Asia Notes A Regional Supplement to ECHO Development Notes

Edited by Abram Bicksler and Daniela Riley October 2016 | Issue 29 A Primer on Coff ee Harvesting and Processing by Zachary Price, ECHO Asia Senior Technical Advisor Featured in this AN 1 A Primer on Coff ee Har- Introduction Green Coff ee: Coff ee that has been dried to 12% but not yet roasted. vesting and Processing Processing methods for coff ee can dras- tically change the quality and taste of the Cherry/Bean Selection 4 Diagnosing Crop Nutrient fi nal product, for better or for worse. By Defi ciencies in the Field choosing a method that positively impacts Selection of coff ee cherries begins at the quality, fl avor, and cost, a coff ee producer coff ee tree; harvesting is the last stage 8 Book Review: Perennial can optimize the coff ee’s potential, at the of farming, but is also considered the fi rst same time optimizing a farmer’s income stage of processing. Choosing the right Vegetable Gardening from that higher-quality coff ee. Using an cherries at the right time can contribute to improved method to remove the coff ee sweet and full-bodied coff ee fl avor notes, 10 Upcoming ECHO Asia bean from the coff ee cherry is one of the rather than sour or bitter notes. The color of Workshops & Events most eff ective ways to increase quality. ripe cherries will diff er between coff ee vari- eties, so be sure to research and test the 12 Opportunity from the Net- Each location throughout the world has its specifi c variety with which you are working. work own unique characteristics and environ- Several tools can guide farmers and coff ee mental factors (known as “terroir”) that, in processors in cherry selection. Large color 12 Call for Articles & Insights turn, give distinct qualities and add value charts displaying coff ee cherries at diff erent to niche, high-quality crops and products stages of ripeness are posted at the loading such as coff ee, wine, chocolate, cheese, bays of many coff ee processing plants, etc. The rising Specialty Coff ee market to insure that farmers know what level of seeks unique, single-origin coff ees that ripeness is expected (Figure 2). Ripeness can add to the experience of the coff ee boards can also be used to measure how consumer. There is no “ideal” way to many cherries out of 100 are ripe, with process coff ee, so long as a high standard payment then incentivized accordingly. of quality is achieved. However, in order to Hand picking cherries as they ripen is the make choices that will optimize quality and best possible way to pick them, but tends income within your particular context, you to be highly labor intensive and thus very fi rst need to understand the foundation of expensive. coff ee quality and processing. When processing coff ee, you want to control Key areas that comprise the foundation each step of the process in order to make of coff ee quality and processing include sure you have a quality product. Immedi- cherry selection; fermentation; and mois- ately after cherries are harvested, they ture content. Each step in every method of coff ee processing aims to improve or impact one of these three components. Let’s look at them one-by-one, after fi rst defi ning a few terms. Th e ECHO Asia Impact Center Some Defi nitions and Parts of operates under ECHO, a non-profi t the Coff ee Cherry (Figure 1): Christian organization that helps you help the poor to produce food Cherries: Coff ee bean is still inside of the coff ee cherry in the developing world.

Pulp: The coff ee cherry once removed from ECHO Asia Impact Center the seed/ bean Figure 1: The coff ee cherry is made up of the PO Box 64 following layers: 1) Center Cut; 2) Endosperm; Chiang Mai 50000 Thailand Parchment: Coff ee dried to 12% but still 3)Silver Skin (Spermoderm); 4) Parchment (En- [email protected] inside the parchment docarp); 5) Pectin Layer /Mucilage (Inner Meso- carp); 6) Pulp (Mesocarp); 7) Outer Skin (Exo- www.ECHOcommunity.org carp). (TORCH Coff ee, 2015) 1 are briefl y submersed in water to remove The washed process off ers two major the taste of (and the net return from) the ‘fl oaters’ [the cherries that fl oat to the top, advantages. First, it enables farmers to resulting coff ee. If you allow fermentation to which are immature or defective]. Rinsed process their coff ee more quickly with run rampant, you will produce coff ee that and sorted cherries should be processed industrial machines. Secondly, because is unpleasant to drink, resulting in lower as soon as possible. Fermentation begins the cherries have been removed from the quality and profi tability. as soon as the cherries are picked, so the bean, the coff ee dries faster than the whole length of time the cherries spend sitting cherries. Thirdly, less space is needed for Fermentation starts already when the in the fi eld or being transported to their processing; the seeds/beans with pulp coff ee cherries are just past ripeness on the processing location will aff ect the fl avor of removed take up less space than whole tree, and lasts until the beans have been the coff ee. coff ee cherries. However, the washed dried to 12% moisture for storage. The rate process uses machines that require more and length of the fermentation process is Processing capital and/or partnerships with local infl uenced by a number of diff erent vari- coops. ables, including temperature, sunlight/ There are three main ways to process shade, air fl ow, oxygen or lack thereof, and coff ee: the washed process; the dry natural 2. Dry Natural Process. The dry natural sugar content. These variables will either process; and the pulped natural, or “honey,” process is used predominantly in Ethiopia, encourage or discourage the production of process. Within these three main methods, Brazil, and Yemen, and generally with bacteria, yeast, and/or mold, which infl u- many variations are used to increase Robusta coff ees. The coff ee bean is dried ence fermentation and thus impact the production quantity and/or to develop in the cherry until it reaches 12% moisture quality and fl avor profi le of the resulting fl avor, depending on the unique contexts content (see the section below for more on coff ee. and coff ees encountered (Figure 3). The moisture content); then the dried cherry three main processes are discussed below. is removed mechanically with a dry mill. Bacteria abound in the natural environ- During this process, the sugars in the coff ee ment, with the potential to impart both good 1. Washed Process. This method refers cherry create unique fl avors, making the and bad qualities through fermentation. to coff ee that is processed in a wet mill, end result suitable for the specialty coff ee Far fewer kinds of yeast grow naturally; which is a series of machines that remove market. The coff ee cherries take longer to however, the ones that do are more likely the coff ee skin, pulp and mucilage while dry and require more drying space than just to positively aff ect the taste of coff ee. Mold, the berries are submersed in water. First, the beans, but the only machine used is a easily detected by the human eye and coff ee is de-pulped mechanically with a dry mill, so very little capital is needed. nose, is never good for coff ee. To prevent pulper machine. Then the mucilage is mold, prevent fermentation from happening removed, by fermentation, by mechanical 3. Pulped Natural or “Honey Process”. for extended periods of time by drying the means (a de-mucilage machine), or by a This processing technique is a middle coff ee in the sun or with mechanical dryers, combination of both. option between the “Washed” and “Dry and protect coff ee beans and/or cherries Natural” processes. Coff ee cherries are from nighttime temperature drops and dew The washed process allows cherries and processed in a wet mill, like that used so that they do not pick up moisture again. green coff ee beans to be submersed in in the washed process. However, the If you see or smell mold, take immediate water multiple times before the drying coff ee beans are dried with the mucilage action to speed up the drying. process begins. Each time, defective coff ee still intact, and dried to 12% moisture in beans fl oat to the top and can be removed; the parchment, similar to the dry natural The type of container used as a “fermen- as a result, this process is a good choice process. At its best, using this process tation tank” can infl uence microbial growth. for farms wanting to systematically improve allows you to lower the number of defective Containers with coarse, rough surfaces the quality of the coff ee beans that are beans (by removing the produced. ones that fl oat), but still retain sugar (in the Once the washing process is complete, the mucilage) to improve the coff ee beans (still in the hull/endocarp) are fl avor during the drying dried to 12% moisture content. Farmers process. around the world dry their coff ee many diff erent ways; some farmers dry beans in Fermentation the sun either on the ground or on raised drying beds with a mesh surface to promote Regardless of the initial air fl ow. Within the coff ee industry, these processing step you are referred to as African Raised Beds. A use, fermentation is a mechanical dryer can also be used. There critical aspect of coff ee are two types of mechanical dryers used: a processing. Fermen- fl at table-like dryer that blows hot air above tation is a metabolic or below the coff ee and a tumble dryer process during which which is a drum that is heated and turned. sugars are converted to At night, cover the beans with plastic (top acids, gases, or alcohol. and bottom) to prevent the coff ee from Yeast and bacteria are reabsorbing moisture from dew as the most often involved in the temperature drops. process. If you manage the fermentation process Figure 2: High-throughput metabolic profi ling of diverse green well, you can maximize coff ee arabica beans. (Setoyama, 2013)

