ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS :5:4
WIND RIVER SHOSHONE ETHNOGEOGRAPHY BY D. B. SHIMKIN
UNIVERSITY- OF CALIFORNIA PRESS BKELEY AND LOS ANGELES t947 WVIND RIVER SHOSHONE ETHNOGEOGRAPHY
BY D. B. SHIMKIN
ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS Vol. 5, No. 4
CONTENTS Page
Preface ...... a. . . v
Introduction . . 245 Identification of the people, 246 Wind River Shoshone territory.. 247 Demography ...... 254 Environment . . . . . 256 Adaptation: means of livelihood . . O.. . O...... 265 Adaptation: detailed ethnobotany and ethnozoology ...... 271 Ecology ...... 279 Bibliography . 282 Explanation of plates . .. 286 FIGURE IN TEXT 1. Temperature and precipitation for type stations in western Wyoming. 261 PLATES 1. Typical ecological zones, Upper Sonoran to Canadian . 287 2. Typical ecological zones, Canadian to Arctic-Alpine ...... 288 NAPS
L Trails and foci ...... 00 I*0000000 000 . 249
2.. Place names and travels, 1825-1875 . . . 00 0000 000 0000 250
3. The Wind River Shoshone world, 1825-1875 00 0000 0000 0&0 250 4.. Place names ...... 253
5. Profiles ...... 0 ,e 257 6. Physiography and soils ...... 258 7. Climates. 259 8. Life zones (after Cary). 263
9. Utilization of natural areas ...... a 0 267
[iii] PREFACE
The present paper is part of a series dealing with the cul- ture of the Wind River Shoshone of Wyoming. It is based on researches by the author in 1937 and 1938 which were financed by the Board of Research of the University of California through the Department of Anthropology. I am indebted to Miss Alice Eastwood of the California Academy of Sciences for the botanical identifications, and to Mr. Carlos Garcia for much of the clerical work. Assistance in the preparation of these materials was fur- nished by the personnel of Work Projects Administration Official Project No. 665-08-3-30, Unit A-15. The orthography of native words in this paper follows strictly that recommended by Franz Boas et al. (SI-MC, vol. 66, no. 6), 1916, and modified by George Herzog et al. (AA 36: 629-631), 1934.
[vI WIND RIVER SHOSHONE ETHNOGEOGRAPHY BY D. B. SHIMKIN INTRODUCTION The present essay sketches the habitat of' the Wind River Shoshone culture has been essen- Wind River Shoshone between 1825 and 1875, approx- tially that of the Plains for a good two hun- imately. It regionalizes this habitat according dred years; pioneer etbnographers have vastly to the variations of' several geographic factors: overemphasized the Basin affiliations. Con- topography, physiography and soils, climates, sequently, the data contained in the pages which and biota. It studies Shoshone adaptation to this follow will, I believe, be of interest to most environment in considerable detail, and attempts specialists on the Plains Indians. They illus- to establish, in general terms, the nature of trate a phase of life which is very little known economic conditioning within this culture. The for this part of America, despite the fact that technique of' ethnogeographic analysis which my many able scholars have concentrated their atten- paper follows simply exemplifies that set forth tion upon study of-the area. Lowie, for instance, by Kroeber in his fundamental work, Cultural has given u-s superlative materials upon the and Natural Areas of Native North America.' social organization, mythology, and many other The temporal limits of this essay should be aspects of Crow culture. Yet he has nowhere pub- noted carefully, for the history of the Wind lished even a map of Crow territory, or its River Shoshone has been complicated. As I have political or ecological divisions. Furthermore, stated elsewhere,2 they began moving on to the the data underscore the cyclical abundance and Plains from the West at the beginning of the scarcity of Plains subsistence, an observation eighiteenth century, or shortly before. They were made by other recent studies for the Plains Cree the earliest, in most of the northern Plains, to and Sarsi.4 They give some basis for questioning get the horse. As a result, their power extended, the theory ably expounded by Wissler, on the in- by 1730-50, into Saskatchewan and South Dakota. fluence of the horse on Plains culture.5 Did the The acquisition of guns by their enemies and horse raise Plains culture to its zenith? Archae- epidemics forced them to retreat west once more. ological materials prove that it did not do so Around 1800 they resided largely west of the in the southern Plains; it merely intensified Rockies, daring massacre at the hands of eastern some specialties, wiped out many others.6 My enemies only during seasonal bison hunts. The etimogeographical materials suggest that this military assistance furnished by friendly white process too took place in the northern Plains. traders reestablished the Shoshone~s' eastern ter- Ultimate decision of the problem must await fur- ritories after 1825, however. Reservation life ther etbnogeographical research, particularly began effectively about 1875; the events transpir- among the Arapaho and Western Dakota, as well as ing since that date form part of other papers.4 extensive digging.
1KEroeber, 1939. 4 Jenness, 1938; Mandelbaum, 1940. 2 Slimkin, 1941va. 5Wissler, 1914. 3Shivmkin, MS. a; b. B Strong, 1935.
[245] IDENTIFICATION OF THE PEOPLE Study of Shoshone ethnogeography includes lands on their summer trip to Green River. The consideration of three main factors: the iden- obverse of this may be noted: The Popo Agie tification of the people and their area, assess- (River) and the Seeds-ke-deagie 0 or Green River ment of the environmental opportunities, and both in the heart of the Wind River Shoshone investigation of the degree of utilization of range, were known to white travelers by Crow those opportunities, or ecological adaptation. names"--Owl River (po: pate owl; a: 'e river) The identification of the Wind River Shoshone and Prairie-Chicken River (ci:'cga prairie-chicken; and their territory is not a simple matter. It a: as river), respectively. is complicated by several facts.7 These people In spite of these difficulties, contemporary had no developed national or tribal sense; affil- travelers recognized the basic unity of the Sho- iation was fluid. Nor did they distinguish them- shone of Wyoming. Thus Granville Stuart wrote:'2 knew that selves by a special name. They merely "The 'Green-River' Snakes (Shoshones) occupy others called them p)'h)ing (Sage-Brushers), the country drained by Green River and its p)'h)ganhLt (Sage-Brush Homes),B or ku'6ndidkanY branches. They are known also as 'Wash'-a-keeks (Buffalo-Eating People).9 Furthermore, they felt band,' and their principal hunting ground is in no clear-cut distinctions of private or tribal the Wind River mountains and on Wind River (which territories. A part of them went each year through is a main branch of the Big Horn River) and its admittedly Crow territory to reach the Yellowstone tributaries, where they meet and have numerous River and Powder River hunting grounds. Virtually battles with the Crow Indians, who also claim all of them crossed du'kurka (Sheep Eater Shoshone) that country."
7See also Shimkin, 1938. 10 Fr6mont, 1853:163. 8 Hoebel, 1938. 13 I owe analyses of the Crow names to the kindness of Professor R. H. Lowie. 9lHoebel, 1938; the name ko'hogole was unknown to the Wind River themselves. See Steward, 1937, 1 Stuart, 1865:80. fig. 1.
[246]
248 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS "One remarked that the Snake chief Pah-da- crossed to reach the headwaters of Yellowstone hawakunda, was becoming very unpopular, and it River, which is followed down to Yellowstone Lake, was the opinion of the Snakes in general that where it joins the trail previously described. Moh-woom-hah, his brother, would be at the head The divides crossed are extremely difficult. of affairs before twelve months as his village 3. From the "big bend" of Wind River along the already amounted to more than three hundred left bank to Dry Fork, which is followed up to its lodges, and, moreover he was supported by the head, and a low divide crossed to the headwaters bravest men in the nation, among whom were Ink-a- of Owl Creek near Washakie Needles, whence it tQsh-a-pop, Fibe-bo-un-to-wat-see and Who-sha-kik, passes up this stream to its source, passing who were the pillars of the nation and at whose through a remarkably fine hunting ground for moun- names the Blackfeet quaked with fear. tain sheep. There is here one of those luxurious In the winter of 1842 the principal chief mountain parks which nature seems occasionally to of the Snakes died in an apoplectic fit and on the throw off in the very midst of her most forbidding following year his brother, but from what disease works. Its existence would never be suspected from 1 could not learn. These being the two principal without... pillars that u held the nation the loss of them 4. From Camp Brown northward over the Owl Creek was and is to Ms day deeply deplored. Imme- Mountains and still further north to the buffalo diately after the death of the latter the tribe grounds of the Big Horn Valley and the Stinking scattered in smaller villages over the country in Water River (Shoshone River), near Heart (Hart. consequence of having no chief who could control Mountain, thence up the North Fork of the river and keep them together," and over the divide to the trail along Yellowstone Lake. Functionally, the entire Shoshone territory 5. From the "big bend" of Wind River eastward fell into W-- foci, (B) routes, and (C) hinter- along thenorthern face of the Sweetwater Valley, lands. The actual of these will be by the head of Powder River to the Sioux country exploitation east of the Big Horn Mountains. discussed later. Here we shall enumerate these 6. From the bend" of Wind River northerly places. into the Big Horn"biialley. A, Foci; (1) nda'unawlsua, a pocket valley near 7. From Camp Brown to the head of Wind River, the head of Owl Wind River thence through Togwotee Pass, and northerly across Creek; (2) Valley; (3) the of Snake at Pacific near Willow (4) Fort Bridger and drainage River, striking ya'handai, Lake; Creek, a previously described trail from the Tetons ha:'ni'qUmb1n9an', a valley in the upper course of to the east side of Yellowstone Lake. Black's Fork. 8. From the Wind River Valley across the Wind were noted in River Mountains-, above Union Peak, to the head- -R. Route&-,..these large part by waters of Green River. landmark-s such as Washakie's Needle Wkw!, Coy- ote's penis)'* They followed rivers (usually named In addition to these trails, my informants told after peaks) and crossed passes (wi`yar). Lakes of the following: were of little importance: only Bull Lake, feared for its bore a name other than 9. From Wind River Valley up Trout Creek to Mos- magical potency, quito Park, then by way of Hobb's Peak and Graves ba:'gari.r-(water seat). Lake to Washakie Pass and the source of Big Sandy The principal routes were carefully noted by Greek. Here it forks, one branch (9A) going south Jones, 114 to the head of Little Sandy Creek, which it follows 1. From Camp'Brown (Fort Washakie) u Wind River to its junction with Green River at Lombard Ferry. Valley nearl. to its head., and across I divide It crosses here and then passes along Black's Fork, to tb6 Gros entre Fork o Snake River. (See where it splits into a route (9B) going to Fort map 1.) Here it forks, sending one branch UA) Bridger, then east to the source of the Bear River, down the stream as far as Jackson's Hole, where it Soda Springs and the Snake River; and a route (9C) forks in turn, one portion leading down the Snake skirting the west shore at Green River into Utah. River to Fort Hall, and the other.