Annex 3

Somali / Somalia

Participants from Somaliland and Puntland made a point that the realities and situation of the population they represent were taken into special consideration. The following came The out of their inputs and the ensuing discussions:

1. There is a need to include in the analysis of the Horn the special situation of Somali and Somaliland. Langano Encounter 2. One needs to differentiate between Somali, which refers to the people, and Somalia, the state. The latter no longer exists as a central state. Puntland is a separate administrative ‘state’. (18 - 21 March 2002) Somaliland, which is the Northwest part of the former Somalia (though not recognized) has had elections and has set up its own administrative mechanisms. 3. Civil society organizations exist and operate in Somaliland and Puntland. These fill gaps in delivery of essential social services such as education in places where a generation has missed out Proceedings on educational opportunities. They also bring the voices of the people to regional and international conferences. The CSs work in collaboration with international NGOs such as Oxfam Canada, and advocate for conflict resolution and peace. 4. Women are organizing into civil society groups and play active role in public life. In Somaliland By and Puntland, 25 women’s civil society organizations have formed a network called NEGAT. Fetenu Bekele Leaders of CS participate in meetings bringing peace to the agenda. These work to widen the network of women in the Horn to strengthen the women’s voice for peace and development. 5. The warlords that are engaged in clan and/or sub-clam conflicts fighting for resources also attend regional and international conferences on conflict resolution and peace for Somalis and the Horn. These often change hats when they go back ‘home’ because of their desire to sustain their control over resources for the benefits of their families, sub-clans and clans. 6. Women are in the forefront in advocating for peace in Somaliland and Puntland. Their efforts to mobilize local communities to work for conflict resolution and peace, as follow up to their participation in regional and international peace meetings, have often been undermined by warlords who use divisive means to discredit their causes. Such strategies by the warlords have Organized by continued to disrupt local initiatives. Sometimes, those who attend regional and international meetings and bring the people’s voices to the forum face threats back home, as they may be punished for their participation in such meetings. HOACBP/OXFAM Canada 7. What is being proposed currently is political rather than economic policies. 8. Efforts to mobilize and sustain local support for civil society activities in Somaliland and Puntland have been thwarted by the livestock ban. Export of livestock to the Gulf countries was the major, if not the only, source of income of the Somalis. The Gulf countries have banned imports of livestock thus crippling the private sector. CSs that had achieved self-reliance through the support of the local businessmen now face financial uncertainties. 9. International NGOs can help meet the ‘development’ needs of the Somali population by financing activities that seek to meet basic needs such as water, health services, education, etc. The CSs also want these to bring their concerns / voices to the international arena through advocacy work. 10. There is a significant role for the Diaspora. The Diaspora has strong links with the people and is Funded by supportive of the work of CSs. 11. Opportunities for exchange and networking are sought and appreciated by Somali CS. Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA)

June 2002

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Table of Contents

Salih, Mohamed M.A. 2001. “Islamic NGOs in Africa: The Promise and Peril of Islamic Voluntarism”, 1. Introduction 1 Occasional Paper. Copenhagen: Centre for African Studies, University of Copenhagen.

- HOACBP/Oxfam Canada 1 Seligman, Adam 1991. The Idea of Civil Society. New York: The Free Press. - Objectives and expected outcomes 2 Shils, Edward 1991. “The Virtues of Civil Society”, Government and Opposition, Vol 26, no 2 (Winter):3- - Participants 2 20. - Program and Methodology 2 Tarrow, Sidney 1994. Power in Movement: Social Movements, Collective Action and Politics. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press. 2. Account of Proceedings 3 Tismaneau, Vladimir 1992. Reinventing Politics: Eastern Europe after Communism. New York: Free Press. - Opening and Introductions 3 - Welcoming address 3

By Ephrem Tadesse, Program Officer

- Opening Address 4

By Rieky Stuart, Executive Director, Oxfam Canada

- Introduction of participants and Sharing of Concerns 5

- Participants’ Burning issues and Wishes 6

Burning issues and wishes 6

- Factors that influence the design and approach of HOACBP 7

By Raymond Genesse, Program Manager

- How Can Civil Society Rebuild in Africa? 8

By Professor Goran Hyden

- The Civil Society Debate 9

Whom or what does civil society include? 9

- Importance of civil society 10

- Risks and Liabilities of involvement in civil society 11

- What can be done to rebuild civil society in Africa? 11

- The empirical condition in Africa 12

- The legacy of authoritarianism 12

- Poverty and vulnerability 13

- The new political dispensation 14

- What can be done? 14

- Filling civil society with a meaning 14

- Showing that civil society can deliver goods 16

- Taking one stop at a time 16

- Providing catalytic institutional support for building civil society 17

- Conceptualization and further exploration 18

By Professor Abdul Ghaffar, Discussant

- Reflection and Panel Discussion 20

- Global Experience and African Reality in Realizing development

in the continent 22

By Dr. Thandika Mkandawire

- Internal Factors 23

- External factors 24

- Trade 26

- Investment 26

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- What can be done? 27 - Contextualizing and Further Explorations 29 Annex 2 By Dr. Berhanu Nega, Discussant - Reflection and Panel Discussion 32 Reference - On building conceptual framework 34 - Common issues in Horn countries 35 (from Professor G. Hyden’s paper on “How Can Civil Society be Rebuild in Africa”) - Participants Joint Vision for the Horn 36 - Vision of the Horn in 2012 37 Bayart, Jean-Francois 1992. The State in Africa. New York: Longman. - The story- the vision 39 Bell, Daniel 1989. “American Exceptionalism Revisited: The Role of Civil Society”, Public Culture, no - The closing Session 42 95:38-56. - On Lessons and Follow up 42 Blair, Harry 2001. “Is Building Democratic Constituencies Enough? Civil Society and USAID Program - Closing speech 45 Impact in Seven Countries”. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, August 31- September 3. - Conceptual Framework 46 Bratton, Michael and N. van de Walle 1997. Democratic Experiments in Africa. New York: Cambridge University Press. Annex 1 - List of participants 51 Cohen, Jean L. and A. Arato 1992. Civil Society and Political Theory. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. Coleman, James S. 1958. Nationalism in Nigeria. Berkeley, University of California Press. Annex 2 – Reference 53

Dag Hammarskjold Foundation 1995. Autonomous Development Funds in Africa: Report from an Expert Consultation in Kampala, Uganda, 4-6 April 1995. Uppsala: Dag Hammarskjold Centre. Annex 3 - Somalia/Somali 55

Ekeh, Peter 1975. “Colonialism and the two publics in Africa: a theoretical statement”, Comparative Studies in Society and History, vol 17, no 1:91-112. Hanafi, Hasan 2002. “Alternative Conceptions of Civil Society: A Reflective Islamic Approach” in S. Chambers and W. Kymlicka (eds.), Alternative Conceptions of Civil Society. Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press. Hodgkin, Thomas 1957. Nationalism in Colonial Africa. London: Frederick Mueller. Hyden, Goran 1980. Beyond Ujamaa in Tanzania: Underdevelopment and an Uncaptured Peasantry. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. Hyden, Goran 1997. “Building Civil Society at the Turn of the Millenium” in John Burbidge (ed.), Beyond the Prince and Merchant: Citizen Participation and the Rise of Civil Society. New York: Pact Publications. Inglehart, Ronald 1999. Modernization and Post-Modernization. New York: Cambridge University Press. Jackson, Robert H. 1977. Plural Societies and New States: A Conceptual Analysis. Institute of International Studies, University of California, Berkeley. Jackson, Robert H. and C.G. Rosberg 1982. Personal Rule in Black Africa. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. Keane, John 1988. Democracy and Civil Society. London: Verso Press. Linz, Juan and A. Stepan 1996. The Problems of Democratic Consolidation. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. Madsen, Richard 2002. “Confucian Conceptions of Civil Society” in S. Chambers and W. Kymlicka (eds.), Alternative Conceptions of Civil Society. Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press. Marshall, T.H. 1973. Class, Citizenship and Social Development. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press. Mkandawire, Thandika and C.C. Soludo 1999. Our Continent, Our Future: African Perspectives on Structural Adjustment. Dakar, Council for Social Science Research in Africa (CODESRIA). Narayan, Deepa, R. Patel, K. Schafft, A. Rademacher, and S. Koch-Schulte 2000. Voices of the Poor: Can Anyone Hear Us? New York: Oxford University Press.

Proceedings of the Langano Encounter 55

18. Getachew Desta (M) Businessman and President of Anti Malaria Association’s I. INTRODUCTION Board, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Tel. 518826 E-mail – [email protected] 19. Goran Hyden (M) Political Scientist, University of Florida, Gainesville, USA A four-day encounter at Langano Lodge brought together representatives of national, E-mail – [email protected] regional and international civil society organizations, academicians and researchers 20. Kalid Adburhim (M) Secretary of Administrative Sector, Addis Ababa City engaged in civil society and development issues, and government agencies and the donor Government, Ethiopia community that came from Africa, Europe and North America. Organized in the context Tel. (Office): 550111 est. 312 21. Kingo Mchombu (M) Head of School of Communication, University of Namibia, of Oxfam Canada’s regional capacity building program, the meeting enhanced feedback Windhoek, Namibia and concerns on civil society and development in Africa. Two platform documents were E-mail – [email protected] presented by academicians and discussed with participants. The papers on (1) “Can Civil 22. Lebesech Tsega (F) Consultant and co-facilitator, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Society be Rebuilt in Africa?” (2) “Global Experiences and African Reality in Realizing E-mail – [email protected] Development in Africa” provided the platform for the analysis, experience sharing, and 23. Mahlet Hailemariam (F) Staff, Horn of Africa Capacity Building Program, Oxfam Canada, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia joint envisioning that led to the building of a theoretical framework to serve as guideline E-mail – [email protected] for promoting the growth of civil society in the continent. 24. Marian de Vries (F) Coordinator for Americas, Oxfam Canada, Ottawa, Canada E-mail – [email protected] The Langano Encounter was organized by Horn of African Capacity Building Program 25. Mel Peters (M) Country Representatives, Oxfam Canada, Addis Ababa, (HOACBP) of Oxfam Canada with funding from the Canadian International Ethiopia Development Agency (CIDA). E-mail – [email protected] 26. Mohamed Sash (M) Head, Information and Public Relations Department, Harar,

Ethiopia E-mail – [email protected] HOACBP / Oxfam Canada 27. Omar Irbad (M) Staff, Horn Relief, Bosasso, Puntland, Somalia E-mail – [email protected] HOACBP is a development fund financed by the Canadian International Development [email protected] Agency (CIDA) and managed by Oxfam Canada and Oxfam Québec. The program’s 28. Rieky Stuart (F) Executive Director, Oxfam Canada, Ottawa, Canada mandate is to promote the principles of equity and participatory development in the Horn E-mail – [email protected] of Africa. It supports groups and organizations – civil society organizations and public 29. Raymond Genesse (M) Staff, Horn of Africa Capacity Building Program, Oxfam Canada, Ottawa, Canada governing structures - that are grounded at the local level, engaged in non-formal E-mail – [email protected] education, information/communication, gender and justice. 30. Saida Aboubaker (F) Vice-President, Solidarité Femininé, Djibouti HOACBP puts emphasis on organizations that provide opportunities for a learning E-mail – [email protected] process in participation and democracy and developing a sense of responsibility for one’s 31. Seifemichael Befekadu (M) President of the First Instance Court; Member of NPAC of HOACBP, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia own development among partners. It works with those organizations that have E-mail – [email protected] demonstrated a capacity and /or willingness to engage their own people in their 32. Suzanna Taschereau (F) Consultant and co-facilitator, Ottawa, Canada development initiatives. Their engagement should manifest itself in terms of moral, E-mail – [email protected] human, material and financial support from local resources. 33. Thandika Mkandawire (M) Director, United Nations Research Institute on Social Development, Geneva The Langano Encounter is a regional initiative which has been organized in the context of E-mail – [email protected] 34. Tigist Selassie (F) Staff, Horn of Africa Capacity Building Program, Oxfam Oxfam Canada’s HOACBP funded by CIDA. Canada, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia E-mail – [email protected] 35. Vincent Lelei (M) Regional Representative for Horn, East and Central Africa, Oxfam Great Britain, Nairobi, Kenya E-mail – [email protected]

