Chapter 7 Avian Cholera Synonyms 24–48 hours is more common. Susceptibility to infection and Fowl cholera, avian pasteurellosis, avian hemorrhagic the course of disease — whether or not it is acute or chronic septicemia — is dependent upon many factors including sex, age, ge- netic variation, immune status from previous exposure, con- Cause current infection, nutritional status, and other aspects of the Avian cholera is a contagious disease resulting from in- host; strain virulence and other aspects of the bacterium; and fection by the bacterium Pasteurella multocida. Several sub- dose and route of exposure. Infection in poultry generally species of bacteria have been proposed for P. multocida, and results when P. multocida enters the tissues of birds through at least 16 different P. multocida serotypes or characteristics the mucous membranes of the pharynx or upper air passages. of antigens in bacterial cells that differentiate bacterial vari- The bacterium can also enter through the membranes of the ants from each other have been recognized. The serotypes eye or through cuts and abrasions in the skin. It is assumed are further differentiated by other methods, including DNA that transmission is similar in wild birds. fingerprinting. These evaluations are useful for studying the Environmental contamination from diseased birds is a ecology of avian cholera (Fig. 7.1), because different sero- primary source for infection. High concentrations of types are generally found in poultry and free-ranging migra- P. multocida can be found for several weeks in waters where tory birds. These evaluations also show that different P. waterfowl and other birds die from this disease. Wetlands multocida serotypes are found in wild birds in the eastern and other areas can be contaminated by the body discharges United States than those that are found in the birds in the rest of diseased birds. As much as 15 milliliters of nasal discharge of the Nation (Fig. 7.2). containing massive numbers of P. multocida have been col- Acute P. multocida infections are common and they can lected from a single snow goose. Even greater amounts of result in bird deaths 6–12 hours after exposure, although bacteria enter the environment when scavengers open the 1 3 3, 4 Percentage of P. multocida serotypes in different types of wild birds. 3, 4, 12, 15 3, 12 1 3, 12, 15 4 Serotype 1 4, 7 All other serotypes SEROTYPE 4, 12 Waterbirds Landbirds 5 6 7 7, 12 1 Multiple numbers indicate 8 cross reactions to multiple antigens. 11 Scavengers Birds of prey 0 5 40 60 80 100 PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL INFECTED BIRDS (Total number of samples = 561) Figure 7.1 Distribution of Pasteurella multocida serotypes from 561 wild bird isolates from the United States. Avian Cholera 75 Figure 7.2 Distribution of Pas- FLYWAY1 SEROTYPE teurella multocida serotypes from Atlantic 1 561 wild birds isolated by waterfowl All others flyway. Mississippi 1 All others Central 1 All others 1Flyways are administrative units for the management of waterfowl that are Pacific 1 geographic representations of the primary All others migratory patterns of waterfowl. 0 20 40 60 80 100 PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL INFECTED BIRDS (BY FLYWAY) Route of transmission and field situation Comments Bird-to-bird contact Secretions from infected birds shedding P. multocida. Requires close contact, such as when individuals struggle over aquatic plants that they are feeding upon. Ingestion Probably most common route for transmission. Consumption of diseased carcasses by scavengers and predators. Ingestion of P. multocida in food and water from contaminated environments. Aerosol May be important in heavily contaminated environments, such as during major die-offs. Activities that result in splashing of surface waters result in bacteria- laden sprays when water becomes contaminated. Insects Biting insects that feed on birds after having fed upon contaminated carcasses or contaminated environments (ticks, mites, flies). Insects fed upon by birds (maggots, flies) following ingestion of P. multocida by the insect when feeding. Animal bites Not thought to be an important route for infection of wild birds. Nonfatal bites from small mammals, such as raccoon, can result in P. multocida infections that become systemic and possibly initiate disease outbreaks. Thought to occur in some domestic turkey flocks, not yet demonstrated in wild birds. Fomites Contaminated cages, equipment, and clothing used in field operations (inanimate objects) can serve as mechanical transport mechanisms for introducing P. multocida. Environmental persistence of P. multocida is sufficient for this to be a consideration when personnel and equipment are used to combat an avian cholera outbreak and then are to be redirected for other activities. Figure 7.3 Potential means for transmission of avian cholera to free-ranging wild birds. 