2 ...... used (washed or dry natural process), the moisture content much be reduced to 12% and kept there consistently. Correctly dried coff ee will taste better; it will also last much longer in storage. Below are some ways to optimize moisture content and coff ee quality.

Coff ee should be dried in the sun or with a coff ee drying machine. Indoors, coff ee will be susceptible to mold and uncontrolled fermentation. Drying on the ground can give inconsistent results, because the earth or concrete will change temperatures dras- tically between night and day. By contrast, drying on a raised bed (using trays made of screen mesh) can help regulate airfl ow and temperature. Cover the coff ee every night, top and bottom (for example with a waterproof bag), because as the tempera- ture drops, the air condenses and creates moisture. It does not need to be airtight; however, it should be completely wrapped. You do not want that moisture to be reab- sorbed by the beans; if it is, it will break down the cell structure and make the coff ee Figure 3: A coff ee processing fl avor matrix showing resultant fl avors from diff erent processes. turn stale more quickly. Stale coff ee usually Source: www.torchcoff ee.asia. has fl avor notes that are described as woody or wood-like. are more susceptible to bacteria and mold acted upon quickly. Over-fermenting for one growth and are more diffi cult to clean. hour or half-a-day will not impact the coff ee Moisture content of coff ee cherries or beans Often metal, plastic and cement tanks are as drastically as over-fermenting for one can be measured with a moisture meter, or used when fermenting coff ee. to three days. Evaluate the coff ee often you can use basic math to roughly deter- at the farm level by roasting and tasting mine the moisture content. For the latter, Bacteria, yeast, and mold diff er in their it, to ensure that processing methods are separate a 12 kg amount of coff ee from the optimal growth conditions. Bacteria grow producing the desired results. rest, but dry it in the same manner as the rest best at the beginning of the drying process, of your crop. Weigh that sample of coff ee when the moisture content of the cherry is Fermentation is also used to break down every day and night to determine the mois- high. As the moisture content drops, condi- and loosen the pectin layer (mucilage) from ture loss/gain. Regardless of the process tions favor yeast growth. As the beans/ the coff ee bean after the coff ee cherry has you use, you will want to dry the beans cherries continue to dry, mold growth is been pulped in the washed process; then until they are at 12% moisture. However, more likely. You will want to experiment the mucilage can easily be removed by the fi nal weight will vary depending on your with small batches of coff ee to learn about washing the beans. This kind of fermenta- process. For the pulped natural process, naturally-available yeasts. For example, in tion can be done aerobically (also known as the fi nal dry-cherry weight should be 4 kg if natural processed coff ees, you could pause dry fermentation—without water) or anaer- the initial fresh cherry weight was 12 kg (33 the cherry-drying process by removing any obically (wet fermentation—in water). The kg if initial weight was 100 kg). For washed drying agents (such as the sun and air) at wet fermentation process creates another process coff ee, the fi nal weight should be any step within the drying process (if you opportunity to remove any immature and 2.2 kg if the initial fresh cherry weight was want to grow yeast, you might wait until the underdeveloped beans that fl oat to the top. 12 kg (18.3 kg if initial weight was 100 kg). coff ee bean/cherry has lost 50% of its orig- However, it also requires large amounts of Please note that the weight of the natural inal weight). Then, to evaluate what kind of water and a water treatment plant, because processed coff ee does not correspond with bacteria and yeast are growing, you could the water tends to become very acidic in the the weight of the washed process coff ee place the cherries in a fermentation tank fermentation process, and may harm plants because the natural processed coff ee is (a container of any size that can be sealed and the environment if it is discharged being weighed with the cherry still intact. shut and that is made of food grade mate- untreated. rial), with or without water. Yeast usually Finished coff ee should be stored off produce a sweet winey or jelly smell. If Moisture Content the ground (for example, on a pallet). If the smell becomes sour or bitter, you are possible, store coff ee in warehouses that Proper fermentation is important for good- most likely starting to grow mold; you will are well-maintained, with tall roofs that quality coff ee; reducing the moisture need to remove the beans/cherries from the protect from rainfall and that insulate the content is another key step when seeking fermentation tank and continue the drying coff ee from the heat of the sun. Consider to produce optimum quality coff ee. A freshly process. While fermenting, coff ee should using Grain Pro bags (http://grainpro. picked coff ee cherry has a moisture content be monitored several times a day in order com/gpi/), which are essentially very large that any sign of over fermentation can be of roughly 50%. Regardless of the method