Proceedings of the Langano Encounter 1 Proceedings of the Langano Encounter 54

Annex 1 Objectives and Expected Outcomes

Main objective of the Langano Encounter is to enhance experience sharing and joint List of Participants Name Position & Organization/ Address reflections for a consensus on building a conceptual framework for promoting the growth 1. Abdel Ghaffar (M) Director, Organization for Social Science Research in East of civil society in the Horn of Africa. Africa, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia E-mail- [email protected] The expected outcomes of the Encounter are that:- 2. Afaf Rehieman (F) Executive Member, Babiker Badri Scientific Association for Women Studies, Khartoum, Sudan 1. Oxfam Canada and its partners will be better able to situate their interventions in E-mail – [email protected] [email protected] the dynamics of development in the Horn of Africa; 3. Asha Gelle (F) Executive Director, Somali Women’s Concern, Galkayo, 2. Participants will have generated a conceptual framework to guide their future Puntland, Somalia work in the Horn; and E-mail – [email protected] 3. Participants will express their willingness and commitment to using more 4. Assefa Dabba (M) Head of Administration, Illubabor Zone Education Office, informed, contextualized and rigorous approach and to pursing the dialogue with Mettu, Ethiopia Tel. (office): 07 41 17 87 members, constituents and communities. 5. Berhanu Mewa (M) President, Addis Ababa Chamber of Commerce, Ethiopia E-mail – [email protected] Participants 6. Berhanu Nega (M) President, Ethiopian Economic Association, Addis Ababa and Ethiopian Economic Policy Research Institute, Ethiopia A wide range of institutions and scholars from the civil society groups and the business E-mail – [email protected] sector, government officials and bilateral organizations from various countries were 7. Cassie Doyle (F) Chair, Oxfam Canada Board of Directors, Vancouver, Canada represented. A total of 35 persons (20 males and 15 females) participated in the meeting. E-mail – [email protected] Of this, 18 were African civil society organizations, ten from international civil society 8. Dr. Chanyelew Kassa (M) Editor, Ethiopia Public Health Association, Addis Ababa, organizations, five from the private sector, five from academic / research institutions, and Ethiopia one was from bilateral donor agency. Participants came from ten countries. E-mail – [email protected] 9. Constrance Freeman (F) Regional Representative, international Development Program & Methodology Research Center, Nairobi, Kenya E-mail – [email protected] 10. Constance Nako (F) Chairperson, Yambio Women’s Association, Yambio, South A lot of thinking had gone into the program of the Encounter to ensure that the Sudan environment was conducive for closer interactions and bonding among the participants E-mail – [email protected] and what they represent. The choice of the Langano and the new Lodge by the Lake, 11. Daniel Bekele (M) Lawyer and independent resercher, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia away from the attractions and distractions of a city or town was therefore critical to this. E-mail – [email protected] 12. Danielle Valiquette (F) Staff, Horn of Africa Capacity Building Program, Oxfam Quebec, Montreal Canada Two facilitators, one Canadian and one Ethiopia women, saw to the smooth running of E-mail – [email protected] the whole process. Presentations by resource persons, contextualization of the 13. Ephrem Tadesse (M) Staff, Horn of Africa Capacity Building Program, Oxfam presentations by discussants, plenary discussions of questions and comments on these Canada, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia were picked up by groups. The two facilitators developed guidelines for group work and E-mail – [email protected] discussion of sub-themes. The latter were tuned to the every nuance of the group 14. Farhan Adam Haibe (M) President, GAVO, Berbera, Somaliland E-mail – [email protected] dynamics and at hand to enhance the expected exchanges giving room for the rich [email protected] diversity that participants represented. The group discussions brought out these 15. Fatouma Mohammed (F) President, Atu Yoo Fan, Djibouti diversities as well as similarities with joint envisioning for their respective countries and E-mail – [email protected] the sub region as a whole. The presence and sensitivity of representatives of the donor 16. Fetenu Bekele (F) Consultant and repporteur, New Development Perspectives community was in itself a special vehicle that pushed the interaction to the desired Consultants, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Tel. 251-1-521612 or 251-1-613190 consensus – the building of a conceptual framework to guide the work of all partners E-mail - [email protected] involved. 17. Gebru Wolde (M) Executive Director, Guraghe People Self-help Development Organization, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Bringing together these diverse groups was symbolic of what constitutes the public Tel. 558484 realm, which the organizers seek to promote in the Horn of Africa.

Proceedings of the Langano Encounter 53 Proceedings of the Langano Encounter 2

II. ACCOUNT OF PROCEEDINGS 5. Advocating for more responsive funding mechanisms. Opening and Introductions This indicator refers to your ability to convince resource providers and governments

about the need for funding mechanisms that through equitable partnerships lead to more Welcoming address responsive and constructive use of resources. By Ephrem Tadesse, Program Officer We are very good 5

The Program Officer expressed his pleasure in welcoming participants to the Langano good 4 Encounter on behalf of Oxfam Canada. He then spoke briefly on the objectives and doing OK 3 activities of the Horn of Africa Capacity Building Program (HOACBP) and the context much improvement needed 2 under which the Langano Encounter was organized. a lot of improvement needed 1

The Horn of Africa Capacity Building Program has been operating in the last five years 6. Acknowledging civil society’s achievements. and invested approximately five million Canadian dollars towards the stimulation of a genuine civic public realm in four countries of the Horn. It has made every effort to This indicator refers to your ability to help set up and sustain viable institutional minimize improvisation in the design of its activities and has documented the processes mechanisms for the sector as a whole in order to award recognition for excellent used in its partnership and their ensuing outcomes. performance and/or contribution to development or any other relevant cause. We are very good 5 The Program has drawn lessons from the failure of long-term development good 4 assistance, which is neither contextualized nor rigorous in selection of recipients doing OK 3 undermining local initiatives and debilitating societies. It is also cognizant of much improvement needed 2 current development practices that tend to consist of poorly designed external a lot improvement needed 1 assistance that rarely energizes the change process among the receiving societies, thus weakening accountability and ownership of development process in Africa.

During the program implementation, the staff has taken a lot of ‘heat’ for trying to ********************** focus the Program’s activities on building a sense of responsibility for one’s own development. HOACBP felt accountable to the Canadian taxpayers and the peoples of the Horn and strived to put in place a program that is rigorous and energizing.

The Langano Encounter is one of the five regional initiatives, which form part of HOACBP’s landing strategies. The Encounter is designed to enrich the thinking required to intervene more effectively in social development and change in the Horn. It has made it possible for diverse groups to come together from the civil society sector, the business and donor community government institutions and academicians from various countries. Participants will address a number of fundamental issues that contribute to the problems faced by societies in the Horn, including inability to produce material wealth, the lack of trust and participation, isolation, despair and resistance to change. It is expected that this rich gathering will explore new approaches to social development and change in the Horn countries.

Ephrem Tadesse, then welcome participants who came from Europe and North America, the Horn and other African Countries, and extended special welcome to the two guest speakers, Professor Goran Hyden from the University of Florida (USA), Mr. Thandika

Proceedings of the Langano Encounter 3 Proceedings of the Langano Encounter 52

B. How to contribute to growth of civil society: Mkandawire from the United Nations Research Institute on Social Development (Geneva, Switzerland), and those who have had to go through indirect route from 1. Nurturing a culture of peace, justice, and democracy. Southern Sudan and Puntland to be part of the Langano Encounter. He regretted the absence, due to illness, of the Representative from the Sudan Environmental This indicator refers to your ability to contribute to an enabling environment in which Conservation Society (SECS). civil society as a sector can function and flourish in a peaceful and constructive fashion with other sectors. Opening Address We are very good 5 By Rieky Stuart, Executive Director of Oxfam Canada. good 4 doing OK 3 The Executive Director welcomed the participants who came to share their experiences, much improvement needed 2 gave brief information on the work of Oxfam Canada, outlined the expected outcome a lot of improvement needed 1 from the Encounter, and shared her own experience from her first visit to Africa.

For the last 16 years, Oxfam Canada has supporting development work with grassroots in Latin America, Asia and Africa. It engages in consultations and 2. Promoting an accountable civil society sector. policy dialogue work with the aim of enabling partners to work effectively. Other than partnership cooperation at individual country levels, its work involves This indicator refers to your ability to contribute to the credibility and respect of the advocacy and policy dialogue at the global level as well. At the global level, its sector. advocacy work focuses on such issues as the impacts of global policies, such as We are very good 5 the structural adjustment programs (SAPs), on national or grassroots level good 4 development. Oxfam is, therefore, concerned with the link between the global doing OK 3 and the local - where sometimes the good work being done by the locals / much improvement needed 2 grassroots may be undone by policies at the national or international level. a lot of improvement needed 1 The Executive Director noted that the purpose of the Langano Encounter is to listen and 3. Engaging in constructive dialogue and interaction with state and resource learn from each other, and to build theory (theoretical framework). She said that providers. together, learning from each other, there is a real possibility for change. That was why, she noted, one finds more representatives from Oxfam, for Oxfam puts high premium on This indicator refers to your ability to engage in activities with other sectors in ways that listening and learning through experience sharing. To illustrate her point on learning and foster mutual responsibility in implementing policies and programs. sharing, the Executive Director went on to recount her own experience from her first We are very good 5 encounter in Africa, which is summarized below. good 4 doing OK 3 Traveling in Juba, Sudan, on her first visit to Africa in 1983, Rieky’s group much improvement needed 2 sought night shelter from a family abode found in the middle of nowhere. A a lot of improvement needed 1 profound learning experience occurred in the exchanges that took place between the visiting group and the two girls of the family. In the course of their talks 4. Strengthening relations with other civil society organizations. sitting around the fireplace, the two girls of 14 and 16 years old recounted their daily chores. They said that the day begins with the task of fetching water for the This indicator refers to your ability to dialogue, network, and coordinate with counterpart village, which involves walking some 3 to 4 km distance. The group, noting the organizations with a view to energizing the sector. hardships of this daily task and felt sorry for the girls, and informed them that We are very good 5 villagers elsewhere use donkeys to fetch water. The girls’ response was far from good 4 what was expected, for they exclaimed “poor donkeys!” Feeling sorry for the doing OK 3 donkeys. much improvement needed 2 a lot if improvement needed 1 This was indeed a surprised for the group, a ‘ learning’, for they came to realize that the girls, confined to their immediate environ, with no exposure to other ways

Proceedings of the Langano Encounter 51 Proceedings of the Langano Encounter 4

of doing things and life style, have come to accept their ‘lot’ (realities) without 5. Fostering gender equality and empowerment of women. questioning. That they felt sorry for the donkeys, and not for themselves at the hardship of their life – getting up at ‘ungodly hours’, walking long distances, and This indicator refers to your ability to address specific needs and obstacles preventing carrying water containers daily – was ‘normal’ for them. women from participating in and befitting from development. We are very good 5 Among the lessons the visitors gained was that ” people limited by their realities good 4 tend to be stuck in their perspectives” doing OK 3 much improvement needed 2 The Executive Director made observation on the potential for greater learning and a lot of improvement needed 1 widening perspectives from the various representatives - academics, government officials, private sector, civil society organizations, and practitioners. She hoped that 6. Ensuring accountabilities within the organization. participants will make sure that they all gain a lot from the exchanges by carefully listening to each other’s experiences and views. This indicator refers to your ability to institutionalize democratic procedures for electing leaders and managing your affairs. Referring to ‘building of theory’ to provide working framework as the other expected We are very good 5 outcome of the Encounter, the Executive Director observed that the presence of good 4 distinguished development thinkers, academicians and practitioners would definitely be doing OK 3 an asset for this exercise though exchange of ideas on why and how to make change. She much improvement needed 2 noted that theory is partial explanation of reality and that each theory should be seen as a lot of improvement needed 1 different parts of a puzzle. ‘We take the parts, examine them, put them together and see how they fit, then own and use them to suit our particular situation.’ She said that this is 7. Developing and maintaining sound financial and human resource management how we link theory to practice; for ‘until we look at what each says and fits into our systems. particular realities, we do not accept theory just because it comes from authoritative source.’ This indicator refers to your ability to ensure proper use and record of your key resources. We are very good 5 The Speaker then thanked the Oxfam Team for making the event possible and called good 4 upon the participants to make the most out of the opportunity that the Encounter offered. doing OK 3 much improvement needed 2 Introduction of participants & Sharing of Concerns a lot of improvement needed 1

Participants’ introductions were made through a two-by-two system whereby self- 8. Strengthening organizational autonomy. introduction by name, organization, experiences, special concerns and burning issues/questions related to development were related to each other in the group of two. This indicator refers to your ability to mobilize and balance sets of resources – human, After this exchange, each member introduced the other, ensuring that he/she has carefully financial, informational and material – with a view to carrying out your mission. listened and learned from the dialogue. The exercise was indeed an interesting sight, We are very good 5 with earnest talking and listening making the exchange quite meaningful to each other. good 4 doing OK 3 The facilitators captured the burning issues / wishes of participants on flip charts which much improvement needed 2 became reference points to check on coverage of participants’ particular concerns during a lot of improvement needed 1 the rest of the days. Below are the issues/concerns / questions.

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INSTRUMENT FOR SELF-EVALUATION Participants’ Burning issues and Wishes

A. How to strengthen your organization: The questions / issues raised by the participants, listed below in no particular order, demonstrate that all are concerned in and engaged in reflections on development issues in 1. Enhancing information gathering, interpretation, understanding and articulation general and the role of civil society in particular in Africa. The list of issues expressed by participants either as questions or as ‘wishes’ is a rich source to draw from for follow up of issues. work by all development stakeholders. As ‘voices’ of the people, these have formed the ‘building blocks for the theoretical framework’ The issues served as the building block for the theoretical framework that resulted from the Encounter which immediately served to This indicator refers to the ability of your organization to process information for more create a bond among the diverse group present. effective and relevant programming and advocacy. We are very good 5 good 4 Burning Issues and Wishes doing OK 3 1. How can the poor person get into the building (meeting where decisions concerning much improvement needed 2 him/her are made – the ADF III meeting at UNECA)? a lot of improvement needed 1 2. What contributions can I make? What is my role as an individual or member of organization(s)? 3. What is the ‘core’ development issue? 4. What is civil society? 2. Developing ability to communicate and dialogue with constituents. 5. How (and to what extent) does civil society engage in affairs and bring change? 6. How can civil society organizations incorporate new ideas for improvement? This indicator refers to your ability to initiate and develop information-sharing practices 7. How can we link global and local aspirations? How can local groups have global perspectives? with a view to promoting organizational transparency. How can they participate at the international level and influence global issues? We are very good 5 8. How do we all (public, private & civil society) work together to bring change? good 4 9. Is civil society alien to Africa? 10. How to improve international NGO support to civil in Africa? doing OK 3 11. How can genuine democracy be nurtured in Africa? much improvement needed 2 12. How to translate theory (from the literature) into real life. What is the link between theory and a lot of improvement needed 1 practice? 13. How to put into practice the knowledge from the Langango Encounter? 3. Promoting learning through experience. 14. How to move towards sustainable development in Africa? Management of human and natural resources in sustainable way.

