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Review of Particle-Size Classifications of Soils

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Review of Particle-Size Classifications of Soils REVIEW OF PARTICLE-SIZE CLASSIFICATIONS OF SOILS Gilbert L. Roderick, College of Applied Science and Engineering, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee A review of particle-size classification systems for soils is made. Early systems and the evolution to systems now in use by agriculturalists, engi­ neers, and geologists are presented. Thirty-two systems are given, and where possible the reasons for the various particle-size ranges and name designations are given. Factors considered in establishing particle-size limits include tillage properties, water retention, capillarity, root pene­ tration, mineralogical and chemical composition, colloidal properties, spe­ cific soil usages, ease of presentation and data analysis, and method of testing. For systems commonly used at present, there is considerable variation in the size ranges assigned to the various descriptive names such as clay, silt, and sand. There is even more variation in subdivisions of major groups. Considerable compromising would be required to estab­ lish a common particle-size classification system for soils. •OOILS consist of mineral particles that cover a wide range of sizes. It is advanta­ geous to assign names to describe particles that lie between certain size limits. These names are convenient to use and give more information than does a mere statement that the particles lie between certain size limits. Many systems for the particle-size limits of the various soil components have been proposed and used. However, many discrepancies exist among these systems. Thus, a certain term may designate very different materials depending on the system used. All of the particle-size limit schemes are arbitrary because no clear-cut divisions can be made among members of a continuous series. The originators of the various systems were influenced by many factors when they made their selections. These include the field of study such as agriculture, engineering, or geology; the convenience of investigation; the methods and apparatus available for analysis; the ease of presenting data; the convenience for statistical analysis; and the previous work done and systems used. Some of the investigators tried to place the limits to correspond with the various properties of the soil compenents; many were more interested in the ease and conve­ nience of obtaining and presenting data. The purpose of this paper is to review many of the systems that have been proposed and used and to present the reasons for the selection of particle-size limits, if possible. The systems are grouped according to the source of information, i.e., agricultural, engineering, or geological literature. SYSTEMS REPORTED IN AGRICULTURAL LITERATURE Figure 1 shows partic1e-size defi.11itions reported in agricultural literature. The early European systems proposed by Wanschaffe (8), Wolf (55), Kuhn (14), and a German permanent committee for soil investigation (14) were apparently based on arbitrary selections. - In 1895 Williams (54), of Russia, presented the system, based on grain size and shape, used by Fadejeff in his lectures at the Agricultural Academic Petroffskaja. Wil- Sponsored by Committee on Exploration and Classification of Earth Materials. 75 76 Iiams agreed with this system except for the earthy soil group, as shown. He called the last fraction clay because the soil owes almost all of its cohesion to this portion, the cohesion of the silts being due to organic matter present. In addition, the specific gravity of the clay fraction is less than that of the others. The transition from sand to silt results in a sudden strong increase in water retention, but the increase is even more significant when the transition is from silt to clay. The same trend is observed with permeability; sand is very permeable, silt is much less so, and clay sometimes is completely impermeable. The amount and rise of capillary water are also factors. All of the larger particles are products of physical reduction of quartz and other min­ erals, while clay is a product of chemical weathering. One of the early investigators in the United States was Hilgard (23, 24, 25), who used an elutriating device to perform mechanical analyses. His pa rti cle size limits and hydraulic values are given in Table 1. The values for particle size refer to the diameters of the largest and most nearly rounded quartz grains in each sediment, the quartz grains being used as standard. Hilgard felt his hydraulic values gave a