved that his intentions were directed towards having strong armed services and was constantly pleading for new weaponry and equipment. He maintained his great interest in this area and these above mentioned measures, in spite of their economic demands, proved crucially important in the war that lay ahead.

1.2.3 Foreign Affairs

At the moment of his succession, Britain followed the policy of so called splendid isolation. This meant avoiding any kind of entanglement. Reasons for this kind of policy were the fact that Britain, being an island, has always felt isolated enough from continental Europe; its interests were focused predominantly on overseas expansion and overall the country was considered to be an industrial, military and naval super-power. Britain´s Prime Minister Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd expressed his devotion to protect Britain´s interests and its position in the world without unnecessary effort such as through alliances or secret agreements. (MacMillan, 2013, p.42). ―Great Britain stood practically alone in the world. British isolation was rather enforced than voluntary, and as powerful hostile coalitions directed against this country were always possible, and sometimes actually threatening, there was nothing splendid about this isolation.‖ (Pike, 2012). But as Britain kept remote, Mr. Chamberlain8 pointed out in his speech:

No far-seeing statesmen could be content with ´s permanent isolation on the continent of Europe… The natural alliance is between ourselves and the . Both interest and racial sentiment united the two peoples, and a new Triple Alliance between Germany, England, and the United States would correspond with the sentimental tie… (Lee, 1927, p.117).

But Chamberlain´s idea of an alliance with Germany was not to be fulfilled. MacMillan (2013, p.18) also points out the concern over Britain´s Naval Forces as they were

7 General Hadden, Major-General Douglas Haig and Sir John Fisher (Lee, 1927, p. 505) 8 , politician and stateman, a father of a future Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain. 14 involved in Britain‘s colonial interests. It seemed that the British Isles were not sufficiently protected. By the end of the nineteenth century the European states were close to war due to their imperial rivalries and this was a time when Britain had to start considering other options than its splendid isolation.

1.2.3.1 Anglo-French Relations

These two countries were historically considered enemies due to their past conflicts. In 1903 the King visited France and despite the unwelcoming comments regarding the Fashoda crisis9 and other past disagreements, he turned the visit around in his favour. In his public speech he pointed out that these two countries, despite their former disputes, should become allies as their prosperity depended on their close friendship and cooperation. Over the next few days in Paris the public warmed to him also due to his chivalrous manners. Four months later French President Émile Loubet visited the King in London where they continued to discuss the importance of their mutual collaboration. Negotiations started immediately after the visit and the main discussion was related to their territorial and colonial interests, such as Egypt, Morocco, Senegal, Siam, Madagascar, Newfoundland and Nigeria. (Lee, 1927, p.245). On April 8, 1904 British Foreign Secretary Lord Lansdowne and the French Ambassador in London Paul Cambon signed the Entente Cordiale. (Embry, n.d.). In England, public opinion regarding the entente was very suspicious and it took many years before this distrust disappeared. It was Edward VII who eased this suspicion. There was no doubt that the King was not a sole originator, but his charm and personality contributed to making the entente reality. (Hibbert, 1976, p.258). Anglo-French relations were tested in 1905-6 by Germany in the First Moroccan Crisis. The German Kaiser landed in Morocco and recognized the Sultan as official head of the country and declared Morocco´s independence despite the fact that agreement between Spain and France over their power in Morocco. (Moroccan crisis, n.d.) This German move was perceived as a threat and for some time it looked as France and Germany would go to war. After this emergency passed, the joint military plans were formed where British General Henry Wilson and French General Foch were

9 Fashoda crisis was a dispute between Britain and France in Eastern Africa in 1898 which resulted in the British diplomatic victory and French humiliation.(Jones, 2014) 15 the main figures. When Foch came to London, Wilson commented in front of Haldane and the others at the War Office in 1909 that he believed that Foch would become commander of the Allied Armies in case of a large war. Wilson was convinced that war with Germany was inevitable and started preparing the schedule for transporting British sources over the Channel. This schedule was tested during the Second Moroccan Crisis10. Wilson came to Paris and together with French General Dubail signed the memorandum on July 20, 1911 stating the total number of forces in case of British intervention would be 150,000 men and 67,000 horses arriving between the 4th and 12th day of mobilization. (Tuchman, p.57-60) The following year the naval agreement with France was reached as a reaction to a new German Naval Law planning for fleet increases. Haldane was sent to Berlin to talk to the Kaiser and other senior staff but his attempt to reach some arrangements failed as Germany required a promise that in case of war between Germany and France, Britain would stay neutral, which was refused. The outcome was the naval pact between France and Britain, binding the British fleet to guard the Channel and the French would focus on the Mediterranean. By spring 1914 the complete plan for Franco-British joint military action – including details regarding transport, nourishment, codes and ciphers, was completed. (Tuchman, p.63 - 66). These measures leading from Britain´s Splendid Isolation to Entente Cordiale and other agreements such as the naval pact of 1912 established the alliance of these two countries. That proved vital with respect to their bilateral support in oncoming events as France, as the old enemy, became less of an impact on national affairs also due to the Kings approach to state visits. ―In the nine short years of his reign England´s splendid isolation had given away, under pressure, to a series of ―understandings‖ or attachments, but not quite alliance – for England dislikes the definitive – with two old enemies, France and Russia, and one promising new power, Japan.‖ (Tuchman, 1962, p.5).

1.2.3.2 Anglo-Russian Relations

At the beginning of the 20th century Britain was still involved in a conflict in South Africa, the Boer Wars. It resulted in an aversion against England as for instance

10 The Second Moroccan Crisis was the event in 1911 when the German cruiser Panther was sent to the Moroccan harbour of Agadir as a reaction to French „agression― claimed by Germany. France was backed by Britain and Russia and Germany was forced back. (Second Moroccan Crisis, n.d.) 16 mentioned in the private letter to Edward VII sent by his nephew Russian Tsar Nicholas II.

Pray forgive me for writing to you upon a very delicate subject which I have been thinking over for months, but my conscience obliges me at last to speak openly. It is about the South Africa War, and what I say is only said by your loving nephew. You remember, of course, at the time when the War broke out what a strong feeling of animosity against England arose throughout the world. In Russia the indignation of the people was similar to that of the other countries. (Lee, 1927, p.73)

The relationship between Russia and Britain went through some tension in 1904 when war between Russia and Japan broke out. It was a very awkward situation for Britain as it was historically Japan´s ally. The Tsar warned Britain that Russia would not tolerate any kind of intervention (Lee, 1927, p.287) and the King assured him of no such intention. During the war between Russia and Japan the Dogger Bank incident occurred on October 21, 1904 when the Russian Baltic fleet mistook a few British trawlers fishing in the Baltic area of the North Sea for Japanese vessels. They killed three men, wounded some other members of the crew, sank one trawler and damaged the other. Four days later the King received a telegram from the Tsar expressing his regrets. The King´s reply suggested that the Russian side had taken this matter very lightly and required a punishment of the Russian responsible for the act. The King pointed out that it would be a disaster for both countries to go to war over it. The meeting of the International Commission of Inquiry took place in Paris in February 1905 and ordered Russia to pay compensation of £65,000. (Lee, 1927, p.301-304). Historically Russia had an agreement with France that was signed in 1894, but one story illustrates that the Tsar was not very stable regarding his opinion of who Russia would ally with. On July 23, 1905 his yacht Poljarnaja Zvezda [the Polar Star] came to the harbour of Björkö to meet the German Kaiser. During their lunch on the Kaiser´s yacht Hohenzollern, they signed the concept of the treaty between Russia and Germany. It was only after the Tsar arrived back to his country that his advisors pointed out that those commitments could not be fulfilled due to Russia‘s alliance with France and the agreement annulled. (Clark, 2012, p.175). When the Entente Cordiale with France was signed, it became obvious that Britain will be in need of another ally. Russia became a clear choice as it already had an 17 alliance with France. On August 31, 1907 the Anglo-Russian Convention was drafted and on September 23 signed by King Edward VII and Tsar Nicholas II. It dealt with disputable areas of Tibet, Afghanistan and Persia. This Convention brought together three countries, Russia, France and England, known as the Triple Entente. The Entente did not bind these countries to go to war on the side of the others, but it did oblige them to support each other when needed. It served as a balance to the growing power of Germany. (The Road To War: The Triple Entente, n.d.). The personal relationships between the two sovereigns of Britain and Russia were closely related. The Tsar´s mother was a sister of the King´s wife and Nicholas II held a huge respect for his British uncle. In 1904 after his only son was born, the Tsar asked King Edward VII to be his son´s godfather. The Tsar´s wife, Tsarina Alexandra Feodorovna, originally Alix of Hesse and by Rhine, was coincidentally also the King´s niece. There was a significant visit between the British royal family and that of the Tsar on August 2, 1909 on the Isle of Wight during the week of the Cowes Regatta when the whole family of the Russian Tsar was heartily welcomed by Edward VII and his two sons, where the Tsar appeared in his uniform of a British Admiral to mark the bilateral relationship between their countries. (Cavendish, 2009). The King´s aim was to promote a good relationship between his country and the rest of Europe. By signing the treaty with Russia and creating the Triple Entente, Britain gained another ally which would stand on its side in the event of war.

1.2.3.3 Anglo-German Relations

During the late nineteenth century it appeared that Britain and Germany were close to an alliance as the negotiations were taking place, but already in 1902 it became probable that the treaty between Britain and Germany would not be signed. On the contrary, in 1904 the Entente Cordiale with France was sealed. When this treaty was ratified, Germany became very anxious about it. The German Kaiser wrote an entry ―Beginning of the English encircling policy against Germany‖ (Lee, 1927, p.257). Germany´s opinion of British foreign policy was that it was becoming hostile and held it responsible for the outbreak of the war in 1914. Clark (2012, p.160) posts the view that the Entente Cordiale was a document that was not focused against Germany but its aim was to limit a colonial tension with France and to gain, at least partially, indirect

18 influence on Russia. On the other side Germany had an agreement with Austria called The Dual Alliance Treaty, signed in 1879, binding both countries to support each other in case of a war. Three years later a treaty with Italy was ratified and the so called Triple Alliance was formed as a counterweight to Franco-Russian coalition. (Triple Alliance, n.d.). In 1898 and 1900 Germany ratified new Navy Laws that verified the number of warships. To justify the high costs, the potential foe had to be named; in this case – England. A massive fleet has been agreed by the Kaiser and his political advisors. (Cruickshank, 2011)

Although the German Kaiser Wilhelm II denied this was his empire‘s aim, Germany hungered for colonies and a greater martial reputation, and ordered large shipbuilding initiatives, such as those found in the 1898 and 1900 acts. Germany didn‘t necessarily want war, but to browbeat Britain into giving colonial concessions, as well as boosting their industry and uniting some parts of the German nation - who were alienated by the elitist army - behind a new military project everyone could feel part of. An arms race began. (Wilde, n.d.).