15. How to make civil society promote democracy? How to make the link? This indicator refers to your ability to incorporate lessons based on indigenous and other 16. How do we link development with individual freedom? sources for purpose of enriching your interactions with constituents and other actors. 17. How do we translate the concept of civil society to make sense without the influence of liberal We are very good 5 democracy? good 4 18. How can governments be encouraged to listen to the voices of civil societies and benefit from doing OK 3 their experiences? much improvement needed 2 19. How can the state best help to coordinate the development process? a lot of improvement needed 1 20. Will we be able to learn from each other in (such) diverse groups? 21. How can women’s groups in Sudan get more support from others in the Horn? 4. Nurturing commitment and sense of responsibility. 22. Is development possible in the Horn? 23. How can the private sector / business community respond to the empowerment needs of the This indicator refers to your ability to generate commitment and a sense of responsibility poor? to the causes of your organization in a manner that is democratic and respectful of 24. Is it possible to be optimistic? Is optimism realistic in the Horn? 25. How does sharing of knowledge fit into development of civil society in Africa? members or constituents. 26. Why there is not enough work done on gender equality by African intellectuals? How can a We are very good 5 viable civil society emerge in Africa? good 4 27. How can donors help people to be responsible for (own) their development? doing OK 3 28. How to benefit from globalization much improvement needed 2 29. How can civil society play more effective role in Africa? a lot of improvement needed 1

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Factors that influenced the design and approach of HOACBP By Raymond Genesse, Program Manager The

Referring to the issues and ‘wish list’ above, the Program Manager said he relates to Conceptual Framework them. They take him back to the initial period of the HOACBP inception when the Oxfam Canada Team and its partners were engaged in, as they still are, enriching their The Output of the Langano Encounter, emanating from the deliberations recounted understanding of the concept of development and civil society to help them in the design above, is the Conceptual Framework the draft of which was circulated for comments, of the program for the Horn. which were communicated to Oxfam Canada Office. The text obtained from Oxfam Canada Office, is presented in its entirety as valuable guidelines for building and The Program Manager then gave a glimpse of the experiences and thinking that revitalizing civil society in Africa. influenced the design and approach of HOACBP, which is briefly mentioned below.

The HOACBP sought to ground its design and work in research and analyses, LANGANO ENCOUNTER which it continues to do for its landing strategy as well for a potential second CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK phase. PREAMBLE3 Right from the inception, emphasis was placed on drawing from the works of researchers, academicians and practitioners in the area of civil society and A cross-section of civil society organizations and other key stakeholders in the Horn of development in Africa, trying to link theory with practice. Specific reference was Africa associated with Oxfam Canada met for a four-day meeting at Abula Bassuma made to five major influences that helped shape the Program’s design and Lodge on Lake Langano, Ethiopia, on March 18 – 21, 2002. The objective of this approach. meeting was to discuss how civil society organizations and civil society as a sector or community can enhance its contribution to raising their voice and promoting First, GAVO (General Assistance and Volunteers Organization) of Somaliland, development in the region. Participants shared a vision that in ten years from now it is provided a profound experience, which enriched the design and methodologies of possible, in spite of current senses of hopelessness and dependency among many people, HOACBP. This relates to the mobilization of youth and the quest for self-reliance to see the contours of a more prosperous and sustainable society in these countries. With in civil society development in Africa. A group of Somali youth, wanting to make the historical legacy in mind that places many constraints on what civil society – or other a difference, sought to provide their services to the most destitute groups in their actors, for that matter – may be capable of doing, we still think that significant community. This motivated youth, with neither prior knowledge of what to do strengthening of civil society organizations and the sector at large can be made. As one nor help from outsiders, to embark on activities (meeting fundamental human way of promoting this process, participants approved a conceptual framework that needs of the mentally ill patients and street children) that inspired a cross-section can serve as both guide of action and instrument of evaluation. It is divided into two of their community. GAVO’s demonstration that it is possible to think of and sections: (1) what can be done to strengthen individual organizations? (2) What work towards self-reliance of civil society by engaging the public, forced the contribution can they make to the development of the sector as a community of Oxfam Canada Team to look beyond the conventional approach to support CS in organizations contributing to peace, justice, democracy and development? Africa. The youth’s ability to engage the business community, religious leaders and the local authorities in Berbera through advocacy and dialogue and their success in mobilizing local resources, in circumstances where there were no external organizations provided guidance and resources, challenged the Oxfam Canada Team.

Second, the Program Manager cited the intellectual influence of the African scholar Dr. Kingo Mchombu from University of Namibia whose writing, published by IDRC and various journals, argues that access to information is as important for development as injection of money. Dr. Mchombu’s visits and advice to the Sidama Development Corporation (SDC) and the Illubabor Community Library Network in Ethiopia was instrumental in introducing the concept of community information resource centers to both initiatives. His works 3 Oxfam Canada wishes to acknowledge the participation of Goran Hyden in the drafting of this conceptual helped to clarify the role of community information services - refining the framework.

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Closing Speech information service needs to communities in the light of their realities - beyond By Daniel Bekele the conventional way of providing books to libraries to isolated communities.

Mr. Daniel Bekele, a former member of HOACBP’s National Program Advisory Third, the HOACBP Manager mentioned the writing of Dr. Berhanu Nega of the Committee (NPAC) gave the closing address. Having participated in the Nairobi Ethiopian Economic Association on the psychological impact of societies failing Encounter four years ago, Mr. Daniel reminisced on the process started in Nairobi and to achieve collective development as an important asset to better understand the landed in Langano. Bridging Nairobi to Langano, he referred to the conception of environment where the Program is taking place. HOACBP and path traveled. He noted that though not present at the Nairobi Encounter, Professor Hyden’s work did guide the reflections even then. The Speaker said he was Fourth, the concept of “primordial public” and “moral public” developed by very happy to meet the Professor in person and see first hand his inspirations, Peter Ekeh was instrumental in launching an Action and Research project, which commitment and contributions at the Langano Encounter. documents how Ethiopians can take responsibility for and commit their resources to their own development. This has brought in another dimension to partnership Mr. Daniel noted that Langano has a wider group representation but both have been whereby Oxfam Canada currently has a network of ‘non-funding’ relationships enriching with a lot of learning. The group has achieved what it set out at the beginning. with groups engaged in local resource mobilization in Ethiopia. It has realized why development is such a fundamental transformative task, and that each of the participants has a role to play and contribute to this within their respective Lastly, Professor Goran Hyden’s work on civil society, and more specifically his organizations. He emphasized the importance of information and knowledge, for concept of “civic public realm” became the corner stone of HOACBP’s approach information is necessary to make knowledge-based development decisions and quoted, to support the growth of reciprocity, trust and accountability in the countries of ‘development is from traditional to modern way of doing things’, which he said implies the Horn. knowledge-based development, scientific way of thinking. For such thinking, Mr. Daniel said, one would need to be equipped with information. He thanked Oxfam for the Platform Documents opportunity to participate in the worthwhile exercise that took place at Langano. I. How can Civil Society be Rebuilt in Africa By Professor Goran Hyden

Professor Hyden of the University of Florida (USA) made a presentation one of the platform documents posing the question, “Can Civil Society be Rebuilt in Africa?”

Before giving his address, Professor Hyden remarked on the sitting arrangement, which he noted looked like primary school class much like his own classroom at the University. The environment, he said, was fitting for the learning that is to take place, a continuous process that professors need to be a part of, as they need to learn to be able to teach. He said that his own students await the outcome of this learning experience, which he intends to take with him. The Professor also expressed his delight at reconnecting with an old colleague, Professor Abdul Ghaffar, whose initial contact dates back to the 70s.

After thus breaking the ice, the professor embarked on discussing civil society, a topic he has written a lot about and has many publications to his credit. Starting to speak on Rebuilding Civil Society in Africa, the professor admitted that it was one of the most challenging issues. Since the platform document was given to participants in advance, the Professor’s oral presentation was rather short. The text below is a summary of the document and his presentation on Rebuilding Civil Society in Africa.1

1 The document is summarized for the benefit of those that were not present at the Encounter to have the Participants in the Langano Encounter. opportunity to discuss issues based on the oral presentation.

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The professor’s address of the how civil society can be rebuilt in Africa in the beginning of the 21st century began with an emphasis on ‘rebuild’, acknowledging the prior The Group observed that CS cannot be strong without building constituency and existence of associational life in Africa. He first presented an analysis of the on-going constructive relationship with other actors. Oxfam looks into its relationship, the issues debate about civil society, examined the empirical conditions that the ambitious yet and impacts on its future work. On the role of donors and addressing the issue of critical task of rebuilding is meant to take place, and went on to provide dependency, Oxfam is accountable to communities as resource providers and CS partners recommendations on what can be done and how in terms of building civil society in and is required to address the issues. More ideas and help to improve its work would be Africa. welcome, even when we may think we are doing ok. IDRC representative joining the Oxfam group said it is exciting to have the framework, which will be applied to The Civil Society Debate themselves as a tool for evaluation and improvement. The group noted how wonderful the experience, living, inclusion, enriching learning, practice, micro and macro linkage, In spite of being a much-discussed topic, there is little agreement on the concept of civil diversity has been for them all. The event was noted to be an example of inclusion and society. Opinions differ as to (1) whom or what civil society includes, (2) if civil society enrichment, with issues addressed in positive and constructive ways. The Group was is a community or mere aggregate of associations, (3) the importance of civil society, and carrying forward to its work the four days’ living experience. (4) the risks and liabilities people can expect from being involved in civil society. The Chairperson of the Board of Oxfam Canada, took the opportunity to speak briefly on Whom or what does civil society include? one of the two key roles of Oxfam, the one that some may not be fully aware of. While the humanitarian relief work at country level is more familiar to many, its development work and capacity building campaigning work is doing advocacy at the global level. At While there may be broad agreement that civil society refers to a public realm, in which this level, members of Oxfam International contribute resources to do better advocacy private issues are brought forward in a voluntary fashion to become part of a wider and work with southern partners on development issues. One such issue is the Fair Trade debate about policy and social action, there is still disagreement on whom to include. Campaign. For this, the Oxfam family needs voices from southern partners on examples Most, however, agree that civil society refers to an institutional sphere between the of cases that can be raised at the campaign. Case studies to bring to the World Trade household (nuclear or extended family) as the private domain, on the one hand, and the Organization (WTO) and governments who have helped set the global agenda. Oxfam state, on the other. Though public, the state is not seen as part of civil society because it will also will use the G8 Meeting in Canada and needs to work on a strategy to work for is a compulsory form of organization – a person simply has to belong to / be a member Africa – on how Oxfam in Canada can bring Africa to the agenda. of a state. Oxfam Canada has a web site on Trade, which can be used to pass on issues to bring the The debate has primarily been whether to include economic / productive / business type voices of CS to the Global Trade agenda, thus promoting global citizenship. Oxfam of organizations and political parties in the definition of civil society. Business works to get money for humanitarian relief and development work at the grassroots level, organizations do operate between the household and the state, although some may be but also to raise global awareness on what the situation in the south is. closer to one or the other. Those organizations that are concerned with voicing issues in the public, only associations that reflect the original liberal-democratic notion of The Chairperson noted that Oxfam representatives have been enriched from this voluntary choice have found favor as civil society organizations than those in business experience to work with Canadians back home and spread the messages /work. She sector. Membership organization and even among these those that are grounded in the encouraged participants to also think at the global level. At the global level, advocacy value of deliberative democracy seem to be the dominant understanding of the concept of work is done by bodies- Amnesty International advocating for human rights and Oxfam civil society. advocating for economic rights. Oxfam brings issues of economy and social rights into the global agenda. Thanking the participants for traveling these distances to the What about political parties? Encounter, she underscored that since Oxfam promotes constructive dialogue and advocates for change, it looks to work with governments, challenging the status quo Professor Hyden again delved into the sticky issue of political parties and their relations through productive relationship, not confrontational. to civil society sector. He said that most analysts of the concept definitely leave political parties out of the definition of civil society. Political organizations are seen to be The Executive Director of Oxfam Canada added her voice by extending official thanks to involved in aggregating opinions into policy. Civil society organizations voice opinions all. Expressed pleasure and privilege for the two academicians who came to the meeting, but are not political in the sense of seeking government power. their eloquent, humorous, down to earth, good story telling ability, who she noted are amazingly productive, talents for words and ideas to contribute to the products of the Social movements are typically part of civil society; but if they grow in national Assembly and thanked them on behalf of all. significance, they may turn into political parties. The environmental movements in