(lB), bending The other branch at Big Sandy Creek (0) crosses shar around to the northeast, follows up Pacific over to the East Fork of Green River, and thence and Un Atlantic creeks to the Yellowstone River, to a series of lakes and valleys around present-day down which it follows, passing to the east of Pinedale and Daniel, all loosely called ya'handal Lake to the Crow countr in Montana-- (r6ckchuck' ho1q). Yellowstone River a branch of it UC) following Lewis hrk and the 10. From the big bend of Wind to the vicin- west side of the lake and river; the other branch ity of Thermopolis, then up Kirby Creek to its (0) leaves the Grod Ventres near its head, and, source4 over the pass to the head of Bridger Creek. bending to the south, crosses a low pass in the Thence$east and northeast along the edge of the Wyoming Mountains to the headwaters of the Green mountains to the headwaters of the Powder River. River, which it follows down to the open country .and thence to Fort Bridger. C. The main exploited hinterlands were (see map 1) 2. From Camp Brown to the North Fork of Wind (1) the western half of the Big Horn Basin; (2) the River (Dunoir River?), which is followed up, and Owl Creek Mountains and adjacent plains; (3) the two divides--one to the headwaters of Snake River-- Powder River Valley (especially south of the state boundary); (4) the lower drainage of the Sweetwater River and the upper North Platte; (5) the Red Desert; (6) the hill country west of Fort Bridger to the Great Salt Lake; (7) Jackson Hole and the P-4, Jones, 1875:54-55. surrounding intermontane country. desuffisaitqueSaiseconcentreretparpendantpasdespoursespublicationsdeuxeffortsetudiersiecles.asursurAussifondcertainsdeslal'auteursujetscartographiedomainesa-t-ilvoisins,choisifran-sug-ne la production de cartes, applications de histori-la qu'elleJ.I1Konvitz.estfuitbienprecedeeevidentparqu'uneenunevaleursolideanneegraceal'usagedeformationrecherches,intelligentqu'enbiencar-fait CartographydossiersFrance.tographiefondfunctions'.etudiespourpartpublicd'archivesspecialistespourinPp.vasteNational,UnipourAentreprendreFrancedesxxn'enacetteexempleundesseriesanglo-saxonAveclade(1660-1848),apreuveassocielaosent+France,auteurschercheurbibliothequesreduitestemoignagesl'amenagementlaquentsmemerichele194,passapatiencequablerecherchel'histoireJ.ineditsd'archives1660-1848:curiositeLecartographielabritanniquesd'uneServiceenKonvitzsestravailillustrations.Bibliothequeancienne-cerapprochementsenepoque.etcommegeneralfrancais(leeres',moissontionconnaissancestoutetmentsFrancefructueuseetimpressionnant.statecraftamericain.d'esprit,sideregnedesdontdesd'autreaetple~teperseverance,quihistoriquelaaccompliThehistorique:vastevariestempsparfaitementcesl'histoiredepouillementsources:scienceslesRevolution,quiUniversityl'etudierI1enseenduauraientScience,deetilmaitrisetelsactivitesluibyfautdeilestarchives1979-1980sontetFranceLouisefficacitequeterritoire.Josefpart,americainsavecadonne$31.95.ill'Observatoirepeuicilinguistiquesdejamanque,consacreenEnofasequeI1delesl'Empire,connusajouteesdecouvertdeW.generalChicagoparXIV,permislaencomprisfelicitersupposeilquelaoutre,dansdeenquiKonvitz.l'Armee,siensoiaGallois,iciengineering,situationhistoriensdotelangueJ.estl'anneerelatifsrechercherlerevanche,sensladansPress,parpouvaientdiverses,systematiqueunKonvitzetc.).uneplusieursetdesde'sieclealleleenquemagnifiquegeologie,francaise-modernedesChicagod'opereraJ.tranchesd'uneI11987.cettedesujetsinverse,effetdesabbatiqueenquetesperiodeausondetail.bienI1l'EtatrecherchesvisiterdutistiquesKonvitzBerthaut,etc.tion,voirdeveloppementParis,s'estmanuscrits0esta'aoufrancaisconserverdesandgoutconstellation226chiffreestelsevidemment,Royaume-uneexplora-faitresultatdesurremar-ofFrance,London:45094lalumi-evolvingd'unedocu-productionPontsmomnsfran-Cartothequecorn-vasteArchivesChaussees,ainsibibliographiquesqu'ilinstitutionsMinisterepluspro-tresfre-sta-Bibliothequel'InstitutdesparandlesAffairesetendues,miscartesenetrangeres,geographiqueenl'InstitutLedealesquellesetand5.l'Ecole 250 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS
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Map 2. Place names and travels, 1825-1875. Map 3. The Wind River Shoshone world, 1825-1875. ' tribal Kroeber);- --, travels of Pivo (man);-- i-, travels *: boundary (after --I of Panianduk (woman); 1, Wind River Valley state boundary; N.P., Nez Perce; S.E., Sheep Eat- (yu:'warai 1ge~'mehert, warm valley); 2, Three ers; P., Pine-Nut Eaters; CO., Comanche (Yampa Forks of the Missouri (go'nodsna o'gwe); 3, Yel- band). Tribes underlined are well known; Shoshone lowstone River at Billings (ge'td )'gwe, fast names in text. river); 4, Devil's Tower (wd'D3Pergar, gourd-its- butte); 5, Black Hills (FEonT gakwi'hdr)garndD'yati, red-fir?-its-place its-mountain-range); 6, Great Salt Lake (di'6ipa:, bad water); 7, Medicine Bow Mountains (w)'h:nd~za ndD'yap). of the extremely long journeys of a previous era (to the Mandan, or to Arizona),25 the average Shoshone still knew personally a sizeable terri- Most of the land within a radius of some 250 tory. Typical were Pivo's and Panianduk's expe- miles from Wind River was more or less known by riences: the former had been to the confluence most of these people. Nearly everyone knew of the of the Powder and Yellowstone rivers, to the Black Hills, or of the Three Forks of the Missouri. Missouri at Standing Rock, to northern Utah; the As a matter of fact, virtually every man and latter was born in Utah, and had visited the woman would travel sometime during his Bannock country and the Lemhi before settling life. Panianduk's mother with her small children down around Wind River. camje alone all the way from the Comanche. Pivo, as a member of a small party under Tu:'nkunt (rope), journeyed east of Standing Rock, South Da- kota. In all, even though there was now no evidence 25Shimkin, 1941a; MS a. subject of a report by Ludvik Mucha; Kreibich com- piled his manuscript material over forty years and his maps were based on astronomically measured geo- graphical co-ordinates of different places in Bohemia. The aim of the paper by Pavla Burdova is the amateur mapping of the late eighteenth century in Bohemia, where the great majority of similar situation plans were made by parsons and not by skilled cartographic draughtsmen. Olga Kudrnovsko presented the archi- val documents relating to Karel Koiistka's (1825- 1906) organiSational and creative work, mostly the correspondence of contemporary specialists preserved in various archives. The final contribution, by Josef Hursk9, evaluates a large map ofNorthern Bohemia of 1778, one of the rarities in the map collection of the National Technical Museum, Prague. The map, com- prising a set of twenty sheets and including the Saxon border area, has not been reported until now. A sep- arate study by Alena and Martin Solc, supported by Ladislav Hora, is devoted to the bicentenary of Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel's contribution to astronomy, mathematics and geodesy. The volume is an interesting resume of some of the trends in research in the history of cartography in Czechoslovakia, but could have been more rigorously edited. In articles the illustrations are accessories and seldom complementary to the explanations in the texts. Summaries in German and English are appended together at the end of the volume. This collection of papers can be obtained on application to the National Technical Museum (Narodnf Muzeum, Kostelni 42, 11000 Praha 7). In the same way the new volume Historickd Geografte 24 (Praha, 1985. Pp. 298) with ten papers on the history of Bohemian car- tography may be obtained from the Institute ofCzech- oslovak and World History of the Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences (Ustav Ceskoslovenskych a Svetoxrych Dejin CSAV, Panska 7, 110 00 Praha 1). IVAN KUP~iK 252 ANTHROPOLOGICAL R
2 RIVER A MOUNTAIN PEAK - MOUNTAINS ~)(--MOUNTAIN PASS GLOCALITY PLACE OUTSIDE MAP FOR KEY SEE TABLE 1
SCALE IN MILES
MaP 4. Place names.
SHIMKIN: WIND RIVER SHOSHONE ETHNOGEOGRAPHY 255
Shoshone) were camped at Deer Lodge Valley Mon- souls; Russel met an isolated group of 23 Sheep tana. When they scattered, only 25 tipis (T25 Eaters, men, women,and children; others cited persons?) remained with Washakie. settlements of from 20-25 tipis. However, the During the Mormon troubles Moorehead52 met four main groups into which the Shoshone broke Washakie and 2000-3000 Indians. annually probably numbered at least 200 persons each. Wheeler53 relates that 300 Bannock and Sho- Population admixture has long been shone warriors (Wind River people) were defeated operative at Bear River in 1863; this yields 1300 in the among this people. White traders had their influ- assemblage. ence from the beginning of the nineteenth cen- tury; the numerous one-eighth and seven-eighths Comstock54 described Washakie's band as num- bloods attest to that. Even more, there has bering barely 300 warriors (1300 souls?). always been much intermarriage with the Bannock, The earlier Reports of the Commissioner of Ute, Flathead,and Crow (virtually none with Arap- Indian Affairs included Idaho Shoshone in their aho until quite recently). Washakie was half census. But in 1878 that agent wrote,55 Flathead; one of his wives was Crow; another, Ute. ... [1250] is the exact number belonging to Washakie's band of Shoshones, and is all 'that At the present time the composition of blood on will be claimed for it hereafter. Their number the Shoshone reservation is-approximately as has heretofore been computed at 1,800, by includ- follows: 43.3 per cent full-blood Indian, 19.9 ing some small bands of Western Shoshones, who, per cent one-half or more Indian blood, 36.8 per however, never really belonged at this agency." cent less than one-half Indian blood (many of the This estimate of population is considerably last not in residence on the reservation).58 The lower than previous ones. Kroeber56 figures 2500. Indian admixture cutting across this is about 85 The discrepancy is even greater if density is per cent Shoshone, 10 per cent Bannock (including taken into consideration, as his Wind River area Lemhi Shoshone), 5 per cent others (Navaho, Flat- is 55,000 sq. km. against my 96,000 sq. km. Thus head, Paiute, recent Comanche, Arapaho, Crow). he has 4.5 persons per 100 sq. km., I have 1.5 A few are exotic, having Yakima, Klamath, Cherokee, (24 sq. mi. to a person). This is no higher than and even Seminole-Wyandotte-white blood. the figure for the Great Basin arrived at by Very close to this picture is Russel's descrip- Kroeber. Yet, as we shall see, Wind River Sho- tion for 1837.59 shone economy was definitely much more Plains "On arriving at the village I found several French- and Plateau than Basin in type. (These data may men and half-breed trap ers encamped with the have bearing upon theories of the relative effi- Snakes. One Frenchman, having an Indian wife and ciencies of the two modes of life, and the impe- child, invited me to pass the winter in his lodge, tus given to Plains culture by the horse.)57 and as he had a small family and large lodge, I The sizes of local groups among these people accepted the invitation and had my baggage arranged can barely be guessed, for figures are exces- by his wife, who was a Flathead. "... The inmates of the next lodge were a half- sively rare. Tawunasia's band was counted as 153 breed Iowa, a Nez Perce wife and two children his wife's brother and another halfbreed; next lodge 52Connelley, 1907:607. was a halfbreed Cree, his wife (a Nez Perce) two 53WWheeler, 1924. children and a Snake Indian. The inmates of {he third lodge was [sic] a halfbreed Snake, his wife 54Comstock, "Geological Report," in Jones, 1875 (a Nez Perce) and two children. The remainder were 155Rep. Comm. Ind. Aff. for 1877-78:150. fifteen lodges of Snake Indians." 56Kroeber, 1939, table 18; see also Steward, 1938:49; Stewart, 1939:146-147. 57See Kroeber, 1939:76-84, and references 58 Census data: see Shimkin, MS a, Appendix I. therein. 590. Russel, 1921:113, 114. Survey: a contribution to the historical origin of the Ubersichtskarte von Mit- teleuropa]/T. Muller (p.55-62) - Mili- tarhistorische Anmerkung zur Ent- wicklung Topographischer Karten in Deutschland [= Military historical note about the development of topographic maps in Germanylj/M. Zippel (p.63-71) - Historische OrtsplIne als kognitive Repraisentationen [= Historic town- plans as cognitive representations]/J. Lafrenz (p.73-86) [Using anon. MS. of 1705 of Friedrichstadt (Schleswig-Hols- tein) held in Bodel Nijenhuis Coll. of Leiden Univ., and map of 1649 of J. Mejer] - Deutschlands Beitraige zum Kartenbild Islands und Gronlands [= Germany's contributions to the map- ping of Iceland and Greenland]/O. Dreyer-Eimbcke (p.87-96) [From map in Rudimentum novitiorum (Liibeck: L. Brandis, 1475) to 1880s] - Zum Quellenwert zweier 'Vogelschauen' von Groningen aus dem 17. Jahrhundert [= On the source value of a couple of bird's-eye-views from the 17th century]/ H.-K.Junk (p.97-102) [Those ofN. van Geelkercken (1616) and of E. Haubois (1634)] - Der Schleiatlas vonJohannes Mejer (1691) [= The atlas of the Schlei ofJohannes Mejer (169 1)]/D. Unverhan (p.103-123) [About MS. Delineatio des gantzen Schleistrohms ... wie auch ... angelegten Orthern in Landesarchiv Schleswig-Holstein (Abt.7, Nr.3276)] - Die drei ailtesten Stadtgrundrisse Danzigs in ihrem historischen Wert [= The three oldest town plans of Gdansk in their historical value]/H. Lin- genberg (p.125-138) [The plans of A. M6ller (c. 1595 in Krigsarkivet, Stock- holm), of G. Schmer (1615 copied as inset on map of A. Gersdorff of 1815), and A. Dickmann (1617)] - Die kar- tographische Darstellung des bayerisch- bohmischen Grenzgebietes bis zum Anfang des 19. Jahrhunderts [= The cartographic representation of the Bavaro-Bohemian border area up to the beginning ofthe 19th century]/I. Kupcik (p.139-151) [From 1514 ("1Bohmerwald- grenzkarte") to 1774 survey in 1807 MS. M[a]ppa uber den Strittigen Terrain ...] - Die Entstehung der Portolankarten im Bereich sizilianischer Flottenpolitik [= The origin of the portolan charts in relation to Sicilian naval politics]/H.-C. Freiesleben (p.153-159) - Sind die friuhen Portolankarten das Ergebnis antiker grossraiumiger Vermessungen? [= Are the early portolan charts the result of ancient large-area surveys?]/H. Minow (p.161-172) [Examples are those of Carignano (c. 1310), P. Vesconte (1318), and ofA. Dulcert (1339)]- Die Karteninventare des Geheimen Staat- sarchivs Preussicher Kulturbesitz [= The inventory of the maps in the Geheimes Staatsarchiv Preuss. Kultur- besitz]/W. Bliss (p.173-178) - Rechnergestiitzte Ermittlung von Kar- tenmassstaben [ Computer-aided research of map scales]/O. Stochdorph (p.195-201) [Based on study of unicum Warhafftige und grundtliche Abconterpheung des loblichen Furstenthumbs Wurtemberg ofJ. Scheubel (Tiubingen: U. Morharts Wit- tiv, 1559) in Universitaitsbibl. Basel] - Uber Gr6sse und Format von Kupf- erdruckkarten des 17. und 18. Jahrhun- derts nebst einem Exkurs uiber Papier- 159 D ESERT .\LAi Draircn3e Divicdes~~~~~~ |
8300C~~~~0 l2 o elevathon ivj feeL 10 _ tO/Oy 109',30'\-V. Qcloyg 43 N.
