Pertanika Journal of Social Sciences & Humanities
Vol. 22 (1) Mar. 2014 Contents
Foreword i
Nayan Deep S. Kanwal
Review Paper 1 in Malaysia and Challenges in Provision of Services Dzalani, H. and Shamsuddin, K.
Short Communication The Challenges, Potentials, and Experts’ Opinions on Developing a 19 Malaysian Garden Identity Osman Mohd Tahir and Mina Kaboudarahangi
Regular Articles The Rural Learning Environment and Pupils’ Learning of the English 35 Language Wreikat, Y. A., Kabilan, M. K. and Abdullah, A. C.
Vol. 22 (1) Mar. 2014 A Comparative Study: Verbal Versus Printed Guiding Grid 57 Kanthimathi Letchumanan, Karthiyaini Devarajoo and Paramasivam Muthusamy
Political Cartoons in the First Decade of the Millennium 73
Faiz S. Abdullah
Diversifying the Input and the Outcome: A Case Study 85 Phuong thi Anh Le
The U.S. Geopolitical Code and the Role of the Persian Gulf Oil in the U.S. 95 Military Intervention in 2003 Saeid Naji and Jayum A. Jawan VOL. 22 (1) MAR. 2014 Exploring Lecturers’ Perception on Learning Organization Dimensions and 119 Demographic Variables in Technical and Vocational Colleges Khosrow Nazari, Zaidatol Akmaliah Lope Pihie, Khairuddin Idris and Ramli Basri
137 Taher Bahrani and Tam Shu Sim
Pertanika Editorial O ce, Journal Division O ce of the Deputy Vice Chancellor (R&I) 1st Floor, IDEA Tower II UPM-MTDC Technology Centre Universiti Putra Malaysia 43400 UPM Serdang ISSN 0128-7702 Selangor Darul Ehsan Malaysia http://www.pertanika.upm.edu.my/ E-mail: [email protected] Tel: +603 8947 1622 / 1619 Journal of Social Sciences & Humanities
About the Journal Pertanika is an international peer-reviewed journal devoted to the publication of original papers, and it serves as a forum for practical approaches to improving quality in issues pertaining to tropical agriculture and its related fields. Pertanika began publication in 1978 as the Journal of Tropical Agricultural Science. In 1992, a decision was made to streamline Pertanika into three journals to meet the need for specialised journals in areas of study aligned with the interdisciplinary strengths of the university. The revamped Journal of Social Sciences & Humanities (JSSH) aims to develop as a pioneer journal for the Social Sciences with a focus on emerging issues pertaining to the social and behavioural sciences as well as the humanities, particularly in the Asia Pacific region. Other Pertanika series include Pertanika Journal of Tropical Agricultural Science (JTAS); and Pertanika Journal of Science and Technology (JST). JSSH is published in English and it is open to authors around the world regardless of the nationality. It is currently published four times a year i.e. in March, June, September and December. Journal of Social Sciences & Humanities
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Soc. Sci. Hum. JSSH Journal of Social Sciences & Humanities AN INTERNATIONAL PEER-REVIEWED JOURNAL EDITOR-IN-CHIEF EDITORIAL BOARD Mohd. Shahwahid Hj. Othman 2013-2015 Economics, Natural Resource & Abdul Mansur M. Masih Elias @ Ilias Salleh Muzafar Shah Habibullah Environmental Economics, Economics Economics, Econometrics, Finance, Architectural Science, Sustainable Economics, Monetary Economics, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Tropical Design, Thermal Comfort, Banking, Macroeconomics, Universiti Valuation Minerals, Saudi Arabia. Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Putra Malaysia, Malaysia. Malaysia. Alan Maley Patricia Matusky CHIEF EXECUTIVE EDITOR English Language Studies, Teaching of Gong-Soog Hong Music, Ethnomusicology, Malay and English Language and Literature, Leeds Economics, Consumer and Family Indonesian language, Literature and Nayan Deep S. Kanwal Metropolitan University, UK. Sciences, The Ohio State University, USA. Culture, Grand Valley State University, Environmental Issues – Landscape USA. Ali Reza Kaldi Jacqueline Pugh-Kitingan Plant Modelling Applications Medical Sociology, Sociology