DOI: 10.36108/ssan/5991.07.0150 5

REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT NEEDS AND LARGE-SCALE IRRIGATION PROJECTS IN : A CASE STUDY

Femi Olokesusi and Olusegun Aredta

ABSTRACT

This paper takes a critical look at the main human problems and issues involved in high technology irrigation farming communities in the Sudano-Sahelian zone of Nigeria. Findings of the study provide ample evidence of rural neglect and low level of satisfaction with the irrigation experience. The harsh eco climatic conditions and degradation of the environment account largely for the weight attached to environmental problems. The results of the study also show that water development projects need to consider issues broader in scope than as conceived at the moment. Finally, water resources projects should be subjected to environmental and socio-economic impact assessment. This and other suggestions made should eliminate observed community problems and non-satisfaction with irrigation projects.

INTRODUCTION Since the 1966-73 Sudano-sahelian drought in Nigeria, measures have been taken to mitigate and, if possible, neutralize the adverse consequences of this recurrent climatic

74 Annals of The Social Science Council of Nigeria, No. 7. January-December. 1995 hazard. Prominent among such measures have been the development of irrigation and water resources on a large scale (see Table l).Three major River Basin Development Authorities (RBDAs) have been operating in the region since 1973, namely: Chad, Sokoto-Rima and Hadejia-Jama'are RBDAs. The RBDAs were conceived as agents of rural development: they were set up to plan, formulate and implement comprehensive and integrated rural development programmes, with water resources development serving as the pivot or catalyst. Hence, the Decree that created the RBDAs, made provision for the establishment of the National River Basin

Table 1 List of Major Irrigation Projects in Nigeria as at 1991

Name of Irrigation Project Size in Acres Location (State)"* South Chad Irrigation Project 22,000 Bomo Phase I Bakolori Irrigation Project 23,000 Sokoto Kano River Project 22,000 Kano Lower Anambra Irrigation Project 4,200 Anambra Tungan Kawo Irrigation Project 800 Niger Baga/Kirenowa Polder Project 1,724 Bomo *Hadejia Valley Projects 12,500 Jigawa *Swashi Irrigation Project 5,300 Niger *Jibiya Irrigation Project 3,400 Katsina *Kampe Irrigation Project 6,000 Benue **Oyan Dam Irrigation (Lower Ogun Project) 12,500 Ogun ** Irrigation (Middle Ogun) 12,500 Oyo Zpbie Irrigation Project 8,000 Katsina Irrigation (Zauro Polder and Middle Rima) 33,000 Sokoto **Niger Valley Irrigation Project 4,036 Niger Kiri (Savanna) Irrigation Project 6,000 Adamawa Dadin Kowa irrigation Project 44,000 Bauchi Note: * Under construction ** Ready for implementation *** States in the Sudano-Sahelian zone are underlined. Source: Federal Ministry of Water Resources (1991) "Spotlight on Water Resources and Development", First Anniversary Bulletin, FMWR, Abuja, Nigeria. Regional Development Needs and Large-Scale Irrigation Projects in Nigeria 75

Development Commission to advise on, among other issues, "the potential for integrated rural development of each basin” (Federal Military Government 1976: Olayide 1979; Adegeye 1982).

A question that readily arises is the extent to which the ambitious irrigation and water resources development projects have satisfied the development needs and aspirations of the local inhabitants. There have been a few evaluation studies of the projects, but most of them have concentrated on the economics and sociology of the irrigation dam projects per se, and of the agricultural enterprises based on them (see Wallace 1979; Adams 1985; 1987; Eremie and Akinwumi 1986; Olofin 1992). But there has been no commensurate examination of the regional development impact of these projects. Both Federal and Stale Governments have been exasperated at times by the seeming ingratitude of some communities who still complain or even resort to violence after some development projects have been commissioned. This clearly emphasizes the need to examines all the ramifications of each development project even before they are implemented; in particular is necessary to accommodate the local people's views and aspirations in the project planning process. Consequently, the present study examines the local inhabitant's view of the large-scale irrigation and water resources development projects in relation to the perceived developmental needs of their localities.