Wilde (n.d.) adds that because Britain was an island this navy expansion was understandable, but as Germany was a landlocked country, the reasons for this naval contest were very confusing. German Kaiser Wilhelm II (see Fig.4) succeeded his father Frederick III in 1888 at the age of twenty-nine. He believed in the growing strength of the German army and navy, as the above mentioned naval race illustrates. His attitude toward Britain was contradictory. He antagonized Britain with his naval expansion, aggressive colonial expansion and also supported the Boers in their fight against the British. However, he was related to the British royal family and sincerely respected his grandmother, Queen Victoria (Wilhelm II ,1859-1941, n.d.). Wilhelm II was affected by the English family relationships and wished for an Anglo-German alliance by claiming to his uncle Edward VII: ―Not a mouse could stir in Europe without our [his and Edward VII´s] permission.‖ (Tuchman, 1962, p.6). Despite their close family relationship, Edward VII made plenty of comments suggesting the Kaiser was not his most popular family member. As Lee (1927, p.153) depicts after the Kaiser´s visit to Britain in 1902, the King was heard to say ―Thank God he is gone‖. There are a number of stories that suggest the Kaiser´s 19 pompous and egoistic side did not go well with Edward VII‘s character of a gentleman, as demonstrated during an annual regatta in Cowes in 1895. The (future King Edward VII) as Commodore of the Yacht Squadron enjoyed the race with his yacht that won several times but the Kaiser spoiled this when he used Cowes as a showplace where he appeared on several occasions with new vessels (Meteor I, Hohenzollern, Wörh and Weissenburg) and inappropriately commented about the Prince having never been in active service. The Prince sold Britannia and never took part in this race again. ―The regatta at Cowes was once a pleasant holiday for me,‖ he complained. ―But now that the Kaiser has taken command it is nothing but a nuisance… [with] that perpetual firing of salutes, cheering and other tiresome disturbances.‖ (Hibbert, 1976, p.268 -269). In contrast, the Kaiser was notoriously considered to be fascinated by Britain. After one of his visits in England, his Chancellor, Count von Bülow, wrote:

I found him completely under the spell of his English impressions. As a rule he could not change his military uniform often enough, but now he wore civilian clothes as he had done in England. He wore a tie-pin with his deceased grandmother´s initials on it. The officers who were summoned…to dine with him…did not seem very pleased by his constant enthusiastic allusions to England and everything English.(Hibbert, 1976, p.271).

This demonstrates the Kaiser´s very confusing attitude towards to Britain, but what occurs very clear is King Edward´s dislike towards to his nephew. Shortly after the death of Queen Victoria, in , King Edward VII visited his older sister Victoria in Friedrichshof. As she was dying of cancer, he decided to travel without any retinue and was met by his nephew in Homburg. ―The meeting between the two sovereigns was outwardly cordial, but below the surface there lurked a difference that was soon to cause difficulty.‖ (Lee, p.118-119). Hibbert (1976, p.271-272) describes that when Edward VII visited Germany again in he was too upset by the death of his sister, by the Kaiser´s recent comment about his ministers as unmitigated noodles and by long letters of advice on how to conduct the Boer Wars sent to him by the Kaiser, that he changed his mind about discussing the prospect of an Anglo-German alliance. The next year the Kaiser´s visit in England was an utter failure. Whenever he wanted to discuss Anglo-German 20 relations, the King´s ministers were non-committal and the King did not want to be involved at all. Many of the guests at Sandringham found the Kaiser and his suite members irritating and the connections between the Kaiser and his uncle deteriorated. What did not contribute to their mutual trust was the Kaiser´s scandalous interview for The Daily Telegraph on October 28, 1908 where he stated:

You English are mad, mad, mad as March hares. What has come over you that you are so completely given over to suspicions quite unworthy of a great nation? … I repeat that I am a friend of England, but you make things difficult for me. My task is not the easiest. The prevailing sentiment among large sections of the middle and lower classes of my own people is not friendly to England. (Bezhani, H., 2009)

And worse was still to come. Only a fortnight later, The New York World published an interview with the Kaiser for The New York Times where he claimed that ―the war between England and Germany was inevitable, that the sooner it came, the better, that Great Britain was degenerate and her King corrupt.‖(Hibbert, 1976, p.275)

Kaiser Wilhelm II is often portrayed as an impatient, short-tempered, intolerant and unstable character. Events only proved these allegations to be right. Regarding real power, his position was different to that of the King´s.

Wilhelm was absolutely determined to transform the monarchical fiction…into actual reality. He was determined to govern in person and to order his ministers to execute his will…Great Britain, too, the greatest empire in the world, would now have to direct its policy in such a way as to take the impulsive young Kaiser's sensibilities into account. (Rohl, 1996).

It is also important to mention two members of European royal families who demonstrated a great deal of hatred for Germany. The first one was Princess Alexandra of Denmark, the wife of King Edward VII, and her sister Princess Dagmar of Denmark, who was married to Russian Tsar Alexander III. The reason was Denmark´s loss of Schleswig-Holstein to Germany due to the Prussian War in 1864. (Mullen, 1981). Regarding the Kaiser´s assumption of encirclement, there was no proof of this theory found in the King´s state papers. His intention was to maintain the peace and to 21 avoid involvement. On the other hand the exactly opposite opinions about the King´s involvement appeared as for instance in 1909 of the editor of The Clarence, Robert Blatchford, who stated: ――The king and his councilors have strained every nerve to establish Ententes with Russia and with Italy; and have formed an Entente with France, and as well with Japan. Why? To isolate Germany.‖ (Farrer, 1922, p. 261). It was not until 1909 that the possibility of a conflict came to his mind after Austrian annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina but by then Britain‘s alliance with France, Russia and Japan had already been signed (Lee, 1927, p.543). Despite a number of attempts to sign a treaty between Britain and Germany no alliance was ever reached. The naval rivalry and the two Moroccan crises only deepened their distrust and regardless of the family ties between the sovereigns of these two countries, the relationships worsened.

1.2.3.4 Connections with Other Heads of States

King Edward VII always demonstrated his good intentions towards the other sovereigns by visiting their countries. During his reign he visited the King of Portugal Carlos I, King of Italy, Victor Emmanuel III in Rome and during this visit he used the opportunity to meet Pope Leo XIII, the Austrian Francis Joseph and Prince Ferdinand of Bulgaria. He had close relationships with the Spanish King Alfonso XIII, Romanian King Carol I, Greek King George I and Swedish King Oscar II.. (Farrer, 1922, p.65-84). On the contrary, there were also European sovereigns that the King was not so close to, for example Belgium King Leopold. His scandalous personal life and his arguments with his daughters that had become public were bitterly viewed by the King, who (through Lord Salisbury) warned King Leopold against coming to England. (Lee, 1927, p.256). Paradoxically their successors, Princes Albert I and George V, held a great deal of respect for each other. The King´s strong relationships with other countries were not limited only to Europe. In January 1902 the Anglo-Japanese Alliance was officially signed in London by Baron Hayashi and Lord Landsdowne, focusing mainly on their understanding of the neutrality of Korea and China. Four years later after the visit of the Japanese Prince and Princess Arisugawa to Buckingham Palace the negotiations between Japan and Britain resulted in renewing the Anglo-Japanese Treaty. This time it focused on maintaining

22 peace in Eastern Asia and India. (Lee, 1927, p. 311). The legacy of Queen Victoria as the Grandmother of Europe impacted this period and Edward VII extended the relationship of Britain to even more distant monarchies.

1.3 King George

King George succeeded his father in 1910. When Edward VII died, London experienced a splendid display of monarchs. The kings, queens, crown princes, archdukes, grand- dukes and others from all over the world came to pay their respect to the late King. Along with European sovereigns the crowds of people lining the streets could also witness Japanese, Chinese and Persian princes or the Prince of Siam. Never before has such an amount of royalty gathered in one place. ―So Edward VII´s grandiose funeral served both as a domestic occasion and a public flourish…This famous ―Parade of Kings‖ illustrated something else. It was tangible proof of the tenacity of the ideal monarchy.‖ (Aronson, 1986, p.2) On the day of the funeral nine reigning kings were photographed at (see Fig.5). This photograph clearly shows the significance of the British crown that was then passed on to the new King, George V. King George V was born , 1865, at in London. He was the second son of King Edward VII and his wife Queen Alexandra and therefore he was not in direct line of succession to the throne. As his education was focused on becoming a naval officer, George and his brother Albert went through the naval training academy on HMS Britannia and HMS Bacchante. When Albert started studying at Trinity College in Cambridge, George remained in the , intending to make it his career. In 1892 Albert suddenly died of influenza. George assumed the role of heir- apparent, left the Royal Navy and was given the title and became a member of the . In 1893 he married Princess Victoria who was previously engaged to his brother Albert. George V and Queen Mary had five sons - Edward, who succeeded him on the throne on January 1836 but abdicated the same year in December, Albert, who became King George VI, Henry, George and John, who died at the age of thirteen and one daughter Mary. (George V., n.d.). The King resided in Buckingham Palace, Windsor Castle, Balmoral Castle in Scotland or Sandringham House in , but his favourite place became on the Sandringham estate.

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Aronson (1986, p.39) describes the King as ill-educated, fluent in no foreign languages, incapable of philosophic or abstract thought, indifferent to art or science. On the other hand, he emphasizes his strong character, organized mind and sense of duty as a naval officer and adds:

Compared with Europe´s other leading sovereigns, the British King had very little personal control of national affairs. The ‗greatness‘ of his position was of prestige rather than power... In Britain, real political power was vested in parliament… It was these two characteristics – a lack of personal power and an abundance of personal prestige – that were to keep the British monarch afloat in the turbulent waters that lay just ahead.

When George V became the king, his two cousins Wilhelm and Nicholas were already ruling in their countries of Germany and Russia. Among his other first cousins was also the King of Norway, princesses of Greece, Romania and Sweden and the Queen of Spain. His uncles were the kings of Greece and Denmark. The Queen of Norway was his sister and the kings of Bulgaria, Portugal and Belgium were his distant cousins. There were also plenty of similar relationships connected to Queen Mary and her family of the Tecks. (Aronson, 1986, p.36). Comparing to his father the King did not like to show his weaknesses regarding to foreign languages and did not travel abroad as much as his predecessor, especially around Europe. He made his first European State visit in spring 1914 to France to preserve the Anglo-French entente.