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members of Oxfam Canada, the Somali CS representatives extended warm appreciation Europe – and other places – becoming Green political parties are such examples. for the work done in Puntland and Somaliland. Importance of Civil Society

The Puntland representative remarked that there is expectation of help from outside Professor Hyden pointed to the importance of civil society in his discussion of some of forces to push for conflict resolution and peace for Somalia. But attitudes are also values inherent in the notion of civil society, and the expectations of its role at micro and changing, for there is increasing recognition that Somalis themselves should do macro levels. Civil society provides an opportunity for citizens to organize activities something to solve their problems. The CSs are contributing to a change of attitude by jointly that have a more appropriate and manageable scale than projects or creating awareness that Somalis should face the challenges and not look outwards (to programs administered by government. At the micro level, civil society helps to make neighboring countries, the USA, etc.) to solve the problems. Nevertheless, the alliance social life more meaningful to people. This is why participatory development and and solidarity of CSs in the Horn and international partners are still sought and other versions of ‘bottom-up’ activities are associated with civil society in most literature appreciated. on the subject. It is also one reason why civil society, almost automatically, gets associated with democracy. The notion of civil society thus comes with a minimum Coming from a traditionally oral and excellent story telling society, the representative ‘standard’ of what to expect of at the grassroots level. succinctly puts the above issue in proper perspective through a story he recounted as follows: The Professor believes that this makes it possible to apply the concept with a normative expectation without raising too high an expectation. This is a necessary approach if the An old man lost a golden coin and was searching in the sand outside his house. Passers task is to examine how civil society might be rebuilt in a social setting where the earlier by wanted to know what he lost and joined him in the search. After a while where no coin effort was prematurely aborted. By focusing on a ‘more manageable scale of social life’, was to be found, one person asked the old man where he lost it. The old man said that he it also allows us to include in our definition of civil society a larger number of lost it inside the house. When asked why he was looking outside the house for coin he lost inside the house, the old man said, “The light is better outside!” community-based organizations and small-scale group activities at the local level that typically get left out if the focus is only on how civil society contributes to The Somali CS representatives drew attention to the special situation of Somali and democratization. Somalia and raised some issues, which are given in Annex 3. Professor Hyden wants to ensure that development-oriented activities, organized by local The representative of Southern Sudan CS, thanking the organizers reported that she takes groups in a voluntary fashion (whether focused on health, education, and sanitation or home ideas about CS that she did not know of, for the lessons are very useful for other food security) are not left out of consideration. He feels that all too often in the communities there. international community where bilateral and multilateral agencies, for programmatic reasons, tend to disaggregate their funding into sectoral entities. Private Sector / Consultants The private consultants group reported that they were profoundly impressed with the The author uses the notion of civil society as ‘the collective conscience’ to indicate the power of learning, the demystifying of theory, translating theory into framework for minimal standard of its role at the macro level. Though this language may sound ‘high- practical guidelines and the interactions through the use of simple words. The interest and flown’, he feels that it is important to point out that there is no expectation that groups in sensitivity of Oxfam and the professors’ expression of ideas were appreciated. civil society necessarily speak in one voice. The collective conscience comes with Furthermore, the importance of stopping and looking into the environment one operates multiple voices. It is more like a choir. That is, citizens serve as guardians of key ethical in and contextualizing to deepen one’s understanding, keeping informed and knowing the principles that may be violated, especially by those who hold political power in issues are among the benefits they take with them to their work. government. The extent to which voluntary associations will be ready to serve as autonomous moral agents will vary from one society to another, in Africa, Europe, International Donor Community Latin America, Asia. Representatives of the International Community (Oxfam and IDRC) said that the passion, integrity and commitment of the Encounter will be taken into the day-to-day work of Professor Hyden cautions that it is difficult to analyze civil society without taking into those mainly sitting in offices for inspiration and renewal. The power of the assembly consideration the cultural context in which it functions. Its role as the collective was all the more inspiring for having involved the state, which is very important. The conscience of society is likely to suffer if social life is not organized on a scale that is Group noted that Oxfam itself started as CS by ordinary citizens. Its tendency has been meaningful to its members. People must be able to assess the costs and benefits, and still is to make claims on the state, by saying, “you are not doing your job, it is not opportunities and risk, of collective action from the standpoint of their own social enough, we want you to do it better”; for this, we have to position ourselves, learning to circumstances. reinforce this advocacy role.

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Risks and Liabilities of involvement in civil society The Closing Session

The professor argues that civil society is not just a blessing or a positive thing. In order to The last day of the Encounter also included space for the different categories of understand why it is difficult to develop, he says we must acknowledge that involvement participants to reflect on the lessons gained and ideas on follow up by individuals and in it carries its own risks and liabilities to citizens. What these risks and liabilities are organizations. After brief discussions on these by groups of academicians, civil society, varies, but they are there even in liberal-democratic societies. Because in the latter type of private sector (consultants), government representatives and international donor society, civil society is based on autonomous voluntary action, there is a tendency for community, the following were shared in the plenary: civil society to favor those already well-endowed in society: the more resources members bring with them, the stronger the organization. The weaker and poorer members are On Lessons and Follow up either unable to organize at all – they are excluded or marginalized – or they form groups that reflect their weakness and poverty. In short, without the assistance of the Academicians Though by this time only two had remained, the group of academicians reported that they democratic state, civil society is likely to breed inequality; hence, the need to think of have benefited tremendously from all the discussions, which brought forth issues at the civil society as dependent – not independent - of the state. micro and macro level. Emphasis was made on information as key to informed decision

and the cutting edge of CS through the promotion of community centers - essential and The basis of organized social activity in societies largely agricultural is different. Because useful interaction points for communities in the Horn. The academicians said that the of a lower level of social differentiation – if not stratification – communal entities such as benefits from the encounter will be shared with students and thus spread the message far family, clan and village take on greater significance; hence, the predominance of and wide. Acknowledging that Oxfam was intellectually driven and has been engaged in community-based organizations (CBOs). These are usually more inclusive than civil bringing together knowledge and information, theory to practice and practice to give to society organizations in industrial settings. They may be examples of ‘direct democracy’, theory. They were very happy to be present and urged for continuation of such but are often dominated by strong persons. ‘Neo-patrimonialism’, the perceived right encounters in the future. of individuals to use public resources at their own personal discretion without challenge, flourishes in this context. Because of the personalized nature of authority in Government Representatives such organizations, members are afraid of speaking out. They often stay out, thus The Government group reported that there is lack of mistrust between government and resulting in an inevitable marginalization of the weaker members. CS because of inaccurate knowledge of what the former does. There has been a tendency to pay attention by both government and CS on ‘project-type’ activities only. It is now Professor Hyden identified another risk or liability associated with civil society is its clearer that CS are not really for government power, but work to protect the interest of tendency to foster ‘identity’ politics. This is obviously not merely a negative thing, but it the people and can work in partnership collaboration with government. There is a better clearly carries risks for the political regime at large. Identity politics has the potential understanding of what CS does and stands for – promote development and democracy. effect of intensifying the conflicts of civil society, because it makes racial ethnic, Hope was expressed by the representatives for peaceful collaboration and partnership religious and gender difference an issue at every point where it is experienced. This type with all to promote democracy, peace and justice, which are critical for achieving of politics easily becomes a ‘zero-sum’ game where the winner takes all and loser gets development. The importance of dialogue for consultations with and participation of CS nothing; it is hard to find the middle ground and a satisfactory compromise. Conflicts in formulation of policies as well as identification of issues for consideration were listed over ethnicity, race, or religion are easily intensified. The costs to state and citizens of among the key lessons gained. The role of partners like Oxfam Canada in this was also managing these conflicts grow – sometimes beyond what the country can afford on its acknowledged and appreciation extended to CIDA for its support in making the Langano own. Afghanistan is only one of many such examples. Encounter possible. A call was made for similar forum so that all will come, be enriched and develop trust and tolerance. The Professor then stressed that any discussion of how to build – or, rebuild – civil society cannot be carried out in isolation of what this means to the state and the political CS Group regime at large. Civil society, he said, is not an end in itself. If treated as such, it easily The CS Group representative remarked that Oxfam’s initiative enabled them to know becomes more of a liability than an asset. people and take knowledge with them. The framework being built was like a house that needed finishing which could be done through comments to communicate using IT. It What Can Be Done to Rebuild Civil Society in Africa? will serve as useful guidelines for their work.

Much of the 1990s has been spent trying to restore associational life in Africa. Referring to the plight of the Somali people of Somalia, Mr. Omar noted that though CS Rebuilding the social capital that was destroyed in previous decades, however, has not do not engage in arms struggle, they have a role in promoting peace and pleaded to all to been easy. Neither political nor economic reforms introduced under the auspices of help stop the conflict with civic action. Recognizing the hard work done by the Team

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There was evidence of increased network of local and regional CS in the Horn. Because “Structural Adjustment” and “Good Governance” have necessarily supported this of the realization in 2002 of the dependency attitude that had set in, the CSs had tried to attempted recovery. These efforts have not really addressed the basic structural address this by mobilizing and forming network with the help of an international NGO. A conditions that characterize African countries. Civil society in these places, therefore, Regional Coordinating Committee for CS in the Horn has been established. remains largely stillborn.

The CS has proved itself in the eyes of the people who were happy with what it is doing. The Empirical Conditions The Government has also come to respect the CS. There was closer contact with government and the people have come to have access and confidence to put in their Professor Hyden, in his discussion of this section, started by examining the realities / demands directly, instead of just being at the receiving end. conditions that affect the growth of civil society in Africa and referred to the challenge of identifying which aspects of reality matter the most. Pointing to the difficulties of The private sector, which, at the beginning of the century, was perceived as exploitative covering the full range of potential variables, the Professor here chose to focus on the and corrupt, had come to be considered as a development ally and credible sector. The following four conditions: idea that the private sector would contribute to the growth of CS by identifying successful participants in the voluntary sector, a practice started in 2002, had continued. This has - The legacy of authoritarianism; become institutionalized in much more recognized and modest practice. In fact, that was - Poverty and vulnerability; and why when an Award was given in 2012, it was to Mr. Roberto Iacona, the Owner of - The new political dispensation. Abula Basuma Lodge. He received the Award for his role in using local produce of organic farmers in the restaurant of what became a world famous resort for bird watching The legacy of authoritarianism and hot foam bath! Professor Hyden raised three aspects of the multifold legacy of authoritarianism, which The Government of Ethiopia came to realize that this positive situation grew out of what he argues are important in a discussion of the prospects for rebuilding civil society in happened way back in Langano in 2002, with the support of an international NGO and its Africa. The first is the lack of trust and confidence that people have in the state. This own (the Government’s) role in this that led to the success of at Awassa! aversion stems to a very large extent from the way individual political leaders have behaved over the years, using their unchallenged position to ensure private benefits The international NGOs and donors were not playing prominent role as they did in 2002. from public resources. Because these leaders used their position to build their private Their role changed from the generous development agencies to those that are marked to wealth, citizens have a cynical view of politicians, an enormously widespread attitude in come to help with the development work of Djibouti, Somalia, Sudan and Ethiopia. They Africa. People do not want to engage the state, because they know that it is not worth it. work to make specific inputs at a higher objective level of sophistication. The NGOs in Instead, they stay out of it. Even those who engage in public action through civil society the international community thus play a much more specific and low-key role than they organizations try to avoid contact with the state if it is at all possible. There is a serious did before. ‘disconnect’ between government and citizens, state and society in African countries that must be attributed to popular perceptions of how the state has behaved in the past. The local civil society organizations have build enough confidence of their own that they ask for evaluation of their work. When there is evaluation to be undertaken, they ask for The Professor feels that this disconnect is exacerbated because of the poor performance more candidates to choose the most professional and competent among them than was the record of public institutions during the first four decades of independence. This is the case in 2002 when the donors owned the evaluation exercise and the CS / NGOs had no second aspect of the authoritarian legacy that is deeply felt and widely spread in inputs. Africa, manifesting itself in the lack of commitment to the civic public realm in African countries; i.e. the public institutions that have been created to run and develop society are there to feed what Peter Ekeh refers to as the ‘primordial’ public realm; that is, community-based institutions serving specific groups identified by ethnic origin, local residence, or clan totem.

Contrary to the assumption that the national budget indicated policy preferences to be implemented, political actors made personal decisions in allocating public resources feed their own private ambitions. They could get away with this type of rent-seeking behavior because of the foreign aid provided them with scope for financial maneuvering. Also there was no collective conscience to hold these officials accountable.

