PECIAL REPORT ON THE SPOOR OF THE VIRUS P4

INSYNERGIA FOUNDATION IGHTSJUNE 2021 | EDITION IV | WEEKLY

CRYPTO EXPERT INSIGHTS

Pindar Wong Chairman of VeriFi ( Kong) Ltd

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A LONG COMING TO FACE OFF ON OVERDUE GRIPS WITH THE ‘GOOGLE CHANGE BIG TECH TAX’

11 6 9 SYNERGIA FOUNDATION EDITION IV JUNE 2021 p1 SYNERGIA FOUNDATION THE CLASH OF CRYPTOS With China introducing its own digital tender (eRMB) and clamping down on other cryptocurrencies, it is evident that it is asserting control over the digital economy

market has rebounded and has the policy of China with respect to caused huge financial setbacks to the crypto market has gone from a ordinary citizens. According to the policy of containment to a policy of SYNERGIA FOUNDATION directive, this volatile market has active restriction. RESEARCH TEAM been infringing upon “the safety of people’s property and disrupting FIAT VS BITCOIN n May 19th, 2021, China the normal economic and financial effectively banned all order. The transactions are publicly Odealings in cryptocurrency. This is not the first time China recorded on a blockchain, and The National Internet Finance has cracked down on the cryptocur- the scarcity that provides value Association of China, the China rency market. Ever since 2013, when to currency is assured through Banking Association, and the cryptocurrency was acknowledged the process of mining. Another Payment and Clearing Association as a virtual commodity eligible for important factor with crypto money of China, under the directive of trade and exchange, there have is that it has no borders. Meanwhile, the Public Bank of China (PBOC), been regular attempts at regulating fiat currency derives its connotation issued directives asking financial the market. of sovereignty and legitimacy from and payment institutions to stop all In 2017, China had already banned the respective country’s national services related to crypto trading ICOs (Initial Coin Offerings) and bank. and mining. crypto exchanges. However, it had The Fiat currency is valued They were additionally given allowed individual holdings along against a global standard according orders to closely follow and with the trade of cryptocurrency to which its value can go up or down, monitor the flow of money related and the flow of money that came depending upon the stability and to cryptocurrency. The directive with it, be it the exchange of growth of that currency’s domestic stated that the highly speculative for crypto or vice versa. However, economy. While counterfeiting and nature of the cryptocurrency with the latest all-consuming ban, black money are definite concerns, EDITION IV p2 JUNE 2021 SYNERGIA FOUNDATION

cryptocurrency. GLOBAL CRYPTOCURRENCY MINING SITES Pioneers and enthusiasts of SWEDEN ESTONIA cryptocurrency mostly uphold 10 megawatts 2 megawatts CHINA 111 megawatts CANADA Libertine economic principles. They 18 megawatts ardently believe that state-backed fiat economy will ultimately collapse, making private alternative modes of currency the future. ICELAND 5 megawatts CHINESE FEARS POLANDPOLAND US 27 megawatts HONG KONG It is this fundamental decentra- VENEZUELA GEORGIA 60 megawatts lised non-sovereign nature of cryptocurrency that China is att- acking by banning crypto trade and THAILAND introducing a state-backed legal dig- ital tender. CHINA Heilongjiang DIGITAL Inner Mongolia As the crypto fever grips global Xinjiang markets, China has rolled out its

Sichuan virtual currency through live pilot Liaoning Tibet programmes across the country. Officially known as the ‘e-CNY’, this Yunnan Jiangsu digital renminbi is part of larger efforts to create a centralised 1,000Km Guizhou Anhui digital payment system that supplements private electronic Low-cost electricity mechanisms like ‘’ and Fast internet connection Low-cost electricity/ Low-temperature zones Fast internet connection Low-cost electricity/ ‘WeChat’. Low-cost electricity/ Low-temperature zones/ Low-temperature zones/ Currently, this digital tender is Low-temperature zones Fast internet connection Fast internet connection issued by the People’s Bank of REPORTED MINING FACILITIES China (PBOC) to an authorised group of state-owned commercial megawatts estimate 10 megawatts or less 11-50 megawatts >50 megawatts banks and other financial not available institutions, which then allocate it Source: University of Cambridge SYNERGIA FOUNDATION to the end-users. While the trials the regulatory nature of the central by any economy or nation, no were initially carried out through bank gives control to the state matter how strong it might or might randomly chosen participants in , , Xiong’an to govern, administer and even not be economically. Anyone with and , they have now the right technical knowledge and restrict flow and exchange, been extended to bigger cities when and where needed. This key energy resources can mine and like Beijing and . Apart factor is missing in cryptocurrency. trade in cryptocurrency across from being used in designated It is a currency that is transnational. borders. There is no sovereign retail stores, the e-CNY can be Cryptocurrency cannot be influenced body or sovereignty attached to employed towards the payment of utilities, transport, and Pindar Wong government services. At present, China has signalled He is the Chairman of VeriFi (Hong Kong) Ltd, that the digital money will be used and also co-founder of the first licensed Internet for domestic retail payments, with Service Provider in HK in 1993. He also leads the ‘Belt and Road Blockchain Consortium’. international applications being prioritised for later. Nevertheless, the PBOC has been working with central banks in Thailand, The money of the future will not only be used by Hong Kong, and the United Arab humans, and that’s important to consider while Emirates to explore the use of e-CNY in cross-border trade. designing CBDCs. In the smart cities of the future Reports also indicate that China that are driven by data, we will see architectures may try to make it possible for that have people’s money, machine’s money and foreign athletes and visitors to use algorithms’ money. the digital renminbi during the Winter Olympics in Beijing. EDITION IV JUNE 2021 p3 SYNERGIA FOUNDATION

with respect to the crypto ban and THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN the new digital tender would evoke a response from India. India’s position on cryptocurrencies has always been ambiguous. In 2018, the RBI $ had banned the buying and trade of cryptocurrencies, a decision which Bitcoin Fiat Money the Supreme Court then overruled. Subsequently, the 2019 gover- nment panel headed by the then Economic Affairs Secretary

... is a currency created by ... is a currency issued Subhash Garg also called for the decentralised, distributed computing by a government ban of private cryptocurrency holdings and exchange but kept the possibility open for an official backed by the RBI. ... is governed by majority rule It is being speculated that a bill (network consensus) ... is governed by a is to be introduced in Parliament with respect to the status of cryptocurrency and whether it should be allowed with a regulation ... an intermediary such as a bank or outrightly banned. ... transactions only involve two parties or payment provider is needed - no intermediary required for a transaction Assessment