2 Q PROFILE5.
Map 5. Profiles. z * o Z ** *X ** -v* {Zz .... - - z - . - ...... * * YELLOWSTONE . - *s *0 *0* iX @ - - v * - v b N \ @ @ * * * * * n i- * * @ * \ \ * 951N . * -. 0 0 0 0 \ ...... - . * \ * - - .... 4 000v* **A \ * . . . t I *00--.00 \- - - - . . - 0 *0\\ of\ * * * /. t \ * * . P_ P * 0 @0 0. 0 7 * 0 @ 0 0
0 * * * . .5X.-.4 00 0 0 0 \ *0 0 0 * % *- 0 *-' I SIERRA S9L * * 00 00.0** ~~~~ *.0 .4an0
BOUNDARY OF WYOMING BASIN HILLSE DIVISION OF RED DESERT AND GREEN RIVER BASIN ROCKY MT ANTICLINE ROCKY MT PENEPLANE AND PROJECTWIG MONADOCKS ABSAROKA LAVA YELLOWSTONE LAVA \\51 BROWN LOAMSS GMl GREY LOESS J t RECENT VOLCANOES
SCALE IN O SO 100 150 200 250
Map 6. Physiography and soils. YELLOWSTONE PARK COLD DESERT
op
WIND RIVER VALLEY
I I I I I I I I STEPPE
VALLEY
DESERT t. 4t COLD
C, it DESERT ?a AFTER THORNTNWAITE ___ AFTER SSELQLPt
SCALE IN MLE o 20 30 40 10 50
FOR CONCORDANCE S2EE P SO
Map 7. Climates. 260 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS
The Wyoming Basin is a structural basin orig- An important modification of the Kbppen system inating at the time of the Post-Cretaceous Lara- has been developed by Thornthwaite.64 He has at- mide Revolution (cf. the Wyoming Range). Later tempted to compute the "temperature efficiency," it was repeatedly filled and refolded. In its that is, the relation between temperature and pre- western portion it has been largely excavated cipitation utilizable by plants. His formula is and leveled by the Green River. In the east, the rather complicated, so that only the pertinent low precipitation and interior drainage of the provinces and their normal correlates will be Red Desert have preserved a more primitive con- given here. dition. Between the two are the Leucite Hills, which are young volcanoes. Climate Floral climax Soil The Southern Rocky Mountains are unimportant (see below) ______in this area. Taiga (D') ...... Picea-Abies forma- Muskeg True soils do not exist in most of western tion (Spruce- Wyoming, as the land is too rough and mountain- alpine fir) ous.62 They occur only in the western part of Cold Steppe (DC'd).. Atriplex-Artemisia Green River Valley, the Sweetwater and Wind (Salt bush- and south of River valleys, the Big Horn Basin, Cold Desert (EC-d).. Sagebrush) the Red Desert. Except for the Big Horn Basin east of the Big Horn River, these soils are (see chiefly brown loams. They are surface soils grad- above) ing at a depth of from one to two feet into a Cold Subhumid (CC'd). Stipa-Bouteloua Blackearths (Feather grass- whitish calcareous horizon. (The profile is de- Grama grass) veloped in a temperate to cool, semiarid climate, Coldeser(ECd)...... Grayearths under short grasses, bunch grasses, and shrubs Russell's and Thornthwaite's maps for Wyoming and on unconsolidated sands, silts, and clays. coincide in large degree. Both recognize three di- The exceptional instance is made up of gray and grayish-brown soil of variable texture, closely visions: a cold, wet taiga; a cold steppe, defi- underlain by calcareous material. (It develops cient in moisture at all seasons; and a cold desert, in an under and desert deficient in moisutre at all seasons. Their taiga arid climate short-grass and Big Horn Basin desert areas coincide closely; plants, and on loess and alluvial fan material.) Russell is guided somewhat more by drainage-basin The classification of climates presents some divides, Thornthwaite by altitude. But Russell rec- difficulties. Representation of all of the fac- ognizes a second taiga region in the Big Horn Moun- tors involved would necessitate numerous, con- tains, which Thornthwaite does not, while himself fusing mappings. To avoid this, climatologists insisting upon a cold desert in the Red Desert have attempted to combine these factors into area, a subhumid region west of the Bear River Di- indices of biological importance. The most widely vide. used of these, the K-ppen classification, groups A concrete picture of the actual weather in the climates according to mean annual temperature, three major zones of western Wyoming is yielded by mean annual precipitation, and "precipitation hythergraphs (temperature-precipitation charts) regime" (several maxima and minima of precipita- for three stations: Moran (in the taiga) Riverton tion). The precise definitions (as used by Rus- (in the steppe), Basin (in the desert). (See fig. sell)63 for the pertinent groups in Wyoming are 1.) From them we see that all three have two cycles as follows: of precipitation, although at Moran they come in "Dry Climate (B): centimeters of precipita- March and May; in the others, in May and October. tion = mean annual temperature, C0, +22 (wet Moran is consistently wetter and colder than the winters) to 44 (wet summers), but a classifica- other two, which differ between themselves chiefly tion recognizing nine types of effective precip- in the heavy rainfall received by Riverton in May. itation regimes based on consideration of two Even the hythergraphs do not give a complete out of three months of opposite seasons precedes presentation of all the factors important to man the application of climatic definitions. and animal. The means are far from the minima and Desert (W); classification as for B, but pre- maxima, which are -660 F in Yellowstone National cipitation values, in centimeters - mean annual temperature, C0, +11 (wet winters) to 22 (wet Park65 and above 1000 F in the Big Horn Basin. Nor summers) do they show the yearly fluctuation. In Fort Laramie Steppe (S), dry climates more humid than des- ert, as just defined. Cold type (K), with mean January temperature below 320 F. Taiga is cold and wet." 64Thornthwaite, 1931. 65At Riverside Ranger Station, February 9, 1933. The average depth of unmelted snow on the ground in the elevated regions of Wyoming by the end of March is 38 inches, with a maximum of 122 inches. 62Baker, 1937:16-18. See "Climatological Data," Wyoming Section, 42:4 and 45:13 (U. S. Department of Agriculture Weather 63R. J. Russell, 1931:esp. 41. Bureau, Washington,) 1933 and 1936. % 4 A 1'. \ %-) /re L- I04 14 I / I n mN I ,;> ;n q, i / /
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9/9cd/-OV 4/v ailt7vo: / tla 262 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS (somewhat east of the area under consideration),66 broad-leafed cottonwood willow, skun]bish flow- the rain in June has varied from 0.0 to 4.8 ering currant, buffalo berry, etc.; (b) aali- inches. In addition, such factors as wind (attain- flat association--greasewood and glasswort; (c) sandy and adobe plains association--saltbush, ing 75 miles per hour on the plains), sunshine, Eriogonum, cactus (Opuntia), wheat grass, giant humidity, and evaporation play their roles. Fi- rye grass rabbit brush, greasewood, yucca; (d) nally, even the nature of precipitation is highly ridges, slopes, and canyons--juniper, piion., important. Snow protects growing plants from bit- mountain mahogany, shadscale, syringa, cacti, ter cold, but cannot be directly utilized until skunkbush. it is melted. Showers of less than 0.15 inches 2. Transitional zone (5000-7500 feet, roughly). actually decrease the moisture of porous soils, Mammals: plains white-tailed deer, Black Hills in cases of low humidity, by increasing capil- red squirrel, Wyoming and Uintah ground squirrels, larity. Cloudbursts on barren, desert land are white-tailed prairie dog, bushy-tailed wood rat. as their would indi- Uintah pocket mouse, prairie jumping mouse, white- not as belpful precipitation tailed jack rabbit Black Hills cottontail, north- cate because of the heavy run-off, and do actual ern plains skunk, long-legged bat; various mice, damage by washing away precious soil. All these pocket gophers, etc. Birds: sage hen, sharp-shinned factors sharpen the contrast between taiga, hawk, saw-whet owl, magpie, pilon jay, mountain steppe, and desert. song sparrow, Rocky Mountain and pygmy nuthatches, The floral and faunal areas of Wyoming have willow thrush, etc. Reptiles: western garter snake, been intensively studied by Merritt Cary.67 The a toad, and a frog. Plants: a) foothill and open divisions which he has set up are those of plains association--Rocky Mountain and creeping Merriam, and are based fundamentally upon the junipers, Bebb-willow, barberry, wild red currant, associated with the cumu- mountain and large-toothed maples; various berries, type plants and animals sagebrushes, rabbit brushes; many herbaceous plants; lative or effective heat of a given area (cf. (b) stream association--narrow-leaved cottonwood, Thornthwaite's climatic provinces). Those which diamond willow; shrubbery of birch, haws, cornel. he finds in western Wyoming are, in order of in- wild gooseberry, currant, serviceberry, silverberry. creasing altitude, the following (Shelford's 3. Canadian zone (7500-9500 feet, approximately). approximate synonyms follow in brackets):68 Upper Mammals: elk, Shiras moose, Fremont Spruce squirrel, Sonoran-Great Basin Division (Semidesert: mixed Rocky Mountain flying squirrel, beaver, yellow- grass and sagebrush); Transitional (Steppe: haired porcupine, snowshoe rabbit? mountain lion, grasses in oren sod, chaparral, mountain mahog Canada lynx, mountain red fox, Arizona weasel Montane Forest: Rocky Mountain marten, otter, wolverine, black bear; any); Canadian (Rocky Mountains grizzly bear; various chipmunks, ground squirrels, Western yellow pine, Douglas fir, etc.); Hud- marmots (rockchucks), shrews, and bats. Birds: white sonian (Rocky Mountains Forest: Engelmann's spruce pelican, Canada goose, grouse, various sapsuckers, and alpine fir); and Arctic-Alpine (Tundra and blackheaded jay, Rocky Mountain jay, water ouzel, west Alpine Summits: lichens, herbs, grasses, etc.). ern winter wren, mountain chickadee, etc. Plants: An important subclassification runs across these, (a) up er-hill association--Douglas fir, lodgepole the "association" or specific physiography, far pine, Engelmann's spruce; (b) lower-hill association example, meadow, rock slope, etc. 69 (in addition)--birch, aspen, willow, various cur- The characterizations of these zones and their rants, buffalo berry, blueberry, elderberry, etc.; are as follows: (c) wet-meadow association--willows and grasses, principal associations briefly shrubby cinquefoil, larkspur, lupine, geranium, 1. Upper Sonoran zone (up to 5000 feet, iris, etc.; (d) dry-meadow association--sagebrush, roughly). Manmala: antelope, buffalo (formerly), Frasera, Balsamorrhiza. Great Plains muskrat, Wyoming kangaroo rat, 4. Hudsonian zone (peripheral to the Canadian; black-tailed jack rabbit, Bailey cottontail, 9500-10 500 feet, roughly). Mammals: mountain plains coyote, kit fox, raccoon, badger, Great sheep, timberline chipmunk, several marmots, the Basin spotted skunk, black-footed ferret, north- pika or coney (also visitors from the Canadian ern plains mole; various species of chipmunks, zone). Birds (most species also in the Canadian ground squirrels, prairie ogs, mice, gophers, zone): alpine three-toed woodpecker, Rocky Mountain bats. Birds: great blue heron, Virginia rail, ine grosbeak, Rocky Mountain creeper, etc. Plants: mournin dve, burrowing owls, western mocking- a) deep-soiled association--white-barked pine, bird, etc. Snakes. prairie bull snake, plains Engelmann's spruce, alpine fir low juniper, gray- rattlesnake, etc. Plants: (a) stream association-- leafed willow, red raspberry; (b) shallow-soiled asso- ciation--spring beauty, alpine bitterroot, columbine, larkspur, buttercup, anemone, phlox, painted cup, etc. 5. Arctic-Alpine zone (above 10,500 feet). Mammals: only visitors from lower zones. B 66Given in the excellent discussion by Visher, white-tailed ptarmigan, brown-capped rosy finch, 1925:esp. 75. black rosy finch, titlark, desert horned lark. Plants: (a) wet gulches and basins--thickets of 67 Cary, 1917. willow, shrubby cinquefoil; (b) rocky slopes and RB Shelford, 1926:75-76. ridges--mountain heath and alpine avens; (c) slide 69 Two detailed studies of associations have rock--spring red currant and dwarfed raspberry; been made in this general region, one from the (d) high slopes (annuals)--buttercups, alpine viewpoint of botany, the other from that of meadow rue, locoweed, alpine forget-me-not, golden- zo6logy. See Hanna, 1934, and Davis, 1939:esp. rod, fleabane, alpine yarrow, alpine bluegrass, 21-63. sedges, etc. I * .w* * w v 0
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Map 8. Life zones (after Cary). 264 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS Geogrphical concordances.--Comparison of the (b) The West-Central Big Horn Basin. This is distributions of topography, physiography an'd all less than 5000 feet in elevation, is a struc- soils, climates,and biota in the pages above tural syncline of the Rocky Mountains System and reveals a number of concordances which seem to has brown loam soils. The climate is that of a delimit natural areas: cold desert; the biota belong to the Upper Sonoran (a) The Central Rocky Mountains Area. It con- zone. sists of the Yellowstone Basin, the Absaroka (c) The Upper Green River-Sweetwater valleys. Mountains, the Tetons, the Wind River Mountains, These are between 5000 and 7500 feet high. They the Wyoming Range, and intervening areas. It is belong to the Wyoming Basin, and have brown loam unifonmly over 7500 feet, belongs to the Rocky soils. They have a cold steppe climate, a Transi- Mountains physiographic area, and is heavily tional flora and fauna. glaciated. It has no true soils. It has a taiga The other districts, such as the Big Horn climate, Canadian, Hudsonian, and Arctic-Alpine Mountains, Wind River Valley, and the Red Desert, wildlife. present a much more complex picture. ADAPTATION: MEANS OF LIVELIHOOD The economy of the Wind River Shoshone was from ribs. From the paunch, water-pipes or sacks, based upon four pursuits: hunting and fishing, in which meat and blood are sometimes cooked by plant gathering, trade, and mineral exploitation. boiling with heated stones, the latter being The animals, birds, and fish utilized may be dropped into the sacks. grouped into three categories according to rela- "From the thigh-bones, traps similar to our tive importance (a function of the numbers deadfalls. From the tail, knife-scabbards, handles of to war-clubs, and medicine-rattles. The udder, the animal, its size and its market value in dried, becomes stiff and hard, and is used for trade). Staples were the bison, fish (especially dishes, tobacco-bags, medicine-rattles, etc. The trout), elk, beaver, and mule deer. Major but pericardium for sacks. The gall is sometimes used occasional supplies were the antelope, jack rab- as a drink, and produces intoxication; there is bit, mountain sheep, marmot (woodchuck, rock- also sometimes found in the gall a hard yellow chuck), and sage hen. Accessories were the substance, and this is highly valued as a paint Virginia deer, moose, bear, duck, goose, cotton- for the face. tail, badger, snowshoe rabbit, ground squirrel, "The amniotic fluid, in which the foetus floats, and wood rat. The bobcat or lynx, mink, otter, is used by them to quench thirst when water cannot be obtained, and is also generally used to cook or and weasel had value as fur, but were not eaten. boil the foetus in, the latter being specially A few persons (in the Green River country partic- prized as a dainty and delicate morsel of food. ularly) ate lampreys, ants, locusts, crickets, Te marrow is eaten both raw and cooked, being and owls. roasted in the larger bones by laying them on the The bison was easily most vital, numbering coals. 