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that the Djibouti representative said he could not attend because he had contacted The third aspect of the authoritarian legacy is the personalized nature of rule. The malaria, and no one knew how he could have contacted malaria. problem with this kind of rule is that, in addition to taking away the opportunities to challenge public authority through formal means, it undermines the institutional The meeting was something that the Cooperative members were proud of, used to show stability that is needed for development. Predictability disappears because public that they had made a lot of progress in many areas. Discussion was held on how the action relies on the whims of a single individual. This is what is known as ‘Neo- members benefited from the activities of the consumers’ cooperative that bring in local patrimonialism’, the most critical problem African societies face as they try to develop. It and imported inputs for cheaper prices for members’ consumption. definitely poses a big challenge to building civil society because it rejects voluntary action based on formally constituted means outside the state. The President of the Region, who was aware of the situation in the Region back in 2002, was glowing in his praised of what the people have done. He talked about the schools Poverty and vulnerability they built, the electrification and the improved social services and living standards brought about with the help of the government. Discussing poverty and vulnerability as the other realities under which African civil society exists, Professor Hyden underscored that poverty has both structural and After the official speeches, during break when all were moving around and making institutional roots, and pointed to the duel dimension of poverty in Africa. African contacts, the Cooperative members were able to contact the President and ask for economies remain largely agricultural with the society’s economic behavior influenced assignment of teachers by the government for the new schools they had built. by a subsistence ethic that puts the welfare of the household members before everything else. The other thing the meeting discussed was better and improved communications with Sudan. The second structural dimension of poverty is Africa’s peripheral position in the global economy. Its peripheral role in the world economy has been aggravated in the past forty The Somali representatives had a different story to tell! There has been peace for the last years. Although the trend until the mid-1970s looked acceptable, it has seriously several years, with increased and safe mobility with exports of goods to the Gulf deteriorated since. The professor feels that the structural constraints to African countries resumed. There has been more empowerment of Somali women. More and development are real, but one cannot deny the proposition that the continent’s more women are assuming leadership positions. Women’s literacy rate has also risen problems are now largely self-inflicted and that rest of the world can do little unless from 15% to 70%. African countries get their own houses in order. Because of closer working relationship between Somali CS and the Green Peace, a Speaking of the institutional roots of poverty in Africa, the Professor maintains that the stronger voice was heard at the global level calling for a stop to the illegal fishing that absence of alternatives to help the country when the state failed is the outcome of (1) had been going on in the shores of Somalia. poor performance under state control of the development process, (2) lack of space for other institutions / actors, or (3) cooption of emerging actors to serve the interests of the A Somali woman activist, who was the engine behind the peace and development of political leadership. The weakness of formal institutions and the bewildering Somalia, had by then been world famous for her struggle and leadership. She was able to uncertainty that characterize public policy-making in these countries continue to report to the meeting that the Somali people have agreed, after exploring all options to adversely affect any collective effort to develop. It is this institutional shortcoming that stop the blood shed, to create a Confederation with neighbors in the Horn. The leadership turns poverty into vulnerability, both at the macro and micro levels. of the Confederation will be on a rotating basis.

Citizens deciding to take action on their own find little support from government Sudan had peace and agreed to be secular federal state. institutions. Local initiatives may succeed as long as resource use is confined to the community. If, however, they require resources from outside, they run into difficulties With Peace prevailing in the Horn, the refugees and Diaspora are all coming back home! and often turn into failures, thus reinforcing the vulnerability of these people. Analysis of the changes that have taken place were seen from the roles and inter- Professor Hyden maintains that the structural roots of poverty can only be tackled if relationship of the various actors, CS - Farmers Cooperatives with women’s association - the current weakness in the institutional sphere can be first overcome. The problem the private sector, government and international NGO. An analysis by the group of what is not only that institutions in both state and civil society are still weak. It is also that will have changed, summarized by Professor Hyden, was the Vision of the Group. these institutions do not engage each other.

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Private Sector The new political dispensation

Vibrant sector supporting micro and macro enterprise development Ordinary citizens in Africa know that politics – or the institutions that guide the political Supportive of CS growth process – is a major cause of their dire predicament. Although they had expected to Promoting joint ventures with CS in critical areas such areas as solar energy, become free and empowered, the past four decades have produced mainly misery and Information Technology (IT). alienation. The international community nowadays also recognizes that the crisis in Africa is primarily political as is evidenced by its emphasis on democratization and ‘good Changes in CS work and relations governance’ in the last ten years. In response to growing domestic opposition in African countries, the international development agencies have been instrumental in bringing in a Working with organizations: new political dispensation the cornerstone of which has been the ‘return’ to multi-party politics. - Coalition building - Greater dialogue Professor Hyden says it is time to reflect on what this new order means for national - Collaboration and coordination with various actors. development and discusses two issues that he feels have special significance: (a) the effects of increased political contestation; and (b) the role of neo-patrimonialism. The Working with government and Private Sector: idea behind the introduction of multi-party politics has been – and continues to be – that it will produce a political leadership that is more accountable to the public and more - Wider role for CS and partnership respectful of the interest of citizens than its autocratic predecessors were. Despite - Greater role in advocacy expectations and investments by the international community, which seems to have given - CS engaging and influencing private sector great significance to electoral competition and ‘free and fair election’, there is little evidence that these objectives have been met as expected. The new political dispensation Working with the International Community: has not brought about the expected changes in political behavior; the private and the - Emergence of greater collaboration public remain suffused in the minds of political leaders. It may well be that this problem - More equity /balanced relationship. has become exacerbated since multi-party politics was introduced in the early 1990s.

In the majority of African countries, those in power have used their incumbency at any This was the Group whose ‘story’ was reported by Professor Goran Hyden. Reporting on cost to continue to rule. The idea that some one elected to office should treat it as a how the story was ‘constructed’, Professor Hyden said that each member contributed a public trust does not register in these societies. Instead, holding office is viewed as piece as her / his input building on each other’s vision related to CS, government, the giving the incumbent the right to use it discretionally for his own interest or those of his private sector, international NGOs, thus forming the Group Vision that the story clients/supporters. As suggested above, personal and community interests take conveys. precedence over those associated with public institutions. As long as members of a community see the potential of gain from having ‘one of their own’ in office, public The Story – the Vision accountability as understood in the context of current conceptions of good governance will be very hard, if not impossible, to achieve. What is possibly more serious is that In March 2012, representatives of the Farmers’ Cooperative met in Awassa, Ethiopia, to rebuilding civil society – even to the minimum level suggested in this paper – is going to decide on the use of the profit gained from sale of their produce. The meeting was run into serious problems without some major thinking of what can be done. attended by 75 men and 75 women. The men wanted profit to be invested on improvement of farm production. The women wanted a share of the money to meet What Can Be Done? domestic needs. However this first meeting of the Cooperative ended without reaching a decision. Professor Hyden’s discussion of the realities indicated above set the scene for addressing the issue of reconstruction of civil society in Africa. He maintains that poverty is both a The second meeting was a much more productive event. The Cooperative had decided to cause and effect of a weak civil society; it puts limits to how much time individuals invite more representation at the meeting. The President of the Southern Region and can invest in collective action, for, without collective action there is little hope of Head of the Bank were invited. In addition, the Cooperative invited representatives of improvement in standards of living. A fundamental challenge, therefore, is how to CS from Djibouti, Somalia and Sudan and the international NGOs. The sad thing was overcome the social limits associated with poverty. Neo-patrimonialism takes away the incentive for building formal organizations, and is another limiting factor. It leaves the

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choice to the discretion of a powerful individual – the ‘Big Man’, and subverts efforts at public accountability. Group 2 Report

These socio-economic and political conditions mean that the task of rebuilding civil Socio-economic and political changes society needs to be approached with humility and respect for not only what citizens Social Conditions want but also what their capacity to get things done is. They are vulnerable in both an Greater tolerance and respect among members of society economic and political sense, because their institutional means are so feeble. The road to Greater dialogue among the various actors (government, private turning civil society into a ‘collective conscience’ and a means for realizing sector, CS) development ambitions within a meaningful social scale is likely to be full of Accountable, transparent and supportive governance (responsive challenges. To start with, it is necessary to accept that ‘associational life’ and ‘civil and responsible leadership) society’ is not necessarily one and the same thing. The Professor say there indeed are Leadership emerging at all levels organized activities in African societies, but the important question is their meeting any Greater awareness of basic fundamental human rights of the normative criteria associated with the concept of civil society discussed earlier. Do Reduced hopelessness and increased self-reliance. they serve as collective conscience? Do they provide development opportunities for members on a scale that they accept as meaningful? These are the questions that need Economic Conditions to be addressed in a discussion of how civil society can be built. The region’s resources kept within the region for its own development The Professor suggests that in order to build civil society in Africa, there is a need to: (1) Reduced level of poverty (food security, better housing, filling civil society with a meaning; (2) show that civil society can deliver goods; (3) take health services, better markets, more schools, etc.) one step at the time; and (4) provide catalytic institutional support for strengthening the Political conditions roles of civil society as a community. Greater stability and security Efficient mechanism for peaceful conflict/dispute Filling civil society with a meaning resolution (religious and traditional means) CS role changed to public awareness raising, training in The Professor observed those forty years after independence, the main problem facing and leadership and advocacy skills. African societies is the absence of a functional ‘civic’ public realm. It is unrealistic to expect that ‘civicness’ will replace parochial or primordial loyalties over night. It is also Civil Society – Strong CS unreasonable to assume that society alone can foster such civicness. The latter must be generated jointly by state and societal actors. What then needs to be done to make Promoting increased public awareness African society more civil? Increased advocacy skills for advocacy Better service delivery Professor notes that associations derive their original meaning from what they do for Gender equity and changes in women’s lives their members, and that they can only develop when they are capable of learning More skills training opportunities in agricultural processing and non- from others and gradually become both more self-confident and tolerant of others. traditional areas The concept of civicness is centered on the readiness to both ‘give’ and ‘take’. It is a Increased awareness and deeper knowledge of critical issues form of reciprocity that goes beyond the ‘closed’ community. He cautions that extending Dialogue with communities management of natural resources the boundaries of tolerance and reciprocity beyond the primary community – whether Work with isolated communities defined in terms of residence, religion or other aspects of culture – runs into problems in Promote culture of tolerance and peace Africa because of (a) economic poverty, (b) social isolation, and (c) cultural insulation. Self-financing CS The Professor referred to Mohammed Salih’s argument that it may be a particularly big challenge in Islamic countries where voluntarism is a religious duty, with the Government and Private Sector primary duty of organizations being the advancement of a Muslim way of life and expand the Islamic community (umma) worldwide. More legitimate government and accountable More trusted government, and The current political and economic environment in African countries is such that local Supportive government associations cannot be expected to make society more civil without the assistance of

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initial inhibitions. There were also a few who were cynical about the prospect of the organizations from the outside. That is why international NGOs, such as Oxfam, have an space that governments would give to enhance the growth of civil society. Of special important role to play in helping local associations to understand the ‘big picture’ and interest was the present of government representatives in the groups participating in the help integrate their activities into the national and international arenas without, at the joint envisioning. On the whole it was quite a serious and somber moment mixed with same time, leaving them more exposed and vulnerable. The emphasis in this context hope and enthusiasm as participants saw themselves ‘creating’ the kind of socio- must be on making associations capable of becoming more inclusive, not more economic and political environment that they wanted for the Horn countries. exclusive, at least not in a narrow parochial or primordial fashion.

Both the group envisioning task and reporting followed different styles, with some using Showing that civil society can deliver goods stories to build their dreams and others listing the changes they wish to see among the various actors – civil society, the private sector, the government, international donor The Professor remarks that one of the real tragedies of African countries since community. independence is the inability of the state and its institutions to deliver goods and services to the people. Whatever has been shared with the people has been distributed Below are the reports of the different groups, given in the manner they were presented; largely through ‘patronage’ and ‘clientelism’, thus undermining people’s confidence and that is some listing of changes and others communicating through story telling. trust in public institutions. The permeating influence of this has been a major reason why the international development community has found itself placing conditions on their assistance. That is also why the same community has sought for alternative Vision of the Horn in 2012 delivery systems in the NGO community. The funders, however, have often taken a very narrow view of these organizations, treating them primarily as delivery

mechanisms of development goods. There has been less interest in treating the NGOs as Group 1 Report part of a budding civil society.

Peaceful The Author feels that if the international development community – and international Democratic governments consulting citizens NGOs – is serious about creating a civil society in Africa, it is important that they find Intolerance substantially reduced ways of integrating their development objectives with the dual task of (a) making local Citizens feel part of the nation, beyond their ethnic affiliations associations find more meaningful scales of development, and (b) enhancing their Food security, secure livelihood, employment opportunities to increase substantially? role as society’s collective conscience. CBOs may be the most suitable mechanism for Peaceful transition of power / ballots rather than bullets the first task, but these organizations must empower members so that they can take Sustainable use of natural resources greater charge of delivering goods in the future. Similarly, at the macro level, NGOs must More infrastructure and basic services seek cooperation so as to enhance their role as voluntary entities with a voice that can be Diaspora will return home heard on issues that stem from the way society is being governed. The important point,

according to Professor Hyden is that associations must be seen as having a greater Changes in Society ability to deliver both material goods and institutional benefits that a crippled state Citizens better dressed and a fledgling market fail to do. Citizens better educated

Reduced consumption of tchat and alcohol Taking one step at the time

Professor Hyden finds that there is a general tendency to assume that all the positives associated with development or democracy can be achieved at one and the same time. Reality, especially in African societies, is much more complex and calls for patience and a more ‘incremental’ approach. The latter term may not satisfy every one, but there are too many negative experiences of ‘rushing development’ to ignore the call for ‘one step at the time’ approach. He, however, cautions that it is important to set realistic indicators for specific projects. The latter must be conceived in the long term and a commitment made to ensure that not only tangible development objectives but also human and social capital gains, integral to any development activity, are achieved. The challenge of making such gains is often underestimated.