Increasingly, cryptocurrencies are emerging as forebearers ... depending on network speed, ... local and international transactions take minutes transactions may take days of financial vulnerability as they pose a detection problem and can facilitate illegal activities, including tax evasion. With countries ... no chargeback is possible ... a chargeback is possible across the globe seeking tax after a transaction has been made after a transaction has been made compliance from those who

Source: Bitpanda SYNERGIA FOUNDATION transact more than $10000 worth of cryptocurrencies, Led by Chinese fintech compa- a contender in SWIFT’s interbank they will continue to lose their nies like Alipay and , financial system. SWIFT facilitates attractiveness and fall in their digital payment services in China most of the global banking transfers. worth. have the highest growth rate of With its own CBDC and through e-transactions. It is the perfect time DCEPs, China hopes to counter Only time will tell whether for China to roll out its own version and challenge the dollar’s global China can truly replace SWIFT. As of now, most inter-country of Central Bank Digital Currency hegemony as the standard of world exchanges, even those happening (CBDC). The conceptualisation of currency. in relation to the BRI projects, digital e-Renminbi and the use of happen through the medium Digital Currency Electronic Payment GLOBAL CRYPTO MARKETS of the dollar. And even though (DCEP) was on the map since 2013 China contributes roughly a fifth as part of China’s BRI project. The Chinese concern for its of global GDP, the renminbi For instance, China expanded public due to the volatility and represents only 2 per cent of bilateral local-currency swap pro- unpredictability of cryptocurrencies international transactions. grammes to over 20 countries and cannot be contested. While having established renminbi settlement had a record increase in value of An upshot of the ban is that it will banks in eight Belt and Road nations, almost 300% in the past months, also shut down cryptocurrency seemingly to promote renminbi use. Bitcoin suddenly nosedived in the last mining hubs that run on large It encourages monetary exchanges few weeks up to 31% sending shock amounts of electricity, mostly derived from fossil-fuelled power between trading and partnering waves across the crypto market. plants. This will significantly countries as DCEP or renminbi in The China ban has only added to the reduce energy consumption and order to gain a foothold over the low stock value as prices continue help China in reducing its carbon U.S. dollar in the global market. to free fall. It is too early to infer footprint. China aims to fashion renminbi as whether the developments in China EDITION IV p4 JUNE 2021 SYNERGIA FOUNDATION ON THE SPOOR OF THE VIRUS The western world led by the claims to have uncovered fresh data which traces the origin of Coronavirus to a Chinese lab

and how the virus began spreading. data held by Chinese hospitals and China had resisted the visit of such blood samples prior to Dec 2019 to a team, calling it unfair and having come to a better conclusion. SYNERGIA FOUNDATION pre-conceived intentions, but was The report has not been widely RESEARCH TEAM forced to allow it to deflect growing accepted as most of the research for international outcry. the team was conducted by state- n a surprising move in the first The report has not been released employed Chinese scientists who week of this month, President into the public domain, and extracts presented their findings to the team. IBiden publicly gave credence to from a leaked copy were published a theory that was earlier advanced by the Wall Street Journal on March NEW EVIDENCE? by his predecessor but was widely 30th. The Chinese have long insisted debunked by the Democrats. The that the virus originated from outside In January this year, reports needle of suspicion as to the origin its borders (hinting at the West) and started appearing in the media of the Coronavirus was again being was introduced into their country that researchers in the Wuhan lab pointed towards a lab leak in China, (advertently or inadvertently). One (suspected to be associated with occurring either deliberately or possible culprit, as per Chinese military projects) had fallen sick accidentally. reports, could be the U.S. Army with COVID-like symptoms much team in the Oct 2019 World Military before the outbreak was officially W.H.O. FINDINGS Games held in Wuhan. declared. The media story referred However, the WHO team could to three lab researchers from the A theory widely discussed in not find any evidence to support Wuhan Institute for Virology who 2020 was that the COVID virus was this hypothesis either. In its final were admitted with pneumonia-like a bio-weapon which had accidently deduction, the team declared that symptoms of COVID-19 in November escaped the safe environs of a P4 the virus “very likely” was a zoonotic of 2019. lab. However, this was labelled as transfer from bats to humans via On May 5th, an article in the “conspiracy theories” by several an intermediary mammal. It failed prestigious Bulletin of Atomic eminent scientists who wrote an to confirm persistent Chinese Scientists quoted David Baltimore, open letter to the respectable Lancet claims that the meat in Wuhan’s virologist and former president of journal concurring to the Chinese wet market was the primary source, California Institute of Technology, claim of “a zoonotic spillover.” terming such an eventuality as saying, “When I saw the furin The World Health Organisation “extraordinary in 2019 where the cleavage site in the viral sequence, (WHO) led investigating team on a virus was not widely circulating.” with its arginine codons, these four-week long mission to find the With regard to the escape of the virus features make a powerful challenge origin of the Coronavirus released from a lab, it is said to be “extremely to the idea of a natural origin of its report in March this year. It unlikely”, and that analyses of the SARS2.” found that the data examined in genome of the virus have ruled out it On June 1st, the Financial China was insufficient to answer the being engineered in a lab. The team Times reported that a group of 18 critical question as to when, where recommended closer scrutiny of the virologists had written to a science EDITION IV JUNE 2021 p5 SYNERGIA FOUNDATION