40,000,000 on the Plains; and a bull weighed 1800 "The teeth are used for necklaces, and are also pounds, a cow 1200.7° At best, the animal and its used in medicine-rattles. products yielded virtually a complete existence. "They consider the contents of the paunch an As Clark elaborates: 71 excellent remedy for skin-diseases, and in case of frost-bite, if the afflicted member is thrust into "... Of the skin they [the Plains Indians] the paunch of a freshly-killed buffalo, relief ob- made robes, lodges, lariats, ropes, trunks or tains without evil after-effects. A very little par-fleche sacks, saddles, saddle-covers, saddle- buffalo-fat is sometimes mixed with the tobacco blankets, whips, quivers, knife-scabbards, cra- and red-willow bark for smoking. The liver is often dles, shirts, decorations for saddles, beds eaten raw and while still warm with animal heat, bridles, boots, a kind of sled for hauling {he the gall-juice being sprinkled over it as a sauce. meat over the snow, and from the thick part of The kidneys are eaten both raw and cooked. The the skin of the neck a glue is made by boiling meat, fat, and most of the intestines are staple and skimming. articles of food, and are kept for months by simply "Ropes and lariats are made from the scalp- being dried in the sun; the hump is considered par- lock, or long tuft on the forehead, and pillows ticularly fine for drying. The contents of the from the hair. From the horns, spoons, cups, paunch furnish food for ponies, and the liquid in dishes, powder-horns, arrow-heads, bows by split- the same, cleared by the gall, is prized for drink- ting the longer horns, and the tips are fastened ing as cool and tasteless; i.e. devoid of any un- to slender poles whi9h are used in certain games. pleasant taste. "From the fascia (thin tendonous covering "The'buffalo-chips' are used for fuel, and be- which supports the muscles, and called by the fore the days of flint and steel and matches, were interpreters sinew), found under the shoulder- particularly good when dry for making a fire by the blades, the abdominal fascia, the two strips on friction of wood. These 'chips', pounded fine and each side over the hump, and the strip on each kept dry, are used to keep the small children warm, side of the back, they made thread, bow-strings, they being partially buried in the powdered material. rope for softening robes by rubbing, fasten The value of these chips can scarcely be appreciated feather-guides to arrows, and stiffen and make by those who have not suffered for the want of fuel bows more elastic by placing on back. From the on our treeless prairies. thick ligament of the upper portion of the nape "The tanned buffalo skin without the hair fur- of the neck is made a pipe. An instrument used nishes the best material for tepees." to straighten arrows is fashioned from the center bone of the hump by cutting a hole in it, and When to this lengthy list is added the fact that from some of the smaller bones, arrow-heads are the Wind River Shoshone annually killed enough bison made, and an instrument for 'flushing', or scrap- to sell at least 2000 skins,72 their economic wor- ing the meat from hides. From shoulder-blades ries seem (at first sight) to have all been solved. axes, knives, arrow-points, instruments for dress- Unfortunately, a series ing robes and smoothing down porcupine-work. of important limiting "The trachea is used as a sack for paints, etc. circumstances prevented full utilization of this re- The rough papillae of the tongue for hair-brushes. source. These revolved around three factors: the mi- The brain, liver, and fat for tanning skins. In- gratory habits and gregariousness of the buffalo, the struments for shaping bows and small dog-sleds food requirements and carrying capacity of the horse, and the military potency needed with constant warfare. 7OSeton, 3:652 and elsewhere. 72Rep. Coimm. Ind. Aff. for 1884:183; for 71Clark, 1885:84-86. 1885:211 (extrapolated). [265] 266 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS Two main herds of bison wandered in reach of or more in a stretch.) Secondly, nomadism became the Shoshorie.73 One wintered between the Missouri inescapable. and Red rivers in North Dakota and Minnesota, the Once travel started most of the meat had to be other on the upper Saskatchewan River in Canada. left behind, wasted since the Shoshone did not In the spring the animal went in enormous, close- use underground caches of the eastern Plains type.77 packed droves west and south, respectively, to This is clear: an average family of 5 had 10 horses. feed on the luscious plains of the Yellowstone, Of these, at least one would be a colt, or other- Powder, and adjacent rivers. By summer, the large wise incapacitated; one, the precious buffalo horse, herds had split up into small groups that spread reserved exclusively for buffalo hunting, war and widely over plains and mountains, reaching even racing. Three animals would be needed minimally for such inaccessible spots as Jackson Hole.74 As saddle purposes; three others, to drag the travois, fall came, however, the animals reunited for carry the household goods. This would leave no more their return journeys. than two animals that could carry meat and skins. These migrations consequently restricted ef- TeiTrTcapacity would scarcely exceed 400 pounds, fective, large-scale hunting of the buffalo to a for Indian ponies were small. Half of this would be short period in the spring, a longer one in the needed for packing skins for trade. Two hundred fall. At other times the beasts were too scat- pounds of meat--and this is a maximal estimate-- tered pr tpp far in enemy territory for major ex- would scarcely last 5 persons more than 20 days.78 ploitation. These habits, combined with the In addition, warfare took its toll. Access to buffalo's wariness and keen hearing, made hunting the herds was often endangered, sometimes cut off. necessarily collective, organized. It was a case Attacks frequently caused flight and precipitate of sudden mass slaughter or virtually none at abandonment of supplies. Raids meant lost horses; all. Once the animals were scared--even by a fear of raids restricted grazing range, but made single careless individual--they would flee long large encampments the safest. Lastly, credit with distances, possibly completely out of the tribe's white traders could be obtained only by selling range. many skins. In that way the Shoshone could buy In assembling people for large hunts, and guns for warfare (the bow and lance were far more in following the migrations of the bison, the efficient against the bison). horse was a considerable asset. Yet it was also In all, the efficiency of bison economy was a major liability: it had to have fodder. This almost incredibly low. With all their slaughter, fact made long stays in any one locality impos- the Shoshone could scarcely have lived more than sible, as may be seen from a few simple calcula- six months a year on bison meat. Figuring an aver- tions. The Wind River Shoshone had about two age weight per bison of 1500 pounds, and the num- horses per person7 --3000 horses to 1500 people. ber slaughtered at 2000, we can see that there was The virgin range capacity of the Wyoming plains available 3,000,000 pounds gross weight, or possi- was about 3 acres per cow (or horse) per month76 bly 2,500,000 pounds net weight. More than four (say, twice that in spring; half, in the winter). good kills a year were improbable: if 1500 people In a radius of two miles from camp (about the could stay at the site of these kills 42 days limit because of the danger of theft, raids, twice and 21 days twice, gorging on six pounds of etc.), 2700 cow/months of fodder were available. meat a day, then could carry away an average of These would have been appreciably cut down (25 40 pounds per person, for 20 days' rations each per cent seems a low estimate) by the grazing and time, an absolutely maximal efficiency of 55 per trampling of tens of thousands of buffalo. There- cent and subsistence for 200 days would be achieved. fore, six weeks in the spring, three weeks in the The norm was unquestionably less than half of this. winter would have been the absolute limit of a And it is hard to see how, with their available stay for 1500 people. technical means, they could have increased the Two processes were set in motion by the fact efficiency of their economy. More horses would above. First, a strong motive was created toward have meant closer pursuit of the buffalo, better breaking up the camp into smaller units in the defense in war, greater carrying capacity--but fall and winter. This was checked by the mili- also less fodder per head, consequently, more fre- tary weakness of a small party and the smaller quent moving; temptation to horse raiders. Fewer area in which it could guard its horses. (Small parties of Shoshone, 25-50 people, did at times wander by themselves on the Plains for two years 77How much such caches might add to the total food supply is open to doubt, for return to the 73 Seton, 3:652; Rep. Secy. War (41st Cong., spot would often be infeasible in wintertime, say; 2nd Sess.), Washington, 1870:64. and the caches might be robbed by beasts or men; or their locations forgotten. Only semisedentary 74Fryxell, 1928. people could use caches effectively. 75Rep. Comm. Ind. Aff. for 1872:101, 407 (1037 78The concentrated reserve ration, at least as persons; 1800 horses); for 1874:52 (1800 persons); efficient as pemmican, used by modern armies, for 1874-75:133 (3300 horses); for 1876-77:208, weighs three pounds; the normal field ration, 304 (1800 people, 3800 horses). five. Thus my estimate of dietary requirement is 76McArdle, 1936:96. absolutely minimal. 0 HABITATION FOCUS '8 < 0 - §-*~ RADIATIONB~~~~~SOSONE TO RESOURCES BOUNDARY OF NATURAL AREAS / t' sCOMFARE MAPS I & 2 SCALE IN MILES | R 6 10 20 30 40 5b
Map 9. Utilization of natural areas. 268 ANTEROPOLOGICAL RECORDS horses would have meant longer stays, but poorer people, can be built up: the smaller the hunting defense, less close pursuit of the buffalo, group, the better. Consequently, elk hunting was smaller carrying capacity. Wheeled vehicles would most common in the winter and slummer when the Sho- have been an incredible boon. shone had divided into minimal groups. An account of endless slaughter merely for Seemingly, the elk could be used as a substi- skins and tongues is much closer to the norm than tute for all the functions of the buffalo (making Clark's effusion. allowance, of course, for his smaller weight and The principal food fishes of western Wyoming thinner skin). Thus, in the 1880's, elk hides are cutthroat trout, mountain grayling, and Rocky replaced the vanishing buffalo hides as a market- Mountains whitefish.79 They are largely residents able product.82 Also, because of the greater steadi- of cold mountain streams. Unfortunately, no quan- ness of supply, use could be fuller, less wasteful, titative data exist concerning them. than in the case of the bison. In all, the elk was Fish played, and continue to play, an impor- exceeded only by bison and fish in its contribution tant role in Wind River economy. Methods of tak- to Shoshone life. ing fish were relatively efficient: weirs, dams, The mule deer and the Virginia deer83 resembled and fishtraps were the major devices. The fish the elk in the use made of them by the Shoshone. were dried or smoked on a large scale. However, Their smaller size, fewer numbers, and greater no private ownership of good fishing places wariness made them much less important, however. existed, and damp and weirs were not maintained Mule deer were most common in the Bear River coun- from year to yeah. Furthermore, the lack of boats try, and seem to have been hunted most there. other than the bullboat in historic times pre- As a sedentary, sizeable (often over 50 pounds), vented exploitation of such rich lakes as Yellow- and well-nourished animal, the beaver furnished an stone Lake. important food and fur supply for isolated, small In general, fish were taken principally in the groups.84 Originally, he could not be killed off at spring, when the stores of bison meat were run- will, but the introduction of steel traps and tough ning low. At other times, they were regarded as axes made his defenses of water, mud house, and ice an auxiliary food, eaten when other supplies were quite vain. The value of his fur was so great that lacking. In such instances less efficient tech- trappers, both white and Shoshone, virtually deci- niques came into play, such as fishing through a mated the beast in the 1830's. Thereafter, the bea- hole in the ice, angling, spearing, etc. The yield ver declined in significance. then could not have been very great. Use of the antelope, jack rabbit, mountain sheep, Elk are animals of limited migratory habits. marmot, sage hen, and waxwings85 was characterized Their range--from the high mountains in summer by irregular peaks and long periods of nonoccurrence. to the low valleys in winter--varies considerably All of these are gregarious and somewhat migratory; with climatic conditions. A severe winter of deep none are large enough or numerous enough to allow snow may bring many thousands into a restricted any considerable reserve to be built up from a mass valley, while a mild one might leave them scat- slaughter. Thus the antelope could be caught effec- tered throughout the higher valleys and slopes. tively only in surrounds, as it was too fast even They are, furthennore, gregarious, although not for horses. But a single killing would cut down the to the same degree as the bison. Their original population for years. The jack rabbit waxed and numbers are a little difficult to estimate. In waned in numbers, increasing a dozen-fold one year 191280 the authorities estimated that 50,000 elk over the other. This undependability, plus the dif- lived in the vicinity of Yellowstone Park. Con- ficulty of preserving rabbit meat, made the animal sequently, 150,000 does not seem excessive as an only casually valuable. Mountain sheep necessitated original figure for all of western Wyoming. (It, arduous and dangerous climbs in summer; in winter, however, scarcely could have exceeded this very however, snowshoed hunters could trap them in the greatly, because of the competition of beavers deep snow (this was the Sheep Eater specialty). and elk in food, and the early great number of Marmots were a prized tidbit in the summer and beavers. )81 early fall. Hibernation in inaccessible rock shel- Elk hunting seems to have been an important ters made year-round use impossible. Finally, the auxiliary to Shoshone economy at all seasons of value of the sage hen and waxwings came about the year. It involved merely tracking and shoot- through the ease with which these birds could be ing by a single man; snowshoes aided in overtak- killed, either by sticks or bird-arrows; they ing herds in the deep winter snows. Inasmuch as served for occasional feasts, particularly in win- the elk weighs about 600 pounds and bands together ter. in groups of from 3 to 75 animals, it must be hunted continuously. No reserve to be transported or cached, especially for any sizeable number of 82Rep. Comm. Ind. Aff . for 1884:183. 