1.3.1 George V and Kaiser Wilhelm II

George V´s father Edward VII regarded his nephew, Kaiser Wilhelm II, to be a bombastic and heavy-handed megalomaniac and his mother, Queen Alexandra, did not like him at all as she hated all Prussians. Although George V heard these comments from a young age, he did not hold any dislike towards his cousin at the beginning of his reign and it is claimed that their friendship was mutual. When George V hosted him at Buckingham Palace on May 19, 1910 after his father‘s death, the Kaiser could not miss the opportunity to talk to Stephen-Jean-Marie Pichon, the French politician and proposed that if the conflict between Germany and England appears, France should side

24

Germany. (Tuchman, p.15). At that time the relationship between the King and his royal cousin was believed to be friendly. In 1900, George asked his cousin to be the godfather of his son, Prince Henry. ―… the Kaiser was vastly relieved that his bete noire, his worldly Uncle Bertie, had been replaced by what he imagined to be his more pliable Cousin Georgie. ―He is a thorough Englishman and hates all foreigners‖, explained the Kaiser good-naturedly to Theodor Roosevelt, ―but I do not mind that, as long as he does not hate Germans more than other foreigners‖. The Kaiser was the first monarch to be invited to London after George´s coronation. In May 1911 they both witnessed the unveiling of the Queen Victoria memorial on the Mall. The Kaiser recorded his enjoyment of the visit but before his departure, he decided to discuss the question of Morocco with the King by claiming that Germany did not intend to go to war over this area but might claim a different area in Africa as compensation. Although the Kaiser expressed no intention of the Germans to interfere in that area, he sent a cruiser Panther to the Moroccan harbour of Agadir (the Second Moroccan Crisis). It was perceived as a threat to France and also to Britain. This move caused great tension and for several weeks war seemed to be unavoidable but at the end the diplomatic solution was reached. The Kaiser later claimed that he had warned the King while at Buckingham Palace. The King denied it. ―The episode illustrates not only Wilhelm II´s unreliability, but how little he appreciated the limits of George V´s constitutional powers. (Aronson, 1986, p.37-38). In the Kaiser invited George to Berlin to the wedding of his only daughter, whose future husband, the Duke of Brunswick, was related to both of them. The Kaiser was determined to make a deep impression on his royal relatives, but the King was more interested in talking to his Russian cousin, the Tsar. This was the very last occasion on which the King and the Kaiser ever met. (MacMillan, 2013, p.312) On August 1, 1914 the Kaiser, when he heard about Russian mobilization, claimed:

The world will be engulfed in the most terrible of wars, the ultimate aim of which is the ruin of Germany. England, France and Russia have conspired for our annihilation…that is the naked truth of the situation which was slowly but surely created by Edward VII….The encirclement of Germany is at last an accomplished fact. We have run our heads into the noose….The dead Edward is stronger than the living I! (Tuchman, 1962, p.90).

25

As much as the relationship between Wilhelm II and George V was originally amiable, it was frequently influenced by the uneasy character of the German Kaiser and especially by his constant suspicion of Britain´s foreign policy. Furthermore their position as the sovereigns differed too; as the Kaiser determined his country´s policy, the King´s powers were significantly limited.

1.3.2 George V and Tsar Nicholas II

Tsar Nicholas II was the oldest son of Tsar Alexander III and Princess Dagmar of Denmark, who later became Tsarina Maria Feodorovna (known as Minny). He succeeded his father in 1894 at the age of 26. In 1894 he married Alix of Hesse, the granddaughter of Queen Victoria. His mother and the mother of George V, Queen Alexandra, were sisters and did not miss any opportunity to visit each other. They also shared envy towards Germany as they could not forget the loss of Schleswig and Holstein in 1863. ―Hatred of all things German, anyhow, had become a trademark of the Glucksburgs.‖ (Beeche , n.d.). At the time of King Edward VII´s funeral and George V´s coronation, Tsar Nicholas II´s participation was prevented by his son´s health, but it did not influence their hearty relationship. Georgie and Nicky (see Fig.6), as there were called by their families, knew each other from their early childhood, often spending their holidays together. But their roles as the monarchs of their countries could not have been more different. The Tsar was an autocratic ruler of the unwilling to accept any compromises. Through his position he was influencing the course of events significantly. On the other hand King George V, as a constitutional ruler, had a minimum role in decision-making (Clayová, 2006, p. 312). George V was in the field of foreign affairs disposed to be guided by his Foreign Secretary, Sir Edward Grey (see Fig.7) and according to Clark (2012,p.219), prior to WWI, Edward Grey was the most powerful Foreign Secretary in the whole of Europe. The Tsar was notoriously known as quite ignorant towards to his country´s affairs preferring spending his time with his family. He is often portrayed as naive, incompetent, awkward in military matters and ignorant towards to his subjects´ needs. ―At a time of enormous social and political change in his country, Nicholas [II] held fast to outdated, autocratic policies and opposed reform of any kind.‖ (Daniels, P., n.d.). He was avoiding his subjects and he

26 considered anybody who opposed him to be a conspirator and even dissolved the Duma11. (Nicholas II, 2014) All these aspects contributed to a very unfavorable end of the Tsarist system in 1917.

1.4 The Final Weeks before the Conflict

Tuchman (1962, p.22) states that ―Europe was as a heap of swords piled as delicately as jackstraws; one could not be pulled out without moving the others.‖ On the ground of the Austro-German Alliance, Germany was bound to support Austria in war against Russia. Due to the treaty between France and Russia, both sides would go against Germany and that meant that in any war Germany would have to fight on two fronts – against France and Russia. Schlieffen´s12 plan allowed six weeks and seven-eighths of the German army to defeat France and one-eighth would stand on the eastern frontier against Russia until it would be joined by the mass from the western front. The German army consisted of 8 million men and needed space to manoeuvre and in 1899 this plan added the violation of Belgium neutrality. (Tuchman, 1962, p.22-25). When Schlieffen´s plan was adopted, it presumed that Russia would have to maintain large forces in the Far East to stand guard against Japan. ―German diplomacy, despite a certain record for clumsiness, was expected to overcome the Anglo-Japanese Treaty, an unnatural alliance as Germany regarded it, and keep Japan neutral as a constant threat to Russia´s rear.‖ (Tuchman, 1962, p.80). This German plan with the Triple Alliance, for crossing into the Belgium territory, and the Triple Entente played a critical part in the forthcoming conflict. On June 28, 1914 Archduke Franz Ferdinand, nephew of the Emperor Franz Josef and heir to the Austro-Hungarian Empire, was shot dead along with his wife Sophie, Duchess of Hohenberg, by a Serbian nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo, Bosnia. It is believed that this event sparked the outbreak of . (Archduke Franz Ferdinand assassinated, n.d.). Austria presented an ultimatum to Belgrade and Serbia accepted all the demands except the ones that would affect its sovereignty. ―Sir

11 Duma (―State Assembly‖), elected legislative body that, along with the State Council, constituted the imperial Russian legislature from 1906 until its dissolution at the time of the March 1917 Revolution (Duma, n.d.) 12 Alfred, Count von Schlieffen, German officer and head of the general staff who developed the plan of attack, Schlieffen Plan, that the German armies used, with significant changes, at the outbreak of WWI. (Alfred, Count von Schlieffen., n.d.). 27

Edward Grey, the British Foreign Secretary, commented that he had "never before seen one State address to another independent State a document of so formidable a character.‖ (Duffy, 2009a). As Hanak (1962, p.36-37) points out England did not view this event as something important and recognized it as a crisis in the Near East, but in the time following the ultimatum, the press became convinced that Britain was on the verge of war and started providing explanations to the readers why Britain needed to intervene. Also expressing the desperation was the Liberal newspaper, The Gazette, issued on August 1:

The spectacle of Europe being driven by the hard logic of its diplomatic system to a struggle which no one wants and catastrophe which everyone foresees has no historical analogies and none of the glittering accessories which we associate with the idea of nations going forth to war. Three hundred million people today lie under the spell of the fear and fate. Is there no one to break the spell, no gleam of light on this cold, dark scene? (Hanak, 1962, p.37)

Sir Edward Grey, personally, played a very significant role on August 1, 1914. At first he was not sure if Britain´s involvement in a possible war would be backed by the Cabinet, and he allegedly made a diplomatic agreement with German ambassador, Prince Karl Max Lichnowsky. Preston (2014a) describes that Grey telephoned Prince Lichnowsky with an offer asking ―whether Germany could give an assurance that France would not be attacked if it remained neutral in a war between Germany and Russia.‖ Lichnowsky passed the message to Germany with his interpretation suggesting that the offer concerned the neutrality not only of Britain, but also of France. When this telegram arrived in Berlin, Germany had already ordered mobilisation. The Kaiser reacted: ―Now we can go to war against Russia only. We simply march the whole of our army to the East.‖ and sent his telegram to Buckingham Palace accepting the offer. Sir Grey was summoned to Buckingham Palace to explain this offer to George V. After a conversation the King sent a telegram back to Berlin stating:

In answer to your telegram just received, I think there must be some misunderstanding as to a suggestion that passed in friendly conversation between Prince Lichnowsky and Sir Edward Grey this afternoon when they were discussing how actual fighting between German and French armies might be avoided while 28

there is still a chance of some agreement between Austria and Russia. Sir Edward Grey will arrange to see Prince Lichnowsky early tomorrow morning to ascertain whether there is a misunderstanding on his part.‖ (Statement of Sir Edward Grey on the Lichnowsky Despatches., n.d.).

When this telegram reached Berlin, the Kaiser stressed: ―Now we can do what we want.‖ Earlier that day, after the Cabinet session, Sir Grey met Paul Cambon, the French Ambassador in London, informing him that no decision had been reached. The Ambassador expressed his deep worries: ―They are going to desert us.‖ (Preston, 2014a). When they met again the following day, Sir Grey was reminded of the Treaty of London of 1867 signed by the Great Powers that guaranteed Luxembourg´s neutrality. (Preston, 2014b). After German troops reached the French border on August 2, 1914, a telegram from the Tsar was delivered to George V stating: ―I trust your country will not fail to support France and Russia in fighting to maintain the balance of Power in Europe. God bless and protect you.‖ The following day Sir Edward Grey delivered a remarkable speech13 in Parliament claiming that the peace of Europe cannot be preserved. He also strongly emphasised that Germany cannot be allowed to cross the English Channel or the German army to cross the area of neutral Belgium. (Preston, 2014b) Two days later Britain declared war on Germany. George V used his royal prerogative of declaring war. On , 1914, "the king held a privy council at Buckingham Palace which was attended only by one minister and two court officials ... The cabinet played no part once it had resolved to defend the neutrality of Belgium ...‖ (Kettle, 2005).

13 Sir Grey´s speech is available on: http://www.1914-1918.net/greys_speech.htm 29

2 THE FIRST WORLD WAR

The conflict was originally called The Great War and the majority of people predicted that it would take no more than a few months, but the prolonged war lasted four years, three months and one week claiming millions dead and vastly more wounded. Great Britain faced the attacks on its civilians and more than 2,5 million volunteered and 2,7 million men were conscripted to fight in the WWI. King George V was the reigning sovereign who had the tragic task to declare the war and adopt the necessary measures required during that traumatic period.