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Professor Hyden suggests that projects be designed in such a way that they allow for a The relationship between CS and the state is understandable when considering the continuous monitoring of the gains made in both human and social capital terms. The historical and current realities of the Horn. In the Horn context where the struggle indicators to be used for these forms of capital may vary from one place to another. It is is over national sovereignty, the state is the key actor. CS is therefore either important that they are so construed that they measure how associations contribute to the marginalized or considered as threat. growth of a civil society. What do they do in terms of earning the confidence and trust of members? What do they do as agents of society’s collective conscience? Though there is hopelessness there is still hope. There is still hope to create He stresses that the approach to measuring incremental progress is important in order not public space in spite of who controls the state. This needs to be done with to lose a sense of optimism and confidence in the future. One way of implementing it is caution, creating trajectory of all the actors – civil society, private sector, and the to identify a sequential chain that is appropriate for the specific context in which the state and development partners. association operates. He proposes using a scale that starts with mobilization to voice to representation to transparency to empowerment to constituency benefits to pluralism, as Among the things to be done to move forward include: one way of staggering the objectives and providing a set of sequential indicators that make sense. - Building trust and mutual understanding - Dialogue, interaction over certain policies to discuss with different groups Providing catalytic institutional support for building civil society - CS to police itself and counter the tarnished image created by some misbehaved ones, to correct image, be a model for others as ethically clean,

credible and respected. Professor Hyden, forwarding his recommendation for the above, admits that this aspect of - CS to work in a coordinated manner. rebuilding civil society in Africa may be the most difficult but also most important tasks - State accepting ultimate responsibility for creating healthy public realm; to be on the agenda. He referred to donors’ tendency, be they governmental or non- ‘captain of football team’, enabling of the team members to play their roles, governmental, to sign bilateral contracts with specific institutions. This way of using their creativity and strength for team success. dealing with recipients creates a level of dependency that is not healthy for the objective of generating a sustainable civil society, for it takes away the sense of belonging to a community – i.e. civil society. It also tends to make development Participants’ Joint Vision for the Horn activities dependent on the funders’ own priorities raising the notion of supply- rather than demand-driven development. The task of envisioning commenced with group formation and participants’ drawing on

their own knowledge of the Horn countries. The gentle guidance of the Facilitators was The Professor suggests that to reverse this unhealthy trend, it is necessary to establish encouraging and helpful. Guide for envisioning and analysis of the changes in the Horn a set of funds that are not controlled unilaterally by donors, government, or NGOs provided by the Facilitators pointed to the need for looking into the contribution of the alone. Such a development funding mechanism is meant to insulate funding of local CS, the role of CS, changes in its working relationship with constituents, the development from political patronage and encourage donors to pool resources in a government, the private sector, other CS / NGO in the country, the region and funding institution whose board of trustees is drawn on an equal basis from international level, with resource providers. In other words, government, resource providers and society. This is gradually being implemented in some African countries. Although it is too early to draw any far-reaching conclusions, • The contributions of CS (to bring about the changes) there is evidence to suggest that associations and projects that benefit from support by these ‘autonomous development funds’ do encourage the growth of civil society, in terms • Guiding principles in the work and relationships of a more appropriate scale of doing things as well as a greater transparency in the use of • Common issues / concerns public funds. These funds, which legally are public institutions, encourage the • Lessons gained and plan of action (follow up by each). growth of capacity from the ground up as organizations compete among themselves for funding on criteria that are judged by professional trustees rather than political The sharing of key insights, identified factors and linking these to the picture participants patrons. sought to see ten years hence created a formidable atmosphere, worthy of the assembly. The joint envisioning was extremely interesting. Some country groups were enthusiastic Professor Hyden ends by pointing to the challenge of convincing the donors to abandon and excited busting with optimism. Others went about the exercise with caution and even their own narrow and often exclusivist approach and become ‘civic’ in their approach to skepticism borne out of the legacy of failed expectations for the prospect of sustained supporting development in African countries. peace in the Horn. The skeptics were tentative in their envisioning, yet encouraged by the infectious air of optimism of their group members, which enabled them to discard their

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Common Issues in Horn countries Conceptualization and Further Exploration By Professor Abdul Ghaffar, Discussant Groups discussing factors, trends, opportunities and challenges for Horn countries identified common issues, which are listed below as reported. Professor Abdul Ghaffar, Executive Sectretary of the Organization for Social Science Research in Eastern and Southern Africa (OSREA), contextualizing the first Platform Group A Group B Document by Professor Hyden, started out by recognizing the challenges involved in the task of rebuilding CS in Africa. • Acknowledging the suppression of indigenous groups by colonial rulers, Conflict Legacy of military regimes Professor Abdul Ghaffar pointed out analysis of CS in Africa should also include Displacement Seek / need peace country experiences such as the Sudan in pre- and postcolonial periods. He Poverty War-torn economies mentioned that trade unions did help the state to go the path of development in Lack of trust Poverty Lack of communication between Ineffective governments pre-independence Sudan. This path has ensured smooth connection between the scholars and practitioners Governments as key actors urban and rural settings after independence. Lack of clear vision Lack of tolerance (ethnic/region) Limited role of the private sector Role of Diaspora • The Discussant lamented that if we realize now what was not realized then, that Lack of space for dialogue Increased recognition of roles of CS in indigenous institutions and indigenous knowledge exist and could be tapped, we Lack of opportunities for exchange of development might be sure to re-vitalize these for any process of development. experiences Difficulties of using natural resources Sense of hopelessness to benefit citizens • The Professor noted, though, that after independence the elites co-opted into the Power mongers Outflow of resources (human and state machinery did not go beyond the shared agenda of state building and HIV/AIDS capital flight) national unity, and ignored the danger of marginalization within the global Scarcity / uneven distribution of Flow of information limited – lack of resources awareness system. Attempts made towards civic movements were also short lived. Trade Corruption High illiteracy rate unions and army returnees formed de-tribalized groups thus creating new identity. Women’s rights linked to ethnicity and Weak / gap communication between These were, however, seen as ‘dangerous elements’ by the religious and ethnic- religion private, NGO and governments based political organizations. The Army and the military then came together to Marginal presence of democratic get rid of associational groups and ‘made sure that the ground was clean’. practice Imposed economic policies • The Discussant, referring to the ‘stillborn’ CSs mentioned in Professor Hyden’s Deteriorating terms of trade presentation, maintained that these are the ones spearheaded by western educated Need for indigenous analysis elites, who found themselves isolated. One finds quite a number of such people Lack of research on substantial issues looking for donor funding through the formation of NGOs, making ‘investments’ Dependency syndrome Some hope (positive trend to build on) built on western concept. Citizenry more open/willing to assume new responsibility (to build on) • The Professor, however, noted that there are civil society groups among these Active role of women (potential to NGOs that are doing their work. The difficulty, he said, is that in most develop) developing countries the alliance of educated elites and the military jump on Strong role of government opportunities and benefits. They eliminate what they consider ‘dangerous elements’. Local communities and indigenous organizations are aware of the limitations of the NGOs that work with them. The pastoralists, said Professor, In the discussion that followed the above issues and ‘on the way forward’, it was noted: know that the NGOs raise funds on their behalf, see the services they bring to them and use them to raise their voices on their behalf. Though the issues are extremely complex, they need not be discouraging. These need to be understood by CS to act appropriately and have credible voice. Certain • On the needs of local communities, the Professor shared OSSREA’s experience degrees of discipline (adherence to an agreed code of conduct) is required of CS from its Dryland Husbandry Project (DHP). Ten years of documentation on to be credible, accepted and serve as role model. All sectors have roles to play in action-oriented research and working with pastoralists, government departments, the public realm. researchers has yielded valuable resource book, available from OSSREA. In a

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workshop DHP organized which used 6 languages, the participants requested assistance on how to form ‘pastoralist associations’. OSSREA has since assisted in this, and a Sudanese Pastoralist Union is now in place receiving assistance from OSSREA and Panos. Currently there is a process of building a network among and with of pastoralist group in each of the member countries. A key lesson from this experience is that when we help organizations, the ‘ownership’ and ‘control’ should be left to the local people. The proposed step-by-step progress should be agreed upon with the partners.

• Referring to the role of donors, the Professor said that they contribute to both the states and communities; some bypassing the state and damaging the image and position of CS in the eyes of the state. Not all CS are responsible members working together or having the same expectations. Accountability of donors is an issue that is not addressed. The conventional practice of fielding external ‘experts’ even in cases where national or regional experts, particularly when the former lack the relevant experience/expertise, raises the question of ‘who develops who?’ This was an important issue that needs to be addressed.

• On how to rebuild CS in Africa, the Professor pointed out that we should find some margin of maneuvering, space, to revitalize existing indigenous groups, to build on indigenous heritage and make use of them. However, he also cautioned the danger of glorifying ‘indigenous heritage’ without critical examination, particularly where these do not espouse the values and principles that go with CS as we now know. Undemocratic and exploitative systems are also found in our indigenous institutions and heritage such as inequalities, exclusion, and exploitation (including slave labor). At the same time, we need to identify, help them change and strengthen existing community based organizations (CBOs).

• The Professor, referring to western-model organizations, mentioned his own organization, OSSREA, and their dependence on external funding. He acknowledged that donors have supported a number of initiatives and still seek to support governance, human rights, poverty reduction, etc. However, he noted that there is something to be said about their approach, which needs re-visiting. OSSREA is of the same opinion as Professor Hyden’s proposal that a Trust Fund should be considered to improve development partnership.

• On CS and ‘confrontation with the state’, all options need to be considered to avoid arrests, imprisonment and ‘loss of social capital.’ The repercussion of fear of arrest and dangerous reactions for the future movements should be given serious consideration when opting for confrontational action. CS needs to negotiate and collaborate with the state, without compromising their basic principles and position.

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Reflection and Panel Discussion Where there is no space for CS, the State becomes the key actor. The plenary discussion reflected on and discussed issues raised by Professor Hyden and the Discussant. Participants shared their personal and organizational concerns and raising On Building a Conceptual Framework questions which are given below.

An interesting and highly involved process lead to the building of theoretical framework 1. If Western model / liberal democratic values of CS is failing in Africa, why is that and for moving forward with the challenging task of rebuilding the Civil Society sector in the who is responsible? Africa continent in 21st Century. 2. Referring to the above question, it was noted that one problem is the emphasis on The process started with identification of issues in the Horn countries through group ‘accounting’, which focuses on ‘financial’ rather than accounting to constituents - the work. Country and regional analyses were done by the groups to identify factors, trends, people CS serves. challenges, trends, and opportunities. These helped to form the background for developing a Vision of the Horn in the coming ten years. Identification of the issues and 3. The Russian NGOs was a case in point whereby these are more accountable to donors joint envisioning enriched the process of building a framework, which is a valuable rather than to their constituents. There is a need to create space for local NGOs to grow output of the Langano Encounter. by creating mechanism for donor- recipient relationship that does not overburden NGOs with administrative/financial requirements. Looking inwards for local funding rather than outwards would reduce external dependency.

5. Similarities were noted between the experiences Oxfam GB in Kenya and the Guraghe People’s Self-help Development Organization (GPSDO) of Ethiopia where community- rooted organizations work side by side with government-initiated ones in the same area. Oxfam GB’s partnership with the Borana people in Kenya for the last 8 years has been quite successful. Oxfam was the first organization to arrive in the area and supported with water supply systems. Its support in establishing the necessary mechanisms for self- management, such as water committees, has contributed to sustainability of activities. A key factor contributing to the sustained success of the partnership cooperation is the trust developed with the local leadership (hierarchy of leadership) thus gaining acceptance by the communities. Trust is inherent value in associational life and forms the basis for lasting relationship.

6. Knowledge does have capital value. This does not necessarily have to be grounded in traditional associational life, and can be modern knowledge used as an entry to and a basis for developing partnership cooperation.

7. State should not do what the private sector can do best; but it should do everything for the private sector and CS – creating enabling environment for both to function effectively.

8. CS is needed not because the state is weak but when it is strong as well. They should complement each other.

Constance Nako, Yambio Women’s Association, South Sudan, Fatouma Mohamed, Atu 9. Briefcase NGOs undermine genuine efforts towards the growth of civil society Yoo Fan, Djibouti, Saida Aboubaker, Solidarité Féminine, Djibouti, Asha Gelle, Somali organizations by legitimizing cynicism of and lack of trust by government. Women’s Concern, Galkayo, Puntland and Afaf Rehieman, Babiker Badri Scientific Association for Women Studies, Khartoum, Sudan. 9. Trust Fund to be accessed by CS, the private sector and even the State in a competitive

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way. The latter will thus be forced to straighten up and adhere to the same principles. been known to use this new political dispensation to promoted division and polarization just to keep their positions. State leaders wanting to stay and die in 10. A potential danger of the recent political dispensation - multi-party system – is when their posts is a problem in Africa. Since politics is the core of the State, there is this is used as a strategy by incumbents to stay in power. always the danger of using politics for personal agenda.