83Bailey, 1930:16 ff., 1918:26 ff.; Steward, 79Hvermann, 1892; Locke, 1929. 1938:33-41; Davis, 1939. 80Bailey, 1930:43 and elsewhere. 84Bailey, 1930:11-115. 81Bailey, 1930:114. 85Davis, 1939; Bailey, 1930:188 ff. SHININ: WIND RIVER SHOMONE ETENOGEOGRAPHY 269 The casual use of the other animals may read- Comanche country.88 Those they could get, served ily be explained on the basis of danger (bears), only to whet appetites. Now, with easy accessi- scarcity and inaccessibility (moose), small size bility and large volume possible, an active trade and lack of detailed knowledge by the Shoshone arose, changing much of the aboriginal economy, of the habits of different species and even races as an excess of buffalo, deer, and beaver skins (ground squirrels, wood rats, etc.). Two excep- had to be gathered every year to achieve credits tions exist, ducks and geese. Here the reason was in buying guns and ammunition, cloth, flour, cof- twofold. Although their flyways cross western fee, etc. Wyoming, the major breeding grounds of these The historical accounts speak for themselves. birds, in the Bear River marshes,86 are somewhat Pattie, in 1826, met a company of Shoshone in west of Wind River territory. Secondly, bird- Arizona.89 arrows were simply futile against high-flying ducks and geese; shotguns were not, so far as I "They were warmly clad with buffalo robes, and know, in common use. they had muskets... they had recently destroyed a The useful plants of the Wind River Shoshone company of French hunters on the headwaters of may be grouped as foods, manufacturing materials the Platte... We took from them all the beaver and medicines.87 In the first category four sub- skins which they had taken from the slain French, divisions existed, depending upon the use of the and five of their mules..." root, berry, pistil and leaf, or seeds. The first In 1832 Wyeth wrote,90 and second were gathered by individual women, or "We were surprised to find the Indians in the parties of them, in the late summer and fall. vicinity, of the mountains, and all around Pierre's Wild roots, camass, and wild onions, especially, Valley, and the Blackfoot tribe, and the Shoshones, were dug with digging sticks; and women picked or Snake-tribe so well provided with muskets, currants, rose berries, hawthorns, and goose- powder and bali, woollen cloth, and many other ar- berries. The returns were dried and boiled in ticles, until we were informed that Mr. MacKenzie, soup, or mixed with pemmican. Greens, in the an established and wealthy Indian trader, had long forms of pistils and leaves, came as welcome supplied them with every article they desired." spring changes from a monotonous winter diet. The Farnham gives a less rosy picture.91 sugary content of honey plants, gilia, cinque- "Beaver, otter, bear and buffalo skins, and foil, and others was highly prized by children, horses are exchanged by them with the Arrapahoes, above all. Thistles and some kinds of sunflowers and the Americans, and British traders, for some served as the only sources of seeds. Even they few articles of wearing apparel; such as woollen were gathered amateurishly. The gathering baskets blankets and hats. But as their stock of skins is of the Basin were unknown; ordinary sticks were always very limited, they find it necessary to inefficient beaters. In all, while plants bal- husband it with much care, to obtain therewith a anced diet, they were quantitatively of no great supply of tobacco, arms and ammunition." value. Wislizenus' long account deserves full quota- Materials for manufacture included such plants tion because of its liveliness and the wealth of as Indian hemp for rope, prickly pear for glue, incidental facts brought in concerning customs, alder for weaving baskets, etc. In addition, all attitudes, and games. 92 sorts of larger trees and bushes were used for "From the agents we learned that this year's firewood and lodge construction. Here, especially [1839] meeting place had been fixed on the right in earlier times, an abundance of easily broken bank of the Green River at the angle formed by its branches was much appreciated, for the women, junction with Horse Creek... It was the Fourth of with poor axes, or none at all, could not cope July... The next morning we started early, and with larger timber. A limitation in regard to the reached toward noon the Green River, so long de- size of timber that could be easily cut down or sired... "We reached the camping place. What first struck dragged left useless most of the larger trees. our eye was several long rows of Indian tents Concerning medicinal plants, my identifica- (lodges), extending along the Green River for at tions are poorest. Sagebrush infusions relieved least a mile. Indians and white were mingled here fever, rye grass scraped trachoimatous eyes. Tragu- in varied groups. Of the Indians there had come pyron had a treasured fragrance. But I have no chiefly Snakes, Flatheads and Nezperces, peaceful clue to the nature of many pain killers, perfumes, tribes, living beyond the Rocky Mountains... magical plants, etc. "A pint of meal, for instance, costs from half The establishment of regular rendezvous and a dollar to a dollar; a pint of coffee-beans, permanent exploitation by trappers in western cocoa beans or sugar, two dollars each; a pint of Wyoming after 1825 quickly modified the habits of dilute alcohol (the only spirituous liquor to be all the neighboring tribes. Previously, white man's goods could be obtained only by long and 88 See Shimkin, 1941a; MS a. dangerous trips to the Mandan villages or the 89Pattie, 1905. 90Wyeth, 1905:83. 86Lincoln, 1935. 91 Farnham, 1906:261. 87 See table 2. 92Wislizenus, 1912:84, 86-88. 270 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS had), four dollars; a piece of chewing tobacco So, for instance, I have repeatedly seen an old of the commonest sort, which is usually smoked, granddam summering before the tent with her gray- Indian fashion, mixed with herbs one to two dol- haired spouse, and busily picking the "Heavy cav- lars. Guns and ammunition, bear traps, blankets, alry" from his head. But the fingers that deftly kerchiefs and gaudy finery for the squaws, are also sold at enormous profit... caught the prisoner with equal deftness carried "The Indians who had come to the meeting were him to the mouth, where the unhappy creature was no less interesting than the trappers. There must buried alive. Chacun a son gout! have been some thousands of them. Their tents are "The rendezvous usually lasts a week." made of buffalo hides, tanned on both sides and sewed together stretched in cone shape over a After 1843, when the fur business had declined, dozen oles, that are leaned against each other, the trading post established by Bridger93 became their tops crossing. In front and on top this the meeting place. A decade later, the establish- leather can be thrown back, to form door and ment of the Mormons at Salt Lake City created a chimney. The tents are about twelve feet high and major competitor, who was eager for the Indians' twenty feet in circumference at the ground, and trade for political and religious as well as com- give sufficient protection in any kind of weather. I visited many tents, partly out of curiosity, mercial purposes. Consequently it is not surpris- partly to barter for trifles, and sought to make ing to read that: myself intelligible in the language of signs as "It was the custom of the tribe to make a jour- far as possible. An army of Indian dogs very much ney almost every fall to Salt Lake City, and other resembling the wolf, usually beset the entrance. white settlements, and swap their buckskin and From some tents comes the sound of music. A vir- buffalo robes for red blankets beads, ammunition, tuoso beats a sort of kettle drum with bells and other things they needed."64 around with all his might, and the chorus accom- The 1860's marked the beginning of treaty rela- panies him with strange monotone untrained sounds with the United States government, and the that showed strong tendency to the minor chords. tions A similar heart rending song Irew me to a troop first white settlements in Wind River Valley. We of squaws that were engrossed in the game of "the may note that $10,000 worth of skins and furs was hand," so popular with the Indians. Some small got in the winter of '66.95 This income doubled object, a bit of wood, for instance, is passed through later grants resulting from treaties; the from hand to hand among the players seated in a consequences are discussed in another publication. circle; and it is some ones part to guess in Trade with other Indian tribes was generally whose hands the object is. During the game the inconsequential. The Wind River people often made chorus steadily sings some song as monotonous as a fat profit reselling furs bought from the Sheep those to which bears dance. But the real object Shoshone. Otherwise, however, is to gamble in this way for some designated Eaters or Mountain prize. It is a game of hazard. In this case, for barter was largely a ceremonial exchange of equiv- example, a pile of beads and corals [sic], which alent goods between close friends, blood-brothers lay in the midst of the circle, was the object of different localities. It had no true economic in question. Men and women are so carried away function. by the game, that they often spend a whole day The final means of livelihood among the Wind and night at it. Other groups of whites and In- River Shoshone, and the least, was mineral exploi- dians were engaged in barter. The Indians had for tation. This consisted of the minor quarrying of the trade chiefly tanned skins, moccasins, thongs obsidian and various pipestones in several places of buffalo leather or braided buffalo hair, and on the west slope of the Wind River Range (unfor- fresh or dried buffalo meat. They have no beaver skins. The articles that attracted them most in tunately, unlocated); the obtaining of salt, prin- exchange were powder and lead, knives, tobacco, cipally from Soda Springs, Idaho; and the gleaning cinnabar, gaily colored kerchiefs, pocket mirrors of sea shells and agates from the fossil beds near and all sorts of ornaments. Before the Indian be- Black's Fork. Obsidian was the most important ar- gins to trade he demands sight of everything that ticle on this list, although sea shells were valued may be offered by the other party to the trade. for ornament. (In addition, natural hot springs If there is something there that attracts him, he, were much appreciated in the treatment of rheu- too, will produce his wares, but discovers very matism.) quickly how much or how little they are coveted. were directly If be himself is not willed to dispose of some Most of these mineral products particular thing, he obstinately adheres to his used. Only in recent days have Shoshone sold ag- refusal, though ten times the value be offered ates to white people near Evanston. And they them- him. The peltry bought from the Indians must be selves--so far as I know--paid, and were paid, carefully beaten and aired, at peril of having nothing for usage rights in the favored localities. objectionable troops billeted on you. The Indians, 93 accustomed to every kind of uncleanliness, seem Beard, 1925:134. to have a special predilection for a certain kind 94Wilson, 1926:68. of domestic animal, and even consider it a delicacy. 95Shimkin, MS a. ADAPTATION: DETAILED ETHNOBOTANY AND ETHNOZOOLOGY In table 2 below there are listed all the In all, I believe that the plants with simple plants and animals of which I have a record, with linguistic stem names are the most satisfactorily their common and (probable) scientific names, and the most certainly classed. They are those their Shoshone terms, their life-zone distribu- which everyone probably knew; examples are: tions, their Shoshone uses, and, for "useless" wo/'gwelip (Opuntia), kun' (Allium), wD'TgDpi plants, their applications among other tribes. (Pseudotsuga, Ei'hi4i (Salix). Other plant names Here, some explanatory remarks are in order. are derivatives of pok (thistle), so'nip (grass), The plants classified as "Identified" were ak' (sunflower), wa'ra (grass), etc. These are collected by me in May and June, 1937, along a modified according to color: Crnga- (red), c'xa- fifteen-mile line from Fort Washakie (Upper Sono- (yellow), e:'Pi- (blue or green), ku'si- (gray), ran) to the top of Hobbs Peak (Arctic-Alpine). du:- (black), etc. Other characteristics may also Some supplementary collections were made in the stand out: do'ya- (mountain), 'i- (pointed), lower Owl Creek range. All of these plants were sD'gogi- (ground), te:- (some sort of), etc. Some then identified by either Pivo Brown or Dick names I cannot analyze. Washakie (assisted by Marshall Washakie and his Although Shoshone and our categories are more wife). Miss Alice Eastwood, of the California or less parallel, it should be borne in mind that Academy of Sciences, kindly made the scientific they are not identical. For instance, ya'naweci, identifications. a: gia, and to'n~iap all apply to Gaura coccinea. I made a number of other, tentative identifica- On the other hand, mo'hagwanat includes the dis- tions by comparing the plant names with cognates tinct genera Sophia and Cupinus. in Gosiute98 and other Basin Shoshone97 groups.