Asia Notes Issue 29 ...... 3 re-sealable bags that keep the relative humidity out but still let the coff ee breathe. Diagnosing Crop Nutrient Defi ciencies in the Field by Patrick Trail, ECHO Asia Research and Technical Associate Parchment coff ee that has been dried to 12% moisture should be stored at a rela- Introduction tive humidity (RH) of 60-70% or less. Check that your RH is at 70% during your lowest The old adage ‘You can’t fi x a temperature of the day, because a drop in problem if you don’t know you temperature will increase the RH. have one’ underpins the basic science of diagnosing plant Green coff ee that that is not dried down to nutrient defi ciencies. For years, 12% moisture can deteriorate due to growth farmers and scientists have worked together to identify a set of unwanted bacteria, mold, or yeast. This of visual clues that can be used is especially true if the seed is killed. As to determine nutrient defi ciencies long as the seed remains alive, enzymatic in a variety of agronomic crops. activity will ensure that cupping quality These clues and symptoms can remains high. Lower your coff ee’s moisture be extremely useful, especially content to below 12% soon after harvest to when soil and plant tissue testing ensure that the seed remains alive. If you methods are neither feasible nor Figure 1: Various crop nutrient defi ciencies and their symp- reduce the moisture content below 10%, available. toms: a. Nitrogen defi ciency (IPNI, 2016); b. micronutrient the beans will become brittle and may be defi ciency (iron); c. phosphorus defi ciency (IPNI, 2016); d. damaged during hulling. This being said, Ensuring that your crops are micronutrient defi ciency in citrus (FFTC, 2003). the sweet spot for bean moisture of dried supplied with adequate fertility is improve your yields. Or maybe your crop is green coff ee is between 10-12% moisture. a diffi cult yet rewarding endeavor. However, suff ering from a nutrient defi ciency, and you you will face many frustrations if you do not even realize that the plants are far Conclusion wrongly assume that plants have access from reaching their yield potential; this is a to each and every nutrient. Developing the common scenario, sometimes referred to ability to identify crop nutrient defi ciencies Smallholder coff ee farmers who wish to as ‘hidden hunger’ in agricultural crops. will help to address problems in the fi eld, optimize their harvest and receive the best and will also help to avoid costly attempts prices for their coff ee must choose coff ee A few simple tools and a basic under- to correct the wrong problems. Nutrient standing of plants’ nutritional needs will processing techniques that are appro- defi ciencies are often and easily mistaken equip you to recognize specifi c crop nutrient priate for their given local resources (e.g. for insect damage, diseased crops, nema- defi ciencies, and to distinguish their symp- space, water, sun), that minimize defects, tode problems, and/or other abiotic stress toms from a variety of other detrimental and that suit the coff ee variety’s specifi c factors (Figure 1). symptoms. fl avor potential. There is no one “right” way to process coff ee. Encourage and equip As you learn to recognize nutrient defi cien- Which Nutrients do Plants cies and distinguish them from other stress farmers to harvest ripe, intact cherries, so Require? that they can receive the best price. Test symptoms, you will better understand the needs of your land. Perhaps you have plenty and try various processing techniques to Seventeen chemical elements are essen- of fertility where you need it, but your pH is tial to the growth of a plant (Table 1). An see what is best for your specifi c context out of balance; as a result, certain nutrients element is considered essential only if it and market. Proper harvesting, processing, are bound up and unavailable to plants. is necessary for a plant to complete its life and storage can result in high value coff ees Perhaps your soil has every nutrient condu- cycle, and no other element can substitute for the world’s ever-growing specialty coff ee cive for yielding a good crop, but you have a for it (IPNI, 2006). Most of these essential market. nematode problem and no matter what rate elements are found in the soil. Carbon, of compost you apply, you fi nd you still can’t References & Resources hydrogen, and oxygen are obtained from the atmosphere and Table 1: Essential elements needed for plant growth (IPNI, 2006). The author attended a coff ee processing class hosted by Torch Coff ee Lab in Pu’er Nutrients Essential for Plant Growth China,taught by Dr. Mario Fernandez of the Coff ee Quality Institute. TORCH Nutrients from Nutrients from Soil & Amendments Coff ee https://www.facebook.com/torchcof- Atmosphere & Water (Soil, Compost, Manure, Fertilizer, Organic Matter...) feelabyunnan http://www.torchcoff ee.asia/ Structural Elements Primary Nutrients Secondary Nutrients Micronutrients https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermentation Carbon (C) Nitrogen (N) Calcium (Ca) Boron (B) Hydrogen (H) Phosphorous (P) Magnesium (Mg) Chlorine (Cl) Setoyama D., K. Iwasa, H. Seta, H. Shimizu, Oxygen (O) Potassium (K) Sulfur (S) Copper (Cu) Y. Fujimura, D. Miura , et al. (2013) High- Iron (Fe) Throughput Metabolic Profi ling of Diverse Green Coff ea arabica Beans Identifi ed Manganese (Mn) Tryptophan as a Universal Discrimination Molybdenum (Mo) Factor for Immature Beans. PLoS ONE 8(8): Nickel (Ni) e70098. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0070098 Zinc (Zn) *Elements listed on the left are taken up in the highest quantities; those on the far right are needed only in minute quantities.

