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Geoscience Canada

Robert J. Chalmers: Pioneer Surficial Geologist Ian A. Brookes

Volume 35, Number 3-4, December 2008 Article abstract Most Quaternary geologists working in Atlantic Canada view Robert J. URI: https://id.erudit.org/iderudit/geocan35_3_4art01 Chalmers’ investigations of the surficial geology of New Brunswick for the Geological Survey of Canada (GSC) as seminal contributions. Yet, the fullest See table of contents biographical information available for Chalmers is a 7-page typescript by E.R. Faribault of the GSC, held at Natural Resources Canada Library in Ottawa. Therefore, it appeared necessary to bring Chalmers’ little-known life, and the Publisher(s) variety of his surficial geologic investigations, into the mainstream. Lists of Chalmers’ published works in GSC reports and in periodicals are compiled The Geological Association of Canada from all available sources.

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Cite this article Brookes, I. A. (2008). Robert J. Chalmers:: Pioneer Surficial Geologist. Geoscience Canada, 35(3-4), 127–136.

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This article is disseminated and preserved by Érudit. Érudit is a non-profit inter-university consortium of the Université de Montréal, Université Laval, and the Université du Québec à Montréal. Its mission is to promote and disseminate research. https://www.erudit.org/en/ GEOSCIENCE CANADA Volume 35 Numbers 3/4 September/December 2008 127

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naire au Canada atlantique voient les requested when the lack of a biogra- études de Robert J. Chalmers sur ‘la phy was noticed by the GSC, a dozen géologie en surface’ de Nouveau or more years after Chalmers’ death, or Brunswick pour le Commission that it was written unsolicited by a géologique du Canada comme des close colleague as a post-mortem mark of ouevres séminales. Mais, l’information respect. That Chalmers’ death long biographique le plus pleine de went unremarked officially at the GSC Chalmers est un texte bref dactylo- might have been due to the administra- graphié par E.R. Faribault du CGC, tive turmoil surrounding the unseating tenue à la bibliothèque du Départe- of Robert Bell as Acting-Director in ment des Richesses naturelles canadi- 1906, installation of A.P. Low in his Robert J. Chalmers: enne à Ottawa. Donc, il apparait néces- place, Low’s incapacitating illness, and saire à porter au premier plan sa vie R.W. Brock’s succession in 1908, the Pioneer Surficial Geologist mal-connue, et le variété de ses oeu- year Chalmers died. vres. Aussi, listes des oeuvres de This contribution presents essential biographical information on Ian A. Brookes Chalmers pour le CGC et dans les journaux scientifiques sont ici présen- R.J. Chalmers (drawing mainly on Geography Department tent des sources disponsible. Faribault’s typescript), outlines his pri- York University mary contributions to surficial geology, Toronto, ON, Canada, M3J 1P3 INTRODUCTION and includes lists of his publications as E-mail: [email protected] Robert J. Chalmers (1833-1908) is well complete as available sources permit. recognized and often cited for his pio- SUMMARY neering work on the surficial geology BIOGRAPHY Most Quaternary geologists working in of New Brunswick for the Geological Chalmers was born 31 December, Atlantic Canada view Robert J. Survey of Canada (GSC), work he also 1833 at Belledune, Gloucester County, Chalmers’ investigations of the surfi- contributed to the journals of Ameri- New Brunswick, on the south shore of cial geology of New Brunswick for the can, Canadian, and local scientific soci- Baie des Chaleurs, the only son of Geological Survey of Canada (GSC) as eties, and which spans the period 1881- Robert Chalmers and his wife, Jean seminal contributions. Yet, the fullest 19071. In spite of this recognition, (née MacAllister), who also bore him a biographical information available for biographical information is scarce. In a sister. He was schooled locally, but did Chalmers is a 7-page typescript by E.R. seven-page typescript held at the not go to college. Adept at Botany and Faribault of the GSC, held at Natural Library of Natural Resources Canada, Mathematics, he trained as a teacher in Resources Canada Library in Ottawa. Ottawa, E.R. Faribault of the GSC Saint John, and then taught mostly at Therefore, it appeared necessary to sketched Chalmers’ life and work Campbellton, 100 km northwest of his bring Chalmers’ little-known life, and (Faribault O-1924). Faribault, who home. After teaching for about ten the variety of his surficial geologic studied under Abbé LaFlamme at l’U- years, in 1860 he journeyed to Califor- investigations, into the mainstream. niversité Laval, worked for the GSC, nia, where he was Headmaster at Oak- Lists of Chalmers’ published works in mainly in Nova Scotia, from 1882- land Grammar School. He returned GSC reports and in periodicals are 1932. According to Zaslow (O-1975), home during the Civil War, but crossed compiled from all available sources. Faribault was by then the longest serv- the continent again shortly after the ing field geologist in the Survey’s histo- war ended. SOMMAIRE ry. The unofficial form and brevity of Returning to New Brunswick, La plupart des géologues du Quater- this typescript suggest either that it was Chalmers became Head of Campbell-