of Music, Ethnomusicology, Borneo and Samsinar Md.Sidin Development Ageing, Gerontology, Papua New Guinea Studies, Universiti Management Studies, Marketing, UNIVERSITY PUBLICATIONS University of Social Welfare and Malaysia Sabah, Malaysia. Consumer Behaviour, Universiti Putra Rehabilitation, Tehran, Iran. Malaysia, Malaysia. COMMITTEE James R. Stock Aminah Ahmad Management Studies, Marketing, Shameem Rafik-Galea Mohd Azmi Mohd Lila, Chair Sociology, Gender and Development, Logistics and Supply Chain Management, English Language Studies, Linguistics, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia. Quantitative Method, University of South Applied Linguistics, Language and Florida, USA. Communication, Universiti Putra EDITORIAL STAFF Bee-Hoon Tan Malaysia, Malaysia. English Language Studies and Applied Jayakaran Mukundan Journal Officers: Shamsher Mohamad Linguistics, with Special Research Interest English Language Studies, Teaching Kwan Lee Yin, ScholarOne in e-learning and Learning Support, English as a Second Language (TESL), Ramadili Mohd Kanagamalar Silvarajoo, ScholarOne Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia. English Language Studies, Universiti Finance, Corporate Governance, The Putra Malaysia, Malaysia. Global University of Islamic Finance Brian Tomlinson (INCEIF) Malaysia. Editorial Assistants: English Language Studies, The Jayum A. Jawan Siti Juridah Mat Arip Evaluation, Adaptation and Sociology, Politics and Government, Stephen J. Hall Development, Leeds Metropolitan Civilization Studies, Universiti Putra English Language Studies, Linguist, Zulinaardawati Kamarudin University, UK. Malaysia, Malaysia. Teacher Educator, TESOL, Sunway University College , Malaysia. Deanna L. Sharpe COPY EDITORS Jonathan Newton Economics, Consumer and Family Classroom-based Second Language Stephen J. Thoma Doreen Dillah Economics, Personal Finance, The Acquisition, Language Teaching Phsycology, Educational Psychology, The University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. Crescentia Morais Methodology, the Interface of Culture University of Alabama, USA. and Language in Language Teaching and Ena Bhattacharyya Dessy Irawati Learning, and Language/Communication Swee-Heng Chan International Business Management, Training and Material Design for the English Language Studies, Universiti Strategic Management, Economic PRODUCTION STAFF Multicultural Workplace, Victoria Putra Malaysia, Malaysia. Geography, Globalization and University of Wellington, New Zealand. Pre-press Officer: Development Studies, Industrial Turiman Suandi Dynamics and Knowledge Transfer, Marcus Bion GRIFFIN Psychology, Youth Development and Nik Khairul Azizi Nik Ibrahim Radboud University, the Netherlands Human Ecology, Anthropology, Tropical Volunteerism, Universiti Putra Malaysia, and EduPRIME the consulting, the Agriculture, Fisheries, Cultural Learning Malaysia. Layout & Typeset: Netherlands. Solutions, USA. Sarwani Padzil Victor T. King Mary Susan Philip Anthropology / Southeast Asian Studies Noor Sholihah Mohd Daud English Language Theatre in Malaysia White Rose East Asia Centre, University Norhafizah Abd Rani and Singapore; Postcolonial Theatre, of Leeds, UK. University of Malaya, Malaysia. WEBMASTER Almaz Hong (Freelance) INTERNATIONAL ADVISORY BOARD PUBLICITY & PRESS RELEASE 2013-2016 Magdalene Pokar (ResearchSEA) Carolyn Graham Handoyo Puji Widodo Mohamed ARIFF Music, Jazz Chants, English Language Studies, ESP, Economics, Finance, Capital Market, EDITORIAL OFFICE Harvard University, USA. Language Curriculum-Materials Design Islamic Finance, Fiscal Policy, Bond and Development, and Language University, Australia. JOURNAL DIVISION David Nunan Methodology, Politeknik Negeri Jember, Vice-President: Academic, Anaheim East Java-Indonesia. Pal Ahluwalia Office of the Deputy Vice Chancellor (R&I) University, California, English Language st Pro Vice Chancellor & Vice-President, 1 Floor, IDEA Tower II