OBJECTIVES OF STUDY

In a recent study (see Olokesusi 1992), one of the major issues was to assess the level of satisfaction of the local people in the Sudano-Sahelian region with the RBDA large-scale water development projects, and relate this to their own assessment of the development needs of their various localities. In tackling this issue, this paper attempts to: i. analyze the human concerns and environmental problems of the region as perceived by the rural inhabitants; ii. assess the level of the people's satisfaction with the water development schemes, in combating the perceived problems; iii. identify the development needs and aspirations of the people; and iv. in the light of the foregoing, comment on the conceptualization, formulation, planning and implementation of rural development programmes in Nigeria.

The analysis is based on the responses of 597 rural inhabitants to a questionnaire survey in the catchment areas of three major water resources development projects

76 Annals of The Social Science Council of Nigeria, No. 7, January-December, 1995 in the Sudano-Sahelian belt of Nigeria; South Chad Phase I; Kano River Phase I and Bakolori.

CONCEPTUAL ISSUES

Within the past two decades or so there has been some agreement across disciplinary lines, professions and nations that successful rural development strategies require considerable understanding of the variable, micro-level social organization of production and consumption. The strategies, however, must be tailored to fit specific local socio-cultural and ecological conditions (Saint and Coward 1977; Schwartz and Eckhardt 1985; Cernea, 1985).

The context, in which this research was conducted, therefore, encompasses development and its congruence with needs assessment and satisfaction. Development projects are complex systems of action (goals to be achieved through resource mobilization) that are interventions into existing natural and human systems in the community or region. Technical, economic, social, managerial and environmental components often make up a typical project with their constant interactions. Outputs may have desirable or undesirable effects on the natural and human systems, hence the need forimpact assessment as part of the planning process (Ingersoil 1990). Needs assessment is a component of the impact assessment process (Burdge 1982).

Assessing needs as a concept means finding out what people think they need, want, or desire in a particular programme area. The planner or the change agent then sets about to design that programme, or at least, to modify existing ones, in line with expressed public input (Warheit et al. 1977; Burdge 1983). Needs assessment helps to determine the way people perceive issues of concern at community level or state-wide issues for policy making.

The absence of needs assessment as an integral part of the environmental impact assessment (EIA) and project planning process in many development projects have led to disastrous results. EIA is herein defined as the process by which estimates are made in advance of the socio-economic and bio-physical consequences which are likely to follow from specific projects or programmes, especially in the context of Nigerian Environmental Impact Assessment Decree No. 86 of 1992. In arid regions, for instance, the scarcity of irrigation water is regarded as the major stumbling block to agricultural production and productivity. Successful irrigation depends on an elaborate social organization and complex maintenance and distribution systems that alter the environment and, in some cases may destroy the traditional bases of subsistence, e.g., less offish population’s in-rivers that have been damned. In such situations, expected project beneficiaries may end up Regional Development Needs and Large-Scale Irrigation Projects in Nigeria 77 experiencing lower income and quality of life (Derman and Whiteford 1985; Olofin 1988; Wallace and Oculi 1989; Sengupta 1991; Olokesusi 1993a&b). A community needs assessment is an excellent way of involving the public in problem solving and developing project or local goals. Needs assessment can also be viewed as a process of citizen involvement, whereby people not only learn more about the situation, but also feel that they have had a voice in the outcome Rosenbaum 1976; Burler and Howell 1980).

Needs assessment, as part of the EI-SIA process both before and after a development project, is quite critical for achieving the desired goals. Unlike growth, development implies a multi-faceted process of social change. According to Dunn 1971), development is the ability of an organization, community or society to change i transform itself) as the result of research and planning.

As a concept at community, regional and national levels, development encompasses socio-cultural, technological and political phenomena as well as economic growth and distribution of wealth (WCED 1997). In rural development projects, analyses of the farmers' attitudes, beliefs, and access to information about new technologies are required, for continual advice from project agency professionals for maximum results (Rickson and Rickson 1990; D'Souza 1990).