11. Donor’s administrative / accounting requirements overburdening CS / NGOs denying Ethnic politics becomes dangerous when ethnicity becomes the core of the the space required for CS to grow. political organization. Diverse ethnic groups can find common interests. The situations of the migrant states of USA and Canada as melting pots provide 12. It is not just how best CS works at one level as it is the linkage of its work with lessons where many ethnic groups maintain their original identity still taking on policy advocacy / lobbying at all levels – local, national, regional and global. American and / or Canadian nationality. On the other hand there is the case of Sweden, for example, where immigrants have to choose to be Swede, with no 13. One needs to be aware that each situation offers unique opportunities. space for their original ethnic identity and culture. There is always the danger of ethnicity being used by interest groups for divisive purposes. Such direction- 14. International CS to bring up local voices to the global arena. making ethnicity as the core of the movement - eventually weakens the state.

15. Collective action / networking are important for local CS to strengthen the voice of In cases where ethnic based associations are emerging, while there is no problem those they represent. with this, the problem comes when these become extensions of the State and speak state interest. The test of ‘civicness’ of such groups is ‘voluntarism’; are 16. Open-minded donors to continue dialogue with partners and revisit terms of their members in there voluntarily? Is the association co-opted by the state or is it partnership with a view to improving development cooperation. autonomous?

17. Step-by-step approach of measuring CS progress – incremental progress rather than It is not how best CS perform at one level but interchangeability of functional hurried and imposed pace of change - requires defense of ‘civicness’ and demand-driven efficiency, such as the challenge of bringing the impact at bottom to the top level rather than supply-driven cooperation. and policy being debated at the grassroots level.

18. Analysis of CS capacity development needs to consider the specific context of each CS in the West plays an active role at the macro level, engaging in policy country –take into account the perceptions and realities in preparation of country profile. dialogue. The role of CS at the policy level is essentially dependent on the space the State provides for this. 19. Civic education should be integral to CS role in promoting democracy. Political parties should engage in ‘positive sum game’ rather than ‘zero’ sum 20. CS has a role in conflict resolution by promoting a culture of tolerance and peace. game. In the former, all gain something while in the latter, the winner takes all and the loser gets nothing. 21. Somali CS expectations of international CS and donors to help in conflict resolution and take up people’s voice against interest groups engaged in illegal fishing, etc. Because of the limited role the private sector plays in Africa, with limited preventing peace and national reconstruction. resources except through fraud or corrupt practices (to get rich quick), some see the attraction of government positions to access resources. So long as it is the 22. Any analysis of CS in the Horn should include analysis of the specific situation of government that gets the money, this continues to be a problem until alternative Somali. mechanisms for funding are found and put in place. On the other hand, in some African countries, government functionaries are joining the CS sector because 23. Envisioning, planning for development in circumstances where there is no peace they seek position and resources from external connections / donors. Yet in others would be unrealistic and futile exercise; instead give priority to peace, plan and work one finds people leaving government to go to private sector feeling that towards peace building and peace management. government bureaucracy is no longer prestigious.

23. Arms proliferation is a critical issue to be considered in analyzing the realization of A weak state is vulnerable and anything can shake it. It is therefore sensitive and Africa’s development – a formidable challenge where more than 15 countries are in a not receptive to CS issues. Though CS may be seeking constructive dialogue, fear state of conflict in the continent. on the part of a weak government could be valid.

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24. CS should promote gender equality in its advocacy work. The Diaspora returning home have positive role to play in efforts to promote the rule of law. 25. The danger of CS being hijacked by interest groups is a factor to consider in planning capacity development of CS in Africa. There are cases where CS leaders/members go to government. In Europe and USA or Canada, one sees CS activists going into government. Civil rights leaders 26. Recommend for tripartite linkage of all actors, and integration of indigenous and have moved as individuals into government positions and bring their CS scientific knowledge. experiences. 28. Africa needs strong not weak states. CS and government have a role to play in awareness raising through information and communication to promote informed debates and decisions on civic and 29. The way out of Africa’s problems is in the hands of Africans who need to look into public activities. The State should release citizen’s energy to play full role and themselves too – looking inward for common issues such as trust, commitment, move from lack of trust, hopelessness and despair. Here, there may be a danger to voluntarism, contextualizing these for relevance to the people. avoid when CS takes itself too seriously and thinks it can do take over the role of the state. It is the role of CS to remind the State of things / groups forgotten.

Since CS is a fairly new concept in Africa, the challenge is how best to infuse this to the communities, to discuss, to understand, grasp and use as their own to have more say in situations where there is still exploitation, marginalization, authoritarianism – chiefs and privileges – an issue of empowerment. People are doing what they can for their communities without calling themselves CS. The issue then is one of capacity building; how to enable them see and channel their contribution to fit into the bigger picture - designing capacity building in response to existing and emerging demands of communities as the role of CS.

NGOs are preoccupied with ‘development’ agenda to the exclusion of other spheres of life that are important to the communities they work with. The notion that communities need NGOs because they are underdeveloped (need ‘development’) should be looked at critically for communities are known to go on and do well without NGOs, showing self initiatives, with individuals providing voluntary services.

It does not mean that economically developed communities do not need CS. Economic growth does not guarantee welfare. Since there is no equitable distribution of resources and benefits in such communities, CS have role to bring the voices of the marginalized groups and individuals. CS in the form of Trade Unions in the Nordic countries play critical role in influencing decisions on state expenditures, drawing state attention to areas that require investments.

CS does not necessarily promote ‘confrontational’ strategies. Consultations, dialogue and public information are constructive options. There are situations where individuals adopt confrontational strategies for self-promotion. Collective voices of CS have more power and influence in bringing about changes. It is, therefore, a question of strategies. Goran Hyden discussing with co facilitators, Suzanne Taschereau and Lebesech Tsega. Multi-party system brings in wider participation. But some African leaders have

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II. Global Experience and African Reality in Foster the genuine empowerment of the public realm through dynamic relations between the state, the private sector and civil society through the development of Realizing Development in the Continent. democracy. By Dr. Thandika Mkandawire

The discussant underscored that Africa needs democratization, for genuine Dr. Mkandawire, Director of the United Nations Research Institute on Social democratization is necessary for development. He also said democracy is important for Development, and Co-author of Our Continent our Future (1999), started his presentation its own sake not just as instrument for development. End to hopelessness and despair, by noting that when we talk about development we tend to see it from the economic trust and confidence, reduction of poverty, mechanisms for development of policies that perspective, but that the greatest challenge in development today is creating states that are can resist external forces, etc. are among the benefits of democratization. democratic, developmental and inclusive. He mentioned Taiwan from Asia and Botswana from Africa as examples of developmental states. Referring to the Poverty Reduction Strategies, Dr. Berhanu noted that strong bodies (civil society and/or state), could not only confidently negotiate and enrich the strategies, they Dr. Mkandawire posed the question, ‘can we have democratic, inclusive and could also protect domestic interest related to issues of domestic industries, fertilizers, developmental state in Africa?’ He believes that although difficult, it is possible. subsidies, employment, etc through dialogue with concerned entities. Referring to the early years of post independence, Dr. Mkandawire said that we had developmental states. There was wide spread investment in development by the states who sought to improve the welfare of their people. Some had attained food self- Reflection and Panel Discussion sufficiency, were even exporting and registered decent rate of growth. The gains from these development investments could not, however, be sustained in subsequent years for The plenary discussions on the issues of the two Platform Documents and further a number of reasons. Since 1974 there have been stagnation and decline in growth with explorations by the discussants enriched the learning. Interest and focus were on CS with rapid decline registered during the 80s and 90s leading to the current demise of the Africa participants sharing their experiences and concerns as they sought to relate the issues in the global scene. raised by the resource persons. The following are some of the questions and comments raised: Dr. Mkandawire raised the all too familiar question, “what happened to Africa’s economy and its position in the global market?” He mentioned that analysts forward What do we do with situations where people get involved in CS as alternative different explanations to Africa’s demise. Internal and external factors have contributed route to government position? The route from CS to government as a deliberate to the problem, with debate continuing on which is more responsible. Below is a brief strategy is not a positive thing to do. In such cases, individuals aspire government summary of Dr. Mkandawire’s analysis of the situation. position not because they are driven by democratic principles but for personal

position and access to state resources. One does also find individuals who lost Internal factors government positions going to CS. In some African countries, there have been The Centralized states of independent African countries embarked upon widespread increasing incidences where individuals deliberately ‘create’ or join CS for their investment in infrastructure development. Nation building and ‘national unity’ became own personal gains, not least for resources they can attract and command. the exclusive affair of government. Whether socialist or not, the government became the owner of resources and the development process. In the absence of foreign or domestic The issue of responsibility / accountability of the donor community funding investors, the state was forced to start manufacturing sector in the framework of the then ‘briefcase NGOs’ with individual ‘entrepreneurs’ investing in western-mode of import substitution policy. The development process could not, however, be sustained organizations needs to be addressed. Such NGOs claiming to be CS undermine through central management; nor was there responsive national private sector. The State the work of genuine ones. Dependency and sustainability are also important issues had no link with either the private sector or the intelligentsia, and was suspicious of other associated with such situations. actors, and there was no consensus on transfer of power. Basically, the nation building process was not completed in Africa. Individuals can be active in the community, engage in debates with investment issues (investments in the social sector – health, education, etc.) but not as a Nevertheless, positive returns from the development investments have been realized in deliberate strategy to entering politics to gain government position and power. CS improvements in standard of living, food self-sufficiency, and even exports by some should not aspire government position; seeking power should not be the goal for countries. Analysts differ in their assessment of this period, though. Some critiques refer the growth of CS. CS should not be an opposition party. It is this distorted role to it as a time when ‘full-belly’ over ‘democratic participation’ won over, with that creates the situation where the Government fears or is suspicious of CS - the governments subscribing to the notion of ‘democracy is a luxury’. Speaking of this danger of the latter displacing the former. notion and the exclusive ownership of the state over the nation-building process, some

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Incoherent policies of IMF and World Bank imposed on African States; critics say that ‘it was as if a sign “silence, development in progress” was posted’, and inconsistency of position on withdrawal of subsidies for African farmers where argue that there was ‘silence’ but ‘no development.' That there was a decent increase in this is not applied in the developed countries. The recent issue of US protection growth rate has, however, been acknowledged, albeit ‘rather grudgingly’, even by the of its steel industry being a case in point. World Bank Reports.

The discussant referred to the alternatives suggested by Dr. MKandawire on what is to be Though signs of economic decline were observed since 1974 for many African States, done, and highlighted some which are listed below. there are also those who feel that the situation was not as bad as the Berg Report (World Bank 1981) made it out to be, thus setting the scene for what followed in the decades to Redefine development, not just the ‘adjustment issues’ but bringing economic come. development into the agenda; Refocusing on local resources and concerted effort on how to exploit available Dr. Mkandawire’s paper on “African Economies and Globalization” (given as handout to local resources, by creating more conducive environment for the return of the participants), and his oral presentation on Africa’s relation to the globalization process Diaspora, thus tapping capital to exploit Africa’s natural resource base. Putting define globalization as “…a process whereby national and international policy-makers appropriate policies in place to reverse migration, capital flight and mobilize proactively or reactively promote domestic deregulation and external liberalization’2 internal resources will help reclaim responsibility and ownership for Africa’s His analysis of the external factors that contributed to the continent’s problems is briefly development by Africans. summarized below. Local-centered development policies that encourage local investment, which is likely to bring more lasting development than the conventional type of investment External factors that we now depend on. There has been a general tendency to attribute Africa’s problems to internal more than Make local bodies responsible and accountable through significantly different external factors. But there is still a debate on whether the internal situation was as critical policies, with enhanced ability for implementation of policies. as it was made out to be at the time. Though the 1979 oil crisis and the ensuing decline To avoid external impositions which are not good for Africa’s future, but also to in world economic growth had significantly impacted Africa’s economy, it was more the centre development within our own societies. diagnosis and prescriptions of the World Bank that combined to aggravate the continent’s Our understanding of economics should include a ‘collective of individual problem. The belief is that the World Bank had misread the situation and misdiagnosed actions’ - the sum total of all the population of a country. the problems. The portrayal of a negative image of Africa by the World Bank Report We should advocate for socio-political and economic policies that focus on (1981), blaming ‘inappropriate government policies’ and ‘malfunctioning of the human development. A turn about is required to change the focus on human markets’ for Africa’s economic decline has since influenced the terms of its entry into resources development from the disproportionate emphasis on ‘economic and benefits from the globalization process. adjustments’ and ‘stabilization’ currently promoted by most African countries.

The IMF and World Bank prescription of Structural Adjustment Programs (SAPs) In relation to the above, Dr. Berhanu and Dr. Mkandawire propose inter-related functions heralded the loss of control of African governments over the affairs of their states, and for the State: has continued to dominate the ‘development’ agenda of Sub-Saharan Africa for over two

decades. Create conducive environment for individuals (as consumers and producers) – and

nurture relations with the private sector. Enable the private sector as an organic As mentioned, though structural and exogenous factors contributed to the failure of part of development, crediting the actors as economic agents who can operate in African states to sustain their development, there has been a tendency to put a their own best. disproportionate blame on internal factors. Since 1980 African governments succumbed Push for industrialization policies. to the severe terms and conditions of SAP of IMF and the World Bank and have been Strengthen state machineries for the state to function more effectively, develop awaiting the promised benefits from their entry into the global economy. SAPs arose out and implement the policies that need to be put in place. of the belief that Africa’s economic problems were of their own making (with no State to commit itself to human resource development. consideration of external causes) and imposed as the prescription to the problems. Embark on building the capacity of the bureaucracy to take the required measures for strengthening the mechanism required. 2 Enhance capacity to reduce human and capital flight. The French make useful distinction between “mondialisation” and “globalisation” with the former referring to increased human interaction while the latter is a policy-driven process or is a hegemonic project of key economic and political actors.