viruses are highly complex, evolved A FACT-CHECKING FRENZY organisms, not a simple toy that can Fact-checkers have worked overtime correcting COVID-19 falsehoods. be manipulated like Lego bricks. It One alliance has collated more than 6,000 examples of fact-checks may or may not replicate successfully across a broad range of categories since 14 January. Data as of 19 May. in the target cells of interest, where even viruses that are successful 140 at infecting target cells in tissue Category cultures may not be successful in Authorities* the context of a host with a complex, 120 Causes fully functional immune system.” Siegal also added that “even if you do ψ Conspiracy theory get one that’s well-enough adapted Cures 100 to its new host, its transmissibility Spread may be altered, rendering an easily- Symptoms spread virus unlikely, and even if it’s Other a successful virus, it’s uncertain that 80 it would pose a lethal threat to the host species.” Ethan Siegel’s view was supported 60 by William Schaffner, a professor of infectious diseases at Vanderbilt University Medical Centre, in an 40 article published by National Number of articlesNumber of checkted Geographic on June 5th. As per the professor, the theory that SARS- CoV-2 was created as a bioweapon 20 was “completely unlikely.” A bioweapon, to be successful, must target the enemy population 0 without affecting one’s own. In 14 Jan Feb Mar Apr May contrast, SARS-CoV-2 “cannot be 2020 *Stories about what governments and health authorities say, and what is controlled,” he said. “It will spread, alleged about them. including back on your own ψAny category that involves a conspiracy theory. population,” making it an extremely Source: nature SYNERGIA FOUNDATION “counterproductive biowarfare journal that the lab leakage theory Summit organised by the EU and G20 agent.” merited detailed inquiry as the WHO in May, President Xi Jinping called investigations were “not balanced”. it politically motivated to malign Assessment The final push to the new call for China. The Chinese representative an investigation was given by some in the highest decision-making body branches of the U.S. intelligence of the WHO later reiterated that as Regrettably, no new conclusive agencies, who are now veering far as China was considered, the evidence has been produced by towards a lab leak theory. President matter was closed, and no further either side to put the controversy Biden has ordered the intelligence investigation would be supported by at rest, and it is feared that the agencies to redouble their efforts China. A fresh enquiry, if any, should mystery may never be solved. to uncover the truth. Reacting to be directed at “other countries.” Only the reality of death and the assertions of President Biden, Ethan Siegel, a PhD and a science destruction left by the virus in scientists who were members of communicator writing in the Forbes its wake will remain to haunt the original WHO investigation of Online publication, called the lab mankind in posterity. the virus called for a “second phase leak a conspiracy, claiming that the of research” on the origin of the “virological evidence supporting a However, some closure can virus before the “evidence” (blood laboratory origin of SARS-CoV-2, is be hoped for, if China agrees samples etc.) spoil and the trail goes enormously flimsy. The idea that we to another multinational blank. can insert novel genetic sequences investigative team. With into a virus is true, but what happens unfettered access to its labs and COUNTERVIEW next isn’t generally appreciated.” hospital data, we may find the He continued by saying “even if cause so that one can prevent Expectedly, China has strongly you do get a successful protein, it the onset of any future viral reacted to these accusations. may not work well in the context outbreaks. Addressing the Global Health of the complete viral organism, as EDITION IV p6 JUNE 2021 SYNERGIA FOUNDATION COMING TO GRIPS WITH BIG TECH India’s latest Guidelines for Digital Media Ethics has triggered a storm of contradicting voices with very little clarity on its ultimate benefits

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RESEARCH TEAM ith 60 million active internet users logged in, Wand counting, India is beyond doubt an attractive market for Big Tech. As the footprint of the internet has expanded and the tribe of users grew, so did the influence of digital platforms both socially and politically. With the publication of the Intermediary Guidelines and Digital Media Ethics code in February 2021, the stage is set for an imminent showdown between the Indian state and various online intermediary giants like Facebook, Twitter, and Google. This is India’s maiden any offence or in insulting another to share necessary information attempt at reining in Big Tech, who nation’ also need to be removed. and data if there is a court ruling till now has been given more or less All intermediaries are required directing so or if any government a free run.

THE GUIDELINES NUMBER OF

The new guidelines include INTERNET USERS IN INDIA 829 rules such as making user consent Internet users in India to reach 829 million by 2021 Million mandatory before mining or selling 730 (expected as personal data (say for ads etc.) and Million per CISCO) putting up an adversary how and (expected as why the data is being obtained. per IAMAI) It also lists measures to control contents procured from third parties without consent, child pornography/ 450 paedophilic content, infringement Million on copyrights etc. It is incumbent 340 upon the platform to detect and Million remove such content without any 190 delay. With respect to national 137 Million security, content that ‘threatens the Million unity, integrity, defence, security or sovereignty of India, friendly relations with foreign states, or public order, or causes incitement JUNE JUNE JUNE JUNE JUNE JUNE 2015 to the commission of any cognizable 2012 2013 2017 2020 2021 offence or prevents investigation of Source: Govt, CISCO SYNERGIA FOUNDATION EDITION IV JUNE 2021 p7 SYNERGIA FOUNDATION

well as address grievances from the RANKING OF REGULATORY QUALITY government and the public as and ACROSS COUNTRIES, 2018 when demanded.

Singapore MIXED RESPONSE New Zealand While those, both individuals and entities, that have suffered Australia at the hands of unbridled fake/ United manipulated news circulated through Kingdom the digital media have welcomed Luxembourg these guidelines, citizens have been disconcerted. It is commonly perceived that the freedom enjoyed to express views through digital United platforms is being throttled. The States response of Big Tech has been along Austria expected lines. WhatsApp has taken the matter to court, citing that by Iceland having an indiscriminate trace on Japan content (to facilitate removal on being ordered), individual privacy Israel is being violated by compromising end-to-end encryption. Google Belgium similarly has argued in court that firstly, they are a search engine and not a social media intermediary, so these new rules should not apply South Korea to them, and secondly, they have challenged the basis on what will Spain qualify as ‘objectionable’ content as standards differ from place to place. UAE Till now (except the Indian variant Portugal KOO), no high-power intermediary has complied with these rules. Hungary While most online media outlets in India have yet to reveal their Bahrain strategy, the online news publisher ‘The Wire’ has moved court against Saudi Arabia the ethics code. Its petition cites that vague terms such as ‘half-truths’, Sri Lanka ‘decency’ etc., are open to vast interpretation. It has also claimed India that the new code goes above and Brazil beyond the scope of the IT Act, 2000.