2.1 War Onset

It took exactly one month from the assassination of Archduke Ferdinand to the outbreak of WWI. As a reaction to an unsatisfactory Serbian response to the ultimatum, Austria declared war on Serbia on July 28, 2014. The following day Tsar Nicholas II ordered a partial mobilization (only on the Austrian border). Germany also gave ultimatums. The first one to Russia to withdraw its troops, the second one to France to stay neutral in case of war between Germany and Russia and the third one to Belgium to let German forces pass through its territory. Now the alliances came together and the treaty alliance system was put into practice. On August 1, Germany declared war on Russia and two days later on France and Belgium. Britain reacted to the invasion of neutral Belgium. As mentioned above, Britain and Belgium signed the Treaty in London in 1839. ―Belgium, within the limits specified in Articles 1, 2, and 4, shall form an Independent and perpetually Neutral State. It shall be bound to observe such Neutrality towards all other States‖. (Duffy, 2009b). As a result, Britain declared war on Germany on August 4th. As Austria declared war on Russia, Britain declared the war on Austria (Aronson, 1986, p.104). With Britain entering the war, its other and colonies followed: Canada, India, the , New Zealand and Australia. Aronson (1986, p.108) points out that though Wilhelm II was related to George V in the same manner as to Nicholas II, these dynastic relationships counted for nothing. Duffy (2009c) claims that

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It has however attempted to pull together the main strands: Austro-Hungarian determination to impose its will upon the Balkans; a German desire for greater power and international influence, which sparked a naval arms race with Britain, who responded by building new and greater warships, the Dreadnought; a French desire for revenge against Germany following disastrous defeat in 1871; Russia's anxiety to restore some semblance of national prestige after almost a decade of civil strife and a battering at the hands of the Japanese military in 1905.

It is believed that the British were excited about entering the war, but McMillan (2013, p.17) disagrees: ―The photographs of cheering crowds in the great capitals are misleading. The coming of war took most Europeans by surprise and their initial reaction was disbelief and shock.‖ Jeremy Paxman in the documentary states that people were naive about the war, but they accepted the fact that the war needed to be fought to prevent their country from German invasion. Despite certain opposed views, such as the speech of Keir Hardy, Labour MP, in Trafalgar Square suggesting to the crowds: ―You have no quarrel with Germany‖, people united to protect British Empire. (Britain's Great War - 1: War Comes To Britain, 2014). Robbins (1984, p.82) describes the fact that the European population exceeded that of one century earlier and stresses an unevenness between (Austria- Hungary 50 million inhabitants, Germany 70 million and the 20 million) and the Allies (Russia 160 million inhabitants, the United States 96 million, the United Kingdom 46 million, Italy 35 million and France 38 million). There was also another more important aspect related to the war - the army. Despite the fact that the Russian army consisted of the force of over one million men, the German of 580,000, the French of around 700,000, followed by the Austrian-Hungarian of 450,000 and the British army of 250,000, the more crucial factor was how many men were actually trained and how many could be mobilized within a few days after the notice. The Russian number neared 5 million men, the German 4.5 million, the French 4 million, the Austro-Hungarian 3 million and the British 1 million.

Attention to the total number of men mobilized reinforces the point the composition of the armies of 1914 was very different from those of 1918.…Russia mobilized 12 million, Germany 11, France just over 8 and Austria-Hungary just under, the British Empire nearly 9, Italy 5½, the United States 4½, Ottoman Turkey nearly 3, Bulgaria over 1‖(Robbins, 1984, p.83). 31

Opinions regarding the duration of the war were incredibly underestimated and even the Kaiser misjudged the possible persistence when he told the departing troops during the first week of August ―You will be home before the leaves have fallen from the trees.‖ (Tuchman, p.141). Only three military individuals recognized the dark and very long period that lay ahead. The first one was German General Moltke predicting a long, wearisome struggle. The second one was French Marshal Joffre and the third was British Lord Kitchener. He was not involved in the original planning but was suddenly appointed War Minister in August 1914 and proved to predict the future by claiming that it might take even longer, but ―three years will do to begin with. A nation like Germany, after having forced the issue, will only give in after it is beaten to the ground. That will take a very long time. No one living knows how long.‖ (Tuchman, 1962, p.142). The King put the entry in his diary – ―this is a disaster, but it is not our fault‖. He mentioned that he, the Queen and their oldest son, the Prince of Wales, had to appear on the balcony of Buckingham Palace three times, where they were cheered by the crowd. At the same time he asked God for the war to be over soon and to save his son‘s [Bertie´s] life. (Clayová, 2006, p.311).

2.2 The Course of War Concerning Britain

Between August 12 and 17, 1914 five divisions of the British Expeditionary Force arrived in France. On August 24 at Mons they experienced the first full impact of the enemy. Kitchener realized that the force of the British Expeditionary Forces consisting of six infantry divisions and four cavalry brigades would be inadequate for a long conflict. Already on August 7, 1914 he launched an appeal to increase the sense of duty that would lead to larger numbers in enlistment. In September a public notice of Lord Kitchener with the well-known slogan ―Your country needs you‖ (see Fig.8) and another series of posters helped to achieve a boost in recruitment when, for example, on September 3, a record number of 33,204 men joined the army in a single day. (Simkins, n.d.). Paxman in his documentary presents the fact that originally people in Britain possessed very little information about the course of events on the front, but on August 30, brought a report about a big defeat and a huge death toll. At the end of the article a sentence stated: The British Expeditionary Force has suffered terrible losses

32 and requires immediate and immense reinforcement. After that, the previously mentioned poster campaign was launched. Recruitment centres were all over the country and by Christmas over one million men volunteered. (Britain's Great War - 1: War Comes To Britain, 2014). In spite of an initial retreat, it has been decided that the regiments would not withdraw, which contributed to the victory of the Marne. This victory ruined all German hopes for a quick victory on the western front. Other battles followed, such as Aisne or and Sir John Fisher wrote to the King: ―The Battle of the Aisne is very typical of what battles in the future are most likely to resemble. Siege operations will enter largely into tactical problems and the spade will be as great a necessity as the rifle.‖ By the middle of the deadlock that would last another four long years began. (Nicolson, 1952, p.259). Britain depended on the interminable flow of trade to feed the nation and to make a profit from their natural resources such as coal and iron. The planners and observers recognized the power of Germany´s growing navy and proposed a plan to prevent Germany from making a blockade of their country. (Janicki, 2014) The first stage of this plan called the observation blockade was based on relocating the fast moving vessels to the middle of the North Sea and then close to the Holland coast to monitor the boats trying to get through the blockade. The second one called the distant blockade was based on blocking two entrances into the North Sea – between the Dover Straits and France and between Norway and Scotland. Britain did not implement this strategy at the moment of the outbreak. In November 1914 the German cruisers were spotted trying to lay mines off the coast of England and this led to the full execution of the blockade. Robbins adds (1984, p.95) that Germany on the other hand declared the waters around the British Isles the ―war zone‖ and started sinking the British ships. The use of submarines allowed Germany to attack the merchant vessels without any warning. In 1915 the German submarines sank nearly three quarters of a million tons of shipping goods. Allied shipping losses doubled the next year and Britain and her allies realized the impossibility to replace them. ―The year 1915 was disastrous to the cause of the Allies and the whole world.‖ commented . (Nicolson, 1952, p.265). The Battle of Dardanelles proved to be a huge disaster and by December all British forces were withdrawn from that area. There were heavy losses on the Western Front as well as on the Eastern one.

33

The year 1916 was another year full of disappointment and danger. On February 21, the Germans opened their attack on ; on June 1 the news of the losses in the Battle of Jutland reached the country, on July 1 began the long ordeal of the Somme; in August Romania entered the war on the side with the Allies just to be defeated only within four months. In September it became obvious that the Russian armies were not capable of any further operations. The ordinary citizen, alarmed by the heavy losses, air- raids and food shortages, became anxious. (Nicolson, 1984, p.271). In December 1916 American President Wilson drafted the Peace Note, which contained a phrase that the Allied populations objected. The cause and objects of the war are obscure. It was later changed to the objects which the belligerents on both sides have in mind are virtually the same. This upset the as it seemed to locate them to the same place as German aggressors. ―The King, according to Mr. Page, was so angered that he wept while expressing his surprise and depression.‖ (Nicolson, 1984, p.297). An agreement proved to be impossible. At the beginning of 1917 Germany believed that the only way to win the war was to starve Great Britain. In February the Germans announced an unrestricted blockade on Great Britain even though they knew it would lead to the United States entering the war. In April the U.S. Congress declared war on Germany. During the same month 900,000 tons of the Allies shipping were sunk. In reaction the Allies engaged in the convoy system and by November their losses decreased by 650,000 tons. (Hanak, 1962, p.235). This system was based on escorting a service of accompanying vessels for individual ships. ―These escorts not only guarded against surface gunfire attacks, but also dropped depth charges in areas where German 'U-boats' were known to operate. The convoy system resulted in a rapid decrease in German attacks on Allied shipping during the last 17 months of the war.‖ (Convoy System, n.d.). In 1917 General Foch was appointed ―Commander-in-Chief of Allied Forces‖ which proved General Wilson´s discretion of 1909 to be correct. The same year the revolution abolished the autocratic system in Russia and the Tsar abdicated. In August Pope Benedict XIV drafted the proposal of peace asking George V to forward it to the government of France, Italy and the United States but it did not result in any further conclusion. (Nicolson, p.315).

Germany and the Allies both saw the Vatican as prejudiced toward the other, and neither was at that point prepared to accept anything less than a complete victory. According to one Allied leader, U.S. President Woodrow Wilson, German 34

intransigence had made peace along the lines suggested by the pope—a return to the status quo, in Wilson‘s eyes—utterly impossible. The object of the war, Wilson stated in his reply to the Vatican on August 27, 1917, was now to "deliver the free peoples of the world from the menace and the actual power of a vast military establishment controlled by an irresponsible Government." (Central Powers response to Papal Peace Note, 2015.)

March 21, 1918 the Germans began their final offensive. One week later George V arrived in France to visit the soldiers, traveling 315 miles in three days and came back home with a great deal of anxiety. At the beginning of June he wrote to Queen Alexandra „I am grateful for your prayers; they are a comfort to me & I fear more lie ahead of us. But we must be courageous & go on to the end, however long it may take, as I shall never submit to those brutal Germans & I am sure the British Nation is of the same opinion‖ (Nicolson, p.323). Germans executed their final attack on July 18 that was supposed to bring them victory, but it did not. By summer 1918 a record number of munitions originating from Britain came to the front, the German aircrafts were outnumbered by the Allied ones and by June 1918 the stalemate was over. (Britain's Great War - 4: At Eleventh Hour, 2014). On August 7, George V visited the Western Front for the fifth time. The next day the British Fourth Army broke through the German lines and another successful attack of the French and British Armies followed. In September the American Army defeated the enemy at St. Mihiel. On October 3, the German government addressed an appeal for armistice to American President Wilson. After other defeats Turkey capitulated on October 30 and Austria signed the armistice on November 4. On November 7, 1918, the General Army Chief of Staff Paul von Hindenburg and the Supreme Allied Commander started to discuss the time and place for formal negotiations. Germany agreed to negotiate only the Fourteen Points suggested by U.S. President Wilson, but the Allies insisted on Germany disarming itself. Germany submitted formal protests, but on Monday morning, November 11 1918, at 5 o‘clock the armistice was signed by Marshal of France Ferdinand Foch, First Sea Lord Admiral Rosslyn Wemyss, Count Alfred von Oberndorff, Major Geberal Detlof von Winterfeldt, Captain Ernst Vanselow and Matthias Erzberger and came into effect six hours later at 11 o´clock. (Duffy, 2009d).