4 ...... water during photosynthesis. If any one of or to describe symptoms aff ecting the plant these 17 elements is defi cient or limited, as a whole. plant growth will be reduced and plants may not achieve their genetic yield poten- Chlorosis: a general yellowing or whitening tial—even if all other 16 essential elements of the plant tissue; a lack of chlorophyll are fully available. (See Figure 1b). Necrosis: death of plant tissue; usually Understanding Your begins with the yellowing of plant tissue, Environment is the First Step eventually browning and then death (Figure 4b and 4d). A basic understanding of your land— including regional geography, soil type, Interveinal Chlorosis: only plant tissue cropping history, and recent management between the veins of the leaves exhibit practices—can help you to identify nutrient chlorotic symptoms (Figure 4e). defi ciencies in your crops, and to distin- guish defi ciency symptoms from those that Burning or Scorching: severe localized result from pests or disease. yellowing or browning, exhibiting a scorched Figure 2: Nutrient availability in soils of diff ering appearance (Figure 4d). pH pH levels (Goldy, 2011). Aluminum is included, because it becomes available to plants in highly Mottling: a spotted, irregular, or inconsistent pattern. Understanding the pH of your soil, or at acidic soil (which can cause aluminum toxicity). least the general level of acidity or alkalinity, can be very helpful Diagnosing Nutrient when trying to identify nutrient Defi ciencies in Crops defi ciencies. Even if you do not formally test the pH, knowledge Within a plant, some nutrients of your regional geography, soil are mobile (i.e. can be moved), type, cropping history, and recent while others are immobile (i.e. management practices might cannot be moved). Generally give you a good general idea. speaking, macronutrients tend Most plants thrive in soils with a to be mobile, while micronu- pH hovering near neutral (7), and trients tend to be immobile. actually perform best when pH The location of symptoms on is between 5.5 and 6.6; slightly a plant plays an important role acidic soils are most likely to in helping us narrow down and have all of the seventeen essen- identify which specifi c nutrient tial elements adequately avail- defi ciency the plant is exhib- able for a given crop (Figure 2). iting. When soils become too acidic, many macronutrients become A plant can relocate mobile ‘unavailable’ or ‘bound-up’ and nutrients, usually moving them can no longer be taken up by Figure 3: A world map showing soil pH (Nelson, 1998). from the older leaves to the the plant. The opposite tends area of new growth. Plants to be true for the micronutrients; they are do this to ensure that growth continues to available in acidic soils but less so in more happen, typically when a certain nutrient is alkaline soils. Knowing this, and knowing defi cient. In this case, defi ciency symptoms your soil pH, can help you to more easily will appear in the older growth, or lower narrow down your options when diagnosing portion of the crop (Figure 1c). a defi ciency. Immobile nutrients are fi xed and cannot be Numerous factors together determine your relocated within the plant. These nutrients soil pH. However, certain basic geographic are usually incorporated into the structural trends also impact soil acidity and alkalinity. components of plants. For example, calcium Generally speaking, soils in humid climates is a component of cell walls, and remain in tend to be acidic, while soils in arid regions place (IPNI, 2006). Defi ciency symptoms of tend to be alkaline. (Figure 3). immobile nutrients will typically and initially be located in the new growth, near the top Basic Nutrient Defi ciency of the plant (Figures 1b and 1d). Terminology Figure 5 illustrates which of the essential Figure 4: Healthy maize compared to maize elements are mobile (can be translocated), If you are able to distinguish between with various nutrient defi ciencies: a. healthy; and will therefore have symptoms initially various symptoms, you will be better able b. nitrogen defi ciency (necrosis appears in a appearing in older leaves, and those which to understand and diff erentiate between v-shaped pattern from the leaf tip); c. phospho- are immobile (non-translocated), with symp- individual nutrient defi ciencies. Below are rus defi ciency (purpling along leaf edges); d. po- toms initially appearing in the new growth. common terms used to describe nutrient tassium defi ciency (necrosis and scorching along defi ciency symptoms in plants. The terms leaf edges); e. magnesium defi ciency (interveinal can be used to describe individual leaves chlorosis) (Berger, 1954).