1 Note that author citation in the Bibliography and References section is divided into “G” for Chalmers’ GSC reports, “P” for Chalmers’ periodical articles and abstracts, and “O” for references to other authors. 128 ton schools, and then engaged in news- (Chalmers P-1881, 1883a, 1883b), each there, and had given birth to their first paper work at Saint John, probably concerning Chalmers’ home area, the child, a girl, who died soon after, which around 1880. Even before he moved to latter (Chalmers P-1883b) for the inau- slowed his progress on a report for Saint John, however, Chalmers was an gural meeting in May 1882 of the Bailey, apparently on the previous active member of the Natural History Royal Society of Canada. Both Bailey year’s topographical surveys; there is Society of New Brunswick, where he and G.F. Mathew were among the much in these letters to Bailey devoted continued as committee member and founding Fellows of the Society and to altitudes and their reliability. lecturer until he moved to Ottawa in had close relations with Chalmers, both As for Chalmers’ contact with the late 1880s. It is not clear how his in field-work and with the provincial the GSC in Ottawa, he does not newspaper work dovetailed with assist- Natural History Society, to which appear in city directories until 1888-89, ing two field geologists mapping in Chalmers contributed administratively from which time until 1893-94 he New Brunswick, namely the GSC’s and lectured on his surficial geology lodged annually at 129 Bank, 92 Met- Wallace Broad in 1882, and Loring Bai- work. We may therefore suppose that, calfe, 188 Queen, and 214 Gloucester ley of the University of New as Chalmers was not a Fellow, one of Streets. From this we may suppose Brunswick (a long-term summer them arranged a place for him in the that, for the first ten years on the GSC employee of GSC) in 1883. He was in program of papers. Concerned with permanent staff, he maintained a his 49th year when he married Elizabeth the action of shore-ice around Baie des household in New Brunswick, and in Chalmers (relation, if any, unknown), Chaleurs, his paper was read (appropri- the last four years lodged at Ottawa with whom he fathered four children. ately) by J.W. Dawson. during the winter while he wrote Little of Chalmers’ correspon- In a letter to Bailey, Chalmers’ reports and oversaw drafting. In 1895- dence survives; enquiries revealed only mentions reading a newspaper “contain- 96 and 1896-97 he is listed as a home- three letters to Professor Loring Bailey ing some strictures on the Director.” This owner at 72 College St. (now gone), at Fredericton, dated January and April refers to the report of a Parliamentary and from 1898-99 as a homeowner at 1884. These letters are held by the committee which that Spring had 243 Chapel St., where he died. [For New Brunswick Museum, part of the investigated concerns being voiced Ottawa city directories see www.collec- W.F. Ganong Collection, File 476, and about the effectiveness of the GSC as tionscanada.gc.ca/canadiandirectories/ are dated 1 and 22 January, and 22 an engine of mineral exploration and index-e.html]. April, 1884. The Ganong Collection discovery (Canada, Parliament O- While in Ottawa, Chalmers also contains brief biographical notes 1884). Little by way of hard recom- was able to discuss surficial geology compiled from an interview conducted mendations resulted from the, in parts, with colleagues, including George by GSC colleague W.J. Wilson rancorous testimonies to this commit- Dawson (Director from 1895, deceased (palaeobotanist) with Chalmers’ wife tee, some of which slighted Selwyn’s 1901), Robert Bell (Acting Director shortly after his death (Ganong Biogra- leadership, except the necessity to from 1901), Albert Low, James phy Scrapbook F358 – 36, 37, 38). focus efforts aimed at faster, fuller, and Macoun (botanist), Richard These notes mostly lack dates, and one more useful reports of activities. The McConnell, and Joseph Tyrrell is erroneous. appointment of Chalmers might be (resigned 1899). In his final year at the The Chalmers–Bailey letters seen partly as a response to this by the Survey (1906-07) Chalmers’ annual mainly concern topographical work Survey. Other appointments made that salary was $1950, which reflected his that Chalmers had done for Bailey the year or the next were McEvoy, White, 23 years of service. Within $100 of previous summer, in York and Char- Lawson, and Brumell (Zaslow O- salary and one year’s service of this lotte counties, southwest New 1975); perhaps enough to appear as a were Ami, Barlow, Ells, Faribault, and Brunswick. He thanks Bailey for rec- minor flurry of hiring. McInnes, while the longer-serving Bell, ommending him to GSC Director Sel- From the beginning, in Fletcher, Hoffman, Ingall, Low, Jas. wyn, and mentions having travelled to Chalmers’ GSC reports, his geological Macoun, McConnell, and Whiteaves Ottawa, probably in March, 1884. He terminology and concerns are recog- earned $2400–$3000. had not subsequently heard from Sel- nized. More than a century after they Chalmers probably met Farib- wyn about an appointment, but expect- were made, the familiarity of his repre- ault soon after he was hired by the Sur- ed to do so with the approach of sum- sentations and interpretations is vey, and it seems from Faribault’s biog- mer, when he hoped to be engaged in remarkable, considering he lacked for- raphical notes, that they got to know mapping surficial geology. We know, of mal training. Providing background for each other quite well. Faribault course, that he gained the position this involves some uncertainty, but at described Chalmers (Figure 1) as: with the GSC, and from the title and least gives some direction to other “short, a bit stout, but strong and date of his first report (Chalmers G- probes. His letters to Bailey show that capable of excursions on foot with- 1885), that his first work for the Sur- Chalmers was living in Saint John early out apparent fatigue. Mentally and vey was in western New Brunswick in in 1884, perhaps to be close to a morally he showed somewhat strong- the summer of 1884, following inde- library and colleagues. Discussions ly his Lowland Scottish descent, his pendently from the work he had done were possible there with Bailey, R.W. morals being Calvinistic and his there for Bailey in 1883. Faribault’s Ells, Faribault, and Matthew, each an mentality of more than average typescript notes three papers Chalmers active Maritime geologist, domiciled in quality. He was tenacious, even to published previously in periodicals the region. His wife was also with him stubbornness, of acquired knowl- GEOSCIENCE CANADA Volume 35 Numbers 3/4 September/December 2008 129

Although enquiries have yielded no record of the occasion, Loring Bailey, then head of the UNB Geology Department, probably was his sponsor. Faribault transcribed newspa- per notices of Chalmers death on 9 April, 1908; the cause, “heart failure, the result of a general breaking-up of the system, at his home at 243 Chapel St., Ottawa.” The previous autumn he had been working in the St. Lawrence valley, so it appears that his health deteriorated over the winter. Following a service in Ottawa, his body was taken by train to Belledune, to be buried in the family plot.