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2.2.1 Home Front

On August 8, 1914 the Defence of The Realm Act was passed through Parliament giving the government power to secure public safety. The Act included the regulations to prevent spread of false reports and providing any help to Britain´s enemy, securing the safety of His ´s army and the navigations of the vessels. It allowed the government to issue regulations related to criminal offences or to requisite properties or land required for the war effort. (Defence of the Realm Act., n.d.). As early as December 16, 1914, for the first time the civilians were targeted when the Germans raided the Yorkshire coast. The King commented in his diary ―Yesterday morning, four large German cruisers, it being foggy, appeared off the east coast of Yorkshire about 8 o´clock & shelled Hartlepool & Scarborough for 40 minutes, doing considerable damage, killing about 40 women, children & civilians and maiming & wounding about 400. This is German kultur.‖(Nicolson, 1952, p.257). During the war the food shortage became a huge issue. The King became aware of that and in consequence of having seen long queues in Deptford14, he directed Lord Stamford to contact Downing Street and emphasize that while the poor struggle for food, the richer part of the society does not suffer at all. When Prime Minister Lloyd George recommended cutting a budget for Buckingham Palace, the King agreed and took other measures; the light, heat and water consumptions were limited. With increased drinking among the working class, the King published a notice claiming that the royal family would not consume any alcohol so the liqueurs and wine disappeared from his menu. The entry in his diary reads ―This morning, we have all became teetotallers until the end of the war. I have done it as an example, as there is a lot of drinking going on in the country. I hate doing it, but hope it will do good.‖ (Nicolson, 1984, p.262). He stopped wearing his tail coats and top hats, changed them for his home suits and black or grey bowlers and spent the rest of the war in his uniform (battle dress). As the theatres closed, he shut down Balmoral Castle and the gardens in Frogmore Gardens at Windsor were used for growing potatoes, which he occasionally hoed. (Clayová, 2006, p.321).

14 Deptford is the south-eastern part of London by the river Thames. 36

In reaction to food shortage, the King issued the Royal Proclamation in May 1917. It aimed to reduce the consumption of wheat. (Britain´s Great War: The Darkest Hour, 2014). It stated:

… Our Royal Proclamation, most earnestly exhorting and charging all those of our loving subjects, the men and women of Our realm who have the means to procure articles of food other than wheat and corn, as they tender their immediate interests and feel for the want of others, especially to practice the greatest economy and frugality in the use of every species of grain; And We do for this purpose more particularly exhort and charge al heads of households to reduce the consumption of bread in their respective families by at least one-fourth of the quantity consumed in ordinary times;. To abstain from the use of flour in pastry, and moreover carefully to restrict, or wherever possible to abandon, the use thereof in all other articles than bread; - And We do also in like manner exhort and charge all persons who keep horses to abandon the practice of feeding the same on oats or other grain, unless they shall have received from Our Food Controller a licence to feed horses on oats or other grain, to be given only in cases where it is necessary to do so with a view to maintain the breed of horses in the national interest… (Proclamation, n.d).

By the end of the year 1915 it became evident that the number of soldiers was still inadequate. On January 5, 1916 the first military conscription bill was introduced to the Parliament by Prime Minister Asquith. It came into effect on February 10 as the Military Service Act and concerned all single men aged between 18 and 41 with exemptions for married men, teachers, certain industrial workers, clergymen and also for those who did not pass the medical examination. The second conscription in April 1916 involved married men and in the last months of the conflict the age limit was raised to 51. (Conscription: The First World War., n.d.). In August the Ambassador of the United States found the King ―looking ten years older‖. George V reported in his private letter to his wife, Queen Alexandra ―I am not too tired. In these days I must go about & see as many people as possible & so encourage them in their work. They appreciate it, I believe, & I am quite ready to sacrifice myself if necessary, as long as we win this war…‖ (Nicolson, 1984, p.316). The British nation was forced to endure some serious measures imposed by the government. Throughout that time they were motivated significantly by their sovereign who showed an immense deal of commitment to his subjects.

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2.3 Involvement of the British Royal Family

Just like his father, George V wanted to be involved in the events and problems concerning his country. Nicolson (1952, p.254) acknowledges the fact that during the whole war George V wanted to be fully informed of the affairs and problems at home and on the battle fronts. Hourly he would receive official and semi-official papers and a flood of private correspondence, letters from responsible and irresponsible quarters. He points out that his subjects considered him to be the arbiter of justice as well as the source of clever ideas and stresses the fact that soldiers were constantly supported by the awareness of his encouragement. Due to safety measures his whereabouts could not be announced.

But the soldiers in training, the soldiers at the front, the sailors at Scapa Flow, Rosyth, Invergordon, Harwich and Dover, above all perhaps the workers in the munition factories, were aware of his constant presence among them, and came to welcome his animating confidence and the cheerful vigour of his discourse… No previous Monarch had entered into such close personal relations with so many of his subjects. (Nicolson, 1984, p.252).

2.3.1 The King´s Public Engagement and Political Affairs

Despite the Cabinet and its Ministers being directly responsible for decision making, the role of the King was meaningful. As Nicolson (1952, p.248-9) points out:

The position of a Constitutional Monarch, in times of national strain and indignation, may become invidious. Although possessing no executive powers, he is credited by his people with supreme responsibility. Being the sole representative of the Nation as a whole, he may be expected, and even tempted, to voice, not merely the will and virtue of his subjects, but also their momentary moods and passions.

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George V played an active role in appointing the army and navy officers. He expressed his opinion and views about army and navy officers on a regular basis, which was the cause of friction between him and the Prime Minister such as in October 1914 and their dispute over the successor of Louis of Battenberg at the Admiralty. Prime Minister Herbert Henry Asquith supported Winston Churchill, who suggested appointing Lord Fisher as First Sea Lord. The King did not agree but decided he would not overrule his ministers, complied and signed the appointment. He also expressed his reluctance in a private letter to the Prime Minister. ―... I readily acknowledge his great ability and administrative powers, but at the same time I cannot help feeling that his presence at the Admiralty will not inspire the Navy with that confidence which ought to exist, especially when we are engaged in so momentous a war.― (Rose, 1983, p.186-7). The King felt the events that followed had proved him right. Churchill and Fisher got into a dispute over the position of the navy. As Churchill demanded a naval passage through the Dardanelles to relieve the pressure of Russia by capturing Constantinople, Fisher insisted that the navy was needed much more in the North Sea. After the Gallipoli campaign proved disastrous and Churchill demanded more forces, Fisher resigned on May 15, 1915 and left the Admiralty. A brisk reply from Churchill followed: ―In the King´s name I order you to remain at your post‖ (Rose, 1983, p.188), but without the intended result. Asquith had to admit that the King´s doubts concerning Fisher had been justified. The King maintained his dislike towards Fisher and the feelings proved to be mutual. Correspondingly, Fisher seemed to lack respect for his sovereign when writing to The Manchester Guardian:

I hear amongst the proletariat is a deep feeling that both Buckingham Palace and Sandringham should long ago have been given up for our wounded and sick heroes when every other crowned head has done so, and all our dukes and others have given up their homes for the purpose. Kings will be cheap soon! (Rose, 1983, p.189)

Fisher wrote two books of his memoirs where he mentioned King Edward VII several times but the name of George V is not stated at all. It is important to add that the King did not like Winston Churchill either. He put an entry in his diary: ―I hope Balfour [British Prime Minister in 1902-1905] will be 1st Lord of Admiralty in place of

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Churchill, who has become impossible.‖ (Rose, 1983, p.189). Churchill left office only one week after Fisher. On one hand, the King held a close friendship with Douglas Haig who became the Field Marshal of the British Expeditionary Force, but it was Lloyd George, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, who was strongly disliked by the sovereign. The King complained every time he was not informed of affairs, for example when the minutes of the Cabinet meeting arrived late. When Lloyd George became the Prime Minister in December 1916, the minutes sometimes did not come at all. As the King openly expressed his aversion towards him, Lloyd George retaliated by ignoring or not answering the King‘s letters without a relevant apology. They also had a different point of view on war conduct. Lloyd George believed the fighting on the Western Front should be terminated and the King believed that decisions should be left to professionals. ―Like his father and grandmother before him, the King did not doubt that he was the Head of the Armed Forces in more than name: of military sentiment and tradition, the protector of senior officers from and too meddlesome ministerial control. Lloyd George would have none of it.‖ (Rose, 1983, p.201). For instance, when the King expressed his discontent through Lord Stamfordham about the replacement of General Sir Hugh Trenchard, the Chief of Air Staff, and of Lord Bertie, the British Ambassador in Paris, which he discovered through the press or on the phone, he received an explanation from the Downing Street secretary claiming that the Prime Minister had a twenty-one-hour working day. (Rose, 1983, p.207). This clearly shows that Prime Minister Lloyd George did not intend to involve the King in matters more than it was necessary. George V was determined to keep a certain level of control over the armed services, but like his predecessor Edward VII, he was restricted by the Government and the Cabinet that despite acting in his name had the final say in all decisions.

When Britain entered the war, the King issued A Proclamation for Calling Out the Army Reserve and Embodying the Territorial Force stating:

Whereas by the Reserve Forces Act, 1882, it is amongst Other things enacted that in case of imminent national danger or of great emergency it shall be lawful for Us by Proclamation, the occasion having first been communicated to Parliament, to order that the Army Reserve shall be called out on permanent service‖ (Baker, n.d.). 40

When the first British troops, the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) led by Sir John French, were leaving for the war in Flanders and France soon after the WWI broke out, King George V sent his personal message:

My message to the troops of the Expeditionary Force. Aug. 12th 1914. You are leaving home to fight for the safety and honour of my Empire. Belgium, whose country we are pledged to defend, has been attacked and France is about to be invaded by the same powerful foe. I have implicit confidence in you my soldiers. Duty is your watchword, and I know your duty will be nobly done. I shall follow your every movement with deepest interest and mark with eager satisfaction your daily progress, indeed your welfare will never be absent from my thoughts. I pray God to bless you and guard you and bring you back victorious. (Duffy, 2009e).