Asia Notes Issue 29 ...... 5 guish between individual nutrient defi cien- even if only 14 are specifi cally listed. For cies. example, pearl millet is not listed in the app, but its symptoms will be similar to those of Use of the above diagram requires detailed maize or sorghum, which have a similar attention to plant stress symptoms. In addi- physiology. tion to location on the plant as a whole, you will need to distinguish between symptoms Disclaimer: This smartphone app does not such as necrosis and chlorosis. You will measure defi ciencies by itself, but rather also need to identify the symptom location serves as a useful tool in the hands of on a particular leaf. For example, is the someone attempting to identify nutrient necrosis on the edges of the leaf (as in the defi ciencies. case of potassium defi ciency; Figure 4d), or is it chlorosis between the veins (as in the This Plant Images app is available in case of magnesium defi ciency; Figure 4e)? multiple languages from the Apple App This kind of distinction, relatively simple to Store (search for “Crop Nutrient Defi ciency make given a bit of practice, will lead to a Photo Library” or more accurate diagnosis. “International Plant Nutrition Institute”). Figure 5: Locations of nutrient defi ciency Many detailed and thorough resources Information is also symptoms in plants. Mobile nutrients (listed at have been compiled on the topic of iden- found at http://www. the bottom) will show symptoms on the lower tifying plant nutrient defi ciencies by their ipni.net/ndapp. part of the plant, while immobile nutrients (listed symptoms. Here are some particularly at the top) will show symptoms on the upper part good ones: of the plant (IPNI, 2016). Guide to Symptoms of Plant Nutrient While symptoms for various nutrient defi - Defi ciencies- University of Arizona ciencies will tend to begin in the aforemen- tioned plant locations, they can progress Plant Nutrient Functions and Defi ciency throughout the entire plant if the defi ciency and Toxicity Symptoms- Montana State is severe. Defi ciency symptoms can also University mask one another, when the defi ciency symptoms of one nutrient will be more Crop Nutrient Defi ciency Image Collec- visibly obvious than those of a concurrent tion - Available for purchase through but less severe defi ciency. the International Plant Nutrition Institute (IPNI) Breaking Symptoms Down by Individual Nutrient Defi ciency Introducing IPNI’s Figure 7: Images of the IPNI mobile application. Smartphone App for Nutrient It is relatively simple to distinguish between Defi ciency Diagnosis Next Steps, Once a Defi ciency is nutrient defi ciencies that appear on older Identifi ed growth and those that appear on new For the technologically inclined, a smart- growth; as mentioned previously, the phone application is available from the Once you have correctly identifi ed a nutrient former tend to indicate macronutrient defi - International Plant Nutrient Institute (IPNI). defi ciency in your crop, you will want to take ciency and the latter point to micronutrient The app includes a small set of digital steps to resolve the problem. Will supplying defi ciency. This is a helpful start, but we images depicting individual nutrient defi - the appropriate nutrient solve the issue, really want to narrow down to the individual ciencies (Figure 7). or might the defi ciency be a symptom of a nutrient that is lacking. greater problem? The app also provides a description of To narrow down the diagnosis, we will need nutrient defi ciency symptoms by individual More often than not, complex factors are at information regarding the location of symp- nutrient and for 14 of the major agronomic play when crops exhibit defi ciencies. Some toms on the plant, but also the pattern and crops worldwide. The crops were chosen can be easily corrected, but others might location of symptoms on the individual leaf. to represent a diverse range of species, take years to rectify. Below are some poten- Figure 6 provides a fl ow chart to help distin- tial issues that commonly result in specifi c crop nutrient defi ciencies.

pH – As previously mentioned, the pH of soil plays an integral role in determining which nutrients are available for uptake by a plant. If soil is too acidic, the nutrients N, P, K, S, Ca, and Mg will be less available. In alkaline soils, Fe, Mn, B, Cu, and Zn will be less available (Figure 2). If you have iden- tifi ed some of these as defi cient, you might have a pH problem (but you will want to test the pH to be sure). To adjust pH, agricul- tural lime can be added to acidic soils, and sulfur to alkaline soils. Further readings on Figure 6: Flow chart for diagnosis of basic nutrient defi ciencies (IFAS, 2012). this particular topic are available at ECHOc-

6 ...... typically be distinguished from References pest damage and disease by its symmetry. Disease symp- Berger, K.C. 1954. Be Your Own Maize toms are mottled, blotchy, or Doctor. Revised by J. Harold and F. Reetz. unevenly positioned on the Editors. International Plant Nutrition Insti- plant or leaf (Figure 8c), while tute (IPNI), from The Country Gentleman, Curtis Publishing Company. http://ssa.ipni. nutrient defi ciencies tend to net/article/AFR-3006. be symmetrical and evenly dispersed in the plant or leaf. FFTC. 2003. Fertilizer Management of Citrus Orchards. Food and Fertilizer Tech- Nematode Damage – Plants nology (FFTC) for the Asia and Pacifi c aff ected by nematodes show Region. Taipei, Taiwan. stress symptoms easily confused with a variety of Goldy, R. 2011. Soil Nutrient Availability at nutrient defi ciency symp- Various pH levels. Michigan State Univ- toms. Nematode damage is eristy Extention. http://msue.anr.msu.edu/ news/understanding_soil_ph_part_i. especially easy to confuse with nitrogen defi ciency from Hosier, S. and L. Bradley. 1999. Guide fl ooding and denitrifi cation. to Symptoms of Plant Nutrient Defi cien- Figure 8: Biotic and abiotic factors easily confused with crop The former can typically be cies. Publication AZ1106. http://extension. nutrient defi ciency symptoms: a. Denitrifi cation due to fl ooding distinguished by the pres- arizona.edu/sites/extension.arizona.edu/ (Sawyer, 2007); b. chemical burn due to herbicide drift (Purdue, ence of symptoms outside of fi les/pubs/az1106.pdf. 2016); c. fungal disease in tomato (Nitzsche and Wyenandt, low-lying areas (not a drainage 2005); d. Soybean Cyst Nematode damage in corn (Tylka, issue) and wilting on only the Bolques, A. 2012. A Guide to Visual Diag- 1994). tops of plants (Figure 8d). If nosis for Common Essential Nutrients Defi ciencies Symptoms. Gardening in the nematodes are suspected, pull ommunity.org; for example, the documents Panhandle. University of Florida - Insti- up a few plants and examine the roots for Acid Soils of the Tropics and Biochar might tute of Food and Agricultural Sciences. “knots”; if possible, you can have a sample provide more practical and context-specifi c http://franklin.ifas.ufl.edu/newslet- sent to a local lab for accurate identifi ca- solutions. ters/2012/07/16/a-guide-to-visual-diagno- tion. Correctly identifying the presence of sis-for-common-essential-nutrients-defi- ciencies-symptoms/. Flooding or Poor Drainage – Nitrogen nematodes in your fi eld can be diffi cult, and should be confi rmed with a microscope. defi ciency symptoms often occur in IPNI. 2006. Soil Fertility Manual. Inter- low-lying areas of a fi eld, or areas with Herbicide Drift – Herbicide drift can occur national Plant Nutrient Institute (IPNI). poor drainage. When soils are inundated when herbicides are applied on a windy Norcross, GA. with water, plant-available nitrate (NO ) is 3 day, or in close proximity with other crops. leached (drained away) and/or denitrifi ed IPNI. 2016. Crop Nutrient Defi ciency Photo If the herbicide doesn’t kill the unintended (Sawyer, 2007). Denitrifi cation occurs when Library App. International Plant Nutrient target crop, it can cause damage, leaving soil bacteria utilize nitrogen compounds Institute (IPNI). Norcross, GA. symptoms that can be easily confused with in place of oxygen (which is limited by nutrient defi ciency symptoms. Again, this McCauley, A., C. Jones, and J. Jacobsen. fl ooding); the compounds are subsequently can usually be distinguished by an irregu- 2011. Plant Nutrient Functions and Defi - broken down and the nitrogen is released larity of chlorosis or necrosis, rather than ciency and Toxicity Symptoms. Nutrient back into the atmosphere in the form of a symmetrical pattern. Depending on the Management Module No. 9. Montana State nitrogen gas (N2). Denitrifi cation can leave chemical, it can leave symptoms of severe University Extension. http://landresources. large areas defi cient of nitrogen during and montana.edu/nm/documents/NM9.pdf. chlorosis (Figure 8b) or symptoms of after fl ooding (Figure 8a). ‘scorching’ on leaf tips. The symptoms will Nelson. 1998. Atlas of the Biosphere. Drought Stress – Drought stress symp- come on very suddenly, most likely within Center for Susainability and the Global Envi- toms can also be confused with nutrient 24 to 48 hours of an herbicide application. ronment - University of Wisconsin-Madison, defi ciency symptoms. In both cases, plants Plants have the ability to outgrow smaller Nelson Institute. levels of damage due to herbicides. exhibit a similar overall stunting. However, Nitzsche, P., and A. Wyenandt. 2005. Diag- drought stress symptoms can be distin- nosing and Controlling Fungal Diseases of guished initially by the wilting and then Conclusion Tomato in the Home Garden. New Jersey curling of leaves, followed by the scorching Cooperative Extension. New Brunswick, of leaf tips. Many plant nutrients become Diagnosing crop nutrient defi ciencies is not NJ. unavailable to a plant when there is little an exact science. However, these relatively water to solubilize them into a form that can simple diagnostic tools can help you to Purdue. 2016. Herbicide Injury Symptoms be taken up by plants. improve the productivity and health of your on Corn and Soybeans. Purdue University - soils. They can help you avoid issues of Department of Plant Botany and Pathology. West Lafayette, IN. Other Symptoms Easily hidden hunger in your crops, and may alert you to greater issues present in your loca- Confused with Nutrient Sawyer, J. 2007. Nitrogen Loss: How Does tion. These on-farm diagnostic tools can be it Happen? Iowa State University. Ames, Defi ciencies especially useful for those working in areas IA. where soil and plant tissue-testing facilities Disease Damage – Nutrient defi ciency are either unavailable or unaff ordable Tylka, G. 1994. Soybean Cyst Nematode. symptoms are often mistaken for viral, Iowa State University Extension, Ames. bacterial, or fungal diseases, because Iowa. each of these result in a yellowing and necrosis of leaves. Nutrient defi ciency can