SURFICIAL GEOLOGY

New Brunswick Chalmers began mapping for the GSC in western New Brunswick (Chalmers G-1885), probably the region of the province characterized by the most complex surficial geology; this area is traversed by the Saint John River valley, where more was involved than the sim- ple distinction of tills and tracing of glacier movements. The valley con- tained terraces marking proglacial areas, and ice-marginal zones with complex depositional patterns separat- ing simpler environments of glacial, glaciofluvial, and glaciolacustrine sedi- mentation. Chalmers classified topo- graphical features as, i) moraines, ii) till (eschewing the traditional ‘boulder clay’), iii) lake basins, iv) kames and gravel ridges (the first use of the term ‘kame’ in Canada), and v) terraces of Figure 1. Robert J. Chalmers, ca. 1900, aged ca. 66. Original is a gelatine silver the Saint John River. What makes this print, mounted on card 22.6 X 17.5 cm., studio of A.G. Pittaway, 58 Sparks St., report such a remarkable opening to Ottawa. New Brunswick Museum Archives, Saint John, NB; William Francis Chalmers’ corpus is his use of section Ganong Collection, Accession number 1987.17.506. diagrams of kames and terraces, the first to illustrate a GSC report, pre- edge and opinion, a quality helped “the following appreciation is fur- sumably drawn from river and railway by a retentive memory. Though nished by his daughter Annie J. cuts. quiet, he was an entertaining talker Chalmers, who is employed in the Chalmers’ second GSC report and good companion. His chosen office of the Consul of the Nether- (Chalmers G-1886), rather than dealing branch[es] of science, botany and lands at Vancouver: ‘He was a with a region, deals in broad terms mathematics, were his principal man of considerable mental capaci- with the surficial geology of the entire hobbies and his amusements were ty, possessing a remarkable memory, province. Clearly, then, he had become limited pretty well to his own fire- and in addition to his scientific familiar with it earlier, through his side. He had no particular politics. attainments, was a keen mathemati- work as assistant to Broad (in 1882) If anything, he was a Conservative. cian. In his younger days he was an and Bailey (in 1883), and also prior to Adherent of the Presbyterian ardent botanist.’” his association with the GSC, when, Church.” In 1902, after 18 years on during summers, he was free to travel Most of these traits are best GSC permanent staff, Chalmers was and familiarize himself with published understood as those of a man past honoured by the University of New works. There were also papers on surfi- middle-age. Faribault continued: Brunswick with the LL.D. degree. cial geology in New Brunswick (Math- 130 ew O-1872a, b) that would have alerted highlands and/or from unidentified southward, with most showing depar- him to locations for visits and checks. igneous ‘bosses’ in the northern New ture to the east, and some to the west, In this overview report, he had already Brunswick highlands, but there were by up to 600. East of Saint John and concluded that the main ice-flow direc- no definitely foreign boulders. falling steeply to the Bay of Fundy, the tions in the province were, i) north and Deposits were classified, as in Caledonia upland was striated, but east, and ii) south and southwest, from other reports of his, as i) M1 - till, hosted no erratics. Glacial deposits a divide roughly along that between the moraines, and erratics; ii) M2 - ice-con- were dealt with in more detail than in Saint John River and the Gulf of St. tact kames and proglacial and post- other regional reports, perhaps because Lawrence, while declining glaciation glacial river terraces, marine Leda Clay better exposures made them more saw more variable flows from “a num- and Saxicava Sand, the latter found in accessible to observation. Rock-cored ber of smaller glaciers” (Chalmers G- thicknesses up to ~ 200 feet (61 m); or drumlins were noted in the southwest, 1886, p. 32GG). Horizontal, paired ter- iii) M3 - recent ‘alluvions’ and lake sed- but Chalmers’ description reminds one races showed that a lake had flooded iments, and beach and saltmarsh more of crag-and-tail features. Kames, the Saint John valley between Grand deposits. On the derivation of the till, again, demanded full treatment; four Falls and Edmundston, while to the Chalmers followed convention in types were classified: i) accumulations south, terraces above the river sloped ascribing it to glacial modification of associated with glacier margins, some south and were often unpaired, so pre-glacial regolith (Chalmers P-1898). possibly morainic, mainly in highlands; appeared to be fluvial in origin. Shells In this later paper he concluded that ii) terraces around lake margins, some in marine ‘Saxicava Sand’ and ‘Leda the regolith, often several tens of feet hummocky (kettled?); iii) valley kames Clay’ around the coastal fringe, identi- thick, had survived because the Lau- and terrace residuals; and iv) marine fied by GSC’s Whiteaves, indicated a rentide ice-sheet had not invaded New kames, which would later become sub-arctic climate. Subsequent reports Brunswick. Recognition of till as known as emerged glacier-marginal by Chalmers on New Brunswick glacially transported regolith could be deltas. Marine submergence at the appear as elaborations of these conclu- seen as an effect of the low erosive Fundy shore attained ~220 feet (67 m), sions, with copious records of field power of small separate ice masses, but tracing it up the Saint John valley observations. which he said ‘slid’ slowly over the was problematic. Chalmers appeared In this report we also decayed rock. puzzled at not finding marine cliffs encounter, in a section on Grand Lake, Similar broad conclusions associated with submergence, which the only poetic expression Chalmers were reached in Chalmers’ third report, later works would recognize as evi- allowed himself in his entire corpus: on northeastern New Brunswick dence of rapid deglacial emergence. He “The numerous islets and head- (Chalmers G-1888), focusing on the did not mention any influence of the lands, narrow, intricate passages district south of Chaleur Bay. Again, Bay of Fundy on glacier flow; in fact, and deep inlets expanding into no ‘foreign’ (Laurentide) boulders were the most southerly striae in the south broad sheets of water, the dark evident; ice-flow had been centripetal showed an easterly, rather than wester- green slopes of the surrounding towards the bay. Additionally, he noted, ly, component. Explanation of this hills, rising with sweeping outlines as he had previously in a periodical emerges from an important conclusion 400-600 feet above – all combine (Chalmers P-1883b), that boulders at of the final New Brunswick report, to form some of the most diversified the submerging coast of the bay were discussed next. views in New Brunswick. The wild- being moved by shore-ice, a phenome- In the report on eastern New ness and solitude of the scenes also non he was prepared to give space to Brunswick, northwest Nova Scotia, lend them a particular charm, the in most of his reports. and part of Prince Edward Island, only sound the voyager hears day Avoiding the neighbouring Chalmers (G-1892a, b, 1893, 1894, after day being the weird cry of the (but less accessible) Northumberland 