This message clearly shows his deep concern for his soldiers. In order to demonstrate his solidarity with the British war effort, George V made sure the soldiers were aware of his support through his frequent visits. During the war he made 450 inspections; he went to see the soldiers in training and at the front, the sailors on the vessels, the wounded in more than 300 hospitals, the workers in many different locations, such as ammunition factories and store houses. He demonstrated his deep appreciation by donating 50,000 decorations and after the bombing raid he visited the damaged areas and talked to the wounded and affected. (Nicolson, 1952, p.252) During one inspection in Hesdigneul, France on October 28, 1915 an accident occurred, that influenced the King‘s life and health forever. He arrived at the site by motor car. General Haig made sure that the horse was specially trained for the role of carrying the sovereign. One witness later recorded that this mare would rest all day long next to a big drum of the army band but unfortunately was not ready for the excessive noise of twenty flying men cheering. ―The wretched animal reared up like a rocket and came over backwards.‖ (Rose, 1983, p.181). After the King fell off the horse, he was picked up, carried and driven away. Despite the danger of German bombing, he stayed at one chateau refusing to move to a safer location. He was in agony and although General Haig lightened the situation by even claiming the King was all right, this was

41 far from the truth. The King suffered from several injuries, a fractured pelvis included He was in immense pain and shock. His recovery was slow and worrying but as he pointed out to his uncle, the Duke of Connaught, he felt lucky to be alive.

I was extremely lucky that I was not killed or otherwise seriously damaged, as it was I cracked three ribs & was terribly bruised about the back and legs and all my muscles were torn & wrenched. I am glad to say I am making an excellent recovery & can walk in my room with the aid of stick, but now nearly 5 weeks since it occured I am still very stiff & have a good many aches which are getting less every day. (Rose, 1983, p.181)

Twenty years later Lord Dawson of Penn, the royal doctor, observed that the King formed some irregular nodules that were causing him stiffness and limited movement. The death toll mounted and among the fallen were also the people that the King knew personally, for instance Raymond Asquith, the oldest son of the Prime Minister, and John Bigge, the only son of the King´s Private Secretary, Lord Stamfordham. The King was also stunned by the death of Lord Kitchener. His cruiser HMS Hampshire was hit by a German mine and sunk on June 5, 1916 close to the Orkney Islands. British public viewed his death as a disaster for the war effort. (Hickman, n.d.). On this occasion the King went against protocol by attending the memorial service of his subject. Kitchener was also mourned by his Cabinet colleague Lloyd George, whose plan had been to be on the same ship but had remained in Britain to solve problems in Ireland. (Rose, 1983, p.195). In February 1917, the nation´s mood was very low due to the long continuation of the war. The King delivered a speech at the State Opening of the Parliament occasion:

Gentlemen of the House of Commons, You will be asked to make the necessary provision for the effective prosecution of the war. My Lords, and Gentlemen, The accomplishment of the task to which I have set My hand will entail unsparing demands on the energies and resources of all My subjects. I am assured, however, that My people will respond to every call necessary for the success of our cause with the same indomitable ardour and devotion that have filled Me with pride and gratitude since the war began. (The King‘s Speech, 1917, 2012 ).

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Through his public speeches the King intended to prove his interminable participation. His tried to reassure his people as much as he was able to and to actively contribute towards to their general determination to win the war, to stay strong and see the end of the conflict. He did not hesitate to be present when needed and represented a respectful and supportive sovereign that Britain needed throughout those troublesome times.

2.3.2 Other Members of the British Royal Family

Just as any other parents, George V and Queen Mary shared a worry over their sons. Prince Edward registered into the . As the Prince of Wales, he could not take part in active fighting on the front lines and every time the conflict came too close, he was moved to a safer place. Lord Kitchener expressed that it would not matter that much if the Prince of Wales would be killed but it would be extremely embarrassing if he was taken prisoner. (Nicolson, 1984, p.253). Prince Edward felt uneasy about this as is shown in his letter to his father King George V: ―I shall have to remember the war by the various towns and places far back which were headquarters of generals I was attached to, of meals, etc.!!‖. (Rose, 1983, p.218). In September 1915 the Prince went on an inspection of the battlefront at Vermelles escorted by Lord Cavan, the Guard Division commander. After leaving their vehicle, the Germans plastered the area with shrapnel. When they returned, they found their driver dead. When the Prince of Wales was sent to Egypt, he was even more discontented and commented: ―I feel such a swine having a soft comfortable time out here while the Guards Division is up at Ypres‖. The King liked his son‘s attitude but insisted on his staying safe. . (Rose, 1983, p.219) Prince Albert, the second son of George V and Queen Mary, later known as King George VI, was serving on HMS Collingwood, which was part of the Home Fleet. He partook in the active fighting in the Battle of Jutland. Princes Henry and George were too young and still attending their schools and the youngest John, due to his epileptic seizures was residing in Sandringham. (Rose, 1983, p.221). Queen Mary and Princess Mary (see Fig.9) were a great support to the wounded and dying soldiers and regularly visited the hospital and hospices. When the King returned to the Western Front in 1916, after his recovery from a horse fall, the Queen insisted on

43 a letter being sent to her every night reporting on each day. In 1917 she insisted on traveling with him and visited the field of Agincourt and Crécy. Douglas Haig pointed out that ―This is the first lady to have a meal at my headquarters since War began!‖ (Rose, 1983, p.182). Also the other members of the royal family were hit by the sense of responsibility. Apart from the Prince of Wales all other royal family members were notably active during the conflict. Despite the King´s eldest son expressing his regrets over the impossibility to fight actively as the men in his age did, the story from Vermelles proves that similar to his father´s accident with the horse, he was close to the danger of being hurt and in his own way closer to ordinary people.

2.4 Responses to Anti-German Tendencies

At the moment of the war outbreak, the anti-German tendencies grew stronger among the British citizens. When the Defence of the Realm Act was issued, it included to make contact with enemies of Britain and so the Germans living in Britain became victimized. The British national archives hold the proof of the riots dated as early as September 17, 1914 reporting the shops of German owners being severely damaged by the crowd in London. (Anti-German riots in London, n.d.). Newspapers like The Daily Mail or Evening News were intensifying the sense of hatred for German ―enemies‖, the Germans living in Britain who were in reality just ordinary citizens. This resulted in houses being set on fire and Germans fleeing for their lives. The sinking of the British liner Lusitania15 by the German submarine in 1915 caused an outburst of anti-German sentiment. (Dealing in Hate: The development of anti-German propaganda, n.d.). Even the members of the British royal family were concerned about these anti- German tendencies and tried to dissipate the allegations about their pro-German attachments despite of their German family ties. Prior to WWI George V held a personal friendship with most of the European monarchs and Germany was no exception. With the outset of the conflict the situation started to develop differently. King George V was not pro-French, pro-Russian or pro-

15 The Lutisania was a liner that was on the way from the United States to Liverpool. On May 7, 1915 it was hit by German submarine, the liner sank within only 20 minutes with a loss of 1198 lives. (Lusitania, 2014) 44

German; he was undoubtedly pro-British. He was not of the opinion that the Germans, having become the enemies overnight, had suddenly stopped being human. He did not share the hysteria with so many of his subjects that caused them to abandon their reason, their dignity, and their sense of fair play. Only five days after the war began, the King received the proposal from the War Office that the German Emperor and his sons should be dispossessed of their honorary commands of the British Army. At first the King disagreed but when Lord Roberts persuaded him, German names no longer appeared in the next edition of the Army List. The King, however, rejected to issue any public notice. As the anti-German campaign continued, the King gave way to other actions to satisfy his nation. (Nicolson, 1984, p.249).

2.4.1 Changing the Family Name

With the rising number of the casualties and wounded, a hysterical hatred of anything German ascended. Everybody with a German became suspicious. The King became disturbed by the campaign against two public servants: Admiral Prince Louis of Battenberg and Lord Haldane. Prince Louis was born a German, but at the age of fourteen he became a British subject and later joined the Royal Navy. Despite his marriage to Queen Victoria´s granddaughter, he was forced to withdraw into private life. The King felt sorry for him and the comment ―there is no more loyal man in the country‖ was put in his diary. (Rose, 1983, p.171-172). The King´s mother, Queen Alexandra, was also contributing to the anti-German campaign. In her letter to her son she stated: ―It is but right and proper for you to have down those hateful German banners in our sacred Church, St. George´s at Windsor.‖ With reluctance, the King yielded, and the banners were removed.‖ (Rose, 1983, p.173) In 1917 when his of Saxe-Coburg was being criticised, the King emphasized his devotion to deal with the issue and proclaimed that all Queen Victoria´s descendants should bear the name of Windsor. The College of Herald could not provide him with a convenient name. Rose (1983, p.174) states that it was Lord Stamfordham, who was the creator of the idea and who suggested ‗Windsor‘, as it is the most beautiful and most known place outside of London. Nicolson (1952, p. 309) distinguishes that although it was Lord Stamfordham who suggested the name of Windsor, he did so based on his discovery that during Edward III´s reign, he was called ―Edward of

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Windsor‖. The name was published by press on July 18th 1917 with the King´s proclamation:

We, of Our Royal Will and Authority, do hereby declare and announce that as from the date of this Our Royal Proclamation Our House and Family shall be styled and known as the House and Family of Windsor, and that all the descendants in the male line of our said Grandmother Queen Victoria who are subjects of these Realms, other than female descendants who may marry or may have married, shall bear the said Name of Windsor:…(Nicolson, 1952, p.310)

The members of the Royal Family with German names were invited to abandon them and to adopt British . The King‘s first brother-in-law, the Duke of Teck, became Marquis of Cambridge, the second one, Prince Alexander of Teck, adopted the title of with the family name of Cambridge. The King‘s two cousins Prince Louis and Prince Alexander of Battenberg became Marquis of Milford Haven and Marquis of Carisbrooke with the family name Mountbatten. Beside the change of the names, it was also understood that the peerage of the United Kingdom was accepted via membership in the House of Lords. Consequently, it was emphasized that acceptance of peerage of the United Kingdom and membership in the House of Lords also meant that the members of the Royal Family would not identify themselves with any political party. (Nicolson, 1984, p.310). Aronson (1986, p.154) states: ―Various Teck and Battenberg princes re-emerged with such mellifluously; Anglicised surnames and titles of Mountbatten, Cambridge, Athlone, Milford Haven and Carisbrooke; while those two grand-daughters of Queen Victoria, the princesses of Schleswig-Holstein, became, as the King robustly put it, ´Helena Victoria and Marie Louise of Nothing.‖

2.4.2 The Titles Deprivation Act

As noted above, the family background of George V was predominately German. His grandmother Queen Victoria came from the German dynasty of Saxe-Coburg, his father Edward VII had a strong German accent when he spoke. During the war the opinions that would criticize the King‘s German ancestry increased and the King decided to take

46 a step to emphasize his detachment from his German ancestry. He signed a law that passed through the Parliament on November 8, 1917. It deprived enemies in the existing war of their British peerage. It was called An Act to Deprive Enemy Peers and Princes of British Dignities and Titles. According to this Act, the King appointed His Privy Council, which consisted of seven members, where at least two of these were to be from the Judicial Committee. The Council had the authority to take evidence. Sequentially, the report from the Council would be passed to the Parliament and the King would make the final decision. The Act quotes:

Where the name of any peer or prince is included in the report, then from and after the date of the presentation of the report to His Majesty- (a) The name of such person, if he be a peer, shall be struck out of the Peerage Roll16, and all rights of such peer to receive a writ of summons and to sit in the House of Lords or to take part in the election of representative peers shall cease and determine :(b) All privileges and all rights to any dignity or title, whether in respect of a peerage or under any Royal Warrant or Letters Patent, shall cease and determine (The Titles Deprivation Act of 1917, n.d.).