Table 2 Plants Identified Common name Scientific name Shoshone name Distribution Shoshone use Use by other tribes Mountain maple Acer glabrum Torr. dofyasihi Trans.-Can. Plains Ind.: A. sache- rum, etc., for sugar Alpine yarrow Achillea millefo- hine:'enge A. alpicola, Basin Sho.: applied to lium Arct.-Alp. sores, for indiges- tion.--Plains Ind. (Winnebago): for swellings Achillea millefo- Ku~iarjgaTg& A. alpicola, Basin Sho.: applied to lium L. Arct.-Alp. sores, for indiges- tion Actinella simplex efgatoqijap Allium reticulatum. )'xarton~iap Indian hemp Apocynum hyperfo- 5icogi or A. androsae mi- Bark of last Kiowa: chewing gum lium 3itogi folium,Trans. year's plant dried for rope, etc. Arabis retropacta yu:'went A. lyalli, Arct.-Alp. Sagebrush Artemisia frigida pD'h) Trans. For infusions Basin Sho.: seeds Willd. in fever; for eaten adornment Milk vetch Astragalus yaigar]g1a Trans. Plains Ind.: boy's rattle, febrifuge (Omaha-.Ponca) Ground beans Astragalus shor- s|)'g5Pihura All zones lhl tianus Astragalus tri- ku's.ipa3oh, All zones dactalicus G.
96 Chamberlin, 1911. 97 Steward, 1938:21-32, 306-314. [271] 272 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS TABtE 2 (Continued) Plants Identified Common name J Scientific name ] Shoshone name [ Distribution j Shoshone use J Use by other tribes Balsam root Balzamorriza dz'ya )'xaya'han! B. sagitata, Basin Sho.: seeds Hookeri N. Trans. eaten (kubiak) B. incana, Trans. Rocky Mt. Betula fentinalis ta'ne~tigwai Trans. hips, firewood, Plains Ind.: vessels. birch Sargt. shades Dakota,also Algonkin Mariposa lily Calochortus sigo3i tontiap C. gunnisoni, oots like nuttali Trans. onions, eaten Harebell Campanula rotundi- do' H't YTgi'sap Trans.-Can. folia Arctic or Parry Campanula rotundi- du'ci wampi C. uniflora, harebell folia L. Arctic C. parryi, Hud. Wild root Carum gairdineri B. yamp aten Painted cup Castilleja angua- e 'rga ya'han Hud. istil as chil- Basin Sho.: not used tifolia dren's sweets Castilleja lira- eTnga ya'hait Can. riaefolia Thistle Cirsium Parryi do)ya bokw Can. ? aten in summer Cirsium undulatum ku~ibag Trans. ? E.A.: leaves may be eaten. Kiowa: burns and sores; formerly eaten Purple Virginma Clematis douglasii da'3ip Trans. bower H. Red cleome or Cleome serrulata klAganton~iap Upp. Son. "Wild onions, " Hopi: boiled for food honey plant used in summer Cleome serrulata e:'Pitontiap Upp. Son. Gosiute: medicine Crepis acuminata ta:p'i'p Nutt. Crepis acuminata yambawu:ra Nutt. Crepis acuminata dzyar'qpa Nutt. (hanixend) Cupinus argentaus mo xagwana P. Larkspur Delphinium scapu- du:'pohi toniiap D. subalpinum, Hopi: D. scaposum; lorum Gray Hud. emetic Descuriana poa'hiye Seeds eaten; soup Descuriana O' hartawiiwe-p Only animals eat it Willow cress Draba andina pa:'bahop Several sp., (Nutt.) Nelson Arct.-Alp. Giant rye grass Elymus condensatus pi'a 63nip Upp. Son.- or sore eyes; Basin Sho.: seeds Presl. Trans. scraping eaten Gosiute: seeds for food Fleabane Erigeron concinus ga~onYinY Several sp., Hud. E. pina- tisecus, Arct.-Alp. Erigeron radicatus Arct.-Alp.- Hook. Hud. Eriogonum Eriogonum pajpo hoab Many species, Basin Sho.: stomach all growing disorders. Kiowa: in Upp. Son. eaten. Hopi: birth
I I medicine SHIMKIN: WIND RIVER SHOSHONE ETHNOGEOGRAPHY 273 TABLE 2 (Continued) Plants Identified Common name Scientific name Shoshone name_jDistribution Shoshone use ]_Use by other tribes Eriogonum Eriogonum subalpi- gusegi (continued) nun Pursh. Eriogonum concinnumI 5a:tunyiaxand Alpine forget- Etrichium argenteuinI e: Piyapuci Arct.-Alp. me-not wight Wild strawberry Fragaria d3'sayahe:d Can.-Trans. Plains Sho.: eaten I widely Gaillardia aristata d)'ya)'hayap P. Gaura coccinea ya'na weci Upp. Son. a: ' Ya Upp. Son. to'n;iap Upp. Son. Gilia Gilia aggregata tambi-'xarikai Trans.-Upp. Ends sweet; (Pursh) Son. sucked by children Gnaphalium pa 'w:h9 (In Sun Dance) Gum plant Grindelia squarrosaL do 'yakw!6mbaga Upp. Son. Gosiute: Ute cough P. medic me Hedysarum Hedysarum cineras- pe: anadikap Trans. Bees' food cens Ryd. Sunflower Helianthus petio- dD'yaba:k Upp. Son. Basin Sho.: seeds laris Nutt. eaten Holodiscus dumosus doyawogonap Trans. Basin Sho.: tea from roots Barley Hordeum jubatum L. kwek6igat Blue flag Iris missoriensis 6e:gikigin Trans. I. versicolor: pul- Nutt. verized for eye water (Omaha Ponca), P1. Ind. Creeping juni- Juniperus sabina L .6 w*'ngohivionla Trans. per or trail- ing savin Rocky Mt. juni- Juniperus scopu- wo'r).g-Thi"Trgw-ia Trans.-Upp. For smoking (Red cedar) not per lorum Son. oneself used Lepidium apetalum W,1. ku'5idot wanawunt Melilotus offic- di'rep Dhapi inalis Lungwort Mertensia alpina e: 'iyahe:d Arct.-Alp.-Hud. Oenethera tricho- e:gupi Basin Sho.: seeds calix N. eaten Prickly pear Opuntia polyacan- wo'gwe'ip Upp. Son. Inside burned, Gosiute: formerly tha Haw. for glue eaten. Basin Sho.: and paint eaten. P1. Ind.: eaten; glue. Kiowa: glue. Hopi: eaten Oreocarya Oreocarya ya: 'rTgenL 0. flava, Upp. Son. Oreocarya virgata d)'6ae:gupi Trans. Silky phacelia Phacelia sericea piago:na Hud.-Arct. Basin Sho.: not used (Graham) Grey Alp. Phlox Phlox canescens 5ogopaca' cawagiu Hud.-Can. White-bark pine Pinus albicaulis te:wapi Hud. Firewood, Cottonwood Populus augusti- 6)'hop Trans. Sweets folia Aspen Populus tremu- sd ye'nap Can. Firewood, loides posts, etc. Cinquefoil Potentilla glandu- d:)yae'TjgaparaT) Trans. -Hud.- Like strawber- Gosiute: poultice losa Can. eaten IL- I ries;, I 274 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS TABLE 2 (Continued) Plants _ Identified Common name Scientific name Shoshone name Distribution Shoshone use f Use by other tribes I I I I I Douglas spruce Pseudotsuga taxi- wo ng:pi Trans.-Can. Wood for tipi folia poles Rhustridobattum eTqga wu'uwunt Basin Sho.: basketry, Nutt. Eriogonum eaten. Kiowa: eaten. Hopi: dyeing, eaten Currant Ribes cereum ho'a Can.-Trans.- Soup out of ber- Hud. ries; and for arrows Ribes congiflorum t C'TngwipDgp
Rose Rosa californica 'amp Can.-Trans. Berries, reli- 5i gion, etc. Rosa fendleri 'hapagiwe Can.-Trans. crepin Sand dock Rumex venosus P. dDya: '6u Upp. Son. Boiled and drunk for stomach- ache Willow Salix sIhY3i Many sp.; Shades, wood, Plains Ind.: Omaha all zones etc. basketry Sedum stenopetalum 'hayap Gosiute: leaves for- merly smoked Paint brush Senecio oxakap3oniYnikid Hud.-Arct.- Gosiute: chewing gum. Alp. Hopi: sap smeared Senelis perplexans ne wi~aiwg'Mrogen on sores N. Sophia ochroleucia mo hagwanat Basin Sho.: seeds wooton eaten Sphaeralcea cocci- dD'ya5o:na Not eaten Hopi: for constipa- nea tion Sphaeralcea cocci- tu'sig up Not eaten nea Stanleya Stanleya pinnata d.ya~a we' :kai Upp. Son. Hopi: eaten as (Pursh) greens Rabbit bush Tetradymia spinosa tono:fi Upp. Son. Arrow points Basin Sho.: not used. Hopi: to aid uter- ine contraction in birth Tragupogon porrfo- )'harlawihiwap Put in ears, lius pleasant smell ______I _ _ _ _ _ I ______~I ______I _ _ _ _ _ I _ _ Identification Doubtful ______----_ _ . _ _ _ _ II~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~_ II Wild onion? Allium acunimatum kun' Eaten Basin Sho.: (kunk) Alder Alnus tenuifolia hugutap Can. Bows, weaving Camassia? pa: s igo Eaten Black hawthorn Crataegus rivularis Wi: 'yam Trans. Eaten Mountain mahog- Cercocarpus ledi- tu: 'namb Trans. For clubs, etc. any folius Wild potato? Cleytonia carolin- sDgu5i'na Trans.? iana? Dog-tooth Erythronium parvi- d: 'yawitombak Can.-Hud. Painkiller in violet florum birth Sunflower Helianthus ak'; ku~iak; H. annuus; H. Seeds for soup Basin Sho.: eaten. hi'ump; peticolaris, Gosiute: eaten pia' :ak' Upp. Son. .~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Eaten Basin Sho.: eaten. Gooseberry Grosularia inermis we 'ibogun Trans. Kiowa: eaten? I -1 I I a SHIMKIN; WIND RIVER SHOSHONE ETHNOGEOGRAPHY2 275 Table 2 (Continued) Plants Identification Doubtful Common name Scientific name Shoshone name Distribution Shoshone use Used by other tribes Cedar? Juniperus wa: pi Many sp., all Smoking self, Gosiute: J. califor- zones fire bldg. nia used? Bitterroot Lewisia rediviva kan Trans. Eaten Tobacco Nicotiana quadri- pu'hiba'u valvus Pachistima myrsi- da'cip For rope mitas Pilon Pinus edulis erigat!'3anahup Upp. Son. Little importance Primrose Primula parryi d'yaratuwara Hud. For magic Chokecherry Prunus melanocarpa d)'ngisap or Trans. For bows, quivers to:namp Douglas spruce Pseudotsuga worjgogwa'na Can.-Trans. Pitching baskets mucronata Wild -ose Rosa ultramontanum? 5o'nipR. sayi, Rose berries Can.-Trans. eaten with grease Smooth sumac Schmaltzia glabra kusei Trans.-Upp. Pipestems, bows e)gahump (Rhus glabra) Son. eaten? Currants Ribes sp. b)'gunap Many species in all zones Greasewood Sarcobatus vermi- to:'napi Upp. Son. For arrowheads culatus Unident ified Fir? eTgakwenaga All zones d)'sawar' Seeds ground, eaten d.sawoga For rope dakamb3 Small cherry, eaten Wild parsnip ku:'wi~ap Vegetable Little kind of ku~ie~hup willow paro:-;a Painkiller Hopi: Tetradymia cones- in birth cens to aid uterine contractiors pi'yigwabwa Weed, rubbed Hopi: Ptiloria pauci- on breasts to flora for same pur- promote milk pose Sweet pine na'gwaday!rlgwi Pitch tu:56hup Willow without berries, for firewood tu'yasonip Grass with black seeds wi:'tgw Nuts on it; eaten by children yagwa5acihup eVery crooked" willows 276 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS The distribution of the plants used coincides I made no scientific check of the animals other fairly well with the relative importance of each than to compare the common names with those given life zone in terms of plant variety, area, and in the various zoological works for northwestern accessibility. The Transitional zone is easily Wyoming. However, I doubt whether any important first, followed by the Upper Sonoran, Canadian, animals have been grossly misclassified. and Hudsonian zones. The Arctic-Alpine zone was Shoshone animal names are of three basic sorts: useless. simple stems (usually Uto-Aztecan), descriptions, Some index of the relative efficiency of Wind and onomatopoeic words. A number of animals with River botany may be gained by examining the rec- the first type of name- are further differentiated ords of neighboring tribes98 for uses not found according to sex: we'rd (male bear), a gwai (female locally. The data are not particularly flatter- bear); wa:'nt (buck antelope), kwa'hari (doe ante- ing, for the Wind River Shoshone could have added lope). Examples of the second class are: bat, some 40 per cent utility qualitatively; certainly h'rnACi6 (Gulch-being); jay, di'6iwasi1p (Bad-killer); far more (in comparison with the Hopi, or Gosiute), hummingbird, d'i Mimi mD t)xa (Buzzes-much). Finally, quantitatively. A later section will discuss this 6u'akwakwa, for robin, and ka:k (modern), for crow, degree of utilization at greater length. have an understandable basis of onomatopoeia. TABLE 3 Animals Common name I Probable Shoshone name Distribution Shoshone use Remarks Ant a 'nigwMi6p Eaten Antelope Antilocapra amer- Buck: wa:'n5;doe: Upp. Son.- icana kwa'hari Trans. Badger Taxidea taxus hu: * n Trans.-Upp. Eaten; hunted taxus Son. Bat Many species; all zones Bear Ursus americanus Male: ware; Trans.-Can. Sometimes eaten; female: a gwai feared Beaver Castor canadenses ha:'ni Trans.-Can. Used for fur Bee pe:-ana Blue jay Cyanocefalus di iwaslp Upp. Son.- cyanocefalus Trans. Bobcat si 'rukupi6 Can. See: wildcat Buffalo Bison bison Bull: pogin'; Upp. Son. Cow is also named cow: kwJd ku6 Bullhead pi aperokw Bull snake Pituophis say' 6u: iyo Upp. Son. Buzzard do 'gwarYka Vulture Coyote Canis lestes; C. i'yap:6 Trans.-Upp. Usually not nebracensis Son. hunted Cricket me~w Eaten Crow Corvus brachy- ka:k Upp. Son.- Not eaten; Archaic name: hai rhyncos hesperis Trans. feathers for arrows Chicken hawk Falco sp. gu'ia rfka Not eaten Deer t'hia Also used for horse occasionally Deerfly )'hapit p i~it Dog sari Duck pu; 'yf Eaten Eagle pi'agwqa Feathers, pets Eagle (bald) Halaectus leucoce- pa'sia phalus leucoce- phalus Elk Cervus canadensis pa:'R'hi Trans.-Can.- In summer goes to canadensis Hud. Arct.-Alp. Fox (kit) Vulpex velox wa: 'N' Trans.-Upp. Not hunted; not I I Son. I eaten