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Professor Mkandawire notes, “African governments have voluntarily, or under duress, • In the Western countries, the early 70s saw a shift in interest away from reshaped domestic policies to make their economies more open. The issue therefore is not development studies and African studies when such departments were closing in whether or not Africa is being globalized but under what conditions the process is taking the Ivy League universities. These were replaced by ideologically driven place and why, despite such relatively high levels of integration into the world economy, economic programs with new emphasis on mere ‘supply and demand’ economics. growth has faltered.” • Furthermore, the 80s saw the coming into power of conservative government - With SAP as the only option, African governments lost control of decision over the Thatcher in UK, Cole in Germany, Regan in USA, etc. - out to get the centralized policies, financing and implementation of the development process of their countries in governments (Soviet blocks and their model states). The emphasis then became the two decades of reforms and adjustments. The reforms and adjustments were more on weakening the state, getting the market right, higher interest rates essentially meant to cut down on development expenditure but bring about ‘financial and financial stabilization. stability’ the primary aim of which was to ‘enable’ African states to pay back their debts. The result was therefore cuts in expenditures for the social sector, among others, • African states were too weak to resist external imposition of SAP. An alternative deterioration in standard of living and deepening poverty. This contributed to loss of to SAP as an African Initiative tabled at the Meeting of the United Nations legitimacy of the states and froze Africa out of the global economy. Though poverty did Economic Commission for Africa (UNECA), could not, for some reason, make not feature prominently in SAPs, there was assumption that the poor will benefit from the head way to make a difference. ‘promised’ growth. Dr. Berhanu noted that diagnosis of African situation was ideologically driven, with Dr. Mkandawire observes “if one were to summarize the key experience of policy- little understanding of the realities. He also posed the question as to “why African making during adjustment and globalization period, it would be by saying that it has been Governments succumb to the external influences, without resistance?” Answering his emptied of developmental objectives as the focus has been on stabilization and financial own question, he mentioned some of the inter-related factors, focusing on their sector concerns to the neglect of the ‘real’ economy”. There is now increasing impact on vulnerability and loss of ownership of African states. These he said recognition that external factors have aggravating African crisis, and those initial contributed to two-decades of weakening of the state to significantly address conditions under which African economies embarked on adjustment strategies made development issues. He summarized the factors as follows: adjustments a particularly difficult task for the states. Slow down in late 70s had already started to weaken the states’ ability to manage By the end of the 90s, the series of reforms under SAP had brought about little positive and their own credibility in the eyes of their peoples; change. Even the few gains registered tended to be of one-off character, reflecting Both the gains of earlier periods and ideology that drove the state machinery had switches from domestic to foreign markets with little increase in overall output. covered up the existing weakness of the states; Response to de-industrialization under the proposed reforms saw a shift to the service The states used the impositions of the Bretton Woods Institutions to shield them sector, but without little change in employment. It is because of this that the two decades from addressing the demands of the local bourgeoisie to be accountable to the of adjustments came to be referred to as the ‘lost development decades’ for Africa. people. This was a potential confrontation between state and civil society, which was averted by the inflow of external resources their succumbing to the terms and Dr. Mkandawire noted a term that comes to mind in speaking of Africa’s economy and impositions used to explain their lack of accountability to the public and their loss globalization is ‘marginalization’. He argues that this is a misuse of the term as Africa of control. is part of the global economy. African countries export cocoa, peanuts, coffee and other Erosion of state power continued with the preoccupation of technocrats and primary goods. The issue is the terms of trade and benefits African states get from their bureaucrats with the requirements of lending agencies, with no time for reflection integration into the global economy. and long-term development work. States marginalizing the intellectual community, preventing the emergence of any As for the current preoccupation with Poverty Reduction Strategy (PRS), which credible alternative power contender; introduces poverty as an agenda, analysts feel that this assumes that ‘all is well’ and that Further weakening for African States came in the form of elites leaving the public the only thing that is needed is PRS. It, however, fails to look at the overall picture, such sector for private sector and/or leaving the country, causing brain drain. as the loss of ownership of African states. Here, Dr. Mkandawire remarked on the Lack of trust and hopelessness resulted in brain drain and capital flight bizarre situation where African states, having been forced to take the back seat, are now contributing to further loss of ‘ownership’ and control by African states over the being invited to attend ‘ownership’ (stakeholders’) meetings by the World Bank. He affairs of their countries. noted that from the developmental perspective, globalization will be judged by its effects

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to crisis. on economic development and the eradication of poverty.

Dr. Mkandawire underlined the challenge of redefining development, to consider all In developing countries the test for any international order remains whether it facilitates aspects of human needs, calling for a holistic approach, respecting and responding to the economic development, which entails both economic growth and structural fundamental values and norms that are meaningful to the communities that CS serves. He transformation. In the case of Africa, Dr. Mkandawire argues this promise has yet to be emphasized that engaging the state in dialogue to address the broader issue of democracy realized. The policies designed to “integrate” Africa into the global economy have failed and peoples’ empowerment (inclusive development) should be integral to CS functions. because they have completely sidestepped the developmental needs of the continent. Consequently, they have not thus far led to higher rates of growth and, their ‘labeling notwithstanding’, have not induced structural transformation. Conceptualization and Further Exploration By Dr. Berhanu Nega, Discussant To illustrate his point he briefly looked at the two channels - trade and investment - through which the benefits of globalization are supposed to be transmitted to developing Dr. Berhanu, President of Ethiopian Economics Association, picked up some of the countries. issues addressed by Dr. Mkandawire and explored additional issues thus setting the scene for plenary discussion of the day’s sessions. Trade Though there are obvious gains from increased exchange with the rest of the world, • He divided Africa’s post colonial development into three phases – 1965 to mid 70 developing countries have to adopt specific measures to benefit from such exchange. which is referred to as ‘the honeymoon period’, late 70 and the 80s and 90s and African countries have sought to diversify their export base to benefit from international beyond. Agreeing with Dr. Mkandawire, he cautioned that analysis of African trade. However, for years, integration into a highly unequal economic order has been development should include both internal and external factors to better understand problematic, characterized by unfavorable terms of trade for their primary commodities. the continent’s situation. African states failed to reap the benefits of their entry into the global process for many reasons. Demands on them to adopt specific measures, the decline in world demand for • He remarked that even when there was massive development intervention and primary commodities, devaluation of their currencies, rising costs of energy, debt, states doing well from the development perspective, there were hidden asymmetry in access to technology, etc. made it impossible to realize the promised gains weaknesses in state accountability to the people. Personalized authoritarian from international trade. That is, despite increases in production and exports by African leaders ‘owned’ the national resources and decisions on path of development. states, they have not been able to gain fair price for these to enable them afford the There was more emphasis on political stability than on people’s participation. import of essential goods and services to sustain productivity and development.

• Capital flight increased because of lack of trust and tension between the business Investment and the ruling elite. Dr. Mkandawire notes that foreign investment is another issue that has gone not as expected for many African countries. Funding for Africa has dried up. When financial • Industry did account for the initial increase in growth. There was expectation of institutions collapsed, some African states went looking for help, incurring more debts to diversification, but after the major external shocks of the 70s, it was not possible sustain their investments. Some critiques say ‘Africa went asking for bread but got to sustain the manufacturing sector. Some governments therefore had to resort to stones’. The ideal capital with direct investment brings technology and management massive borrowing to manage development thus incurring additional debts at skills along with it. Unfortunately, some specific sector policies, or even specific sub- higher interest rates. Since the business of nation building was not complete, the sectors within a sector, have not been able to address this. African states have continued fragile African institutions were vulnerable to external shock. to be constrained by the prevailing global economic dispensation, which is characterized by preferential treatment of one region over the other. • Economic growth took place under one-party or military rule where power was concentrated in small, educated elite, which became divorced from the World Bank’s portrayal of African states as corrupt and incapable of running their affairs, population. There was complete lack of consultation with the people thus even when ownership of their ‘affairs’ has been long taken over by external forces, has eroding any chance of state accountability to citizens. continued to prevail to the detriment of the Continent. The very few external investors that have ventured into some of the countries have tended to be ‘fly by night investors, • Loss of legitimacy of the state in the eyes of the people was also accompanied by with no long-term prospects. loss of control of the state as it succumbed to external influence. States also came to use this imposition as an excuse for their failure to account to their peoples. Privatization of public enterprise have not fared that well. The case of privatization of

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What can be done? Zambia’s mines, which were then abandoned and eventually re-purchased by the State, is Dr. Mkandawire’s gave some suggestions on alternative w ay out for Africa, one bizarre situation. underscoring that it is about time that we realie ze that the future of the Continent is in the hands of Africans. Self-reliance through the mobilization and management the African states are now expected to pay attention to increasing number of issues and continent’s human and material resources, and reduce external dependency, is the key to comply with ‘good governance’, responsibility for infrastructure development, etc. It is the future. The question is where to get the Capital to develop our natural and human interesting that African states are now required to ‘take responsibility’. The current focus resources for self-owned development? is almost entirely on internal determinants of performance – economic policies, governance, rent seeking, ethnic diversity, etc. Dr. Mkandawire made two proposals for attracting capital: (1) to reverse capital flight, and (2) attract back the capital that is in western countries. Africans living and investing Reversal of Africa’s brain drain and capital flight feature in the continent’s ability to take outside the continent would need incentives that an appropriate domestic policy could advantage of trade and investment channels of globalization. A substantial percentage of guarantee. The excitement of returning home which was prevalent in the 60s and 70s the resources of Africans is invested, ‘in safe keeping’, in the USA and even Asian need to be resurrected, with incentives that are firmly grounded in trust and confidence in countries. Sample country studies on capital flight give startling information in that ‘far the home environment. Trust and confidence are critical in the light of some experiences from being heavily indebted, many sub-Saharan African countries are net creditor’s vis-à- from African countries. One can recall the experience of Zaire where the government’s vis the rest of the world’. These studies reveal that external assets (capital flight to promise of amnesty for an individual who came back home with his capital but hung developed countries) exceed external debts of African countries (what is owed to upon arrival. The need for appropriate policy is also critical learning from the Tanzanian developed countries). Africans’ lack of trust and confidence in their governments and/or experience where investment by returnees resulted in flooding the domestic market with resources obtained through corruption are transferred to the developed countries for ‘safe imported goods. keeping’, thus depriving Africa of much needed resources for development. In this connection, the experiences of Botswana and Mauritius, which provide political Dr. Mkandawire observes the interesting situation that while analysis in the “pre- and economic stability conducive for investments by the Diaspora, are worth noting. globalization” period took the impact of external factors on economic growth seriously, the era of globalization has tended to concentrate almost exclusively on internal The current skepticism and cynicism associated with development ‘partnership’ (where determinants of economic performance. He noted that increasingly the World Bank’s Washington consensus, World Bank approval, is obtained for policies prepared by new solutions suggest that there is little to be done by way of reform on the economic African technocrats schooled in the model of the international financial institutions, with front. It’s most recent study, “Can Africa Claim the 21st Century?” (2000) speaks a little control by the governments). Such cynicism and lack of trust are harmful to much more subdued and less optimistic tone. He points that after more than two decades development cooperation. of adjustment the Bretton Woods Institute have not succeed to place African economies back on track. NGOs who receive funding form international sources and filling gaps need to go beyond projects and see the larger picture. They need to move beyond ‘projecticization’ and link There is now an admission that policies of the past have not worked. The new agenda is the micro to the macro and have national, regional and global vision. Very few of these much eclectic and more a reflection of confusion and loss of faith than the discovery of and their partners look into the larger picture / issues or work to make the linkag ewith coherent “comprehensive policy frame work”. The additional set of reforms / conditions the external environment. are largely of a more political and institutional character – good governance, participation of and consultation with civil society, democracy, etc. African states are now required to Dr. Mkandawire argues that Africa needs stro ng state sthat can negotiate terms with come up with ‘comprehensive policy framework which, interestingly, sounds like the development partners. But there is also a critical role for the civil society in Africa. development plans they were following in the 60s. There is now increasing interest in the role of civil societies. However, there is also the mistaken notion that now that the state is weak, we need civil society. Civil society does Dr. Mkandawire remarked that now that dependence on external factors and interference not and cannot substitute for state, nor would the former be strong because of the in the internal affairs of African countries, by external actors, are most transparent and weakness of the latter. most humiliating, and the situation remains untheorized. Theories that sought to relate Africa’s economies to external factors have been discredited, abandoned or, at best, on States should provide space for the growth of civil society. Civil society should engage the defensive. with state in constructive dialogue and collaborate in promoting democracy. CS have moral obligation to make the state respond to peoples rights and needs through their advocacy work which should be central to their role. CS should accept that people have rights and be guided by rights based logic. CS advocacy role should go beyond response

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