Ultrafast Processes in Biology

Home , P700, Photodissociation, Protein dynamics

YEARLY REVIEW ULTRAFAST PROCESSES IN BIOLOGY

INTRODUCTION compared with CO which has been observed in Recent advances in the generation of subpicosecond microsecond flash photolysis experiments (Antonini pulses (Fork et al., 1981), their amplification (Fork et and Brunori, 1971). Martin etal. (1983) do not assign al., 1982; Migus et al., 1982), and their use in the the Hb* states to either a particular electronic or production of white light continua (Migus et al., structural conformation of the porphyrin. They note, 1982a) along with improved time resolution in however, that similar excited states with identical single-photon counting experiments (Murao et al., lifetimes have been observed after photoexcitation of 1982; Rigler etal., 1984), for example, have made the the Hb deoxy solutions (Martin et al., 1983b). This study of fast biological processes much more readily suggests that the Hb* absorption bands are due to accessible. The term “ultrafast” is subject to varied deligated Hb species. interpretations. In this review, we shall consider Hb’, mentioned above, is characterized by a these processes which occur on a time scale of 6500 difference spectrum which is red-shifted with respect ps to be “ultrafast”. The topics to be discussed can be to the equilibrium difference spectrum. The classified under the general headings of protein magnitude of this shift is from 1to 4 nm depending on dynamics and photosynthesis. the ligand (Martinet al., 1983 and 1984). An increase in the Fe-N, His (Fs) bonding interaction, and Protein dynamics hence the doming of the porphyrin ring, is known to lead to significant red shifts in the visible and Soret I. Ligand binding to heme proteins. The primary regions of the spectrum (Perutz, 1979; Wang and processes in the dissociation of ligands from heme Brinigar, 1979). Martin etal. (l983,1983b, and 1984) proteins, and their rebinding, have been studied by suggest that the 350 fs time constant for the picosecond and subpicosecond absorption spectro- appearance of Hb’ is related to the time scale of scopy. From most of these experiments, it appears iron displacement out of the heme plane and that that the photodissociation process, which Reynolds Hb’ is a high spin deoxy hemoglobin complex with and Rentzepis (1983) have suggested involves either the porphyrin ring already in the domed con- a zero or small enthalpy barrier, occurs on a figuration. The absence of a red shift in the transient subpicosecond time scale (Shank et al., 1976; difference spectrum for CO-ligated protoheme Cornelius et al., 1981; Cornelius et al., 1983). where the Fe-N, His (Fs) bond is absent supports Martin et al. (1983, 1983a, and 1984) have shown this interpretation. with 580-nm 100-fs pulses that the temporal 11. Bacteriorhodopsin and rhodopsin. The rate of resolution of the bleaching of the Soret band, which appearance for the first intermediate in the photo- corresponds to the disappearance of the ligated heme cycle of bacteriorhodopsin, the batho complex or protein, is limited by their pulse duration, whereas hl0,has been estimated to appear within -10 ps the deoxy species (for hemoglobin, this species is (e.g., Kaufmann et al., 1976; Kobayashi et al., 1984). denoted Hb’) appears with a time constant of 350 With improved time resolution, Ippen et al. (1978) fs at 431 nm. This value was similar for Hb and Mb reported a formation time for K610 of 1.0 k 0.5 ps. and was independent of the type of ligand, i.e., CO, Using a 130-fs white light continuum as a probe, 02,or NO (Martin et al., 1982). Downer et al. (1984) demonstrated that K610 forms Transient difference spectra of ligated Hb in the within a picosecond at physiological temperatures, Soret band during the first 10 ps after excitation that the rate of formation of exactly follows the reveal a broad band extending from 450-500 nm rate of decay of the excited bacteriorhodopsin, (Martin et al., 1983). Two forms of excited bRS70, and that the rate of formation of K610 hemoglobin coexist in this region (Martin et al., decreases with deuteration. Kobayashi et al. (1984) 1984). One of them, Hbr, absorbs from 470-500 nm found that the yield for formation of K610 was pH and has a 350 fs lifetime. The other, HbiI, has an dependent. These results support the hypothesis -2.5 ps lifetime. The amplitude of Hb;I is much (Lewis, 1978) that formation of the first intermediate larger when the ligand is 02or NO than when it is in the photocycle is due to molecular rearrangement CO. Since Hbil does not produce Hb’, its of the protein. It has previously been suggested that formation appears to be a channel competitive with proton translocation (Peters et al., 1977; Rentzepis, photodissociation. These last two observations imply 1978) is a possible rearrangement which would both that HbrI is in part responsible for the lower produce the red shift characteristic of K610 and be quantum yield of photodissociation for 02and NO as sensitive to deuteration. Upon absorption of 55 ps 77.5 776 Yearly Review pulses by bacteriorhodopsin, Groma et al. (1984) -100 ps of the eosin molecule within the hydro- have observed an electrical signal with a time phobic box region of the enzyme. constant of -30 ps which they have attributed to Karen et al. (1983) have used picosecond charge separation corresponding to the formation of absorption spectroscopy to observe the formation of K610. singlet charge transfer states in the course of the Picosecond measurements by Kobayashi and fluorescence quenching of lumiflavin and riboflavin Nagakura (1982) on squid rhodopsin have given tetrabutyrate by indole and N-methyl indole. evidence that hypsorhodopsin is a precursor to bathorhodopsin. Photosynthesis 111. Miscellaneous topics in protein dynamics. I. Chloroplast organization. Time-resolved The technique of picosecond CARS spectroscopy fluorescence spectroscopy is a powerful method of which is used to measure vibrational dephasing in the studying the structural organization of the photo- time domain (see, for example, Ho et al. 1981) has synthetic light-harvesting system. Over the past ten been exploited to study the dephasing times years, the form of the fluorescence decay function (assumed to represent TI times) of vibrational modes has been the object of considerable interest (see the in amino acid crystals (Kosic et al., 1983; Chronister reviews by Breton and Geacintov, 1980; Karukstis et al., 1984). For L-alanine and glycine-glycine the and Sauer, 1983). Gulotty et al. (1982), Fleming et al. lifetimes of the modes, which are mostly torsional (1983), Nairn et al. (1982), Haehnel et af.(1983), and librations of the hydrogen bonded amino acids or of Berens et al. (1984) have found it necessary to fit the peptide chains, decrease with vibrational frequency fluorescence decay curves of dark-adapted (Fo) as W4f02 . In the range 200-1600 cm-', all the higher plant chloroplasts and green algae to a sum of vibrational modes decay in less than 10 ps at 10K. three exponentials of -100, - 400 and - 2500 ps. The investigations of Genzel et al. (1983) have A prerequisite for a mechanistic description of the shown that the frequency and temperature fluorescence decay in terms of the excitation transfer dependent mm-wave absorption of several proteins and trapping processes is an assignment of these can be described 'in terms of relaxation processes decay components to the functional constituents of which take place on a picosecond time scale. the photosynthetic unit. Several investigators have Poglitsch et al. (1984) have reported dielectric suggested that the fast decay component contains a absorption measurements at frequencies from contribution from the antenna of photosystem I 50-150 GHz for lysozyme at different hydration (PSI) as well as that of PSII (Haehnel et al., 1982; levels and over a wide temperature range. The Gulotty et al., 1982; Holzwarth et al., 1984). frequency and temperature dependence of the Recently, Wendler et al. (1984) and Yamazaki et al. absorption coefficient is described by picosecond (1984) have directly resolved the fluorescence from relaxation processes governed by asymmetric PSI. The assignment of the short lifetime component double-well potentials. These relaxations are as an average of fluorescence from both PSI and PSII attributed to the N-H ...O=C hydrogen bond of the was given further support (Gulotty et al., 1984) upon peptide backbone. the investigation of the PSII-deficient mutant, 8-36C, Rotational motions obtained by measurements of of Chlamydamonas reinhardii. The fluorescence steady-state anisotropies under conditions of decay of 8-36C was well-fit to exponentials of 53,424 