Asia Notes Issue 29 ...... 7 Another species which is widely grown in Book Review: Perennial Vegetable Gardening China is Garlic Chives (Allium tuberosum). Review by Craig Soderberg We can eat a lot in the Spring. Flower stalks go up in June and are sold in Asian markets. Perennial Vegetable It is important to remember that a lot of Gardening by Eric perennial vegetables for cold climates do Chinese Yam (Dioscorea batatas) grows Toensmeier, DVD: 143 not taste great raw. But when you cook 10-12 feet high and produces wonderful minutes, $29.95 USD, them you won’t know that it isn’t spinach. small yams right on the vine like berries Book: 197 pages, These are also easier to grow than spinach. that you can pick and cook. Eric produces $35 USD, Available a living trellis of Siberian Pea Shrub (Cara- from www.Chelsea- Here are a few of the perennial vegetables gana arborescens) in a “Y” shape so that Green.com that Eric likes. multiple branches of bamboo can be laid across it. F o r those of us who want to garden, we One perennial vegetable that he uses usually want it to be as easy as possible is Scoronera (Scoronera hispana). The The Siberian Pea Shrub not only helps requiring the least amount of time and eff ort leaves are like a lettuce and the fl owering as a trellis, it also helps to fi x nitrogen as possible. At least I do. So I was happy parts are delicious too. Common Blue Violet and provide fertility for the whole system. to learn about a type of garden which uses (Viola sororia) is an excellent ground cover; Underneath the trellis is the Birdsfoot Trefoil primarily perennial vegetables where the it tolerates a lot of shade, and its leaves are (Lotus comiculatus) which is a nitrogen main requirement is just harvesting them delicious. fi xing ground cover, and Ramps (Allium when you are ready to eat them. Once I tricoccum), which are a shade-loving Eric likes to grow Edible Shoot Bamboos learned that Toensmeier’s book won the perennial which come up early in the Spring (Phyllostachys) along the edge of his book award from the American Horticultural and then die back so they don’t interfere garden (like asparagus). He recommends Society, I realized I needed to get a copy with harvesting other plants. In the early picking the shoots when they are about one of his book and his DVD. I was not disap- years, while we are waiting for this system foot tall. Bamboo is also good for making pointed. to develop, we can have Elephant Garlic garden stakes around the garden and works (Allium ampeloprasum). After about two as a privacy screen and wind break. Under Before getting started, Eric states that it years, you can dig out a clump with about the bamboo, Eric likes Giant Fuki (Petasites is important to do thorough weed removal 20 bulbs of elephant garlic. Eric also grows japonicus var. giganteus). The part of Fuki and site preparation (deep loose soil) with Kurrat Leeks (Allium ampeloprasum) which that you eat is the stalk (like celery). You a heavy duty broad fork. Also, consider is an Egyptian type and Sorrel (Rumex boil it for 10 minutes. It can even grow in how you will lay out your garden before you acetosa “Profusion”). This variety never wet, shady soil. start. Eric promotes polycultures: multiple fl owers and you can pick it year round. It species of vegetables growing together Eric plants the bamboo in a straight line and even grows up through the snow. It has a where their roots can intertwine and each sour fl avor. But it is good for soups. plant helps the other plant symbiotically. the Fuki in a straight line next to the line of bamboo and he digs a 24 inch deep trench Turkish Rocket (Bunias orientalis) is between the two plants with a plastic liner Here are some of the benefi ts of a peren- another type of broccoli. It has a mustardy to prevent the two from invading each other. nial vegetable garden. First, some of these and nutty taste. Both the stem and leaves After planting the two rows of Bamboo vegetable can grow for many years. Tasting are edible from Good King Henry (Cheno- and Fuki, Eric plants edible Hosta (Hosta like broccoli, Eric’s Sea Kale was planted podium bonus-henricus). It tastes like “Sagai”). Most hostas are grown as orna- eleven years ago and still produces a spinach when cooked. It can live ten years mentals. But the curled shoots that come harvest every year. There are edible shoots or more. in the spring and edible leaves in the fall. We up in early Spring are edible. The Koreans only need to provide compost and mulch. grow this commercially. Hosta also toler- The stems of Rhubarb (Rheum x cultorum) Secondly, perennial vegetables grow in ates a lot of shade. taste like a lemon-like celery in Barley stew. places where annual vegetables will not The leaves and roots are very toxic, so only The next vegetable is Giant Solomon’s Seal grow. For example, some perennial vegeta- eat the stem. bles will grow in full shade. Some will grow (Polyonatum commutatum). The shoots are in partial shade. Usually annual vegetables what you eat. The fl avor is a lot like aspar- Violet (Viola “Rebecca”) has a very good can not. Thirdly, perennial vegetables are agus. The only issue is that the leaf at the fl avor: the leaves taste like vanilla and mint. better at resisting drought and pests and top does not have good fl avor, so Eric diseases than annual vegetables. If slugs breaks them off before consuming them. Udo (Aralia cordata) from Japan has a eat the top of an annual vegetable, it usually Over time, it spreads to form a colony. It nice lemony fl avor. This will grow to about kills that annual vegetable. But if it eats the also has edible tubers underground which 10 feet high with beautiful fl owers with the top of a perennial vegetable, the peren- can be boiled like potatoes. most interesting insects Eric has ever seen. nial vegetable will keep growing back with When most people think about perennial more shoots and branches. Eric fi nds that Ostrich Fern (Matteuccia struthiopteris) can vegetables, they usually think of just two perennial vegetables in his garden almost form a huge colony in shade. The fi ddle- kinds: Asparagus (Asparagus offi cinalis) have no problem with pests of any kind as heads, which are the young shoots, are the and Rhubarb. Asparagus is the fi nest vege- long as you give them compost and mulch parts that are eaten. table that can be grown in cold climates and every year. Fourthly, perennial vegetable it represents the most domesticated of the Cow Parsnip (Heracleum maximum) was gardening does not require annual tilling or perennial vegetables. the number two most used food plant by planting like annuals do. native Americans. The leaf stalks and fl ower