0 20 40 60 80 100 Source: SYNERGIA FOUNDATION THE FALLOUT agency wants it for investigative officer who will be in communication Governments and big tech have purposes such as ‘for the purposes with the government and its law maintained a love-hate relationship of verification of identity, or for the enforcement agencies. An important for some years now, all over the prevention, detection, investigation, section is the ethics code which is world. Multiple studies show social or prosecution, of offences under fashioned as a crackdown on ‘fake media giants influencing public any law for the time in force, news’. News publishing and news opinion towards the government or for cybersecurity incidents.’ content developers are put under rather than against it. Even in India, Implementation of these rules/IT the radar where they would have the political parties have used Act 200 will be the responsibility of to regulate their content, set up a Twitter, Facebook and WhatsApp a Chief Compliance Officer (resident regulatory body with other such to reach out to their constituencies in India) to be appointed by the tech publishers and thereby remove and win votes. So, the question company along with a 24x7 nodal fake and poorly researched news as arises why the confrontation now? EDITION IV p8 JUNE 2021 SYNERGIA FOUNDATION

BIGGEST SOCIAL MEDIA PLATFORMS IN INDIA Users in Crores

53 44.8 41 21 1.75

WhatsApp YouTube Facebook Instagram Twitter

Source: Press Information Bureau, Govt of India SYNERGIA FOUNDATION

One prominent reason could be The EU set a fine example in public backlash forced Facebook to to mitigate the anti-competitive regulating Big Tech and its excessive the negotiating table. practices these intermediaries grip on society. After the Cambridge- The U.S. shies away from engage in, giving no levy for other Analytica plot was unravelled, encouraging any regulations that home-based apps or services where it was established that user’s constraints the immense revenues to grow. Even though Koo was sensitive data was used to interfere of these largely American-owned installed as an alternative to Twitter, with elections and warp the voters’ companies. California took a leaf it remains largely unknown and sensibilities, most governments and out of the EU GDPR and was the first rarely used. Activists of Freedom citizens called for strict action. Thus, to implement a data protection bill of Expression are concerned that, the GDPR (General Data Protection (California Consumer Privacy Act). without clearly defined parameters regulation) rule came into being in on what exactly would constitute 2018. The GDPR is binding on each as being ‘against the country’, the member states to protect consumer Assessment government can potentially step and data identity. Some of its key in with a heavy hand. The loophole points include mandatory consent The flurry of rules and regulations of ‘open interpretation’ gives the of subjects for data processing, being promulgated have caused power to control and manipulate anonymizing collected data to needless confusion and panic narratives online. protect privacy, providing data amongst both the common user breach notifications, safely handling and the tech companies. Some THE SCENE OVERSEAS the transfer of data across borders time is required to study all these and requiring certain companies regulations in detail and identify Internationally, particularly in the to appoint a data protection officer their strengths and weaknesses. West and countries like Australia, to oversee GDPR compliance. A comprehensive data protection there is a strong public sense for Australia’s showdown with Big Tech bill could then be compiled after preserving strict privacy laws and is especially interesting. Its new due public debate. even stronger values of maintaining legislation required payment by tech freedom of expression. Following companies for the use of news by However, one thing is clear as the Snowden whistleblowing as publishers on their platform, which daylight; the halcyon days of a well as the Cambridge Analytica in turn generated ad revenues digital free-for-all for Big Tech revelations, the public has grown for them. While Google took to (and its consumers) is fast coming wary of Big Tech. Most of these negotiation and compromise, to an end as a slew of rules and states have developed exemplary Facebook denounced the legislation regulations around the world are data protection rules as well as in totality and took off all the news being put in place. regulations on content development. plugs in Australia. The consequent EDITION IV JUNE 2021 p9 SYNERGIA FOUNDATION FACE OFF ON THE ‘GOOGLE TAX’ As the G7 countries throw their weight behind a global tax deal, the proposed scrapping of digital services levies will prove to be contentious

DIGITAL SERVICES TAXES IN EUROPE Announced, Proposed, and Implemented Digital Services Taxes (DSTs) in European OECD Countries, as of March 23,2021 SYNERGIA FOUNDATION

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IS n a concerted bid to reform the FI SE global corporate tax structure, NO the G7 economies have endorsed EE I DK LV a minimum levy of 15 per cent on the NL LT profits of multinational corporations. IE GB PL Apart from disincentivising the DE shifting of income to offshore tax CZ SK AT havens, this proposal seeks to re- FR HU allocate taxing rights by allowing governments to levy companies at IT their revenue source, irrespective PT ES of their physical presence there. GR TR In other words, taxes can be imposed in jurisdictions where non- BE LU CH SI Implemented a Digital Services Tax resident sellers have a considerable Proposed a Digital Services Tax economic nexus. Announced or Shown Intentions for a Digital Services Tax While this ability to tax companies Source: KPMG, “Taxation of the Digitalized Economy: Developments summary.” SYNERGIA FOUNDATION at source may prove to be attractive for market economies, it comes office’ are no longer viable for favoured taxation of companies with with a catch. In return for a global establishing a taxation link. at least 20 per cent profit, exceeding agreement on the reallocation of Acknowledging these challenges a 10 per cent margin in market taxing rights, nation-states will have in taxing a digital economy, the countries. to revoke their individual digital Organisation for Economic Co- Given that a common multilateral services tax (DST), which is levied on operation and Development (OECD) solution has long eluded the sales revenues from digital products has recognised the need to extract international community, countries and services. This is unlikely to go a levy in jurisdictions where the like India, Austria, , Spain, down well with countries like India, companies have a ‘significant , and the where digital services revenues economic presence’, regardless have chosen to unilaterally adopt a are sought to be taxed through an of their physical establishments. DST in the interim. ‘equalisation levy’. However, there have been dis- agreements about the thresholds INDIA’S ‘GOOGLE TAX’ EVOLVING BUSINESS MODELS for re-allocating this tax. The Biden administration, in As Indian citizens increasingly The Internet has made it profit- particular, is critical of targeting transact on digital commerce able for companies around the digital firms alone, as this would platforms, the Union government world to supply digital products and disproportionately burden American has found it imperative to tax services across national borders, companies. Instead, it has suggested tech giants. In 2016, it introduced without establishing a permanent that the proposed tax be extended a 6 per cent equalisation levy on presence in recipient countries. to a hundred of the world’s largest advertisement services, which were Surfing on the rising wave of the and most profitable companies, offered by offshore digital firms to World Wide Web, these evolving excluding banks and natural Indian businesses. Popularly known markets and novel sources of income resource firms. Meanwhile, the as the ‘Google tax’, this was later have revolutionised traditional OECD has mooted a €750m revenue extended to cover almost every business models. For countries threshold, with a specific focus aspect of the e-commerce domain, looking to tax such transactions, on automated digital services and albeit at a much lower rate. traditional factors like ‘domicile’, consumer-facing businesses. Most By enacting the Finance Act in ‘habitual residence’ or ‘registered recently, the G7 economies have 2020, the government sought to levy EDITION IV p10 JUNE 2021 SYNERGIA FOUNDATION

