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Abstract the Sedimentology, Stratigraphy, And ABSTRACT THE SEDIMENTOLOGY, STRATIGRAPHY, AND CHEMISTRY OF PLAYA LAKE DEPOSITS RESULTING FROM HURRICANE NORA IN THE CHAPALA BASIN, BAJA CALIFORNIA, MEXICO by Liselotte Rachel Shoffner Laguna Chapala, Baja California, Mexico is a closed basin containing a playa lake and presumably a proxy record of climate. On September 25, 1997, hurricane Nora crossed the Chapala basin, causing flooding in Laguna Chapala and providing the unique opportunity to examine the sedimentological impacts of a hurricane on the playa stratigraphy. Runoff from hurricane Nora formed a lake that locally reached depths up to 1.2 m. The lake did not completely evaporate until February of 1998. The playa was surveyed to determine the lake hypsometry and samples were examined by particle size analysis and x-ray diffraction. The mean grain size was 5.7 phi units. The dominant clay minerals were smectite, illite, and kaolinite. The dominant evaporite mineral was halite. The evaporite crust, vegetative debris at the flooding boundary, and large-scale mudcracks were unique to flooding and provide the most useful indicators of a storm event in Laguna Chapala’s sediments. THE SEDIMENTOLOGY, STRATIGRAPHY, AND CHEMISTRY OF PLAYA LAKE DEPOSITS RESULTING FROM HURRICANE NORA IN THE CHAPALA BASIN, BAJA CALIFORNIA, MEXICO A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of Miami University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science Department of Geology by Liselotte Rachel Shoffner Miami University Oxford, Ohio 2000 Advisor:_______________________ Brian Currie Reader:________________________ Mark Boardman c. Liselotte Rachel Shoffner 2001 TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract Title i Acknowledgements iii Table of Contents v List of Figures viii List of Tables x 1. Introduction 1 1.1 Purpose 2 1.2 Playas 3 1.3 Previous Work 10 1.4 Local Physiographic and Climatic Setting 11 2. Climate 15 2.1 Climate Change 16 2.1.1 Previous Work 2.1.2 Causes of Climate Change 2.2 Regional Climatology 22 2.3 Hurricanes 24 2.3.1 Formation and Processes 2.3.2 Occurrence 2.3.3 Impacts 2.4 Hurricane Nora 32 iii 3. Methods and Data 36 3.1 Hydrological Reconstruction 37 3.1.1 Surveying 3.1.2 Drainage Basin Map 3.1.3 Volume Calculation 3.1.4 Evaporation Model 3.2 Sedimentology and Stratigraphy of the Lakebed 51 3.2.1 High Water Marks and Evaporation Rings 3.2.2 Mudcracks 3.2.3 Grain Size 3.3 Evaporites 60 3.3.1 Previous Work 3.3.2 Modern Facies 3.3.3 Salt Chemistry 3.3.4 Criteria for Describing Salts 3.3.5 Methods of Evaporite Analysis 3.3.6 Evaporite Data 3.4 Clays 85 3.4.1 Previous Work 3.4.2 Clay Mineralogy 3.4.3 Playa Clays 3.4.4 X-Ray Diffraction of Clays iv 4. Analysis 95 4.1 Hydrology of the Laguna Chapala Flood 96 4.2 Lakebed Features 97 4.3 Evaporites 99 4.4 Clays 100 5. Conclusions 101 References 104 Appendices 113 A. Survey Data 113 B. Hypsometry Data 120 C. Thornthwaite and Hamon Evaporation Calculations 121 D. Field Notes 122 E. Method of Pipette Analysis 131 F. Grain Size Data 140 G. Conductivity Data 145 v LIST OF FIGURES 1.1 Location map of the Chapala Basin 2 1.2 Depositional environments of playa basins 7 1.3 Depositional environments of evaporite minerals 8 1.4 View of Laguna Chapala looking towards the southwest 12 1.5 Geologic map of Laguna Chapala 13 2.1 Track of hurricane Nora 33 2.2 Hurricane Nora on September 25, 1997 34 3.1 Compilation of survey data, topographic map, and air photo 38 3.2 Drainage area of Laguna Chapala 39 3.3 Contour plot of lake 40 3.4 Graph of lake hypsometry 41 3.5 Graph of lake volume with depth 41 3.6 Nomograph 43 3.7 High water marks 52 3.8 Boundary of flooded area 53 3.9 Evaporation rings 54 3.10 July mudcracks 56 3.11 December mudcracks 57 3.12 Saline pan cycle 62 3.13 Flow diagram for brine evolution 68 3.14 Ternary phase diagram for brine evolution 69 3.15 Precipitation sequence of minerals in unsaturated zone 71 vi 3.16 Samples 122498-1 and 122498-2 78 3.17 Graph of conductivity vs. salinity 79 3.18 Playa crust in July 1998 81-82 3.19 Salinity across Laguna Chapala 84 3.20 Joining of tetrahedral and octahedral sheets to form a 1:1 layer 89 3.21 Clay mineral x-ray diffraction pattern 94 vii LIST OF TABLES 2.1 Evidence of regional climatology 23 2.2 Hurricane intensity scale 30 3.1 Results of grain size analysis 59 3.2 Grain size of sand and clay fractions 59 3.3 Primary saline pan features preserved after burial 76 3.4 Evaporite characteristics of Laguna Chapala 83 3.5 Classification of clays based on swelling properties 90 3.6 Classification of clays based on layer type 91 