Studies, Linguist, TESOL, University of John R. Schermerhorn Jr. UNESCO Chair in Transnational Diasporas UPM-MTDC Technology Centre Hong Kong, Hong Kong. Management Studies, Management and and Reconciliation Studies, African Universiti Putra Malaysia Organizational Behaviour, International Studies, Social and Cultural Theory, Post- 43400 Serdang, Selangor Malaysia. Faith Trent AM FACE Business, Ohio University, USA. colonial Theory, Division of Education, Education: Curriculum development, Arts & Social Sciences, University of Gen Enq.: +603 8947 1622 | 1619 | 1616 Flinders University, Adelaide, Australia. Kent Matthews South Australia, Australia. E-mail: [email protected] Economics, Banking and Finance, URL: www.journals-jd.upm.edu.my Gary N. Mclean Modelling and Forecasting the Macro Phillip Jones Executive Director, International Human Economy, Cardiff Business School, UK. Architectural Science, Sustainability in Resource Development Programs, the Built Environment, Welsh School of PUBLISHER EAHR, Human Resource Development Lehman B. Fletcher Architecture, Cardiff University, UK. for National, Community and Social Economics, Agricultural Development, Kamariah Mohd Saidin Development, International Human Policy Analysis and Planning, Iowa State Rance P. L. Lee UPM Press Resource Development, Organizational University, USA. Sociology, The Chinese University of Universiti Putra Malaysia Development, Texas A&M University, Hong Kong. USA. Mark P. Orbe 43400 UPM, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia. Communication, Interpersonal Royal D. Colle Tel: +603 8946 8855, 8946 8854 Graham Thurgood Communication, Communication and Communication, Cornell University, USA. Fax: +603 8941 6172 English Language Studies, General Diversity, Intercultural Communication, Linguistics, Discourse and Syntax, Western Michigan University, USA. Vijay K. Bhatia E-mail: [email protected] California State University, Chico., USA. Education: Genre Analysis and URL: http://penerbit.upm.edu.my Professional Communication, City University of Hong Kong ABSTRACTING/INDEXING Pertanika is now over 35 years old; this accumulated knowledge has resulted the journals being indexed in SCOPUS (Elsevier), Thomson (ISI) Web of Knowledge [BIOSIS & CAB Abstracts], EBSCO, DOAJ, Google Scholar, AGRICOLA, ISC, Citefactor, Rubriq and MyAIS.
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Pertanika Journal of Social Sciences & Humanities Vol. 22 (1) Mar. 2014
Contents
Foreword i Nayan Deep S. Kanwal
Review Paper A Review of Definitions and Identifications of Specific Learning Disabilities 1 in Malaysia and Challenges in Provision of Services Dzalani, H. and Shamsuddin, K.
Short Communication The Challenges, Potentials, and Experts’ Opinions on Developing a 19 Malaysian Garden Identity Osman Mohd Tahir and Mina Kaboudarahangi
Regular Articles The Rural Learning Environment and Pupils’ Learning of the English 35 Language Wreikat, Y. A., Kabilan, M. K. and Abdullah, A. C.
A Comparative Study: Verbal Versus Printed Guiding Grid 57 Kanthimathi Letchumanan, Karthiyaini Devarajoo and Paramasivam Muthusamy
Political Cartoons in the First Decade of the Millennium 73 Iro Sani, Mardziah Hayati Abdullah, Afida Muhammad Ali and Faiz S. Abdullah
Diversifying the Input and the Outcome: A Case Study 85 Phuong thi Anh Le
The U.S. Geopolitical Code and the Role of the Persian Gulf Oil in the U.S. 95 Military Intervention in 2003 Saeid Naji and Jayum A. Jawan
Exploring Lecturers’ Perception on Learning Organization Dimensions and 119 Demographic Variables in Technical and Vocational Colleges Khosrow Nazari, Zaidatol Akmaliah Lope Pihie, Khairuddin Idris and Ramli Basri
The Effect of Exposure to Cartoons on Language Proficiency 137 Taher Bahrani and Tam Shu Sim Lifelong Learning Model: The Experiences of Malaysian School Teachers 147 Jin Kuan Kok
Willingness-To-Pay for Monorail Services: Case Study in Penang, Malaysia 165 Lee, L. Y. and Cheah, Y. K.