supply chains have been rendered DIGITAL TAX POLICIES ARE BECOMING INCREASINGLY vulnerable by the US-China trade COMMON AND CONTROVERSIAL war unleashed during the Trump era. Predictably, India has strongly 2015 OECD published BEPS Action 1 report on Tax Challenges of the Digital Economy. pushed back against the threat of 2016 India adopts 6% equalization levy on revenues from digital advertising. tariffs. It maintains that the right Israel adopts virtual permanent establishment rules. to fix corporate tax rates, whether digital or not, remains its sovereign Hungary revives 7.5% digital advertising tax. 2017 prerogative. Moreover, it asserts U.S. Tax Reform includes overhaul of international tax rules including a minimun tax. that the DST is not discriminatory, 2018 OECD publishes Interim Report on Action 1 as American companies have been European Commission proposal for an EU-wide Digital Services Tax. treated on par with other foreign Digital Services Tax proposals put forward in Italy, Spain, UK. entities. While Indian firms may have 2019 OECD presents two-pillar approach for addressing Tax Challenges Arising from the been exempted from an equalisation Digitalization of the Economy. levy, they are still subject to the France adopts 3% Digital Services Tax. Income Tax act, owing to their Austria adopts 5$ Digital Services Tax on online advertising. physical presence in the country. U.S. proposes retaliatory traiffs to the French DST. In any case, the very purpose of 2020 OECD identifies “automated digital services” and “consumer-facing businesses” as the DST is to level the playing field targets for Pillar 1. between Indian businesses that pay Early OECD analysis estimates $100 billion increase in global tax revenue from Pillar 1 and Pillar 2. corporate taxes in India and foreign Numerous digital tax proposals across the world. e-commerce companies that are not U.S announces trade investigations into 9 countries and the EU for digital tax policies. required to do so. Clearly, the stage is set for an imminent showdown Source: TaxFoundation SYNERGIA FOUNDATION between New Delhi and Washington a 2% charge on all considerations has proceeded to impose punitive on the thorny matter of DSTs. All received by non-resident entities measures on a slew of Indian eyes will be on the G20 meeting that operated digital businesses imports. It has declared a tariff next month, as emerging economies with a turnover Rs. 2 crores or more. of up to 25 per cent ad valorem deliberate on a framework for taxing Encompassing business-to-business on aggregate levels of trade, with the global digital sector. (B2B) transactions, business-to- products like shrimps, basmati consumer (B2C) transactions, rice, cigarette paper, gold, cultured Assessment e-commerce marketplaces as well as pearls, semi-precious stones and digital services, this tax had served other jewellery being covered While recent developments are as a separate levy from the existing under its ambit. The objective is to indicative of a fragmented tax Goods and Services Tax (GST). It also levy around $55 million in tariffs, structure, the levying of charges covered all digital transactions that which is precisely what the Indian on digital products and services employed Indian data. government expects to earn from its remains a shared concern. This Google tax, however, was equalisation levy, thereby offsetting Therefore, it would be prudent to vehemently opposed by Washington. the advantages that accrue from DST view unilateral DSTs as an interim In its view, the DST had unfairly collections. Similar tariffs have also measure until global consensus discriminated between Indian been imposed on other countries can be achieved on the taxing of companies and non-Indian firms. It with unilateral DST regimes. digital players. also impacted a disproportionate After announcing the tariffs, Currently, the G7 proposal number of American companies, however, the U.S. has immediately requires New Delhi to choose as a majority of the digital players suspended them, allowing a between the right to tax MNCs had been based in the U.S. period of 180 days to complete for their revenues made in India Accordingly, the United States Trade the ongoing negotiations on and the right to enjoy projected Representative (USTR) conducted an international taxation at the OECD earnings from e-commerce investigation into this ‘equalisation and G20 forums. It hopes to secure transactions. It remains to be levy’ and concluded that it was a multilateral solution on the issue seen how India navigates this actionable under the American of digital taxation while wielding binary at the G20 forum. While Trade Act, for being “unreasonable, the option of imposing tariffs in the the importance of taxing global burdensome and discriminatory”. future. The immediate suspension tech firms cannot be denied, could also have been driven by a the country would be ill-advised to enter an escalating war of TARIFF REGIME recognition that trade wars would retaliatory taxation with the be damaging in the short term, U.S., especially at a time when Having found the DST to as economies around the world its own economy is precariously “inconsistent with international recover from the ravages of the balanced. tax principles”, the United States Covid-19 pandemic. As it is, global EDITION IV JUNE 2021 p11 SYNERGIA FOUNDATION A LONG OVERDUE CHANGE The cliff-hanger of a vote in the Israeli parliament may have finally given the nation a new government, but challenges to its political stability have not vanished