viii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This thesis was funded in part by the NASA Jet Propulsion Lab through a grant to Dr. Larry Mayer. The contents of this thesis reflect the views of the author who is responsible for the facts and the accuracy of the data presented herein. The content does not reflect the official views or policies of JPL. I am grateful for the field assistance of Ann Thomas, Craig Thomas, Seth Tanner, and Genaro Martinez-Guittierez. Thanks to Dr. John Morton, Dr. Dave Finkelstein, and Dr. John Rakovan for their advice and technical assistance. Thanks to Dr. John Hughes and Dr. Mark Boardman for their advice and support. Finally, thank you to Dr. Brian Currie for stepping up when I needed an advisor and seeing me through the final stages of my work. ix This thesis is dedicated to my parents for their support and belief in my ability to succeed. I love you Mom and Dad. x Chapter 1 Introduction Playa lakes are shallow, ephemeral lakes that exist in arid and semi-arid regions. Playas generally form in the lowest part of an internally drained desert basin following seasonal or episodic storm events (Shaw and Thomas, 1989; Reeves, 1978). Playa lake deposits and evaporites are sensitive indicators of local climate and may contain sedimentologic and geochemical records that are millions of years old (Eugster, 1982). Playa sediments record local depositional history and evidence for determining paleoclimate (Reeves, 1978; Rosen, 1994). As a result, playa deposits are useful proxies when constructing an environmental and climatic history of a region. When hurricane Nora swept across the central Baja peninsula in September 1997, it created a shallow lake in Laguna Chapala. Laguna Chapala is located in the eastern half of the Chapala basin in Baja California, Mexico. (Figure 1.1) The lake that formed when hurricane Nora crossed the region was 15.97km2 in area and contained 7,000,000m3 of water. This lake did not completely evaporate until February 1998. 1 Figure 1.1 Location map of the Chapala basin. The insert is a 1995 satellite image of the basin showing Laguna Chapala on the right. Laguna Salada Ensenada Baja California Chapala Basin Baja California Sur N La Paz 0 200 Cabo San Lucas kilometers 1.1 Purpose The purpose of this study is to understand the sedimentology and geochemistry associated with the flooding caused by hurricane Nora in order to identify similar events in the lake’s history. This study seeks to document the stratigraphy of the playa crust related to the Nora event, the chemistry of the sediments and evaporite deposits, and the type of lakebed crust that resulted from the flooding caused by hurricane Nora. The stratigraphy of the lakebed will help determine where flooding occurred and identify the 2 depositional record of a large precipitation event, such as Nora. The chemistry of the sediments and evaporites will help elucidate the evaporative stages of the lake and the mineralogical composition will help determine the salinity and chemistry of the water at the time the sediments and evaporites were deposited (Vance et al., 1992). If the stratigraphy and geochemistry resulting from the Nora flooding are unique, they may serve as a useful tool for identifying other storm events in the playa record. There are no stream gauges in the Baja peninsula, but the volume of water in a closed basin can be used to determine the runoff resulting from a flood event. By determining the amount of water that was in the Chapala basin after Nora struck, the amount of runoff resulting from that event can be directly measured. The Chapala basin is closed: only ephemeral streams and precipitation flow into it and its only outflow is evaporation. Because evaporation influences the chemistry of evaporites (Rosen, 1994), understanding the evaporative process within the basin is important for understanding the deposition that occurs. Determining how evaporation occurred at the basin can also be used to determine temperatures during the flooding period. 1.2 Playas Playas most often form in closed drainage basins (Last, 1984; Last, 1989; Renaut and Long, 1989) in semi-arid and arid environments (Last, 1989). Closed-basin lakes lose most of their moisture by evaporation because they have little to no outflow (Battarbee, 1999). In order for an arid-zone depression to be considered a playa it must be intercontinental, its outflow must exceed its inflow for more than half of the year and 3 it must have a near surface capillary fringe that allows evaporation to result in water discharge to the surface (Rosen, 1994). Playas are usually no bigger than a few square kilometers.
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