1895a, b) again devoted space to pre- loon which frequents them.” Strait hinterland, the more open, set- glacial denudation, the topic arising (Chalmers G-1886, p. 17GG) tled country of southern New from the physiography of the Cobe- The second regional report on Brunswick was mapped next, stretch- quid Mountains, where evidence point- the province was for northern New ing from St. Stephen on the Maine ed to the same conclusions as reached Brunswick and adjacent southeast border to Shediac on the Gulf of St. for the Caledonia Hills in the previous Québec (Chalmers G-1887). Here, he Lawrence (Chalmers G-1890a, b). report. His conclusions here on was quick to note that evidence of ice Here, the upland east of Saint John “upheavals” depart the most from flow from north of the St. Lawrence (known as the Caledonia Hills) drew those we credit today. Chalmers appar- estuary was lacking. Along the Gaspé attention to pre-glacial denudation his- ently viewed them as a continuation of shore, striae indicated only south-to- tory. He concluded that in the Tertiary the tectonics that had deformed the north ice flow from the Notre Dame period the Fundy shore and hinterland bedrock, rather than those effecting Mountains, while along the St. had stood much higher than present, post-glacial emergence at the coast. Lawrence, striae recorded flow either leading to incision of valleys, but no This “confusion” might have arisen to or from the northeast. In New explanation was offered for the level from the inability, itself arising from Brunswick, striae were directed east- upland surface. the lack of a chronology, to distinguish ward, toward Baie des Chaleurs. Crys- All glacial striae over the i) movements deforming the bedrock; talline erratics were from the Gaspé southern region were directed generally ii) uplift leading to river incision into GEOSCIENCE CANADA Volume 35 Numbers 3/4 September/December 2008 131 uplands; and iii) deglacial emergence. report, showing the extent and flow who both argued for Laurentide glacia- Some rationale for this misapprehen- directions of former glaciers in the tion as documented in their home sion might lie in Chalmers’ recognition Gaspé Peninsula and the Maritime region. In Nova Scotia, Goldthwait of tectonic offset of striae on glacier- provinces. With no evidence, except also observed erratics of South Moun- smoothed surfaces, which mimics from the Magdalens, on which to base tain granite on basaltic North Moun- structures produced in bedrock by even speculation on their offshore tain, but made nothing of them. It was much earlier tectonics. On the other extent, Chalmers’ map showed glacier more than 60 years after Chalmers’ last hand, Chalmers left no doubt of his limits at or close to the present coasts report on New Brunswick that Hickox opposition to what is today known as of New Brunswick, Prince Edward (O-1962) revived Chalmers’ interpreta- glacio-isostasy (Chalmers G-1896a, p. Island and Québec. Ice had crossed tion, proposing a late-glacial ice-cap 42M-43M). Northumberland Strait, but did not isolated over western peninsular Nova On glaciation, Chalmers (G- extend far off the outer coast of PEI. Scotia, which he explained by growth 1896a) listed over 300 striae readings, Even around Baie des Chaleurs and of a calving bay in the ice-front reced- ten percent of which he ascribed to Bay of Fundy, the ice margin traced ing up the Bay of Fundy. shore-ice (but his photograph of the the coastline fairly closely, even though In this final report on New latter, Plate IV, facing page 81M, is def- Chalmers (G-1888) had previously Brunswick, Chalmers (G-1895b) initely mistaken). No moraines or noted the former bay as a focus of gla- allowed himself broader considerations drumlins were identified, so the section cier movements around it. Clearly, this of the causes of glaciation. He granted on glacial deposits is devoted to an is where a present-day reader needs to the combined influences of local expanded discussion of kames and be wary of modern interpretation of topography, “upheavals”, and lowered ‘osars’ (eskers). Some of Chalmers’ ear- early observation; it would be quite temperatures, but felt that these must lier descriptions of kames, in the other natural for a present-day reader to infer have been governed by “general or cosmic districts of the province remind one of that Chalmers meant that the Baie des influences as to affect simultaneously the whole eskers, so that his kames category Chaleurs had ‘drawn-down’ ice-flow circumpolar and north temperate regions of might be seen as a broad one, into toward it. That Chalmers showed no the earth during Pleistocene time, otherwise which some eskers and perhaps some glacier in the bay, means that he glacial conditions cannot have occurred syn- minor moraines were grouped. regarded the influence only as topo- chronously in both hemispheres or even on Chalmers’ classification needs to be graphic, not glacio-dynamic. As a gen- both continents” (Chalmers G-1895, p. seen in light of contemporary confu- eral point, with the notable exception 108M-109M). sion of terminology. Osar was recog- of Logan (O-1847), reports on glacial nized at the time as a Swedish term geology in Canada showed little appre- Québec imported to describe long, sinuous, ciation of the dynamical behaviour of Chalmers’ major report on surficial gravelly ridges, whereas ‘esker’ was the glaciers, until Bell’s (O-1890) startlingly geology in Québec was that which also English transliteration of the Irish ‘eis- apposite analogy of erosional micro- dealt with gold-bearing unconsolidated cir’ for such features, and ‘kame’ was a forms on granite at Killarney, Ontario, sediments (Chalmers G-1898). He con- Gaelic term, also rarely spelt ‘kaim’, comparing them to “… plastic ducted an exhaustive review of the meaning ‘comb’, as in ‘cockscomb’. clay...stroked by the hand” (p. 291), and previous literature on regional gold This was a long, narrow, steep-sided broader landscapes to sculptures pro- occurrences in the Québec Appalachi- ridge, and therefore similar to esker, duced by “land ice acting as a plastic fluid” ans, whether worked or not, and but kame was used in Lowland Scots (p. 292). worked previously or actively, from more generally to signify irregular grav- Chalmers (G-1895) also made Logan (O-1852) to Ells (O-1890). elly and sandy hills, including eskers, some detailed observations in peninsu- In Québec, south of the St. deltas built into proglacial lakes and lar Nova Scotia, not just in the area Lawrence, Chalmers listed almost 100 seas, and other ice-contact features. adjoining his New Brunswick studies. stations where striae were assigned to Robert Bell had experienced related He had measured northwest-directed an Appalachian glacier complex. Striae terminological confusion (Bell O-1898) striae on North Mountain, which bor- at 300 stations indicating south- and when he tried to introduce such terms ders the north side of the Annapolis– southwest-moving Laurentide ice were (e.g. till, osar) into the section on Super- Cornwallis lowland, and had concluded recorded only upstream of Québec ficial Geology he wrote for Logan’s that peninsular Nova Scotia had sup- City, extending to the Thousand ‘Geology of Canada’ (Logan O-1863) ported another “local” glacier that had Islands. On the basis of apparent (see