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he long-suffering electorate of Israel finally got a full-fledged Tgovernment after four elections over two and a half years, costing millions to the public exchequer. However, it was with a wafer-thin margin that an improbable coalition of centrist, left-wing, right-wing and an Arab party succeeded in ousting the Netanyahu government, which has completed a record 12 years in power. The vote itself, 59-60, is indicative of the fragile nature of this new “government of change”. Naftali Bennet, a 49-year-old tech start-up millionaire and former with a host of challenges, domestic, The just-concluded 11 days defence minister representing foreign, and economical. fighting with Hamas, which left over the ultra-nationalist Yamina With the narrow margin 260 dead, mostly Palestinians, has (Rightwards) party, will run the of victory, nothing radical or revived calls for investigating Israel premiership of Israel till 2023. He dramatic is expected from the for war crimes by the ICC. It has also will then hand it over to his coalition new dispensation. With the strong further widened the gap between partner Yair Lipid, a 57-year-old presence of the far-right, the focus Israel and its Arab minority, leading centrist and a well-known TV anchor. will largely be on domestic issues, to frequent clashes and bloodletting. Though his party won only a mere both economic and social. Any The latter constitutes almost 20 per six seats in a 120-seat house, Bennet effort to change the trajectory of cent of Israel’s population. was the unanimous choice of this Israeli policy on the Palestinian issue disparate coalition. would only lead to their prompt FOREIGN RELATIONS Benjamin Netanyahu announced collapse and hence, is unlikely to be in the parliament, “If we are destined tinkered with. The inclusion of an With the departure of President to go into the opposition, we will do Arab party will be immaterial. There Trump, there has been a marked so with our heads held high until we was no enthusiasm amongst the cooling in Israel’s relationship with can topple it.” Palestinians as Bennet is as staunch its staunchest ally and benefactor. The narrow victory margin clearly a right-winger as his predecessor. However, there are limitations in the emphasises the role of the Arab party He will continue with the Netanyahu choices available to the new prime in the coalition as the kingmaker. policy of annexing the occupied West minister to deviate from the foreign Led by 46-year-old Mansour Abbas, Bank. In a Jun 04 Reuters article, policy objectives of his predecessor. a dentist by profession, the Israeli Bassem Al Sahlhi from the Palestine While the Biden administration is Arab party Ra’am, with four seats in Liberation Organisation was quoted going out of its way to placate Iran the parliament, tilted the balance in as saying that Bennet “was no less and coax it to re-join the nuclear deal favour of the coalition. This is only extreme than Netanyahu.” talks, Bennet made his government’s the second time in Israel’s history The changeover is taking place intentions clear immediately upon that an Israeli Arab party has joined at a difficult time for the new winning the majority vote in the a coalition government. government. While the pandemic parliament. It does not wish for U.S. has been brought under control to revive the dead deal. Bennett BUSINESS AS USUAL by the successful vaccination remarked “Renewal of the nuclear programme of its predecessors, the agreement with Iran is a mistake, The new government is faced economic impacts are far from over. an error that would again grant EDITION IV p12 JUNE 2021 SYNERGIA FOUNDATION legitimisation to one of the darkest also emphatically added that,” Israel nuclear weapons.” and violent regimes in the world.” He will not allow Iran to equip itself with Prime Minister Netanyahu used his influence in the White House to cobble together normalisation COALITION GOVERNMENT OF OPPOSITE agreements with four Arab countries – UAE, Bahrain, Sudan, and POLES ENDING NETANYAHU’S RULE – allegedly to deflect the criticism The new Israeli government led by Yair Lapid and Naftali Bennett, which is on his harsh treatment of the set to end Benjamin Netanyahu’s 12-year rule, draws attention as the Palestinians and refusal to even coalition is formed by eight parties from the left and right wings discuss a ‘two states’ solution.

COMPONENTS OF NEW COALITION GOVERNMENT Assessment Neftali Bennett and Yair Lapid to hold the prime minister position for two years each Former Prime Minister Netanyahu’s singular foreign policy achievement was to YAIR LAPID NAFTALI BENNETT convince powerful Sunni Arab countries that Israel was their Established by Zionist ideal strategic partner to confront former far-right the Shia arc being thrown around journalist Yair party with AVIGDOR them by Iran. Since this came YESH Lapid in 2012 YAMINA nationalist LIEBERMAN ATID religious view with economic incentives in trade Supports Opposes and promises of cutting edge technology, the offer was hard two-state solu- Opposes YISRAEL two-state tion two-state BEITEINU solution and to ignore or refuse. The new with liberal solution won seven government would find it prudent Zionism and Knesset to build upon this foundation. secular view Won seven seats in Knesset seats last election However, the Netanyahu years, Secured 17 in election especially during the latter Knesset seats in held on half, saw increasingly divisive election held on March 23 politics. This includes doubtful March 23, 2021 political tactics to continue in office and avoid the inevitable corruption trial. Mr Bennet has MANSOUR the opportunity to breathe fresh GIDEON SAAR ABBAS MERAV MICHAELI life into Israeli politics, bridge Founded by Established by the political divide and unite Gideon Saar who Palestinians Established the country. More importantly, left Likud Party holding ISRAELI in 1965 with the participation of Israeli Arabs NEW UNITED LABOR in 2020 Israeli in governance is a positive HOPE ARAB LISYT PARTY center-left citizenship in political development. To date, such a Advocates 1996 view. move would have resulted in nationalist Supports the ostracism of the concerned Zionist views Won four two-state politicians. However, with Knesset seats solution Has Has six Knesset changing times, the Israeli Arabs in election seven members and are slowly involving themselves and supports Knesset opposes in the mainstream. This is an two-state members two-state solution encouraging development. solution Mr Netanyahu may be down for the moment, but he is far BENNY GANTZ from out. He has expressed his NITZAN HOROWITZ determination to stay in the fight. Established in 2019, the party If the unlikely coalition that has Far-left party that supports two-state solution narrowly managed to sneak into supports two-state BLUE AND on the border of 1967 and MERETZ solution and has six WHITE has eight Knesset members power is not up to the task, Bibi’s Knesset members prediction to return may ring true, sooner than expected. Source: Andalou Agency SYNERGIA FOUNDATION EDITION IV JUNE 2021 p13 SYNERGIA FOUNDATION STRUGGLING TO SURVIVE Fighting hard to remerge as a nation-state from the disastrous aftermath of Gaddafi’s demise, the future of oil-rich remains hostage to external powers