Lyon, A. (2000) observes that although the Act went into effect in November 1917, it was not until 28th March 1919 that the Privy Council presented the report with four names. They were: His Royal Leopold Charles, , Earl of Clarence and Baron Arklow. His Ernest Augustus, and Teviotdale, Earl of Armagh. His Royal Highness Ernest Augustus (Duke of Brunswick), Prince of Great Britain and Ireland Henry, Viscount Taaffe of Corren and Baron of Ballymote. Even though their descendants were entitled to present a petition and appeal to have their peerage restored, no-one ever did. (Koenig, M., 2012).

16 The Roll of the Peerage is an officially compiled and maintained list, intended to contain the names of all living peers. Available on http://www.college-of-arms.gov.uk/peers-roll-contents 47

2.5 The King and the Other European Royals

Even during war George V was trying to maintain his good relations with other European royals without bias to which side they supported. He provided help to some members even for those on the opposite side as for instance in case of the Austrian Emperor, but surprisingly he did not help one monarch who was close to him not only as the sovereign, but also as a family member. The consequences of the King´s decision resulted in a fatal end on this occasion. The Tsar unlike George V was an autocratic monarch and this would influence the King in his discussions with his government.

2.5.1 Rejection of the Tsar’s asylum

In April 1915 the Tsar made a destructive decision to command the army and to leave the capital. After the February revolution in 1917, the Tsar was forced to abdicate and he and his family were moved first to the Czarskoye Sielo and then to the town of Yeakaterinburg. During the entire time he was desperately waiting to be granted asylum. (Csar Nicholas II abdicates, n.d.). For decades it was believed that the British Government was the authority that had withdrawn the asylum for Tsar Nicholas II´s family after his abdication March 15, 1917; March 2 in the Julian calendar. Clayová (2006, p.336) points out that until ´s biography of George V was published, the public believed that Prime Minister Lloyd George and his Cabinet were responsible for denying the Tsar asylum. Rose brings a new view stating that the first idea of the asylum came in March 1917 from Pavel Milyukov, the Foreign Minister of the Provisional Government of Russia, and it was reported to London by Sir George Buchanan, the British Ambassador in Russia. After an official request from Milyukov, the Foreign Office suggested that Denmark or Switzerland would be a more appropriate place for the Tsar to reside. It led to a more urgent message from Milyukov to get the Tsar out of the country as soon as possible. (Rose, 1983, p. 210). A meeting was held at Downing Street on March 22 to discuss this matter and it was agreed that the Emperor would be accepted in Britain but the question of the Tsar´s residence was joined with the question of how the Tsar and his family would support themselves. Sir George Buchanan, together with the asylum offer, requested that the Russian Government would provide enough finances for the Tsar to live in suitable 48 dignity. The letter from Lord Stamfordham to A. J. Balfour, the Foreign Secretary, however shows that the King had second thoughts about his royal cousin´s future.

The King has been thinking much about the Government´s proposal that the Emperor Nicholas and his family should come to England. As you are doubtless aware, the King has a strong personal friendship for the Emperor and therefore would be glad to do anything to help him in this crisis. But His Majesty cannot help doubting not only on account of the danger of the voyage, but on general grounds of expediency, whether it is advisable that the Imperial Family should take up their residence in this country. The King would be glad if you would consult the Prime Minister, as His Majesty understands that no definite decision has yet been come on the subject by the Russian Government (Rose, 1983, p.211).

On August 2 Balfour replied that it would be impossible to withdraw the invitation that was sent on the guidance of His Majesty´s Ministers. Four days later Stamfordham wrote to Balfour:

Every day, the King is becoming more concerned about the question of the Emperor and Empress coming to his country. His Majesty receives letters from people in all classes of life, known or unknown to him, saying how much the matter is being discussed, not only in clubs, but by working men, and that Labour Members in the House of Commons are expressing adverse opinion to the proposal.…The King desires me to ask you whether after consulting the Prime Minister, Sir George Buchanan should not be communicated with, with a view to approaching the Russian Government to make some plan for the future residence of their Imperial ? (Rose, 1983, p.212)

Later Stamfordham informed the Prime Minister about the King´s awkward position and expressed that a different location such as France or Spain for the Tsar´s family should be suggested. He also informed Buchanan that the previous agreement to accept the Tsar could no longer stand and asked him to inform Petrograd. This affair became embarrassing for the King, as well as for the British Government. Just as the King was concerned about his popularity, the Government needed to ensure military cooperation with the new Russian leaders. (Rose, 1983, p.213)

49

As much as this event seems not to be in line with the King´s character, Rose (1983, p.215) states: ‖What does remain certain is that the King, by persuading his Government to withdraw their original offer of asylum, deprived the Imperial family of their best, perhaps their only, means of escape.‖ He also appends (p.216) that no evidence of dealing with the Tsar´s imprisonment could be found in the at Windsor. This suggests that the Tsar was abandoned by his royal cousin King George V. There is also no record of the King expressing any regrets, much less his own role in this tragic event. Lloyd George never revealed the King´s role in the negotiations. When it became known that he was writing his memoirs, Maurice Hankey, the Cabinet Secretary, was to decide to what extent Lloyd George could quote from the official documents and he decided that this chapter should be restrained. Lloyd George noted:

An agitation had also started in this country, which indicated that there was a strong feeling in extensive working-class circles, hostile to the Czar coming to Great Britain. However, the invitation was not withdrawn. The ultimate issue in the matter was decided by the action of the Russian Government, which continued to place obstacles in the way of the Czar´s departure. (Rose, 1983, p.218).

As much as this was not true, it certainly preserved the King´s honour. Clayová (2006, p.336) adds that Stamfordham visited the archives a few months before his death in 1931. He found his letter of invitation and by his own hand he wrote: ―It looks like most of the people think that the invitation was initiated by the King, whereas it was done by his Government‖ and signed it with the letter ‗S‘. Overall the King´s decision not to assist the Tsar, in spite of the government´s opposition, was very wise and certainly contributed to the preservation of his position. ―He realized that, to most of his subjects, the Tsar was a bloodstained tyrant, that the Empress Alexandra was accused of being pro-German and that this was no time for a constitutional monarch, apprehensive of his own position, to be extending the hand of friendship to an autocrat - however closely related.‖ (Aronson, 2011).

50

2.5.2 European Royal Families

The situation of the other European royal families divided them into two groups Pro or Anti German. The Greek King Constantine and his wife Queen Sophie, who was sister of the German Kaiser, were accused of being pro-German and were forced to leave Athens in . Aronson (1986, p.134) points out that Queen Sophie was also Queen Victoria´s granddaughter (and mother of Empress Victoria who was born British) and held sincere feelings for Britain and for her cousin George V and even declared that Britain was her second home. It was then suggested that George V should grant asylum for the King, Queen and their Crown Prince George on the Isle of Wight. As George V had just been through the discussion about the Tsar´s future, he disagreed and the found their new home in Switzerland. (Aronson, 1986, p.163). The other monarch to be mentioned is the Belgium King Albert and his wife Queen Elisabeth. He earned his huge respect from remaining throughout the whole war with his nation and the troops. He very rarely left the country but paid a visit to George V and Queen Mary in London in July 1918 on the occasion of their Silver Wedding and George V visited King Albert in his country in November 1918 near Zeebrugge. (Aronson, 1986, p.176 ) The Romanian Queen Marie was George V´s cousin. When the Romanian army was defeated and Romania surrendered in 1917, her family was allowed to leave for England but Queen Marie refused to leave the country. She and her husband Ferdinand stayed loyal to the Allies throughout the whole war. In 1918 a French plane dropped a message from George V saying that ―Romania would not be forgotten‖ and the Queen was very excited about this. They maintained a good relationship also after the war. Austria surrendered on November 4, 1918. After several states became independent, the Austrian Emperor Karl found himself ruling only the German speaking part of Austria. At first he refused to sign his abdication but over time he, his wife Empress Zita and their five children left Schönbrunn and moved fifty miles outside of Vienna. But when a story of an alleged Bolshevik-inspired plot reached his brother, Prince Sixtus, he pleaded the President of France for their asylum. When President Poincaré did not provide any help, he went to see George V. The King agreed and arranged for a British officer to be assigned to their protection and to escort them to their exile in Switzerland. (Aronson, 1986, p.183-7) 51

On September 29, 1918 the German Kaiser was informed by Hindenburg, Chief of the German General Staff, and General Ludendorff that the army was not able to hold out much longer. It was decided that if the Kaiser would be away from Berlin, it would be easier to save his crown. One month later he left for Spa in Belgium but only three days later a plea for his abdication reached his chateau. It took the Kaiser ten days to do so. Hindenburg urged him to take refuge in Holland. Aronson suggests that it may have been King George V who convinced Queen Wilhemina of the Netherlands to provide the Kaiser asylum in her country. When he arrived in Amerongen, he told his host: ―Now for a cup of real good English tea‖ (Aronson, 1986, p.189-190). Clayová (2006, p.347) adds that he never saw his cousin George V again. He neither spoke nor wrote to him. When the Treaty of Piece was signed in 1919 in Versailles, France, it also included the decision to have Kaiser Willhelm II and several high-ranking German officials tried for a ―supreme offence against international humanity and the sanctity of treaties‖. At that time, George V received a petition from Germany pleading him to prevent the trial. The King was doubtful but a resolution of the Dutch government stated a refusal to hand the Kaiser over that ended any other negotiations. (Aronson, 1986, p.200). In April 1919 George V sent MHS Marlborough to Jalta to bring the Tsar´s mother Marie Feodorovna (Minny) and the Tsar´s sister Ksenia with her family to Britain. (Clayová, p.349) The Dowager Empress could only be convinced by a letter from her sister, Queen Alexandra. George V insisted the ship to land in Portsmouth where Alexandra waited for her sister and they were reunited again. According to Clayová (2006, p.352) the Kaiser never doubted who was behind his exclusion. His answer was – his uncle Edward VII and two Danish princesses – Alexandra, wife of Edward VII, and her sister Minny, Marie Feodorovna, the wife of the Russian Tsar Alexander III.