fluorescence quenching have been studied for a wide and 2197 ps. Furthermore, no variation in the decay range of tyrosine-containing (Lakowicz and Maliwal, parameters was observed upon pre-illumination, 1983) and tryptophan-containing (Lakowicz et al., confirming the view of Butler et al. (1975) that 1983) proteins and peptides. The rotational variable fluorescence is associated with PSII. correlation times obtained for tyrosine and N-acetyl As for the nature of PSII, there is evidence tryptophonamide are 32 and 30 ps, respectively. suggesting that it is heterogeneous. Possibilities for Lakowicz (1984) has made extensive use of the phase the heterogeneity, for example, are the size of the fluorimetry technique in this work. Nordlund and antenna array (Melis and Duysens, 1978), Podolski (1983) have directly obtained, by means of a differences in the location of the photosynthetic streak camera, a rapid component in the anisotropy apparatus in the chloroplast (Melis and Homann, decay, 150 ps, for HSA at 47°C at pH 7.9. 1978), or differences in some property of the reaction In order to circumvent the difficulties in inter- centers (Gulotty et al., 1982). Karukstis and Sauer preting the fluorescence anisotropy, r(t), and the (1983a and 1983b) investigated the effect of redox limiting anisotropy, r(O), (Cross et al., 1983), which potential on the fluorescence decays of spinach are occasioned, at least in part, by the overlap chloroplasts. They correlated the changes in the (Valuer and Weber, 1977) of the 'La and 'Lb fluorescence yield with the redox state of the PSII absorption bands in tryptophan, Chang et al. (1983) electron acceptor, Q. At all ionic concentrations have bound the dye eosin to lysozyme in order to studied, they observed biphasic potentiometric probe any rapid motions of the enzyme. Their titration curves of the fluorescence yield which they measurements revealed a rapid restricted motion of have interpreted in terms of heterogeneity of the Yearly Review 777 electron acceptor Q. In order to explain the existence Picosecond absorption measurements have been of two long components in the fluorescence decay of carried out to study the primary processes of spinach chloroplasts under F, conditions-closed P700-enriched particles of PSI (Fenton et al., 1979; reaction centers-Butler et al. (1983) and Berens et Shuvalov et al., 1979 and 1979a). More recently al. (1984) have analyzed their data in terms of (Kamagowa ef al., 1981) transient difference spectra Butler’s “bipartite” model (Butler, 1979) with a of reaction centers of PSI from spinach chloroplasts heterogeneous PSII. Their conclusion was that the were interpreted as arising from energy transfer from intermediate lifetime component in either F, or F, antenna chlorophyll to P700 and depletion of P700 conditions involves excitation which has already due to its oxidation to P700’. The fluorescence visited the reaction centers. decay of highly-enriched P700 particles (Kamagowa Finally, in an interpretation of the three et al., 1983) were biexponential: 10-25 ps and -70 ps exponentials observed in the fluorescence decays of components. These decays were attributed to two higher plant chloroplasts and green algae, the different antenna chlorophylls with different life- fluorescence decay of the entire chloroplast should times: F694 and F679, respectively. The variation of reflect the contributions of the isolated parts of the initial fluorescence intensity with excitation intensity photosynthetic unit; and in the absence of significant and the results of model calculations suggest that a interphotosystem couplings, the fluorescence decay rather efficient excitation annihilation among the properties of the parts should add to the whole when same kind of antenna chlorophyll takes place weighted by their relative absorption cross sections. implying that there is some kind of ordered structure Gulotty et al. (1984) have conducted a simulation among the chlorophylls in a given P700-chl a particle. where they summed the decays of three mutants of C. 111. Energy transfer in phycobilisomes. Porter et rheinhardii lacking PSI, PSII, and both PSI and PSII. al. (1978) and Searle et al. (1978) were the first to The simulation, for all ratios of the three curves, can study energy transfer in phycobilisomes on a pico- be fit very well to three exponentials (for lo4 