76 Field Manual of Wildlife Diseases: Birds carcasses of diseased birds. Avian cholera can be transmit- ted within this contaminated environment in several ways. Ingestion of bacteria in contaminated food and water, includ- ing scavenging of diseased carcasses, is an important source of infection for wild birds. The disease can be transmitted Domestic animals by direct bird-to-bird contact, either between infected and Cattle, horses, swine, goats, sheep noninfected live birds, or between infected carcasses that serve as “decoys” and noninfected live birds. Aerosol trans- Dogs, cats mission is also thought to take place. In wetlands where avian Gerbils, rabbits cholera breaks out, the highest concentrations of P. multocida are found near the water surface rather than deep in the water column. Birds landing, taking flight, bathing, and other- Big game wise causing disturbance of the water surface cause bacteria- Elk and deer laden aerosols, which can serve to infect those birds. Other Caribou and reindeer means for transmission of avian cholera have also been re- Bighorn sheep ported, each of which may occur for specific situations, but Bison none of which are primary means for disease transmission Pronghorn antelope in wild birds (Fig. 7.3). The role of disease carriers as a means for initiating avian Carnivores cholera outbreaks in wild birds has long been postulated be- cause chronically infected birds are considered to be a major Bears source for infection of poultry. It has been reported that the Lynx, bobcat, puma only limit to the duration of the chronic carrier state is the Foxes lifespan of the infected bird. Disease carriers have been con- Weasels, mink clusively established for poultry, and P. multocida can com- Raccoon monly be isolated from the mouth area or tonsils of most farm animals, dogs, cats, rats, and other mammals (Fig. 7.4). Rodents However, types of P. multocida that are found in most mam- Rats, mice, voles mals do not generally cause disease in birds (see Species Muskrats, nutria Affected, this chapter). The role of disease carriers among Chipmunks migratory species of wild birds has long been suggested by the patterns of avian cholera outbreaks in wild waterfowl, but it has not been clearly established by scientific investi- gations. Recent findings by investigators at the National Pinnipeds Wildlife Health Center (NWHC) have provided evidence that Sea lions, fur seals disease carriers exist in snow goose breeding colonies. Shed- ding of P. multocida by disease carriers is likely to be through excretions from the mouth, which is the area where the bac- teria are sequestered in carriers and is the means for dis- semination of P. multocida by poultry. Poultry feces very Rabbits seldom contain viable P. multocida, and there is no evidence Cottontail rabbits that P. multocida is transmitted through the egg. Species Affected It is likely that most species of birds and mammals can become infected with P. multocida; however, there are mul- tiple strains of this bacterium and those different strains vary Domestic poultry considerably in their ability to cause disease in different ani- Chickens, turkeys mals. These differences are most pronounced for cross- Ducks, geese infections between birds and mammals. Strains isolated from Pigeons birds will usually kill rabbits and mice but not other mam- mals. Strains isolated from cattle and sheep do not readily cause clinical disease in birds. However, some strains from Figure 7.4 Partial list of domestic species and wild mam- pigs have been shown to be highly virulent (very few organ- mals from which Pasteurella multocida has been isolated. Avian Cholera 77 isms cause serious disease) for poultry. Also, cultures from ence the greatest magnitude of wild bird losses from this the mouths of raccoons were pathogenic or caused disease disease (Fig. 7.8). In general, species losses during most in domestic turkeys. Bite-wound infections by raccoons have major outbreaks are closely related to the kinds of species been postulated as a source of avian cholera outbreaks in present and to the numbers of each of those species present poultry. An interspecies chain of avian cholera transmission during the acute period of the die-off. During smaller events, has been described in free-ranging California wildlife that although several species may be present, mortality may strike involved waterbirds, mice, and avian scavengers and preda- only one or several species and the rest of the species that tors (Fig. 7.5). are present may be unaffected. Major outbreaks among wild More than 100 species of free-ranging wild birds are birds other than waterbirds are uncommon. known to have been naturally infected with P. multocida (Fig. Impacts on population levels for various species are un- 7.6) in addition to poultry and other avian species being main- known because of the difficulty of obtaining adequate as- tained in captivity. Infection in free-ranging vultures has not sessments in free-ranging migratory birds. However, the been reported, although a king vulture is reported to have magnitude of losses from individual events and the frequency died from avian cholera at the London Zoo.