Needs assessment research may be conducted using such a variety of techniques, including questionnaire surveys, key informants, advisory groups, community forums, the normal group process, the delphi technique and jury panels (Cohen et al. 1977;Warheit etal. 1977, Nutler and Howell 1980; Burdge 1983, see particularly Burdge and Robertson 1990 and reprinted in Burdge 1994, pp. 197-212). Before and after project needs assessment in the context of EIA, project evaluation is bound to improve the level of project acceptance and success, and mitigate its negative impacts.

THE STUDY AREA The Sudano-Sahelian zone which stretches northwards from about Latitude 11° SON, covers the northern Sudan and the Sahel Savannah belts of Nigeria and constitutes about 30 per cent of Nigeria's land area. It covers the greater parts of Sokoto, Kebbi, Katsina, Kano, Jigawa, Yobe and Borno States, and some parts of Kaduna and Bauchi States.The harsh climatic and ecological conditions make irrigation farming a necessity to ensure the productivity of "upland" farming and improve upon the traditional flood land farming in the Fadama lands. Irrigation is a need recognized by both the governments and peoples of the area, hence the introduction of modern irrigation, but some of its ecological and, in particular, political and socio-economic consequences have proved most detestable to them. Perhaps, some of the problems

78 Annals of The Social Science Council of Nigeria, No. 7, January-December, 1995 plaguing the projects would have been anticipated and planned, for there had been perception studies of the type being described here.

The Sudano-Sahelian zone has more large-scale water reservoirs and irrigation projects than all other ecological zones in the country.lt currently accounts for about 57 per cent of the approximately 0.22 million hectares of land under irrigation listed in Table 1. Consequently, the large-scale irrigation projects obviously affect a larger territorial area and a larger proportion of the rural population than any other development projects in the region or, even, in Nigeria as a whole. Moreover, the Sudano-Sahelian zone has a longer history of dam and irrigation schemes than any other part of Nigeria, dating back to the colonial era. Virtually all the eleven irrigation schemes for which funds were allocated in the First National Development Plan, 1962-1968, were in the zone (Federal Republic of Nigeria 1962). The two oldest RBDAs, the Chad and Sokoto-Rima, were created here by Decree in 1973, three full years before all others.

In view of this long history of irrigation farming, it was assumed that the local people would be familiar enough with the nature of the schemes, such that their experiences and opinions could be utilized in a study of this nature.

OVERVIEW OF THE IRRIGATION PROJECTS

The Bakolori irrigation project, under the management of the Sokoto-Rima River Basin Development Authority (SRRBDA), is confined mainly to Nalata Mafara and Maradun Local Government Areas of . It is a multi-purpose project designed to supply water to irrigate 23,000 hectares of land to boost food production; and to develop fisheries, livestock production, forestry, domestic water supply and power generation. The project area population was estimated in 1974 at between 40,000 and 50,000 farming families (Impresit 1974). Sugar cane and rice were the major crops planned for production under irrigation but the farmers now produce wheat, rice and vegetables.

The reservoir formed by the covers 8,000ha and is capable of storing 450 million cubic meters of water. A total of 43 villages and hamlets with 3,267 dwelling units had to be resettled; in all 13,400 people and 12,800 livestock were officially resettled in four new settlements. The poor management of the resettlement programme and of the land compensation issue caused serious disaffection among the local people, resulting in civil unrest and violence.

The South Chad irrigation projects Phase I under the management of the Chad Basin Development Authority (CBDA) covers 22,000ha of land, while the entire project is expected to irrigate 67,000ha. Water intake from the Lake Chad is at Regional Development Needs and Large-Scale Irrigation Projects in Nigeria 79

Kirinowa for the western and central areas and north of Baga for the eastern sector. The present phase of the project is devoted mainly to the cultivation of wheat. There was very little resettlement activity in the South Chad project, probably because no dam construction and water impoundment were involved.

The Kano river project, under the Hadejia-Jama'are River Basin Development Authority is a large-scale irrigation project, covering about 2Q,OOOha of land to the South of Kano City. The main source of water is the Tiga reservoir with a surface area of 17,600ha and a storage capacity of 1.97 x 109 cubic meters (Olofin 1982). The project resulted in the resettlement of 16,000 persons; perhaps, more than in Bakolori. The consultants for the Kano project made a careful analysis of the costs and benefits of resettlement, and provided clear guidelines for both the compensation and resettlement exercises. This probably explains the generally higher level of accommodation of the project by the local people than at Bakolori.