Job Satisfaction among School Counsellors in Secondary Schools in 181 Mid-Western Nigeria Friday Osamwonyi Eduwen, Oyaziwo Aluede and Austine Itohan Ojugo
Acquisition of the Verb Movement Parameter in English by Adult Arabic 195 Speakers Muneera Yahya Ali Muftah and Wong Bee Eng
Restorative Justice In Relation to Collectivism/Individualism, Shyness, and 217 Conflict Resolution Method Preference Mohamad Taufik Mohamad and Azlinda Azman
Language and Identity: The Impact of a Multilingual Environment on 233 the Personal Identity among German Mother Tongue Speakers Living in Malaysia Miroslava Majtanova and Mohd. Azidan Abdul Jabar
The Level of Satisfaction towards Flood Management System in Kelantan, 257 Malaysia Tuan Pah Rokiah Syed Hussain, Abd Rahim Md Nor and Hamidi Ismail
Psychometric Evaluation of the Australian Inventory of Family Strengths 271 (AIFS) on Rural Malay Families in Malaysia Zarinah Arshat and Rozumah Baharudin
Psychometric Properties of the Malay Version of the Job Satisfaction 285 Survey among Malaysian Military Personnel Ang Chin Siang, Mansor Abu Talib, Rumaya Juhari and Zainal Madon
Improving Engineering Performance through Leadership, CE and Teamwork 307 in a Malaysian Semiconductor Firm Poh Kiat Ng, Kian Siong Jee, Jian Ai Yeow and Masyitah Mahadi
Turnover Intention among Academics: A Case Study of Private Higher 321 Learning Education in Klang Valley Afdzal Aizat Ramli, Shahrul Nizam Salahudin, Zaifudin Zainol and Turiman Suandi Science Teaching Styles and Student Intrinsic Motivation: Validating a 335 Structural Model Sharifah Sariah Syed Hassan and Mohamed Rajab
Is Problem Solving and Systems Thinking Related? A Case Study in a 345 Malaysian University Liew Chin Ying, Foo Kien Kheng, Kelvin Goh Tee Hiong and Elinda Lee Ai Lim
Stigma as Part of Identity Development of Gay Men in Penang – 365 A Qualitative Study Felix, M. S.
Settling Down Spiritually: Chinese Malaysian’s Worship of Datuk Gong 379 Chin Yee Mun and Lee Yok Fee
Identifying Factors Influencing Mathematical Problem Solving among 393 Matriculation Students in Penang Ong, H. C. and Lim, J. S.
Socioeconomic Status, Physical Activity, Physical Fitness and Sedentary 409 Activity in 7-to 11-year-old Iranian Children Samad Esmaeilzadeh
Foreword
Welcome to the First Issue 2014 of the Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities (JSSH)!
JSSH is an open-access journal for the Social Sciences and Humanities that is published by Universiti Putra Malaysia Press. It is independently owned and managed bythe university and run on a non-profit basis for the benefit of the world-wide social science community.
This issue contains 26 articles. The authors of these articles come from different countries, namely, Malaysia, Iran, Vietnam, Nigeria and Slovakia.
The regular articles cover a wide range of topics, from a case study to examine the determinants of consumers’ willingness-to-pay for monorail transportation in Penang, Malaysia (Lee Lian Yee and Cheah Yong Kang), the U.S. geopolitical code and the role of the Persian Gulf oil in the U.S. military intervention in 2003 (Saeid Naji and Jayum A. Jawan), a study on individual degree of collectivism/individualism and shyness of the Malaysian people and the kinds of conflict resolution practice that they prefer(Mohamad Taufik bin Mohamadand Azlinda Azman), to a study on the challenges and potentials of and experts’ opinions on developing a Malaysian garden identity (Osman Mohd Tahir and Mina Kaboudarahangi).