also Note 1 at end of text). moved over North Mountain, thus weathering of north-directed striae In this eastern region of the conforming to his “multi-centred” con- crossed by south-directed ones, province, Chalmers (G-1895) included ception of (at least the “final”) glacia- Chalmers (G-1898) concluded that the a section on the deposits and land- tion in New Brunswick. earliest glaciation of the region had forms of the Magdalen Islands, which The concept of local glacier been by an “Appalachian system of he concluded had remained free of divides was to suffer much in later glaciers” (a term that he introduced in glaciers. Foreign boulders were studies, particularly by New Englanders earlier journal correspondence; ascribed to floe-ice transport. This such as Goldthwait (O-1924) in Nova Chalmers P-1890), with a “nevé” doubtless influenced greatly his region- Scotia and Flint (O-1951) over the (divide) roughly over the crest of the al map, included in the body of this wider region of Appalachian America, range. This glaciation was succeeded by 132 invasion of the St. Lawrence valley and Great Lakes once found outlet by the Mat- action of floating ice” (Chalmers Appalachians by an “early Laurentide” tawa-Ottawa valley is a question which P-1895, p. 273). glacier, which, however, did not reach appears to the writer to require further So objectionable did he find the region southeast of Québec City detailed investigation” (Chalmers G-1898, p. Upham’s paper that, compared to earli- (roughly east of the Chaudière River). 63J). F.B. Taylor had investigated this er impressions, a Chalmers entirely dif- Farther south, this ice did move east question during the previous several ferent, temperamentally and intellectu- into the upper Saint John River valley, years, and also discussed the origin of ally, emerged a few months after across it and into northern New the Mattawa valley boulders (Taylor O- Upham’s paper appeared, as expressed Brunswick, where Chalmers’ earlier 1897). thus: work had convinced him of invasion Another case of a glacially “…on whose authority has he by ice from the west, bringing no Lau- dammed lake in this region had been [Upham] reversed the courses of rentide erratics. On the Appalachian proposed by Upham (O-1895a), who the striae there [along the lower St. slope west of the Chaudière, gold had drew isochrones on the margin of the Lawrence], those being shown on been known to occur in stratified sands Laurentide ice sheet as he envisaged it Sir William Dawson’s map [Daw- and gravels in major valleys, underlain retreating northeastward across the St. son O-1894, p. 150] as pointing and overlain by till (e.g. Logan O-1852; Lawrence valley and the bordering southwestward and are supposed to Ells O-1890). Chalmers pondered the highlands. These ice margins were have been produced by floating ice origin of these stratified sediments – undated, but Upham gave them stage moving up the valley? … No lacus- were they marine, glacio-lacustrine, names. Upham then goes on to state trine deposits have been found any- non-glacial lacustrine or fluvial, or the that: where in the St. Lawrence valley products of subaerial base-levelling of “Earlier than that time of occupa- beneath the [Champlain Sea] the regional terrain? He specifically dis- tion of the depressed broad [St. Leda Clay” [Chalmers P-1895, counted the glacio-lacustrine option, Lawrence] valley by the sea, it was p. 274]. on the basis of what he saw as an filled from Lake Ontario to near I have noted above that unlikely pattern of deglaciation in such Quebec, by a great glacial lake, held Chalmers was usually willing to devote terrain. He preferred a marine origin on its northeast side by the retreat- some space, where relevant, to the for those sediments occurring at an ing continental ice-sheet.....the latest action of shore-ice, but nothing pre- elevation comparable to known marine remnant of the ice barrier blockad- pares one for this apparently wholesale sediments around the St. Lawrence ing this valley was melted away in endorsement of J.W. Dawson’s half- lowland. For sediments higher in the the neighborhood of Quebec, then century-long belief in the ‘Drift Theo- Appalachian valleys he reserved judg- admitting the sea to a large, low ry’, at least as it applied to striae. ment. region westward. Until this barrier Chalmers maintained this view into his Evidence from striae and was removed, a glacial lake, which last years, as shown by more detailed stossing of rock knobs indicated a sec- here for convenience of description assertions in Chalmers (G-1906b, p. ond Laurentide ice advance moving up and citation, is designated as the 254-255). For an elegant modern treat- the St. Lawrence valley above Québec. Lake St. Lawrence, dating from ment of the entire question of glacial This was the same ice that invaded the the confluence of Lake Iroquois, events in the St. Lawrence–Ottawa Great Lakes basins, which today would and Hudson-Champlain, and grow- lowlands and the Appalachian slope, be known as Late Wisconsinan. In the ing northward and eastward, spread see Parent and Occhietti (O-1988, Eastern Townships, some higher hills over the Ottawa valley probably to 1999). showed no sign of this glaciation, the mouth of the Mattawa, and Reinforcing the role of shore- which led to introduction of the term down the St. Lawrence, as fast as ice around Gaspésie, Chalmers (G- ‘nunatak’ into the text (Chalmers G- the ice-front was melted back.” 1906b) attributed the presence of Lau- 1898, p. 53J). In this report, Chalmers (Upham O-1895a, p. 16). rentian boulders along the coast to this made prescient remarks on boulder Chalmers was not impressed. agent, and concluded that “No [glacier] accumulations (p. 60J-63J). He As for Upham’s isochrones, Chalmers ice seems to have impinged against it [the described what would today probably (P-1895) returned to his conclusion north coast of the Gaspé], or passed over it be recognized as boulder lags in the lee that no Laurentide ice had crossed the from the north, south, east or west” of Rigaud Mountain, west of Mon- St. Lawrence downstream of Québec (Chalmers G-1906b, p. 253). Present- tréal. He viewed them as local weather- City, and further, that day partial support for this observation ing products and wondered why they “the glacial phenomena on the slopes comes from Olejczyk and Gray (O- had not been swept away by the glacier. and the higher grounds seem to be 2007, p. 1603), who report only a slight This is strange, because he next refers entirely due to local sheets of land- onlap of the Laurentide Ice Sheet to similar accumulations around the ice of greater or less extent, moving against the north coast of Gaspésie. confluence of the Ottawa and in different directions on the slope Chalmers’ studies in New Gatineau rivers, and to huge ‘Shield’ facing the St. Lawrence, being Brunswick and neighbouring districts boulders in the Mattawa River valley, as mainly northward. In the bottom of in Québec appear to have provided the possibly resulting from washing of the St. Lawrence valley, however, a foundation of a later scientific edifice boulder-rich ‘Saxicava Sand’. He ven- northeast to southwest set of striae less admirable than that he built in his tured finally, “whether or not the upper occurs, which seems referable to the home province. His argument against GEOSCIENCE CANADA Volume 35 Numbers 3/4 September/December 2008 133