THE RESPONDENTS

The study covered 29 settlements located in the three project areas, including both resettled land existing villages/settlements. A total of 597 people responded to the questionnaire, 80 per cent of whom were indigenes and about 15 per cent were migrants from other parts of Northern Nigeria. Five per cent of the respondents failed to indicate their residency status. All the respondents are male adults of 19 years and above, but only 20 per cent are over 50. The level of education is rather low, 41 per cent of the respondents have no formal education and only about 7 per cent have post-primary education. The predominant occupation, of course, is farming which engages 88 per cent of the respondents while the others engage in trading. Income levels are generally low with 59 per cent of the respondents falling in the income group of N 1,500.00 to N2,999 per annum. The exchange rate at that time was U.S$l=N10.00.

The respondents included both project and non-project participants; the major criterion for inclusion in the sample was awareness of the existence of the large-scale water development projects.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Perceived Problems in the Local Communities A major criticism that is often made against some government projects is that they are not based on an understanding and/or a realistic assessment of the problems and

80 Annals of The Social Science Council of Nigeria, No. 7. January-December, 1995 needs of the local communities where they have been sited. Hence, the projects do not always quite serve the purposes for which they have been purportedly established. This situation often arises as a result of the isolation of government planners from the local people and environments where projects are to be sited. There is clearly a need to carry out opinion surveys of the people's problems, hopes and aspirations before projects are designed. Therefore, in this study we have investigated the people's perception of their own local problems and needs. Part of the reason for this is to see the extent to which the people's aspirations tally with the known benefits of irrigation projects. This analysis is necessary to give some insight into the people's level of satisfaction with the projects as implemented.

Table 2 indicates the frequency of mention of different kinds of problems perceived by the sample population. The 25 mentioned problems have been grouped into six categories of major issues. There is remarkable uniformity in the responses received in the three project areas as shown in Table 2. The "weights" shown on the table (and in Table 3 later) were derived in the following way. The frequency of mention, that is, the number of respondents that cited each problem or need was obtained and expressed as a percentage of the sum of the frequencies for all the problems or needs mentioned. The relative importance of each of the major issues to which the problems have been categorized, is determined by summing the "weights" of its component items.

It is evident, and, perhaps, understandable, that environmental issues top the list of the problems itemized. To that extent, it could be said that the establishment of the large- scale water development projects was in response to the needs of the people. The projects in some ways also anticipate some of the people's complaints about the inadequacies of agricultural production activities in the area.

However, it is also clear that many of the problems are not addressed directly by the projects. These include most of the problems itemized under infrastructure, socio- cultural, access to land, and political issues. Indeed, lack of attention to these latter issues could considerably lower the impact that the water development projects might have in the communities. Problems such as land disputes and conflicts over grazing land between herdsmen and cultivators can be exacerbated by the expropriation of land for the projects as this has happened in Bakolori and other parts of the Sudano-Sahelian region. A drastic reduction in the extent of cultivable fadama (flood plain) is a sore issue in the areas downstream of the dams built by the Sokoto-Rima and the Hadejia-Jama'are RBDAs (see Dams 1997; Olofin 1992). Irrigation has certainly increased the pest and disease problem of the project areas. According to Olofin (1980), even though definite cases of schistosomiasis and onchocerciases had not been reported, carrier snails of the former and the blackfly vector of the latter, had been spotted in parts of the Kano River