The research studies, on topics related to linguistics, education, management studies, anthropology and psychology, include a study of assessing students’ oral achievement in an urban school in Malaysia (Kanthimathi Letchumanan, Karthiyaini Devarajoo and Paramasivam Muthusamy), the rural learning environment and pupils’ learning of the English language (Yazan Abdel Aziz Semreen AL-Wreikat, Muhamad Kamarul Kabilan Bin Abdullah and Anna Christina Abdullah), a study of political cartoons in the first decade of the millennium (Iro Sani, Mardziah Hayati Abdullah, Afida Muhammad Aliand Faiz S. Abdullah), a study of the effect of exposure to cartoons on language proficiency (Taher Bahrani and Tam Shu Sim), the acquisition of the verb movement parameter in English by adult Arabic speakers (Muneera Yahya Ali Muftah and Wong Bee Eng), the impact of a multilingual environment on the personal identity among German mother-tongue speakers living in Malaysia (Miroslava Majtanova and Mohd. Azidan Abdul Jabar), a case study on diversifying the input and the outcome in the classroom activities (Phuong thi Anh Le), the experiences of Malaysian school teachers in lifelong learning (Kok Jin Kuan), job satisfaction among school counsellors in secondary schools in Mid-Western Nigeria (Eduwen, F. I., Okoza, J., Aluede, O. and Ojugo, A. I), a review of definitions and identifications of specific learning disabilities in Malaysia(Dzalani H. and Shamsuddin K.), the teaching styles adopted by science teachers and their students’ intrinsic motivation in order to be persistent in learning the subject (Sharifah Sariah Syed Hassan and Mohamed Rajab), a case study of the relationship between problem-solving and informal systems- thinking skills in a Malaysia university (Liew, C.Y., Lee, E.A.L., Goh, K.T.H. and Foo, K. K.), exploring lecturers’ perception on learning organization dimensions and demographic variables in technical and vocational colleges (Khosrow Nazari, Zaidatol Akmaliah Bte Lope Pihie, Khairuddin Bin Idris and Ramli Bin Basri), a study on the level of satisfaction towards the flood management system in Kelantan, Malaysia (Tuan Pah Rokiah Syed Hussain, Abd Rahim Md Nor and Hamidi Ismail), a study on improving engineering performance through leadership, CE and teamwork in a Malaysian semiconductor firm (Ng Poh Kiat and Jee Kian Siong), a case study of turnover intention from the perspective of job demand, job control and social support private higher learning education in the Klang Valley (Afdzal Aizat Ramli, Shahrul Nizam Salahudin, Zaifudin Zainol and Turiman Suandi), a study identifying factors influencing mathematical problem solving among matriculation students in Penang(Ong Hong Choon and Lim Joo Sim), a qualitative study on stigma as part of identity development of gay men in Penang (Mark Stephen Felix), a study on Chinese Malaysians’ worship of Datuk Gong in Malaysia (Chin Yee Mun and Lee Yok Fee), socioeconomic status (SES), physical activity (PA), physical fitness and sedentary activity in Iranian children aged 7-11 years (Samad Esmaeilzadeh), psychometric evaluation of the Australian Inventory of Family Strengths (AIFS) on rural Malay families in Malaysia (Zarinah Arshat and Rozumah Baharudin) and a study of psychometric properties of the Malay version of the job satisfaction survey among Malaysian military personnel (Ang Chin Siang, Mansor Abu Talib, Rumaya Juhari and Zainal Madon).
I anticipate that you will find the evidence presented in this issue to be intriguing, thought provoking, and useful in reaching new milestones. Please recommend the journal to your colleagues and students to make this endeavour meaningful.
I would also like to express my gratitude to all the contributors who have made this issue possible, as well as the authors, reviewers and editors for their professional contribution. Last but not least, the editorial assistance of the journal division staff is also fully appreciated.
JSSH is currently accepting manuscripts for upcoming issues based on original qualitative or quantitative research that opens new areas of inquiry and investigation.