98 Basin Shoshone after Steward, 1938; Gosiute Kiowa after Vestal and Schultes, 1939; various after Chamberlin, 1911; Hopi after Whiting, 1939; Plains tribes after Gilmore, 1912. SHIMKIN: WIND RIVER SHOSHONE ETBNOGEOGRAPHY 277 TABLE 3 (Continued) Animals
Common name J .Probable Shoshone name Distribution Shoshone use Remarks Fox (mountain Vulpex macrouros wa:AN' Can. Not hunted; not red) eaten Frog (leopard) Rana pipiens ya'gwa~a Upp. Son. Not eaten; might be used for bait Goose Branta canadensis nugunt Can.-Trans. Eaten Ground squirrel Callospermophilus cip Trans.-Gan. Hunted lateralis lateralis Heron Ordea herodias gwandata Trans.-Upp. Great blue heron Son. Heron Nyctocorax nicti- gwandata Trans.-Upp. Crowned night corax naev-ius Son. heron Horse bunlk Horsefly (big) pi6i pipit Horsefly tu'hupit pipit (black) Horsefly (gray) ku~iget pipit Housefly a:'niwui Hummingbird Selas phorus dl'pHi m)t)xa Can. -Trans. platycercus Insect pe: Lamprey d5'gwapenkW Locust kea Eaten Magpie Pica Pica hudso- kwi'dapoi Trans. Tails for dances nian Meadow lark Stunnella neglecta hi:to Upp. Son. Not eaten: not killed Mink? Mustela vision pa: Trans. Prized for fur Very few energumenus fTl3ux Minnow bu'ipengwi bu' ipeT)gwi Moose Alces americanus du:'paR'hi Can. Eaten shirasi Mosquito mD'p') pipit m 'p' imbpi Mountain lion Felis hippolestes d(' yaruku Trans.-Can. I? Mountain sheep Ovis canadenses Ram: duk; ewe: Arct.-Alp. Eaten canadenses mu'gambia Mourning dove Zenaidura macro- he:'wD Upp. Son. Also named hai'w- rura Carolinensis Mouse Microtus? ba'mbune All zones Killed but never Loathed eaten Mule deer Odocoileus hemionus du:'tihi Trans.-Can.- Eaten Upp. Son. Otter Lutra canadenses du'pasawi Can.-Trans. Fur prized canadenses Owl numbi6 All zones 'Very exception- Many species ally eaten Owl (burrowing) Speatyto cunicu- po'ko Upp. Son. "Prairie dog's laria hypogaea brother-in-law" Owl (white) d/-6apit mumbic Owl si'fako Smallest of the owls Perch? wigaper0kw "Calf of leg fish" Porcupine Erethizon epixan- yin Trans.-Can. Eaten Yellow thum haired Prairie dog Cynomys leucurus t!'niant Trans.-Upp. Not eaten; Son. feared Rabbit taw' All zones Eaten Also named ta'wun Rabbit (jack) Lepus townsendi dD'sakam Trans. Eaten campanius Rabbit (snow- Lepus bairdii w)Tlgurap Hud. Eaten shoe-) L bairdii I I.II I 278 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS TABLE 3 (Continued) Animals
Common name scientific name Shoshone name |_Distribution Shoshone use scientific name~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Remarks Rattlesnake Crotalus confluentus do'gwa Upp. Son. Not eaten; not hunted Robin Planesticus migra- su akwakwa Can.-Trans. torius propinquus Rocky Mt. me..,' jewl,.. * . a Small mouth, small whitefish head Sagehen Centrocercus hu: 'a Trans. Eaten urophasianus Salmon a gai Not found on Atlan- tic drainage Skunk Nephitis hudsonica p)N'yec Trans. Not eaten; not hunted Sparrow hawk Falco sp. gi ni gu'i; see chicken hawk Small hawk Falco sp. da'jedq wasa3a Brown, speckle- breasted; lives on nuts Squirrel (pine) ISciurus sp.? w) ngorao Not hunted, Many species listed, nor eaten all zones Sucker a:'wuk "Because they have lots of bones" Swallow Tachycineta pa' okombe Trans.-Can. thalesina lepida Trout D.W. Water snake pa'5a:.*perkWsunuwiyo D.W. Waxwings Bombycilla garrula wi'd)Yh Eaten pallidiceps Weasel Mustela arizonensi s pa: pi Can. -Trans. Fur in men's (Arizona) hair Weasel (dwarf) Mustela sicognianni pa: 'iti? Can. Fur in men's leptus hair WIldcat Lynx uinta si'hiru kuPTh Trans. Fur for babies; sometimes eaten Wood rat Netoma cinerea ka or kali Trans.-Upp, Hunted; eaten cinerea Son. Wolf (buffalo) Canis nubilus pi'ai ;ap:e Upp. Son.- Not hunted Trans. Worm wo: ap Yellow throat? Geothlypis trichos? a' nirqgWakwa Upp. Son.
A count of animal species alone would assign bison alone throw the weight heavily toward the first place to the Transitional zone in economic Upper Sonoran. Canadian, Hudsonian, and Arctic- value. Actually, however, the numbers of the Alpine follow the first two. ECOLOGY Ecology and economy in the broadest sense are As soon as the storms abated sufficiently to synonymous. Both describe the total relation allow movement, and the snow had melted, the between culture and environment. For the Wind tribe gathered once more for the spring bison River Shoshone, we are able to discuss briefly hunt. This was usually much shorter than that in the following vectors of the subject: (1) the the fall. Fish and greens were welcome additions bases of subsistence, the ideal economic cycle, to the diet. The horses soon recovered in the and the exploited areas; (2) the relation of the lush spring pastures. cultural to natural areas; (3) economic condi- With sunmer coming on, and a variety of food tioning in the culture; (4) the efficiency of available, ambitions would flaunt themselves. adaptation. The source material has been pre- Young men would go raiding; or enemies would at- sented in previous pages. tack. Now came the time for the Sun Dance. After TABLE 4 The Ideal Cycle of Wind River Shoshone Economy
Month Jan. Feb. Mcar. aPr Ma. June Jul au9. Sept. Ocl2. Nov Dec. Frt Locc~~~~Ii~~v~Ri er I-.P" ~ iver River' River' -..I2 n)'ds, Powdei R. LocckV, Ale By, lb PoweyR Y ~~ ~~~~ ~d3eem M3k131aik IeI \Hbw\Ieetwjrev ~~5ocioJB~~~. Va~ile RivrAV lrV, t cibVaIe Fork. veyHRhop.ere i R.Valey Social Inrekhrb.1 Familylll GroupingCBint Tyibe 6IRerdezouis+-Group |Trie a riends d-
is 0 n ~iso n mmisnt [ | ~Fish l| | _ £!k _ lvtul~~~~~~~.I f eer.__ EL _. Principal+d | 5he Ma Midst~~~~ rodrerrie sRoots_ Th5 es,etc) (Haws, et Wsdroot, etc)
Foods. | Fo o d.5.~~~~ol ~~Jaclk Rabbkt l i
(Top j___1_ Rdbbit JoiLca eei2L oe r, DLcLk o . Woo Rat. 5[ob1lM) Earl,lochorio 6r ens.e"cl. Oilher VdinteI Games Fatteni 4 II lnIG ' Trade IGethiI Pr 4rinmcI Prepari|j crtt-stelling e1 WJ obsidic 11 I5oVit 1 HidesI 1 Wet civities ofSrvct |or5Ndon pIs Irip erodGcamblilpeohe5 PO5 Nvnmic etc
These people were essentially meat and fish that, when the mountain passes became traversible, eaters. In the fall, the entire tribe gathered the entire tribe would travel to the west. On the for its early bison hunt on the Shoshone River way, they would kill marmots still sleepy from plains or elsewhere. Later, the four bands split winter hibernation, or catch large, ravenous fish off for the travel to their wintering places. that bit at every moving thing. Mountain sheep fur- They would subsist upon occasional bison, elk, nished exciting sport. beaver, and pemmican of dried bison meat and Having crossed the divide, they would get obsid- grease, sometimes mixed with berries. If food was ian from volcanic cliffs, as well as the steatite abundant, this would be a happy time, with the necessary for shamans' pipes. Eventually, they day spent in tobogganing or spinning rocks on the would arrive at the rendezvous. Here, their hard- ice; the evening, in storytelling. Alternative won treasures of pelts and hides would be sold, were grim pursuits of mountain sheep or elk on sometimes at a fair bargain, sometimes for a song. snowshoes, and starvation. But they were eager to get gems, cloth, flour,
[279] 280 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS whisky. That these were soon gone did not matter: emphasis upon two types of leadership: the dom- an abundance of animals and plants provided a inating warrier (or war chief), and the wise old varied and easy life at this time. man who could lead his people to food (principal Now the Shoshone would scatter, going about chief).102 It also strengthened the cross currents their private business in this safe country. of individualism and collective discipline: indi- Visits to poor western relatives would be in vidual prestige in war honors and hunting versus order, for wife-getting or other purposes. Or united military societies and collective bison they might get salt from Soda Springs, or sea hunts. shells from fossil beds near Fort Bridger to Travel on a large scale threw out pottery. adorn the ears of fops. Marmots, mule deer, Furthermore, it made the curing of grasses for roots, berries, and, other foods nourished them. basketry difficult; loving care of seed patches, As the leaves turned color and the first impossible. The horse, furthermore, was cared for snows fell in the highest mountains, hunger for by men; women, when horses were few, had to walk bison meat became strong. In full strength, in order to save the animals' strength. The man often with Bannocks or others accompanying had to be fresh for hunting. These factors upset them, they would cross the Wind River Range to the economic and social balance between sexes. We return to the social life, travel, war, feast- hear nothing more of the casual polygyny and poly- ing, and starvation of the Plains. andry of the Basin.103 Probably, only the influ- Areally, we may also visualize the constant ence of the matrilineal Crow104 prevented a further contrast between concentration and dispersion approach among the Wind River Shoshone to the typical of Wind River life. Fort Bridger, fr.ztkly patriarchal Comanche.105 ya'handai, Wind River Valley, and nda'wnawlsua Private property was both hindered and abetted. were the foci; connecting them and the hinter- On the one hand, private rights in hunting, fish- lands were the main routes. The most important ing, or gathering localities became impossible to of the last were the Big Horn Basin, the Powder a widely traveling people. On the other, horses River Valley, the Rocky Mountains, and the Bear meant more movable goods, more wives, more pur- River Divide. chased fineries. War, climatic uncertainties, and The relation with the natural areas of west- strong pressure toward generosity combined to pre- ern Wyoming is highly interesting. The Shoshone vent the development of a pastoral wealth-graded lived principally in Green River-Wind River society. valleys area (steppe climate, loam soils, transi- Consideration of the efficiency of Wind River tional fauna, 5000-7500 feet in elevation). This, Shoshone economy has some weight upon theories of they used most carefully and thoroughly. The the influence of the horse upon Plains culture. Rocky Mountains area (taiga climate, no soils, As I see it, the horse did not at all improve Canadian-Arctic Alpine fauna, above 7500 feet in the total sum of Wind River economy. Bison slaughter elevation) and the Big Horn Basin (desert cli- with the horse was, as noted before, incredibly mate, loam soils, Upper Sonoran fauna, below wasteful. Furthermore, the wide migrations of these 5000 feet) were regions of widespread but super- people lost them their intimate knowledge of the ficial exploitation. Curiously, the situation country, vital for the gaining of small game: wit- has changed in reservation days. Now, they live ness the great variety of habitats chosen by dif- in and use carefully the Upper Sonoran zone in ferent races of ground squirrels.106 The same was lower Wind River Valley, while the Transitional true for gathering. The conservation of resources, zone has become marginal, along with the high typical, for example, of the Ojibwa,107 was not in mountains.99 These changes have resulted from evidence at all. Beavers, decimated in one locality the adoption of agriculture and sedentary life. after another, died out; killing a surplus would Insistence upon the economic conditioning of have continued the supply indefinitely. The tech- culture is, as Steward points out,100 far from nical specialization and simplification of Plains rigid economic or ecological determinism. It is life were other limiting factors. Horsemanship, simply an attempt to elucidate the adjustments tactics, and other such learning allowed no time that exist once both environment and general for knowledge of even such simple devices as pit- culture patterns are given. In this tribe the falls for deer, or effective traps for other ani- following seem to represent the more important mals. Finally, the strongest evidence of all is in of such adjustments. the population figures: as many people lived in The routes of travel coincided with economic each square mile cf the desolte Basin as in the resources. The alternation between concentrated far richer country of western Wyoming. bison provisions and diffuse elk, deer, fish, etc., made for a like alternation in social groups: the tribe in the spring and fall, the 102 Also Comanche--see Hoebel, 1940. band in the winter.101 This also led to increased 103 Steward, 1938:241-246. 104shimkin, 1941a. 105 99Shimkin, MS a. Hoebel, 1938; 1939. 100 Steward, 1938:260-262. 106 Davis, 1939. 101 cf. Mauss, 1906; Shimkin, 1939. 107Landes, 1937:89 ff.; Speck, 1915. SHIhKIEN: WIND RIVER SHOSHONE ETENOGEOGRAPHY 281