Regional Development Needs and Large-Scale Irrigation Projects in Nigeria 81

Table 2

Categorization and Weights of Perceived Community Problems by the Respondents

Perceived Community Problems All Kano River Bakolori South and Categorization Projects Chad -Environmental Issues 23.7.7 23.34 23.97 24.00 Prevalence of Human Diseases 4.10 4.15 4.07 4.00 Crop Pests 4.06 4.20 3.95 4.10 Poor Environmental Quality 4.02 4.00 4.07 3.90 Flooding 4.02 4.11 4.07 3.70 Drought 3.80 3.53 3.86 4.10 Soil Erosion 3.78 3.36 3.95 4.10 Infrastructure/Amenities 20.19 20.91 19.62 20.40 Inadequate Health Facilities 4.18 4.32 4.02 4.30 Inadequate Educational Facilities 4.15 4.28 4.07 4.10 Shortage of Safe Drinking Water 4.15 4.20 4.11 4.20 Inadequate Well Water 3.76 4.00 3.64 3.70 Poor Road Conditions 3.95 4.11 3.78 4.10 Social and Cultural 16.82 17.46 16.49 16.40 Rising Crime Rate 4.23 4.43 4.11 4.20 Drugs and Alcoholism 4.06 4.32 4.02 3.60 Unemployment 4.25 4.28 4.20 4.30 Inadequate Shelter 4.28 4.43 4.16 4.30 Access to Land 16.25 16.91 16.20 15.30 Land Disputes 3.95 4.07 4.00 3.60 Inadequate Land for Farming 3.11 4.28 4.07 4.00 Inadequate Land for Grazing 4.11 4.28 4.11 3.80 Herdsmen/Livestock Versus 4.08 4.28 4.02 3.90 Farmers Agricultural Production 11.78 11.35 11.92 12.20 Food Shortage 3.62 2.91 3.95 4.00 Inadequate Water for Irrigation 4.15 4.24 4.02 4.30 Inadequate Marketing Facilities 4.01 4.20 3.95 3.90 Political/ Administrative 11.22 10.13 11.80 11.70 Political Alienation 4.03 4.07 4.07 3.90 Poor Political Leadership 3.80 3.85 3.78 3.70 Political Instability 2.39 2.21 3.95 4.10

Source: Authors' Fieldwork( 1990) 82 Annals of The Social Science Council of Nigeria, No. 7, January-Dec ember, 1995 project area. Salisu (1981) has also reported increased incidence of malaria in Ajiwa Dam area. Olofin (1992), reports that quelea birds and grasshoppers have multiplied in recent years to feed on crops; this contributes to the poor harvests experienced, even in wet years. Complaints about inadequate provision of water for irrigation points to a probable deficiency in the design and/or management of the reservoirs as many researchers have always' suspected (see Adams, 1985). But, the recurrent drought episodes in the Sudano- sahelian region since the mid-1980s may be partly responsible.

Satisfaction with Irrigation Projects

From the discussions in the previous section, it should be clear that there are major issues about the irrigation projects that bother the local inhabitants. Hence, it is not surprising that only 57 per cent of the respondents expressed any measure of satisfaction with the irrigation projects; indeed only 26 per cent claim to be highly satisfied with them. The degree of satisfaction varied significantly between the three project areas; the Kano project is perceived as being satisfactory by 93 per cent of respondents as compared to 70 per cent for South Chad and only 37 per cent for the Bakolori project. Apart from other matters, the resettlement and compensation issues discussed earlier greatly influenced the responses of the Bakolori project area inhabitants.

The aspects of the irrigation projects that positively influenced their perception by the people are: i. enhancement of food production (39 per cent); ii. creation of employment (32 per cent); and iii. guarantee of steady income to farmers (15 per cent).

Those who are dissatisfied gave such reasons as: i. inadequate provision of water for irrigation (32 per cent); ii. inadequate land for farming (22 per cent); iii. unreliability of farm input supplied (20 per cent); and iv. the menace of pests (12 per cent).

Perceived Community Needs The people's disaffection with the irrigation projects may be due to the fact that they apparently expected the projects to serve as catalysts for overall development in their different localities. This view is supported by the responses to the question

Regional Development Needs and Large-Scale Irrigation Projects in Nigeria 83 seeking to know the people's needs and expectations for their localities. From Table 3, we observe that the most pressing needs are for general infrastructural development, followed closely by the specific infrastructural needs of agriculture. Indeed, farm credit is the single most important need identified by the respondents in all the three project areas; provision of rural markets and health facilities and maintenance of rural roads follow closely. That environmental issues rank so low does not obviate their importance; this is because the issues are closely related to those of infrastructural and agricultural development.