Chief Executive Editor Nayan Deep S. KANWAL, FRSA, ABIM, AMIS, Ph.D. [email protected] Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 1 - 18 (2014)
SOCIAL SCIENCES & HUMANITIES
Journal homepage: http://www.pertanika.upm.edu.my/
Review Article
A Review of Definitions and Identifications of Specific Learning Disabilities in Malaysia and Challenges in Provision of Services
Dzalani, H.1* and Shamsuddin, K.2 1Occupational Therapy Programme, School of Rehabilitation, Faculty of Health Sciences, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Jalan Raja Muda Abdul Aziz, 50300 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia 2Department of Community Health, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Jalan Yaakob Latif, Bandar Tun Razak, 56000 Cheras, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
ABSTRACT This paper aims to highlight issues on differences in definitions and terminologies of specific learning disabilities used in Malaysia compared to those used in some other countries based on published and unpublished materials on learning disabilities/specific learning disabilities. In Malaysia, a broad generic definition of ‘learning disabilities’ is adopted and this approach post challenges in providing support and services for those with this disabilities. Lack of standardized and culturally sensitive measurements and the limited number of professionals with specialized training to deal with identification of those with specific learning disabilities are other challenges faced in this country. This paper advocates a review of the current definitions of specific learning disabilities to one that can better guide planning and provision of appropriate services to the target group in Malaysia.
Keywords: Definition, learning disabilities, specific learning disabilities
INTRODUCTION to describe students who puzzled parents The term learning disabilities (LD) was first and teachers with their low academic established in the United States in 1962 by achievement despite normal physical Dr. Samuel Kirk . This terminology is used appearance like that of of typical students (Vaughn et al., 2000). To date, the term ARTICLE INFO Specific Learning Disabilities (SLD) is Article history: Received: 1 March 2012 commonly used in the international context Accepted: 28 August 2012 to refer to those previously known as E-mail addresses: [email protected] (Dzalani, H.), having LD. In the United States, about 4% [email protected] (Shamsuddin, K.) of the students attending public schools are * Corresponding author estimated to have SLD. ISSN: 0128-7702 © Universiti Putra Malaysia Press Dzalani, H. and Shamsuddin, K.
In Malaysia, the Social Welfare The most commonly cited definition Departments (SWD) as cited in Aminah of SLD is the definition established by Bee et al. (2009) reported that 38.7% of IDEA (Individual with Disability Education registered persons with disabilities in Act) and the National Joint Committee on the country are those having ‘learning Learning Disabilities (NJCLD) (Kavale disabilities’. The significant number & Forness, 2000). The definition held by reported by the SWD raised concern on the NJCLD, [the committee that was formed criteria used for identification. In addition, by the representatives of eight U.S. national ineffective interventions for persons with organizations that have major interest LD/SLD may be due to the very broad in SLD], is found to be the most precise and heterogeneous definition of ‘learning definition for SLD and has obtained a high disabilities’ used locally. The current criteria level of acceptance among many national used in identification of persons with LD/ associations in the United States (Hamill, SLD in Malaysia lead to misclassification 1990; Hammond, 1996). and subsequent inadequacy of services. NJCLD refers SLD as “a heterogeneous This paper aims at highlighting issues of group of disorders manifested by significant definitions and terminologies related to LD/ difficulties in the learning and use of SLD used in Malaysia. It will also compare listening, speaking, reading, writing, definitions used in other countries with that reasoning, or mathematical abilities. These used locally and the challenges this posed disorders are intrinsic to the individual, on services provision for those labelled presumed to be due to central nervous as having SLD. This review was based system dysfunction, and may occur across on analysis of published and unpublished the life