Upham’s glacial Lake St. Lawrence was southwest. Thus, in 1901, Chalmers the sediment of the plains to the east, based on his belief that Laurentide ice was in southwest Ontario, mainly to although it is unclear whether he had not crossed the valley to dam such supervise drilling operations for urban meant the Tertiary or the Quaternary waters. In spite of his recognition of water supply. Incidental to this work, successions. He made several observa- Laurentide ice affecting southwest and in accordance with his and Bell’s tions, including i) the occurrence of Québec, Chalmers was sceptical of gla- interests, he mapped abandoned glacial surface “boulder clay” across the plains, cial Lake Iroquois in the Lake Ontario lake shorelines (Chalmers G-1902, apparently in “streams” rather than basin. Rather than a glacial dam, 1903). He clearly had located the most sheets; ii) two boulder clays on the Chalmers preferred uplift of the Pre- prominent, which marked the extent of plains (already reported by Dawson cambrian rocks of the Frontenac Arch what later was named glacial ‘Lake and McConnell (O-1885), separated by to isolate late-glacial freshwater from Whittlesey’. This work could be seen as “interglacial” sediments; iii) potential marine water in the Brockville area, the beginning of investigations contin- sources of clay (as sources of clays, and oscillations in the arch to account ued in Ontario by F.B.Taylor from lake basins occupied notable space in for lower lake stands during its general 1908, which became best known in his writing, later to be incorporated lowering (Chalmers G-1906b, p. 252). combination with similar work in the into a retreat history of the Laurentide Harking back to his interpretation of American mid-west (Leverett and Tay- ice-margin); and iv) significant localized crustal movements in New Brunswick, lor O-1915). Tracing glacial-age shore- areas of black paludal sediments, allied he saw two other belts of “continua- lines out of the central area of the to what was generally referred to as the tion of orogenic movements”, in the peninsula between lakes Huron, Erie “black loam”, or predominant surface Monteregian alignment, and in the geo- and Ontario, Chalmers clearly made soil. logic-topographic constriction at erroneous identifications. The most Québec (Chalmers P-1904, p. 179). lamentable was his identification, in CONCLUSION Not content to plead the “inadequacy Simcoe and Dufferin counties, of a Chalmers’ surficial mapping of New of glacial dams”, tectonic influence shoreline at ~1200 feet (~365 m), Brunswick covered the entire province, was seen as sufficient explanation, which was in fact the prominent ‘Clin- and has since been appreciated as rather than the “adventitious and epi- ton-Cataract’ bedrock bench below the foundational to later work, more than gene agencies as are sometimes main Niagara scarp. More correctly half a century in the future. In the employed” (Chalmers P-1904, p. 179). argued was Chalmers’ case for each of 1950s, surficial mapping was conduct- Chalmers’ aversion to glacio- the lower Great Lakes having fallen in ed by the GSC in a broad swath of ter- isostasy must be understood in the level far below present at some stage in rain along the Saint John River valley context of very rapidly changing views their history, as marked by the drown- (Lee O-1955, 1957, 1959a, 1959b, concerning this mechanism. Although ing of deeply incised river valleys at 1961, 1962a, 1962b, 1966) in prepara- Spencer (O-1889, 1890) had attributed their mouths. tion for damming of the river and the northeastward tilt of the Lake Iro- flooding of the valley for hydro-elec- quois shoreline in Ontario and New Western Canada tric power generation. In the 1970s, as York to glacio-isostasy, it was not until The timing of Chalmers’ western part of federal – provincial economic Goldthwait (O-1910) adopted Upham’s Canadian field-work coincided with the development initiatives, bedrock and (O-1890, 1895b) glacio-isostatic propo- accession of Saskatchewan and Alberta surficial mapping intensified, including sition to explain deformation of Lake to Confederation, and the consequent a comprehensive surficial mapping Algonquin and Iroquois beaches that “showing of the flag” by the GSC, program by Rampton and others (O- the process became accepted generally under the fierce western promoter, 1984). Chalmers’ conclusions on glacial for these Canadian cases. As a matter Interior Minister Frank Oliver. The history and its geomorphic effects of general concern, it is not clear why western move, however, had the most show through this later work, which, the brilliant early work of Jamieson mundane of rationales. Acting Direc- compared to conditions in Chalmers’ (O-1865, 1882) on tectonics induced tor Robert Bell had in 1905 commis- time, benefitted from road access, by glacial loading and unloading, had sioned a national inventory of clays, automotive travel, subsurface exposure not earlier crossed the ocean, especially and the next year expanded this to and drilling, and aerial photography. considering the close cultural ties include other unconsolidated materials Chalmers’ work in Québec can between Canada and Scotland. used in domestic and commercial be seen as seminal also, as far as it con- (including agricultural) construction. cerned i) the absence of evidence of Ontario Western clays were almost unknown. Laurentide glaciation on the south side As Chalmers had, under Director Chalmers’ efforts towards eco- of the lower St. Lawrence, below George Dawson, already made ‘surfi- nomic geology in the West were largely Québec City; and ii) farther southwest, cial’ inroads into Ontario for the GSC, directed to compilation in the office indicators of northerly ice-flow from when Robert Bell was appointed Act- (Chalmers G-1906a, 1906c, P-1889), the Appalachians. Unfortunately, he ing Director in 1901 he was eager to although the ‘pure’ geologist shows used both of these conclusions to ill see Chalmers continue tracing evidence through in places. He commented on effect, arguing i) against glacial of deglacial marine conditions up the the “tremendous erosion” exhibited in the damming of Pleistocene lakes in the St. Lawrence, and to map in more Rocky Mountains (Chalmers G-1906a, Lake Ontario basin and St. Lawrence detail the glacial lake shorelines farther p. 68), which he felt furnished much of lowland, before ice cleared the con- 134 striction at Québec City, and ii) resort- have advanced introduction of these bec’ for Québec, ‘Chaleur Bay’ for Baie ing to dubious tectonics to dam lakes terms to Canadian reports by 20 years. des Chaleurs. on the Appalachian slope south of the lowland and on Frontenac Arch in ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Chalmers, R.J., 1885, Report on the surface Ontario, to separate glacial Lake Iro- Randall Miller at the New Brunswick geology of western New Brunswick, quois from glacial Champlain Sea. His Museum in Saint John contributed a with special reference to the area included in York and Carleton coun- work in southwestern Ontario, very useful review, as well additional ties: Geological Survey of Canada, although brief and, in places, erro- materials which improved considerably Report of Progress for 1882-83-84, neous (even in the contemporary con- the biographical section of the paper. Part XI, 47 p. text), seeded the reconstruction of ice The Faribault typescript biography of Chalmers, R.J., 1886, Preliminary report on sheet and glacial lake history, elaborat- Chalmers was provided by Natural the surface geology of New ed by F.B. Taylor for the GSC not Resources Canada, Ottawa, from the Brunswick: Geological Survey of many years later. Geological Survey of Canada History Canada, Annual Report for 1884 & Apart from his compiled work files. The New Brunswick Museum 1885, new series, v. 1, Part GG, 58 p. on gold in Québec, Chalmers’ surficial Archives provided Chalmers’ three let- Chalmers, R.J., 1887, Report to accompany studies in New Brunswick, Québec, ters to Bailey and the photograph of quarter sheet maps 33E & 38W, Sur- and Ontario had little to say about the Chalmers, from the W.F. Ganong Col- face geology of northern New value of the work for the tracing of lection. Earlier research for a biogra- Brunswick and southeastern Quebec: Geological Survey of Canada, Annual metalliferous ore bodies. Perhaps this phy of Robert Bell was assisted by Report for 1886, new series, v. 2, Part resulted from his unfamiliarity with the staff at Library and Archives Canada, M, 39 p. (Maps 252, 253, 254). identification of mineralized ‘float’, the Ottawa. Allen Seaman, New Brunswick Chalmers, R.J., 1888, Report on the surface general pessimism, at least concerning Department of Natural Resources, geology of northeastern New New Brunswick, for the possibility of commented helpfully on the manu- Brunswick: Geological Survey of locating significant ore bodies, and per- script, and assisted with acquisition of Canada, Annual Report for 1878-88, haps from the paucity of mineralized bibliographic items. Reg Wilson acted new series, v. 3, Part N, 33 p. (Maps clasts in surficial deposits. as an efficient and helpful journal edi- 288, 289, 290). tor. Chalmers, R.J., 1890a, Superficial deposits in southern New Brunswick: Geologi- NOTES BIBLIOGRAPHY and REFERENCES cal Survey of Canada, Summary 1. On the question of terminological Report for 1888-1889, p. 38-43. Sources Chalmers, R. J., 1890b, Report on the sur- first use, in 1862 William Logan asked face geology of southern New Robert Bell to write the section on Anonymous, 1909, Catalogue of Publica- tions of the Geological Survey of Brunswick to accompany quarter- Superficial Geology for “Geology of sheet maps 1SW, 1 SE, 1 NE: Geolog- Canada” (Logan O-1863). Logan, as Canada: Geological Survey of Canada, Publication 1039, 181 p. ical Survey of Canada, Annual Report usual, travelling abroad to various Johnston, A.G., 1981, Index of Publica- for 1888-89, new series, v. IV, Pt N, 92 “Expositions”, had left T. Sterry Hunt tions, Geological Survey of Canada p. (Maps 317, 318). the task of editing at least parts of the (1845-1958) (reprint of 1961 edition), Chalmers, R.J., 1892a, Surface features of manuscript for this volume. Thirty-five 403 p. (Several references to Chalmers’ portions of Kent, Westmorland and years later Prof. Herman Fairchild, reports in “Summary Reports” are Northumberland counties, New University of Rochester, New York, missing from this publication). Brunswick: Geological Survey of wrote to Bell enquiring of the author- See [http://search-recherche.collection- Canada, Summary Report for 1890, p. ship and dates of certain terms used in scanada.ca/] (for Robert Bell Fonds, 53-57. textual material, and Canada, Parlia- Chalmers, R.J., 1892b, Surface deposits in Canadian surficial geology (Fairchild Albert, Kent, Westmorland and O-1898). Bell replied, referring to the ment, O-1884). See [www.gnb.ca/0078/GeoscienceData- Northumberland counties, New 1863 volume, base/Bibliography/Bibliography-e.as] Brunswick: Geological Survey of “…[T. Sterry] Hunt changed some (additional Canada, Summary Report for 1891, of the terms I had used – as for source for Chalmers GSC reports, new series, v. V, Part AA, p. 48-52. example – I had written ‘till’ particularly in Summary Reports). Chalmers, R.J., 1893, Report on the super- throughout for ‘boulder clay’, ‘hard ficial geology of portions of New pan’, ‘drift’, etc. … I had also GSC Reports by Chalmers (Chalmers Brunswick and Nova Scotia: Geologi- mentioned eskers or osars and other “G”) cal Survey of Canada, Annual Report words now much used, but which Notes: for 1892, new series, v. VI, Part A, p. were all new to him as he was a i) Not every GSC report authored by 48-54. chemist and not a pleistocene geolo- Chalmers is referred to in the text. Chalmers, R.J., 1894, Report on the super- ficial deposits in New Brunswick and gist…”. (Library and Archives ii). Date following author refers to year of publication of entire GSC report; this parts of Nova Scotia and Prince Canada, Robert Bell Fonds, usually post-dates by one year the date Edward Island: Geological Survey of MG29. B15, v. 40 (Letter- shown on the separate field report, Canada, Summary Report for 1893, p. books), p. 343, RB to HF, 1 when one was issued. 52-57. March 1898). iii). Names and their spelling are repro- Chalmers, R.J., 1895, Report on the surface But for Hunt’s blue pencil, Bell would duced below as in original, e.g., ‘Que- geology of eastern New Brunswick, GEOSCIENCE CANADA Volume 35 Numbers 3/4 September/December 2008 135

northeastern Nova Scotia and a por- the St. Lawrence valley: Geological gist, v. 11, p. 176-177. tion of Prince Edward Island: Geo- Survey of Canada, Summary Report Chalmers, R.J., 1895, On the glacial lake St. logical Survey of Canada, Summary for 1905 (volume nos. discontinued), Lawrence of Prof. Warren Upham: Report for 1894, new series, v. VII, p. 67-69 (also contains surface geology American Journal of Science, 3rd Part A, p. 81-88. of Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Series, v. 49, p. 273-275. Chalmers, R.J., 1896a, Report on the sur- British Columbia). Chalmers, R.J., 1896, Pleistocene marine face geology of eastern New Chalmers, R.J., 1906b, Surface geology of shorelines on the south side of the St. Brunswick, north-western Nova Sco- Eastern Quebec: Geological Survey of Lawrence valley: American Journal of tia, and a portion of Prince Edward Canada, Summary Report for 1904, p. Science, 4th Series, v. 1, p. 302-308. Island: Geological Survey of Canada, 250-263 (contains work in Ontario p. Chalmers, R.J., 1897, The Gold-bearing Annual Report for 1894, new series, v. 251-252). deposits of the Eastern Townships of VII, Part M, 149 p. (Maps 558-563). Chalmers, R.J., 1906c, The Surface Geolo- Quebec: Canadian Mining Review, v. Chalmers, R.J., 1896b, The salt springs at gy of the Great Plains, and British 16, p. 74-77. Salina, Kings County, N.B.: Geological Columbia, etc.: Geological Survey of Chalmers, R.J., 1898, The pre-glacial decay Survey of Canada, Summary Report Canada, Summary Report for 1906, p. of rocks in eastern Canada: American for 1895, new series, v. VIII, Part A, p. 74-80. Journal of Science, 4th Series, v. 3, p. 97,98. Chalmers, R.J., 1908, Surface Geology of 273-282. Chalmers, R.J., 1898, Report on the surface the St. Lawrence valley: Geological Chalmers, R.J., 1899, Geology and eco- geology and auriferous deposits of Survey of Canada, Summary Report nomic minerals of northern New south-eastern Quebec: Geological Sur- for 1907, p. 69-71. Brunswick: Proceedings