counts second time scale. For both intact Porphyridium in the peak channel); but only simulations with cruentum and its isolated phycobilisomes, they approximately equal weights of PSI and PSII yielded concluded that the pathway of energy transfer is decay parameters characteristic of the wild-type phycoerythrin, phycocyanin, allophycocyanin, chl a data. The major conclusion of the simulation is that and that the fluorescence decays of the biliprotein the short lifetime component of wild-type C. pigments can be fit well to an exp[-2Att] decay rheinhardii is an average of a 53 ps lifetime due to law. energy transfer and trapping at PSI and a 152 ps These results have most recently been reproduced lifetime due to energy transfer and trapping at PSII. in isolated phycobilisomes of Rhodella violacea Also, it is noted that the wild-type decay is con- (Holzwarth etal., 1982) and in intact P. cruentum and siderably more complex than a triple exponential and Anacystic nidulans (Yamazaki et al., 1984) and in that its information content with lo4 peak counts is intact Flemyella diplosiphon (Yamazaki et al., inadequate to reveal the presence of additional 1984a). Wendler etal. (1984a) find that in their study components. of isolated physobilisomes of P. cruentum that Another method of studying the effect of although the pathway of energy transfer is the same particular constituents of the chloroplast to the total as that generally agreed upon, the nonexponential fluorescence decay is that of Karukstis and Sauer fluorescence decays of B-phycoerythrin and (1983~).They correlated the structural and R-phycocyanin do not fit well to an exp[-2Ati) organizational changes associated with etioplast-to- decay law. Instead, they are fit to a sum of three chloroplast differentiation with the measured exponentials and the decays are discussed in terms of fluorescence lifetime and yield variations during the nonrandom orientations of donors and acceptors plant growth. produced by the aggregations of phycobiliproteins. 11. Energy transfer in reaction centers. Energy The effect of aggregation, and temperature, on the migration and electron transfer in the reaction center fluorescence and anisotorpy decays of C-phyco- of Rhodopseudomonas sphaeroides have been cyanin and phycobiliproteins isolated from studied by picosecond and subpicosecond absorption Mastigocladus larninocus has been studied by spectroscopy. Klevanik et al. (1981) determined that Schneider et al. (1984). excitation energy from bacteriopheophytin (BPh) Wendler et al. (1984) also found that for was transferred to the bacteriochlorophyll dimer B-phycoerythnn the transient absorption anisotropy (P870)in 251 ps while electron transfer from PE70to decay was double exponential and fit to decay times the primary acceptor (I) takes 7+2 ps. Holten et al. of 12 and 150 ps. The 12ps component is attributed to (1980) have found that electron transfer from P870 intramolecular energy transfer within a takes place in no more than 4 ps. Low temperature B-phycoerythrin monomeric unit; the 150 ps and picosecond studies by Shuvalov and Klevanik component, to either energy transfer within the (1983) suggest the existence of a PB charge transfer B-phycoerythrin pigment bed or to energy transfer complex in the reaction center. from B-phycoerythrin to R-phycocyanin. Within

PAP 40:6-G 778 Yearly Review experimental error, a similar anisotropy decay was Downer, M. C., M. Islam, C. V. Shank, A. Harootunian reported for the C-phycocyanin rods of A. nidulans and A. Lewis (1984) Ultrafast primary photochemistry of bacteriorhodopsin. In Ultrafast Phenomena et (Gillbro al., 1983). The AN 112 mutant of A. (Edited by D. H. Auston and K. B. Eisenthal), Springer- nidulans, where the C-phycocyanin exists solely in Verlag, New York, In press. hexameric units, has a long decay component of only Fenton, J. M., M. J. Pellin, Govindjee and K. J. Kaufmann 43 ps (Gillbro et al., 1984). The shortening of the (1979) Primary photochemistryof the reaction center of decay is interpreted in terms of the shorter mean path photosystem I. FEBS Lett. 100, 1-4. Fleming, G. R., W. T. Lotshaw, R. J. Gulotty, M. C. of energy transfer in the phycobilisomes of the Chang and J. W. Petrich (1983) Picosecond spectro- mutant. scopy of solutions, proteins and photosynthetic W. 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