Table 3 Categorization of Perceived Community Needs and Weights in the Study Area

Perceived Needs and All Projects Kano Bakolori South Chad Categories Infrastructure 36.99 38.28 36.39 36.35 Maintenance of Roads 4.72 4.93 4.46 4.55 Health Facilities 4.69 4.93 4.59 4.55 Electricity Supply 4.67 5.03 4.49 4.51 Post-Primary School 4.66 4.69 4.64 4.67 Postal Facilities 4.59 4.88 4.36 4.67 New Roads 4.57 4.59 4.64 4.38 Water Supply 4.57 4.59 4.59 4.51 Primary Schools 4.52 4.64 4.44 4.51 Agricultural Production 26.39 24.55 27.24 27.45 Credit for Farming Purposes 4.80 5.11 4.64 4.67 Provision of Rural Markets 4.77 5.03 4.64 4.67 Food Storage Facilities 4.54 4.74 4.44 4.47 Food Processing Facilities 4.48 4.59 4.44 .4.42 Water Supply for Agriculture 3.91 2.54 4.54 4.67 Job Opportunities 3.89 2.54 4.54 4.25 Socio-Cultural 18.29 18.89 17.89 18.27 Political Representation 4.71 4.93 4.64 4.51 Housing Improvement 4.67 4.93 4.59 4.42 Recreational Facilities 4.48 4.49 4.41 4.67 Town Hall/Community 4.43 4.54 4.25 4.67 Centre Access to Land Resources 13.57 1335 13.87 13.23 More Fishing Grounds 4.76 5.11 4.64 4.51 More Farmland 4.67 4.93 4.59 4.42 More Grazing Land 4.14 3.31 4.64 4.30 Environment 4.74 4.93 4.64 4.67 Protection of the Environment 4.74 4.93 4.64 4.67

Source: Authors' Fieldwork (1990) 84 Annals of The Social Science Council of Nigeria, No. 7, January-December, 1995

Again the uniformity of responses between the three areas is very striking. However, it is apparent that there is a slightly higher level of awareness among the people in the Kano river project area than in the other project areas.

CONCLUSION The above findings, to a very significant extent, are in agreement with the needs and aspirations of rural dwellers in other parts of Nigeria (Oyebande 1977; Areola et al 1985; Onibokun et al 1988). The problems are generally similar; therefore, the goals of government development planning must be the same no matter the part of the country under consideration, although the strategies for achieving these goals may differ from place to place. The harsh environmental conditions in the dry Sudano-Sahelian region dictate that development programmes should be centred on water resources development. But, the related developments must be properly addressed, e.g. in social and economic infrastructure in particular support of agriculture, which must take place for the water projects to have the desired effects on the local social and economic life.

The results of this survey 'clearly indicate that water development projects need to consider issues that are broader in scope than as conceived at present. The people perceived the irrigation projects not in the narrow sense of the production of a few irrigated cash crops, but as development catalysts in their various communities. The people want to feel government presence in all its ramifications. It is felt, for example, that with the irrigation projects, the quantity and quality of infrastructure should have improved; health and educational facilities should have multiplied; crop yields ought to have increased with better supply of inputs; access to land for various primary production activities should have been facilitated; employment opportunities should have multiplied and the general standard of living and level of political emancipation raised appreciably. Indeed, the multiplier effect of projects, that is, the extent to which a particular project would generate further development in a region should be an important consideration in project planning, design and implementation.

The findings on this issue clearly justify the establishment of the Directorate of Food, Roads and Rural Infrastructures (DFRRI), set up by the Federal Government in 1986. hi a nutshell, the objectives of DFRRI are to raise the quality of rural life by engineering the: i. provision of infrastructures; ii. creation of employment opportunities, particularly self-employment in rural areas;

Regional Development Needs and Large-Scale Irrigation Projects in Nigeria 85 iii. improvement of agricultural production and productivity; and iv. mobilization of the rural populace through the formation of active community development committees (see DFRRI 1987:3).

Unfortunately, DFRRI had only been operating in these localities for three years before this study was carried out. Hence, it was not possible to assess the impact it has had in improving infrastructural development in the areas under study. However, findings emphasize the need for greater vigour and purposefulness in the articulation and implementation of the rural development programmes of agencies of government similar to DFRRI.

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