As I see it, the principal effect of the horse was true for the rest of the Plains only further was to create a life of extreme cyclicity, of ups research can tell. and downs to an incredible degree: there were gorging and starvation, great assemblies and com- greater and more permanent assemblages than before, plete solitude, elaborate ermine tippets and the increased the range of travel, and allowed exploi- crudest of basketry.108 To what extent the same tation of the buffalo. Steward gives no evidence, however, that it increased the total population or made its livelihood more secure. On the con- 108 Also see Steward's important discussion of trary, tribes in the heart of the Basin apparently the influence of the horse on Basin culture. In rejected the horse as a liability. Steward, 1938: the north, possession of this animal allowed 232-236. BIBLIOGRAPHY ABBREVIATIONS AA American Anthropologipt. UC-AR University of California, Anthropolog- AAA-M American Anthropological Association, ical Records. Memoirs. -PAAE Publications in American Archaeology AMNH-AP American Museum of Natural.History, and Ethnology. Anthropological Papers. -PG Publications in Geography. BAE-B Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin. YU-PA Yale University Publications in Anthro- -R Report. pology. SI-MC Smithsonian Institution Miscellaneous Collections. Bailey, V. Farnham, T. J. 1918. Wild Animals cf Glacier National Park. 1906. Travels in the Great Western Prairies, The Mammals, Washington. etc., May 21-October 16, 1839. In 1930. Animal Life of Yellowstone National R. G. Thwaites, Early Western ¶1avels, Park. S,pringfield, Ill. 1748-1846, vol. 28. Cleveland, Ohio. Baker, O. E. Fremont, J. C. 1937. A Graphic Summary of Physical Features 1853. The Exploring Expedition to the Rocky and Land Utilization in the United Mountains, Oregon and California. States. U. S. Dept. Agr., Misc. Publ. Buffalo, New York. 260. Washington. Fryxell, F. M. Beard, Mrs. C. 1928. The Former Range of the Bison in the 1925. Some Early Wyoming History West of the Rocky Mountains. Journal of Mammal- 108th Neridiar.. Annals of Wyoming ogy 9:129-139. Baltimore, Md. 3:127-136. Cheyenne, Wyoming. Gilmore, M. R. Cary, M. 1912. Uses of Plants by the Indians of the 1917. Life Zone Investigations in Wyoming. Missouri River Region. BAE-R 33:43-154. North American Fauna, No. 42. Wash- Washington. ington. Hamilton, W. T. Chamberlin, R. V. 1905. Ny Sixty Years on the Plains. New York. 1911. Ethno-Botany of the Gosiute Indians of Hanna, L. A. Utah. AAA-M 2:329-405. Lancaster, Pa. 1934. The NIajor Plant Communities of the Head- Clark, W. P. water Area of the Little Laramie River, 1885. The Indian Sign Language. Philadelphia, Wyoming. Univ. of Wyoming Publ.. in Pa. Climatological Data. See under Science 1:243-266. Laramie, Wyo. U. S. Weather Bureau. Hoebel, E. A. Connelley, W. E. 1938. Bands and Distributions of the Eastern 1907. Doniphan's Expedition. Kansas City, No. Shoshone. AA 40:410-413. Menasha, Wisconsin. Cooke, A. M. 1939. Comanche and Hekandika Shoshone Relation- 1938. The Northern Ute. AA 40:627-630. ship Systems. AA 41:440-457. Menasha, Wisconsin. 1940. The Political Organization and Law-ways Dale, H. C. (ed.) of the Comanche Indians. AAA-M 54. 1918. The Ashley-Smith Explorations and the Menasha, Wisconsin. Discovery of a Central Route to the Humfreville, J. L. Pacific, 1822-1829. Cleveland, Ohio. 1899. Twenty Years Among Our Hostile Indians. New York. Davis, W. B. Jenness, D. 1939. The Recent Mammals of Idaho. Caldwell, 1938. The Sarcee Indians of Alberta. Nat. Mu- Idaho. seum of Canada, Bull. 90. Ottawa. DeSmet, P. J. Jones, W. A. 1906. Letters and Sketches: With a Narrative 1875. Report upon the Reconnaissance of North- of a Year's Residence among the western Wyoming including Yellowstone Indian Tribes of the Rocky Mountains. National Park made in the uimer of In R. G. Thwaites, Early Western 1873. 43d Congress, 1st Sessioni, HR Travels., 1748-1846, vol. 27, pp. Exec. Doc. 285. Washington. 129-411. Cleveland, Ohio. Kroeber, A. L. Evermann, B. W. 1939. Cultural and Natural Areas of Native North 1892. A Reconnaissance of the Streams and America. UC-PAAE 38. Berkeley, California Lakes of Western Nontana and North- Landes, R. western Wyoming. U. S, Fish Comm. 1937. Ojibwa Sociology. Columbia Univ. Contr. to Bull. 11:3-60. Washington. Anlthrop., vol. 29. New York.
11282] SHINKIN: WIND RIVER SHOSHONE ETHNOGEOGRAPHY 283 Lincoln, F. C. Univ. of Calif. Library, Berkeley, 1935. The Waterfowl Flyways of North America. California, 1939). Transactions of the 21st. Amer. Game MS b. Psychological Studies of Wind River Conference, pp. 264-275. Washington. Shoshone Children. Lindsay C. Speck, F. G. 1936. The Big Horn Basin. Lincoln, Nebraska. 1915. Family Hunting Territories and Social Locke, S. B. Life of Various Algonkian Bands of 1929. Whitefish Grayling, Trout and Salmon the Ottawa Valley. Geological Survey of the intermountain Region. Appen- of Canada, Memoir 70, no. 8. Ottawa. dix V, Rep. Comm. Fisheries for 1929. Steward, J. H. Bureau of Fisheries Doc. 1062. Wash- 1937. Linguistic Distributions and Political ington. Groups of the Great Basin Shoshoneans. Loomis, F. B. AA 1937. Physiography of the United States. New 39:625-634. Menasha, Wisconsin. York. 1938. Basin-Plateau Abori ginal Sociopolitical R. Groups. BAE-B 120. Washington. Lowie, H. Stewart, 0. C. 1922. The Material Culture of the Crow In- 1939. The dians. AIMN-AP 21:201-270. New York. Northern Paiute Bands. UC-AR Mandelbaum D 2:127-149. Berkeley, California. 1940. the Plains Cree. AMNH-AP 37:155-316. Strong, W. D. New York. 1935. An Introduction to Nebraska Archeology. SI-MC, vol. 93, no. 10. Washington. Marshall, R. B. Stuart, G. 1914. Results of Spirit Levelling in Wyoming, 1865. 1896 to 1912. U. S. Geological Sur- Montana As It Is. New York. vey Bull. 558. Washington. Thomas, A. B. Mauss N. 1932. Forgotten Frontiers. Norman, Oklahoma. 1606: Essai sur les variations saissonibres Thornthwaite, C. W. des soci6t~s Eskimo. L'Anne6 socio- 1931. The Climates of North America According logique 9: 39-132. Paris. to a New Classification. The Geograph- McArdle R E. (et al.) ical Review 21:633-656. New York. 1936. The White Man's Toll. In The Western Thwaites, R. G. (ed.) Range. 74th Cong., 2d Sess. Senate 1905. Original Journals of the Lewis and Clark Doc. 199. Washington. Exledition 1804-1806. 7 vols. New York. Pattie J. 0 Tyrell, J. B. Ted.) 1966. Personal Narrative. In R. G. Thwaites, 1916. David Thompson's Narrative of His Explo- Early Western Travels 1748-1846, rations in WesternAoerica, 1784-1812. vol. 18. Cleveland, 0Hio. The Publications of the Champlain So- Report of the Commissioner for Indian Affairs. ciety, XII. Toronto. Washington, 1873-78, 1886-87. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture Weather Bureau Report of the Secretary of War. 41st Congress, 1933t1936. Climatological Data. Wyoming Sec- 2d Session, 1870:64. Washington. tion, 42:4; 45:13. Russel 0. Vestal, PA.Th, and Schultes, R. E. 1921. Journal of a Trapper, er Nine Years in 1939. The Economic Botany of the Kiowa Indians. the Rocky Mountains, 1834-1843. Cambridge, Mass. Boise, Idaho. Visher, S. S. Russell, R. J. 1925. Regional Geography of Southeastern Wyoming 1931. Dry Climates of the United States. I from the Viewpointhof Land Classifica- Climatic Map. UC-PG 5:1-41-. Berkeley, tion. Annals of the Assoc. of Amer. Geog- California. raphers 15:65-85. Nashville, Tenn. Schmieder, 0. Wheeler, H. We 1933. IAnderkunde Nordamerikas. 1924. Reminiscences of Old Fort Washakie. Quar- Enzyklopadie Bull. of the der Erdkunde, v. 27. terly Historical Dept. of Seto, E. T Leipzig. the State of Wyoming, 1:1-4. Cheyenne, Wyo. 129. Lives of Game Animals. 3 vols. New York. Shelford, V. E. (ed.) 1939. Ethno-Botany of the Hopi. Museum of Northern 1926. Naturalist's Guide to the Americas. Arizona, Bull. 15. Flagstaff, Arizona. Baltimore, Md. Williams, P. L. Shimkin, D. B. 1928. Personal Recollections of Wash-A-Kie Chief 1938. of the Shoshones. Uctah Historical Quar- Wind River Shoshone Geography. AA terly 1:101-106. Salt Lake City, utah. 40Q:413-415. Menasha, Wisconsin. Wilson, E. N. 1939. A Sketch of the Ket, or Yenisei 1926. The White Indian Boy. Yonkers-on-Hudson, '0styak' . thnos, 4:147-176. Stock- holm. New York. 1941a. Wislizenus, F. A. Shoshone-Comanche Origins and Migra- 1912. A Journey to the Rocky Mountains in the tions. Proc. 6th Pacific Sci. Congr. Year 1839. Missouri Historical Society. 4:17-25, Berkeley California. St. 1941b. The Uto-Aztecan System of Kinship Ter- Louis, Mo. minology. AA 43:223-245. Menasha, Wlissler C. Wisconsin. 1916. Material Culture of the Blackfoot Indians. MS a. AMNH-AP 5:5-175. New York. Some Interactions of Culture, Needs 1914. The Influence of the Horse in the Develop- and Personalities among the Wind ment of Plains Culture. AA 16:1-25. River Shoshone (Ph.D. dissertation, Lancaster, Pa. 284 ANTHROPOLOGTCAL RECORDS
1936a. Changes in Population Profiles among Wyeth J B. the Northern Plains Indians. AMNH- lkO5. Oregon; or a Short History of a Long AP 36:1-67.. New York. Journey...By land....in 1832. In 1936b. Population Changes among the Northern R. G. Thwaites Early Western Plains Indians. YU-PA 1:1-20. New Travels 1748-1846 vol. 21, pp. Haven, Conn. 1-105. Cleveland, 6hio. PLATES EXPLANATION OF PLATES PLATE 1 a. An alkali flat near Fort Washakie. Grass and scattered greasewood. Upper Sonoran life zone; steppe. About 5500 feet. b. Sagebrush plain at Sage Creek. Wind River Mountains in the distance. Transitional zone; steppe. About 7000 feet. c. South Fork Canyon, looking east. This shows the basic importance of topography and exposure in plant associations. The glacial and river deposits at right, with more adequate conservation of moisture, maintain a lush stream vegetation. Tran- sitional zone (cf. also pl. 1, b); taiga. About 7000 feet. d. Hoback Canyon. Lower edge of the Canadian zone: mixed vegetation, aspen, pine, grasses, and sagebrush. Around 8000 feet. e. South Pass. Lower edge of the Canadian zone, but almost barren. Climatically, it is not recognized as a desert.
PLATE 2 a. Mosquito Park in Wind River Range; upper hill and west, meadow associations of the Canadian zone: Douglas fir, lodgepole pine opposed to grasses, shrubs, and the like. The protection of a glacial valley from wind and the accumulation of snow make this vegetation possible (see pl. 2, b). Near 9000 feet. b. Muddy Pass in the Big Horn Mountains. Dry-meadow association of the Canadian zone. Its poverty is due to the openness of the range and its lack of protecting elevations. Sagebrush at 9500 feet. c. Hudsonian zone, below Hobbs Peak in the Wind River Mountains. Soil for a struggling tree growth has accumulated in scattered depressions. Note the evenness of the Rocky Mountains peneplain (10,500 feet). d. Canadian to Arctic-Alpine zones in the Teton Range. Steep slopes prevent much development of a Hudsonian zone. e. The Grand Teton from Jenny Lake. Here the asymmetrical anticline of the Tetons, with their sheer rise on the east of over 7000 feet, is clearly seen.
[286] ......
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