Natural His- vey of Canada, Annual Report for tory Association of Miramichi, v. 2, p. 1897, new series, v. X, Part J, 160 p. Periodical articles and abstracts by 513. (Map 667). Chalmers (Chalmers “P”) Chalmers, R.J., 1901, The sources and dis- Chalmers, R.J., 1899, Report on the surface Chalmers, R.J., 1881, On the glacial phe- tribution of the gold-bearing alluvions geology of New Brunswick: Geologi- nomena of the Chaleur Bay region: of Quebec: The Ottawa Naturalist, v. cal Survey of Canada, Summary Canadian Naturalist, v. 10, p. 37-54, 15 (May), p. 33-36. Report for 1898, p. 133-137. map. Chalmers, R.J., 1903, Occurrence of gold Chalmers, R.J., 1900a, Notes on a copper Chalmers, R.J., 1883a, On the surface geol- in New Brunswick: Proceedings Nat- deposit near Campbellton, New ogy of the Bay de Chaleur region: ural History Association of Miramichi, Brunswick. Notes on alluvial gold Canadian Naturalist, v. 10, p. 193-212. v.2, p. 13-20. deposits on Serpentine River and the Chalmers, R.J., 1883b, On erosion from Chalmers, R.J., 1904, The geomorphic ori- Nashwaak: Geological Survey of coast-ice and floating ice in the Baie gin and development of the raised Canada, Summary Report 1899, p. de Chaleur (abstract): Transactions shorelines of the St. Lawrence valley 149-152. Royal Society of Canada, v. 1, sec. IV, and Great Lakes: American Journal of Chalmers, R.J., 1900b, Report on the sur- p. 285-286. Science, 4th Series, v. 18, p. 175-179. face geology shown on the Frederic- Chalmers, R.J., 1885, Abstract of Chalmers Chalmers, R.J., 1905a, The raised shorelines ton and Andover quarter-sheet maps, 1885 (Geological Survey of Canada; of the province of New Brunswick: New Brunswick: Geological Survey of see list above): American Journal of Proceedings of Miramichi Natural Canada, Annual Report for 1899, new Science, 3rd Series, v. 30, p. 242. History Association, v. 4, p. 5-8. series, v. XII, Part M, 41 p. (Maps 696, Chalmers, R.J., 1886a, Abstract of Chalmers, R.J., 1905b, The glaciation of 697). Chalmers 1886 (Geological Survey of Mount Orford, Quebec: Ottawa Natu- Chalmers, R.J., 1901, Work on the surface Canada; see list above): Scottish Geo- ralist, v. 19, p. 52-55. geology of northwestern New graphical Magazine, v. 3, p. 214; and Chalmers, R.J., 1908, The Peat Bogs of Brunswick, chiefly on the area of the American Journal of Science, 3rd New Brunswick: Proceedings Grand Falls Sheet: Geological Survey series, v. 33, p. 316-317. Miramichi Natural History Associa- of Canada, Summary Report for 1900, Chalmers, R.J., 1886b, On the glaciation tion, v. 7, p. 34-41. p. 151-161. and Pleistocene subsidence of north- Chalmers, R.J., 1902, On borings for Nat- ern New Brunswick and southeastern ural Gas, Petroleum, and Water; also Quebec: Transactions Royal Society of Other authors’ works cited (“O”) notes on the surface geology of part Canada, v. 4, sec. IV, p. 139-145. Bell, R. 1890, On glacial phenomena in of Ontario: Geological Survey of Chalmers, R.J., 1889, Glaciation of eastern Canada: Geological Society of Ameri- Canada, Summary Report for 1901, p. Canada: Canadian Record of Science, ca Bulletin, v.1, 287-310. 160-171. v. 3, p. 319-333. Bell, R., 1898, Letter to Herman Fairchild, Chalmers, R.J., 1903, Artesian borings, sur- Chalmers, R.J., 1890, The glaciation of the March 1 1898: Library and Archives face deposits, and ancient beaches in Cordillera and Laurentide (Personal Canada, Robert Bell Fonds, MG29. Ontario: Geological Survey of Cana- and Scientific News and Correspon- B15, v. 40 (Letterbooks), p. 343. da, Annual Report for 1902, new dence): American Geologist, v. 6, p. Canada, Parliament, 1884, Report of the series, v. XV, Part A, p. 270-281 (Map 324-325. Select Committee appointed by the 809, shorelines). Chalmers, R.J., 1893, Height of the Bay of House of Commons to obtain infor- Chalmers, R.J., 1904, Surface geology of Fundy coast in the Glacial period rela- mation as to geological surveys: Jour- the southern part of the Province of tive to sea-level, as evidenced by nals of the House of Commons of Quebec: Geological Survey of Cana- marine fossils in the boulder clay at St. the Dominion of Canada 0707-929X, da, Summary Report for 1903, p. 140- John, New Brunswick: Geological Appendix 8, 207 p. [Library and 143. (Map 862). Society of America Bulletin, v. 4, p. Archives Canada AMICUS No. Chalmers, R.J., 1906a, Surface Geology of 361-370. Abstract in American Geolo- 6802841]. 136

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Dawson, Sir J.W., 1894, The Canadian Ice New Brunswick across a buried chan- Spencer, J.W., 1890, The deformation of Age: Dawson Bros., Montreal, 301 p. nel of ancestral St. John River: Geo- the lroquois beach and the birth of Ells, R.W. 1890, Report on the mineral logical Survey of Canada, Topical Lake Ontario: American Journal Sci- resources of the province of Quebec: Report 033, 16 p. ence, 3rd Series, v. 40, p. 443-451. Geological Survey of Canada, Sum- Lee, H.A., 1962b, Surficial geology, Canter- Taylor, F.B., 1897, The scoured bowlders mary Report 1889, Part K, 159 p. bury, Woodstock, Florenceville, and of the Mattawa - Nipissing valley: Fairchild, H.F., 1898, Glacial geology in Victoria Counties, New Brunswick: American Journal of Science, 4th America: American Geologist, 23, p. Geological Survey of Canada, Paper Series, v. 3, No. 15, p. 208-218. 154-189. 62-12, 17 p. Upham, W., 1890, Report of exploration of Faribault, E.R., 1924, “Chalmers, Robert, Lee, H.A., 1966, The Grand Falls morainic the Glacial Lake Agassiz in Manitoba: L.L.D. – Biography” (typescript, system, in Report of Activities, May to Geological Survey of Canada, Annual includes work history from 1882, bib- October, 1965, Part B: Geological Sur- Report for 1888-89, new series, v. lV, liography of outside publications vey of Canada, Paper 66-1B, 168 p. 156 p. (incomplete), transcriptions of obitu- Leverett, F., and Taylor, F.B., 1915, The Upham, W., 1895a, Late glacial or Cham- ary and death notices from Ottawa Pleistocene of Indiana and Michigan plain subsidence and re-evaluation of newspaper): Geological Survey of and the history of the Great Lakes: the St. Lawrence River basin: Ameri- Canada History – File Fc43/C43, Nat- United States Geological Survey can Journal of Science, 3rd Series, v. ural Resources Canada Library, Monograph 53, 529 p. 49, p. 1-18. Ottawa, 7 p. 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Jamieson, T.F., 1882, On the causes of the Olejczyk, P., and Gray, J.T. 2007, The rela- depression and re-elevation of the tive influence of Laurentide and local land during the glacial period: Geolog- ice sheets during the last glacial maxi- ical Magazine, v. 9, 400-407. mum in the eastern Chic-Chocs Lee, H.A., 1955, Surficial geology Range, northern Gaspé Peninsula, Edmundston, Madawaska, and Temis- Québec: Canadian Journal of Earth couata Counties, New Brunswick: Sciences, v. 44, p. 1603-1625. Geological Survey of Canada, Paper Parent, M., and Occhietti, S., 1988, Late 55-15, 14 p. Wisconsinan deglaciation and Cham- Lee, H.A., 1957, Surficial geology of Fred- plain Sea invasion in the St. Lawrence ericton, York, and Sunbury Counties, valley, Québec: Géographie physique New Brunswick: Geological Survey of et Quaternaire, v. 42, p. 215-246. Canada, Paper 56-2, 11 p. 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