8 ...... stalks and also the roots are eaten. But be to the ground in the Winter and sprouts careful because the sap from this plant can again in the Spring. cause very bad sunburn. In the shade of his fruit trees, Eric grows One of Eric’s favorite vegetables is Water Ramps (Allium tricoccum) which is also Celery (Oenanthe javanica). This also called a wild leek. It comes up early in the shoots up under the snow, so you can eat Spring and then dies back. The bulb has a it in February. The fl avor is like celery but it strong onion fl avor and the greens are very is the leaves, not the stalks, that are eaten. mild in fl avor. Near the Ramps, Eric grows Eric surrounds this with footpaths so it Skirret (Sium sisarum) which is a very nice doesn’t get invasive. If it gets too invasive, root crop. The roots have a parsnip fl avor Eric plucks it and gives it to his chickens. and the fl owers attract benefi cial insects which help with pest control. These two Under his trellis, Eric grows Walking Onions crops are complimentary. When the Ramps (Allium cepa profi lerum). The fi rst year you die back, the Skirret fl ourishes and grows will have a few scallions. If you allow some in the same area. So you can have two to grow into the second year, they will fall diff erent crops in the same area at diff erent over and produce roots so that more can times of the year. grow. An alternative to Walking Onions is Welsh Onions. Eric also puts Climbing Welsh Onion (Allium fi stulosum) is another Spinach (Hablitzia tamnoides) under his scallion. This species makes a fl ower on top trellis in order to grow up the trellis. In the instead of a bunch of small bulbs. Eric lets Spring, the shoots are eaten when they it grow for about two years and then digs are about 8-12 inches long. The leaves are up all of it and then replants some of it back eaten all the way up to June. This is one of into the same hole. So this is called a “plant the few perennial vegetables that is edible -replant perennial.” This is a wonderful scal- raw. It needs well-drained soil and partial lion for the Spring and Fall. shade. Each branch can grow up to 8 feet in length. So you want to put it somewhere Eric also grows Mulberry (Morus alba). Not that allows it room to grow. only are the fruits edible, but the young leaves are also eaten, usually cooked. An edible water garden with perennial vegetables will attract benefi cial insects and In the Fall, Eric harvests the edible tubers birds. Eric grows Water Celery (Oenanthe of the Groundnut (Apios americana). javanica), which can be put in a pot and it These plants fi x nitrogen and they can be will spread across the top of the water. It is harvested any time of the year. best to only grow these in artifi cial ponds so they do not become too invasive. Another Eric has a variety of Nettles (Urtica dioica) species for the edible water garden is that has less stinging hairs on the leaves. Arrowhead (Sagittaria latifolia). The roots of In the Spring, the young shoots and leaves this species produce nice turnip-sized vege- are delicious when they are cooked. By the table the size of an egg. Eric grows these in time it gets one foot tall, it is really too late a wide, shallow pot and at the end of the to eat them. Put it in the back corner of the season, Eric turns the pot upside down and garden so it doesn’t sting people easily. lifts off the pot and all the tubers fall to the Fragrant Spring Tree (Toona sinensis) has ground for easy harvest. You can also eat a strong onion-garlic fl avor in the leaf. So it the young shoots of this plant. Native Lotus should be cooked before eating. In China, (Nelumbo lutea) produces large tubers they chop the tree back down to the ground and edible leaves over time. Fresh crisp every few years because it is hard to harvest Water Chestnuts (Eleocharis dulcis) have a the leaves when the tree reaches 70 feet in coconut fl avor and these are easily grown height. Linden (Tilia spp.) is another edible in a pot like the Arrowhead. But they need tree which is coppiced (cut to the ground) about six months to produce well. These periodically like the Fragrant Spring Tree. need to be started in a green house if your The Perennial Wild Bean (Phaseolus garden season is less than six months, as it polystachios) grows to about 12 feet high. is in Massachusetts.