52

3 AFTERMATH OF THE WAR

On November 11, 1918 at 11:00 a.m. the war came to an end. The death toll reached 10 million world-wide. The British Empire claimed 908,371 casualties, 2,090,212 wounded out of 8,904,467 of mobilized forces. (WWI Casualty and Death Tables, n.d.). Huge crowds gathered in Trafalgar Square in London to celebrate the end of the war. In spite of the fact that Britain was one of the victorious countries, her state was alarming. Her economy was in a bad shape with a huge debt of 136% of her gross national product, with the United States as a debtor. The politics were fractioned; the Liberal Party divided into two groups – the first one supporting Lloyd George and the second backing the former Prime Minister Asquith. (Britain after the war, n.d.). But for King George V and his wife Queen Mary there was an enormous feeling of relief. All allegations of their German ancestry were forgotten and they could enjoy the power of the cheering crowds as they passed through the streets of London in their open carriage. The King highlighted his feeling in a note dated November 11 ―Today has indeed been a wonderful day, the greatest in the history of the Country.‖ The Queen wrote to one of her children: ―This has repaid us for much hard work and many moments of keen and bitter anxiety.‖ The King celebrated the victory by attending a theatre performance. He visited more than 30,000 disabled men in Hyde Park who all obtained a copy of his speech commencing with: ―I am glad to have met you today and to have looked into the faces of those who for the defence of Home and Empire were ready to give up their all, and have sacrificed limbs, sight, hearing and health…‖ (Rose, 1986, p.223). On five successive days he drove through the streets of London. There were cheering crowds of up to nine miles and he was very touched by that. In St. Paul‘s Cathedral a service of thanksgiving was held. The King received congratulations from the members of the House of Lords and Commons in the Royal Gallery of Westminster Palace in the presence of the representatives of the Dominions and India. In the next days he visited Edinburgh, France, the battlefields of St.Quentin, Le Cateau, Mons, Ypres, Passchendaele, Cambrai and Zeebrugge. When he returned back to London he received the visit of the President of the United States, Woodrow Wilson. (Nicolson, 1952, p.327)

53

One year later when the King attended the Derby race at , he was witness to the crowd making space for the disabled men in their hospital dresses. The King waved at them and proclaimed: ―Without them there would be no Derby today‖. (Aronson, 1986, p.223) When the armistice´s second anniversary was approaching, it was suggested that along with the unveiling of on the Mall in London, the body of an unknown soldier should be buried in in the presence of the King. Despite the King´s objections relating to his feeling that two years after the war would be too long a time to carry out this act and it would reopen the war wound, he finally agreed. After unveiling the Cenotaph, he walked behind the gun that carried the body of to the Westminster Abbey (Nicolson, 1952, p.343)

3.1 Implications for Survival of the Monarchy

The collapse of the Tsarist system and fall of the Austro-Hungarian and German empires initiated a discussion about the monarchical tradition in Britain. Lord Esher declared: ―The Crown and its cost will have to be justified in the future in the eyes of a war-torn and hungry proletariat, endowed with a huge preponderance of voting power‖. (Aronson, 1986, p.194). George V realized very soon after the outbreak of the war that his role needs to be considerable in regards to the provision of support and compassion, to unification, to his regular presence and also his sacrifices. It is worthy of notice that his duty was not only limited to representing his country as an official , but to his active engagement in the war effort and his constant concerns for his subjects, which proved him to be a much-favoured sovereign of the British Empire. He died in 1936 and ―by then he had developed into a quintessentially British monarch; the very symbol of the nation. All but forgotten was his German ancestry and his Continental connections; George V and his dynasty had become a truly national institution, the embodiment, it was said, of everything that was best in British life.‖ (Aronson, 1986, p.199) Only four kings out of the nine that attended the funeral of Edward VII and whose picture was taken in Buckingham Palace kept their thrones. These were the constitutional sovereigns of Belgium, Denmark and Norway and Great Britain. ―One of the 20th-century‘s early lessons was that the only way for kings to stay kings was to

54 give all their power away. George didn‘t much like the lesson, but he learnt it very thoroughly.‖ (Carter,2009).

55

Conclusion

Queen Victoria, her son King Edward VII and her grandson King George V were all limited by the Constitution and their governments. They all actively followed their country‘s events and tried to get involved – although each monarch to a different extent. Despite the fact that Queen Victoria‘s reign was influenced by the early loss of her husband, she lived to the age of eighty one and for a long time refused to involve her son. It was only at the end of her reign that she accepted him as an advisor. At the moment of her death, her descendants were sitting on many of the European thrones so her legacy as the Grandmother of Europe was assured. Taking into consideration that Edward VII came to the throne at the age of fifty- nine, his contributions in the field of foreign affairs and in army and naval matters was remarkable. In spite of his enthusiasm regarding the events in home and foreign politics, his decisions were taken into account only on the occasion of minimal objections from the participating sides. What needs to be stressed is his effort in the creation of agreements between the nations; the Entente Cordiale with France in 1904 and Anglo- Russian Entente in 1907. It must be noted that he managed to reach some results simply by travelling and by being an English gentleman, as many people called it, and due to his personal relationships with many of the sovereigns, aristocratic families, army officers and many others that he found interesting or necessary. Unfortunately, this was not the case with German Kaiser Wilhelm II. Although he was the son of his oldest sister, Edward VII indicated his dislike towards to his nephew on a regular basis. It can be said that the Kaiser‘s behaviour may have been the initial reason for the King to make his own suggestions to define Britain as an ally to France and Russia, rather than to Germany. Bearing in mind that King George V was the second son of Edward VII and was therefore not in direct succession to the throne, his role as British sovereign during the world conflict could be summarized as essential. As noted above he recognized the urgent demands for the sovereigns‘ support. From the moment of the war´s onset, he visited his soldiers on the front, the workers in the factories, the citizens affected by the bombing and the wounded returned to the country. He did not hesitate to make sacrifices which he proved by limiting his food or service consumptions and abstinence

56 in the campaign to reduce alcoholic drinking in the country. Even after his riding accident in France he carried on visiting the troops and his subjects. Regarding his personal relationship with other sovereigns he did not appear to dislike any particular sovereign, but as the result of the Anti-German campaign, he decided to change his name from Saxo-Coburg to Windsor. Windsor remains the name that the British sovereigns employ to this day. He also issued the Title Deprivation Act that dispossessed the German peers of their British titles. These significant measures were accepted by the British public as proof of their sovereign‘s commitments to his country and its citizens. What was not known for a long time was also the fact that due to his concerns over his throne, he refused to grant the asylum to his cousin, the Russian Tsar Nicolas II and his family. It could be viewed as proof of being concerned about the future of his own reign or as a simple sign of unpreparedness for accepting a foreign sovereign in his own country. Overall, it must be remembered that King George V succeeded in maintaining British monarchy contrary to those that fell during the war in the cases of Russia, Austro-Hungary and the German Empire, and in reassuring his people throughout the conflict that lasted four long years. One hundred years after the moment of the war outbreak, one of Britain‘s most remarkable sights, the Tower of London, became the place of the display called Blood Swept Lands and Seas of Red (see Fig.10). Artists Paul Cummins and Tom Piper were behind the magnificent show to commemorate the centenary of the onset of the First World War. 888,246 ceramic red poppies were planted around the Tower each representing one military life lost in the time of the First World War. After the remembrance, the poppies were sold for £25 each, raising an astonishing 10 million pounds for six charities. (Brown, M., 2014). During four months this breathtaking show was visited by Queen Elizabeth II (see Fig.11) and also by her two grandsons, Prince William and Prince Harry (see Fig.12). It should be declared that these royals owe their place to their ancestors, who did their best not only to preserve their families, but also show the British people their human sides by becoming closer than ever before to their subjects.

57

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64

Appendices

List of Figures

Fig. 1: Queen Victoria ...... 67 Fig. 2: Queen Victoria´s family tree ...... 67 Fig. 3: King Edward VII ...... 67 Fig. 4: German Kaiser Wilhelm II ...... 68 Fig. 5: Nine sovereigns at Buckingham Palace after King Edward VII´s funeral ...... 68 Fig. 6: Tsar Nicholas II and King George V ...... 69 Fig. 7: Sir Edward Grey, British Foreign Secretary ...... 69 Fig. 8: Lord Kitchener on the war campaign poster ...... 70 Fig. 9: Queen Mary and Princess Mary during the First World War ...... 70 Fig. 10: Display Blood Swept Lands and Seas of Red, Tower of London ...... 71 Fig. 11: The reigining British sovereign, Queen Elizabeth II ...... 71 Fig. 12: The fourth generation of the King V´s descendants ...... 72

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Fig. 1 – Queen Victoria

Source: http://www.express.co.uk/news/royal/424881/Victoria-A-very-Contrary-Queen

66

Fig. 2: Queen Victoria´s Family Tree

Source: http://www.victorianweb.org/history/victoria/4.html

Fig.3 - King Edward VII

Source: http://www.bbc.co.uk/arts/yourpaintings/paintings/edward-vii-18411910-178793 67

Fig. 4 – German Kaiser Wilhelm II

Source: http://galleryhip.com/kaiser-wilhelm-ii.html

Fig 5 – Nine sovereigns at Buckingham Palace after Edward VII´s funeral

Source:http://www.dailymail.co.uk/femail/article-2552270/Royal-Cousins-War-tells-family-rift-saw- George-V-Tsar-Nicholas-against-German-cousin.html

68

Fig. 6 – Tsar Nicholas II and King George V

Source: http://www.dailymail.co.uk/femail/article-2552270/Royal-Cousins-War-tells-family-rift- saw-George-V-Tsar-Nicholas-against-German-cousin.html

Fig. 7 – Sir Edward Grey, British Foreign Secretary

Source: http://www.iwm.org.uk/history/how-the-world-went-to-war-in-1914

69

Fig. 8 – Lord Kitchener on the war poster

Source: http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/kitchener_lord_horatio.shtml

Fig. 9 - Queen Mary and Princess Mary during the First World War

Source: http://loc.gov/pictures/resource/ggbain.29281/

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Fig. 10 - Display Blood Swept Lands and Seas of Red, Tower of London

Source: http://www.express.co.uk/news/world-war-1/528599/Tower-of-London-poppies-Blood-Swept- Lands-installation-complete

Fig. 11: The reigning British sovereign, Queen Elizabeth II

Source : http://www.standard.co.uk/news/london/tower-of-london-poppies-the-queen-visits- memorial-to-pay-tribute-to-war-dead-9799535.html

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Fig. 12: The fourth generation of the King V´s descendants.

Prince William, Duke of Cambridge, future throne heir (in the middle), his wife Catherine, Duchess of Cambridge and his brother, Prince Henry of Wales by the Tower of London Source: http://www.mirror.co.uk/news/uk-news/world-war-1-centenary-recap-3992874

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