span. Problems in self-regulatory materials on learning disabilities in Malaysia behaviours, social perception, and social and overseas. interaction may exist with SLD but do not, by themselves, constitute a SLD. Although GLOBAL DEFINITIONS OF SPECIFIC SLD may occur concomitantly with other LEARNING DISABILITIES disabilities (e.g.: sensory impairment, The definition of SLD used in the United intellectual disabilities, serious emotional States (U.S.) has been widely adopted by disturbance), or with extrinsic influences other countries such as Canada (Learning (e.g. cultural differences, insufficient or Disabilities Association of Canada, inappropriate instruction), they are not the 2002), Australia (Klassen et al., 2005), result of those conditions or influences” Japan (Kataoka et al., 2001), Hong Kong (NJCLD, 1998, p.1). (Lau, 1998; Hong Kong Society of Child In Japan, the Committee on Guidance/ Neurology and Developmental Paediatrics Education Planning for Children with (HKCNDP), 2006) and South Korea (Jung, Learning Disabilities, 1999, defined 2007). SLD as the disability that consists of
2 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 1 - 18 (2014) A Review of Definitions and Identifications of Specific Learning Disabilities in Malaysia and Challenges in Provision of Services
“varied conditions, fundamentally without With regards services, in many intellectual disabilities, manifested by developed countries with more standardized significant difficulties in the acquisition definition of SLD such as the United States, and use of listening, speaking, reading, UK and Canada, services for persons with writing, calculating or reasoning. Learning SLD has become a national concern. Since disabilities are presumed to be caused by persons with SLD has intellectual capacity to central nervous system dysfunction rather learn but experienced difficulties in specific than visual impairment, hearing impairment, cognitive and processing functions, students intellectual handicap, emotional disturbance, in these countries were placed in mainstream or environmental influences being the direct classes but are provided with academic cause” (Kataoka et al ., 2001, p. 3). support and accommodations. In the United In Hong Kong, the Hong Kong Society States for example, educational services for of Child Neurology and Developmental SLD are mandated by the education acts Paediatrics (HKCNDP) refers SLD (IDEA, 2004; Test et al., 2006). Support and to a group of disorders manifested as accommodations include remedial teaching significant difficulties in the acquisition and incorporation of instructional learning and use of listening, speaking, reading, strategies skills, academic remediation writing or mathematical abilities, despite strategies, testing accommodations, and access to conventional teaching. These the use of assistive technology in assisting disorders are intrinsic to the individual and students with SLD facing academic neurobiological in origin, with onset in problems at all education levels, primary, childhood and extending beyond it. SLD is secondary and post-secondary education/ not the direct result of sensory impairment, training institutions. mental retardation, social and emotional Literature on characteristics of persons disturbance or environmental influences with SLD showed that SLD is not an (e.g., cultural differences or insufficient/ exclusively academic related problem (Lam, inappropriate instruction), (HKCNDP, 2009; Lerner, 2003; Rojewski, 1992). In 2006). the United States, their education acts had In the United Kingdom (UK), the term mandated schools to provide transition learning disabilities or learning difficulties services for transition aged students no are used to refer to those with lower later than age 16 years. The act requires intellectual functioning (Heslop & Abbott, individual transition planning be developed 2008; Abbott & Heslop, 2009). The term to help prepare students to engage in the “SLD” in UK is used to describe individuals post-school outcomes of their interest and that demonstrate similar characteristics to these may be post-secondary education/ those described as having LD/SLD in the training and/or employment. Vocational United States and many other countries like rehabilitation services are also provided for Japan and Canada (Reid, 2003). school leavers with SLD (Koller, 1994).
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 1 - 18 (2014) 3 Dzalani, H. and Shamsuddin, K.