uniting divided institutions had which petered out in June 2020 once stalled. Turkey stepped in behind the GNA Muammar Gaddafi governed with its now-famous armed drones SYNERGIA FOUNDATION Libya since 1969, first as the and Syrian mercenaries. With no RESEARCH TEAM Revolutionary Chairman of the central authority and a massive Libyan Arab Republic and after influx of weaponry from all quarters, erlin will host the second joining the Great Socialist People’s Libya became the happy hunting round of the UN Libya peace Libyan Arab Jamahiriya in 1977 as ground of an assortment of militias Btalks on June 23. The gathering the ‘Brotherly Leader’. A demagogue and private armies. Then Gen Haftar aims to align the interests of the by all accounts, he rejected the blocked oil exports from key ports in competing powers and the fledgling parliamentary representation of Eastern Libya, holding the economy Libyan transitional government and people and introduced a political to ransom. hopefully pave the way for elections ideology that focused on the notion The worst was yet to come. As scheduled for December this year. of ‘direct democracy and decision- per conservative estimates garnered Libya also found a prominent making of all citizens on all political by the UN, ‘more than 20,000 foreign mention in the recently concluded matters’. troops and military personnel from G7 summit. Prime Minister Johnson While Gaddafi was far from a Turkey, , Sudan, and Chad’ and President Joe Biden conferred benevolent ruler, some credit is are operating in Libya unchecked. on the need for bilateral talks due to him for nationalising the The biggest challenge Libya faces with Libya and Iran, with Johnson oil industry and strengthening is in removing Russian and Turkey requesting the Italian prime minister military capabilities. He used his oil sponsored mercenaries who have Mario Draghi to ‘support a lasting money in a spree of infrastructure blatantly ignored UN calls to go in Libya to provide the developments, and in its heydays, home. foundation for a long-term peaceful Libya enjoyed a model health care After Syria, Libya is the second democratic transition’. and education system. Praised in the arena for Russia-Turkey competition Libya’s transitional government Arab world for his anti-imperialist with its vast oil resources being under Prime Minister Abdul Hamid stance and his efforts for Arab- the prize– Turkey behind Fayez Dbeibah and a presidential council African unity, he had ominously al-Sarraj’s UN-backed GNA and headed by Mohammad Younes predicted that his departure would Russia supporting Haftar. Russian Menfi perhaps for the first time felt make Libyans ‘slaves again’. presence in Libya, amplified through real hope from this renewed interest In the 1970s and 80s, Libya became the active participation of the by a powerful group of nations an international pariah, which only Wagner Group mercenaries, is part promising an invigorating and stable worsened when its complicity in of its multifaceted strategy in the political order, once the foreign the Lockerbie airliner bombing was focused on interlopers have been shown the established. Consequent to the 2011 ‘reinforcing its military footprint, door. Arab Springs and actively spurred by investing in energy resources, and external powers that included NATO, being political present in the EU’s RICHES TO RAGS a civil war saw the bloody end of the neighbourhood’. dictator in a roadside ambush. On the contrary, the transitional Libya is a sad example of how The ensuing power vacuum prime minister Dbeibah is perceived a prosperous nation can be ruined absorbed Libya into a decade of to be an ally of Turkey; reports by fractious anarchy fuelled by violence with warring factions suggest that the new government the absence of a strong central splitting the country-the UN-backed has ‘pledged to retain a maritime government. Even worse, a decade of Government of National Accord agreement granting Ankara poten- conflict has turned Libya vulnerable (GNA) in and its opposing tially valuable rights’. to regional proxies and high-stake (LNA) in the UAE and perceive Turkey’s diplomacy with a range of emotions East. influence and its spread of ‘political and actors. Islam’ as threats to the Middle A form of formal truce has been GATE CRASHERS East and North Africa (MENA) observed in Libya since October region that unites them in the 2020, but the UN envoy for Libya, The LNA warlord General Khalifa power play in Libya. With recent Jan Kubis, cautioned that progress Haftar launched an offensive in April energy discoveries in the Eastern on removing foreign fighters and 2019 backed by UAE and Egypt, Mediterranean, maritime disputes EDITION IV p14 JUNE 2021 SYNERGIA FOUNDATION

control or muster popular support 9 LIBYA PEACE INITIATIVES SHUT DOWN BY HAFTAR in Libya. The political-military Before resorting recently to calls for instability also triggered economic a cease-fire and political resolution losses, widespread corruption, and near collapse of the health system, in the face of repeated losses against Tripoli the , had which is heavily dependent on rejected multiple international imported supplies and equipment. LIBYA The pandemic exacerbated attempts for a lasting truce and EGYPT vulnerabilities to Libyans’ livelihood. political process in the country, The lack of socio-economic solutions torpedoing negotiations each time. pertaining to employment and NIGER CHAD SUDAN sources of revenue have left the Libyans pessimistic of any peace talks. The consensus does not feel DEC. 17, 2015 any benefits will accrue of the entire process. Libya remains a resource- LIBYAN POLITICAL AGREEMENT PUTSCHIST With the signing of the Libyan Political KHALIFA HAFTAR rich nation, but with the never- Agreement in Skhirat, Morocco under the ending instability, no EU or U.S. oil initiative of the UN, the Government of National Accord (GNA) was recognized as and gas operator dare to invest in its the sole legitimate representative of the production. For European nations, country by the international body. JULY 25, 2017 PARIS SUMMIT Libya has opened the floodgates Haftar opposed the agreement as it of illegal migrants fleeing across would This summit was hosted by French give the GNA the authority to dismiss him President Emmanuel Macron. the Mediterranean. Within the EU from his post. The Parties agreed to a cease-fire and decided to hold elections in the spring itself, there is a split with France MAY 29, 2018 of 2018. However, the decision could being at odds with the EU’s official not be implemented. PARIS CONFERENCE line by supplying covert military The paris conference was held after the aid to Haftar to advance its own oil parties failed to implement the decisions NOV. 12-13, 2018 taken at the Paris Summit. CONFERENCE interests.

Haftar blocked the implementation of the During this conference hosted by decisions taken at the conference. Italian Prime Minister Giuseppe Conte Assessment in the city of Palermo, the parties agreed to hold elections in spring 2019. FEB. 27, 2019 The road to peace in Libya is ABU DHABI MEETING long and bumpy, but if Sarraj No agreement was signed at this meeting held in Abu Dhabi. APRIL 14, 2019 and Haftar even agree to meet CONFERENCE face-to-face at the upcoming A “National Dialogue Conference” had conference, it would mean JAN. 13, 2020 been expected under the auspices of the UN. However, on April 4, Haftar significant progress. MOSCOW MEETING launched an assault to capture the One day after a cease-fire that came into capital Tripoli. effect on Jan. 12 upon a joint call by Turkey The transitional government has and Russia, Haftar left the negotiation table been hailed as a ‘historic move’ and left Moscow. JAN.19, 2020 BERLIN CONFERENCE in the Libyan , Just one day after the conference although the key to its survival FEB. 18, 2020 which had been held to begin a perma- lies in ejecting all foreign fighters 5 + 5 MILITARY nent cease-fire and political process in the country, Haftar milities and mercenaries expeditiously. COMMITTEE TALKS bombarded the Libyan capital Tripoli. Five security representatives each from the Libyan government and Haftar forces The power play between key participated in the meeting. nations affects the stability in The talks were suspended due to Haftar’s Libya with each of their interests attacks on Tripoli. in oil, migration, and terrorism Source: Anadolu Agency SYNERGIA FOUNDATION colliding. The US may be able to between Turkey, Greece, and Cyprus 2020, stated that the process for exert its influence in stopping have intermingled with geopolitical removing foreign fighters and UAE, Turkey, and Egypt from tensions created by Turkey, France, reopening the road connecting shipping armaments into Libya, UAE, and Egypt. Libya’s east and west had stalled but remains helpless in the face Strategic interests in Libya and since May. of Russian intransigence. Without the security of their shared border their unilateral cooperation to further drove Egypt’s support for A HOUSE DIVIDED support the UN efforts, no peace LNA. The UN envoy for Libya, Jan process will succeed in bringing Kubis, outlining the progress since Neither of the rival groups has unity and sovereignty to Libya. the ceasefire agreement in October been able to gain complete territorial EDITION IV JUNE 2021 p15 SYNERGIA FOUNDATION A DISASTER WAITING TO HAPPEN The recent chemical spill off the Sri Lankan coast focuses attention once again on the rising environmental threats from an overcrowding of our oceans