On the north side of his house, Eric grows Sylvetta Arugula (Diplotaxis muralis). The shoots and young leaves in the Spring are fantastic. The leaves are excellent for omelettes. This species will self-propagate naturally so you should deadhead them to prevent that. In Massachusetts, it dies back

Asia Notes Issue 29 ...... 9 Upcoming: ECHO Asia Coff ee Processing Camp

Upcoming: Northwest Myanmar Agriculture and Community Development Workshop

Northwest Myanmar Agriculture and Community Development Workshop

February 7 – 10, 2017

In Kalay Myo of the Sagaing Region of Myanmar

Registration fee is USD110 inclusive of workshop, meals and basic accommodation

ECHO Asia, in conjunction with the CSSDD of the Myanmar Baptist Convention, will be conducting a Northwest Myanmar Agriculture and Community Development Workshop from February 7-10, 2017, in Kalay Myo of the Sagaing Region of Myanmar. Anyone working in agriculture and community development is welcome and encouraged to attend, and topics covered will be broad and applicable to communities throughout Myanmar and presented in both Burmese and English. For more information and to register, please contact the CSSDD at Myanmar Baptist Convention, 143 Minyekyawswa Road, Lanmadaw, Yangon 11131, Republic of the Union of Myanmar tel. 01-212502, email: [email protected] (for Myanmar nationals) or [email protected] or register at www.ECHOcommunity.org (for expats).

For more information please contact: ECHO Asia Impact Center 270/5 Tung Hotel Soi 6, Wat Gate, Muang, Chiang Mai, THAILAND. Tel: +66 53 304 028 E-mail: [email protected] or register at www.ECHOcommunity.org

10 ...... Upcoming: Nepal Agriculture & Community Development Workshop

ECHO Asia in collaboration with Medical Teams International and Shanti Nepal

Nepal Agriculture and Community Development Workshop

May 22 - 24, 2017

MTI Office, Kathmandu, Nepal

 

   
6th Biennial ECHO Asia Agriculture & Community Development Conference

SSaveave tthehe DateDate & SSeekingeeking IInput!nput! The 6th Biennial ECHO Asia Agriculture and Community Development Conference will take place on October 3-6, 2017, in Chiang Mai, Thailand!

Come join us for 3-days of plenary speakers, workshops, a poster session, and a seed exchange followed by a 1-day site visit! In order for our biennial conferences to be a success, we need your help! If you have a plenary speaker with experience and relevance or topic of relevance that you would like to recommend we cover, please contact [email protected]. Also, please let us know if you would like to provide an afternoon workshop presentation. Details, costs, and more information is coming soon! We look forward to having you! Join us!

Asia Notes Issue 29 ...... 11 Opportunity from the Network: Financial Literacy and Business Startup Tool for Myanmar

MICRO EMPIRE is a social business that educates Myanmar people in fi nan- cial literacy and lean business startup. They also invest in micro businesses.

MICRO EMPIRE has just launched it’s online education platform which sells its classes for only $1. Each class consists of video, text, cartoons, graphs, discussion questions, and a quiz. The classes are 11 modules long and explain fi nancial management in simple terms.

Please email our ECHO Community member Ryan Russell (ryan@myan- marbusinessanswers.com) for more information about this exciting business supporting social sustainability in Myanmar!

Call for Articles and Insights

We are delighted that you receive and read in Thai, Khmer, Burmese, Mandarin, better equip workers. We encourage you our ECHO Asia Notes. We hope that the Bahasa Indonesia, and Vietnamese to share success stories, lessons learned, information contained here within is useful languages. insights, Facebook posts, etc. with us to to you and most importantly, useful to those keep us abreast about what you are trying 3. Don’t forget that we have a special place whom you serve. I wanted to highlight a few and what is working in your context. Addi- in the Asia section of ECHOcommunity. things that you may fi nd add value to your tionally, if you have any ideas or would like org for additional technical resources, free membership to ECHOcommunity.org to write an article for an upcoming ECHO free book downloads, and presentations and can help you be more eff ective. Asia Note, we invite you to do so! You can from past ECHO Asia events and work- always contact us at echoasia@echonet. shops. 1. Please do remember that a “Develop- org. Thank you for reading, and please do ment Worker” membership entitles you 4. If you have never joined us for an event, stay in touch! to 10 free trial packets of seed per year, please consider doing so- there is an so be sure to take advantage of this and upcoming Coff ee Processing Camp, visit the ECHO Asia Seed Bank online Northwest Myanmar Agriculture & today! If you would like more seed Community Development Workshop, packets or larger quantities of some and other upcoming events will be seeds (especially green manure/cover posted to ECHOcommunity soon. crops), we do have additional seed Best regards, packets and bulk seeds for sale, and In addition to using our information, we our new seed bank catalog is available strongly encourage you to provide feed- online. back to us in order to better know how to serve you and to help us to refi ne our 2. Please also know that besides being resources and delivery. In the future, we written in English, our ECHO Asia hope to have an automated feedback Notes are translated and available for system, seed evaluation system, and better free download on ECHOcommunity.org monitoring and evaluation so that we can

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