better definition. This value is the velocity of an upward current of water, in mm/ sec, that will carry off a fraction of the soil, i.e., the buoyant power of an upward current of water moving under a constant and uniform velocity. With respect to the porosity of the soil on the one hand and its compactness and resistance to tillage on the other, he felt silt sediment with hydraulic value of 0.5 (1/36 -mm diame ter) was neutral. There­ fore, portions >1/so mm were designated as coarse materials that increase lightness and por osity of soil in proportion to percentage . The fine portion, <1/36 mm, modifies the plastic properties of the clay but also makes soil heavier in tillage than if it were absent. In 1887 Osborne, of the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station (34), reported the results of a study of various mechanical analysis methods. He used purely arbi­ trary particle-size limits that could be conveniently determined with his optical mi­ crometer. Sieves of 1, 0.5, and 0.25 mm were used, and elutriation and sedimentation were used for smaller particles. Other limits used for more detailed analyses were 1, 1 to 0.5, 0.5 to 0.25, 0.05 to 0.02, 0.02 to 0.01, 0.01 to 0.005, and <0.005 mm. Early workers in the U.S. Department of Agriculture adopted most of Osborne's limits (16, 17, 31, 53). Whitney (53) placed a lower limit of 0.001 mm for clay because a soil suspensionthat has stood forseveral weeks will show particles of that size. Later the Bureau of Soils combined the 2 silt groups into 1 from 0.05 to 0.005 mm and designated clay as anything <0.005 mm (16). In 1899 Hopkins, of the Bureau of Chemistry, U.S. Department of Agriculture (28), made a proposal for a more scientific division of soil particles. To illustrate the - arbitrariness of the method being used by the Bureau of Soils, he quoted correspon­ dence from Osborne: In working out the beaker method of soil analysis I employed the limits of the various grades with reference simply to convenience in using my eyepiece micrometer. I have always thought that the limits of the various grades should be determined by a careful consideration of the various conditions involved in the problem of proper mechanical analysis of a soil, and have been surprised to see that the arbitrarily chosen limits of the various grades employed by me have been followed by others in applying the method in practice. Hopkins considered as a serious objection the fact that the ratio of the largest to the smallest particles of each division was not constant. The limits for silt were 2 times wider than those for fine sand and 21h times wider than those for other groups. The differences in the ratios of surfaces and volumes were even larger, yet capillarity and porosity are more closely related to these than to the diameters. Hopkins' method assumes that there is a theoretical composition of a soil of uniform gradation within the limits of the system and that the end divisions contain the average percentage of material. He adopted a common factor of {IO (appr oximately 3 .2) in passing from the smallest to the largest particle in all divisions of defined limits; U1er efore, the ratios are all cons tant. The system can be expanded by using 1./I6 (approximately 1.8); each of the divisions defined above will be divided into two. 77 Figure 1. Particle-size classifications from agricultural literature. Cl.AV SILT 5: 6MD WANSCHAFFE I VF I I u I ~w .l, _ l ,I .2 .. ll!' 5 1lf WOLF ~MO C I iiM~•1 ElO/lf.I lz ·' ·" I > • SAJ40 lltUHH ISIOllE --vr I ~ I YI! I f~~~t~ I . .25- -~ 2 J s GERMAN COMMITTAE: SAND FIN[ I STON~ I .. I vc st ~A~~~ .2- .s ~IL T OV'Sl ~MUl FADEJEFF [ 'arr'.., 1 ~tru1r ( F I I I I I < .J~ i ~""" "' - ~~§ . 01 - ~ .. " I J s I 10 WILLIAMS ( m,9 SIU Sft~D 1 S JOH( I I iJ I I M I EC"lftr• t11 c I ? . 001s - .005 .01 .25 ,5 I 5 7 10 OSBORNE ~ '5 11.T I :S A.NO I ,01 .05 .25 CtXY SIL] %j A£1D WHITNEY 'GRAVEL I I I ~ f I F I M I . 001 - .oos .1. .05 ·' .?s .. HOPKINS ~CLAY .S I ~! s•uo GPAVEL ~ I ~ I .. I I I I ,001 mm ,00l2' .01 .0:>2. ·' " .n uses ) COY SILT ~~~g r I I v ~ I I .. I GS~VEL .oo~ .... .os .I .25 ·' ATTERBERG ~ C::lll"Y SILT GMVtc l ISSS l- s~ . 0~2 - .ni HALL & RUSSELL 'lAV :m.1 5tifll1 GRAVEL l I I [ .002 n1m .01 . Od .2 USDA CLAY SJLT S.~~D CllAV(L I vr I E M :as .ooz tnm .OS ·' ,25 .5 Tabte 1. Hilgard's hydraulic values and particle sizes for soil fractions. Hydraulic Value Size Name (mm/sec) (mm) Coarse grits ? 1 to 3 Fine grits ? 0.5 to I Coarse sand 64 ceo to 9o) x .., Medium sand 32 (50 to 55) x {,1000 Fine sand 16 (25 to 30) x n•• Finest sand 8 c20 to 22> .. .. Dust 4 (12 to 14) x 0~ .
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