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RESEARCH TEAM he MV X-Press Pearl, a Singapore flagged cargo ship Tcarrying chemicals and raw materials for cosmetics from the Hazira Port in Gujarat, caught fire on Sri Lankan territorial waters following an acid leak from its tanks. The fire raged on for almost 11 days, after which the Sri Lankan authorities, with the help of the Indian Navy was able to put it out. The vessel has since sunk into the Indian Ocean. ones. As global demand for raw extreme weather to create a disaster An oil spill was thankfully avoided material, chemicals and oils of all of gigantic proportions. even though a significant amount of types rises exponentially, the ships There is a long string of marine toxic nitric acid and other hazardous are growing ever larger, and the accidents which have severely waste was dumped into the shipping routes more crowded. It stressed the marine ecosphere- ocean. The Sri Lankan authorities takes just one act of human error Amaco Cadiz (1978), Atlantic have described it as the worst compounded by machine failure and Empress (1979), Exxon Valdez (1989), ecological disaster the country has ever seen. The marine ecosphere will undoubtedly be harmed and THE WORST OIL TANKER damaged by the amount of toxins in the water. CATASTROPHIES STRESSING OUT THE OCEANS Volume of oil spilled in global tanker disasters (tons) Atlantic Empress (1979) The shipping industry is the sinew 287,000 of globalisation through which runs the lifeblood of global commerce. Abt Summer (1991) 260,000 It is a vast industry generating massive revenue and employment Castillo de Bellver (1983) 252,000 for millions of people. The industry’s gross output is almost 183.3 billion Amoco Cadiz (1978) 223,000 dollars, as nearly two-thirds of global trade rests on the shipping industry. Haven (1991) 144,000 It has become an integral part of how our society functions and operates. Odyssey (1988) 132,000 As per online sites monitoring marine traffic in real-time, over Torrey Canyon (1967) 119,000 50,000 merchant ships are traversing the world’s ocean and carry over Sea Star (1972) 115,000 90 per cent of all non-bulk cargo, including all kinds of dangerous Source: ITOPF SYNERGIA FOUNDATION EDITION IV p16 JUNE 2021 SYNERGIA FOUNDATION

and the extent of harm caused is PREDICTED INCREASES IN WORLD SEABORNE often so enormous, making it even TRADE, GDP AND POPULATION more challenging to assess the exact amount of compensation. Even if payment is assessed, making 18 180 World seaborne trade carried in respective companies honour tonnes (billions) these commitments is even more World economy GDP in US $ (trillions) strenuous as the costs would be World population (billions) high and the punitive measures for incompliance relatively low. 12 120 Some smaller companies fold up as they are unable to pay enormous compensation. The IMO has failed in its efforts to achieve a proper parameter when it comes to due 6 Source: 60 compensation for pollution-related World seaborne trade - IHS Global Insight damages. The weak enforcement of existing laws has also been blamed by World economy - OECD Statistics international NGOs like Greenpeace, BILLIONS TRILLIONS which has called into question the World population - UN Department for IMO’s commitment to environmental 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division security. These accusations come primarily as the IMO has declined Source: International Chamber of Shipping SYNERGIA FOUNDATION responsibility for the spill in Mauritius Deepwater Horizon (2010) etc., by the shipping industry through its and because of its opting out of the to name a few. The X Press Pearl fuel consumption, vessel discharges Paris Accord. The global shipping disaster is minor in comparison, as well as accidental spills and leaks. industry, too, has opted out of the yet, the chemicals and plastic pellet The question of who takes Paris Accord as it could not commit debris have contaminated the rich responsibility and liability when such to goals which asked for a reduction fishing grounds along an 80-km (50- accidents happen has always been a in fuel consumptions and emissions. mile) stretch of the island’s coastline point of contention in international affecting almost 5,600 fishing boats. as well as regional maritime law. As SEEKING A SOLUTION In recent years, spills and leaks like per the International Convention on the one in Sri Lanka, which affect the Civil Liability for Oil Pollution 1969, Innovation has been spearheaded environment and sensitive marine which came into force in 1975, ship to find possible solutions to reduce or ecosystem, have increased. In 2020 owners are solely liable for pollution mitigate the effects of such maritime itself, nearly 4,000 tons of thick, black damages. The convention, therefore, disasters. fuel oil from a stranded cargo ship creates a system of compulsory New generation ‘green fuels,’ seeped into the ecologically crucial liability insurance. ranging from biofuels to synthetic area of reefs, inlets and islands that A shipowner is exempt from fuels, will drastically reduce vessel are home to renowned conservation liability only if he proves that the discharge and emissions. According sites and endangered species off damage (a) resulted from an act of to the Organisation for Economic the Mauritius coast. Similarly, in war, hostilities, civil war, insurrection, Cooperation and Development, Venezuela, there has been a fuel oil or a natural phenomenon of if these fuels were economically spill from a bunker that is twice the an exceptional, inevitable, and favourable, the industry could utilise size of Mauritius. irresistible character, or (b) was fuel without carbon by 2035. wholly caused by any act or omission To protect marine life and fragile ESTABLISHING CULPABILITY done with intent to cause damage ecosystems, heatmapping is used to by a third party, or (c) was wholly detect and protect sensitive areas of The most important body when caused by the negligence or other the marine biosphere. As a result, it comes to shipping regulations is wrongful act (by public authorities) large-sized cargo ships are often the International for the maintenance of lights or other advised to avoid or take precautions Maritime Organisation (IMO), navigational aids. when passing by such ecologically responsible for introducing laws and While physical damage and loss sensitive areas. conventions with the participation of of life are relatively easy to establish, Yet efforts to hold the global all signatory members. pollution’s immediate and long-term shipping industry accountable to The 1973 International fallout can scarcely be estimated proper environmental standards Convention for the Prevention of by any degree of accuracy. In the are slow and lacking. There needs to Pollution from Ships (MARPOL) was case of environmental pollution, be consistent engagement to find a created to address pollution caused damages often involve third parties, sustainable solution. SYNERGIA FOUNDATION SYNERGIA FOUNDATION

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