In Asia, the HKCNDP following the the medical field while the other refers to use of standardized definition of SLD the one used by the educational and social had urged the Hong Kong government services such as those provided by the to provide necessary services for persons Ministry of Women, Family, and Community with SLD. The services include early Development and the Ministry of Education. identification, assessment, education Medical officers, paediatricians, paediatric remediation and accommodations, neurologists and child psychiatrists establish examination accommodations, school the diagnosis of LD/SLD based on the support, and services for higher education guidelines of Learning Disorders outlined in and adults with SLD, as well as provision the Diagnostic Statistical Manual IV (DSM of community support and development of IV). Learning Disorders (Previously known self-help groups, and professional training as Academic Skills Disorders) are divided for those dealing with persons with SLD into four categories (American Psychiatry (HKCNDP, 2006). Association, 2000; Fauman, 1994; First & Tasman, 2004). The group consists of DEFINITIONS OF SPECIFIC ‘Reading Disorder’/Dyslexia (F315.00), LEARNING DISABILITIES IN ‘Mathematics Disorder’/Dyscalculia MALAYSIA (F315.1), ‘Disorder of Written Expression’ In Malaysia, the term LD is more commonly (F315.2) and ‘Learning Disorders Not used than the term SLD. The definition Otherwise Specified’ (Learning Disorder of Learning Disabilities is established NOS; F315.9). According to DSM-IV- mainly for registration purposes for support TR guidelines, the diagnosis of learning and services. There is no specific formal disorders are established when the person’s definition for SLD (Gomez, 2004). The reading achievement, mathematical ability description of ‘learning disabilities’ used and/or writing skills, is substantially below in Malaysia is likened to that of the UK the expected “grade” as measured by definition. This is not surprising since individually administered standardized historically Malaysia was under the British tests, given the person’s chronological age, rule before gaining independence in 1957. measured intelligence, and age appropriate Many education officers and teachers had education (First & Tasman, 2004). DSM- been sent and continued to be sent to UK to IV-TR also emphasized the importance of be trained. However, this generic definition understanding the underlying processes raised challenges in providing support and that include ‘input’ (e.g. visual or auditory services as well as researches relevant for perception), ‘integration’ (e.g. sequencing, each sub-groups within the current broadly abstracting, and organization), ‘memory’ defined ‘learning disabilities’. (e.g. short-term, rote, and long-term) and Generally, there are two different ‘output’ (e.g. language and motor) (First & approaches for defining Learning Tasman, 2004). Disabilities. First, is the definition used in
4 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 1 - 18 (2014) A Review of Definitions and Identifications of Specific Learning Disabilities in Malaysia and Challenges in Provision of Services
For social welfare purposes, medical SLD. The SWD has used the term ‘learning officers are compelled to use the term disabilities’ more broadly to provide support ‘learning disabilities’ as imposed by the as well as education, employment and social Social Welfare Department for disabilities services for more affected individuals. In registration (Social Welfare Department, the earlier years, the SWD had also used 2009). However, local articles on Learning the term ‘intellectual disability’ (Khairul Disabilities written by health care providers Anuar, 2004) to the group currently labelled continues to use the term learning disorders’ as those with ‘learning disabilities’ in (Amar, 2008) or its specific subtypes such as Malaysia. ‘dyslexia’ (Normah, Shalisah & Nor’izam, The Ministry of Education Malaysia 1999) recognised SLD as a category of students The Social Welfare Department with special needs. The Ministry of Education (SWD), under the Ministry of Women, refers the term SLD to students who are Family, and Community Development has unable to learn in the mainstream education established seven categories of disability for classroom setting. The teachers observe registration purposes. These categories are a difference between the achievements hearing disability, visual disability, speech of these students and the rest of the class disability, physical disability, ‘learning in regards to their reading, writing and disabilities’, mental disability and multiple arithmetic skills. The ministry through disabilities (Social Welfare Department, it Special Education Division, refers the 2010). Disability registration with SWD term ‘learning disabilities’ to a group of enables persons with disabilities in Malaysia students with special needs who has learning to receive supports and services provided problems in schools (Special Education by the government and government-linked Division, 2012). Their learning difficulties agencies. Upon registration, they are given could be due to intellectual dysfunction, a card with their personal information neurological syndromes and/or neurological such as photo, name, address and type of processing problems. The term ‘learning disability, and are eligible for public support. disabilities’ as used by the Ministry of However, the SWD has its own operational Education is the same as the one that is definition of Learning Disabilities. It refers used by the Social Welfare Department. to those with intellectual ability (mental However, the Ministry of Education, has in age) that is not in accordance with their addition established its own definition for chronological age and also demonstrated the SLD (dyslexia) condition, which refers profound difficulties in performing their dyslexia to individuals who seemed to have daily livings. Conditions included under intellectual functioning equivalent or above this category are global developmental typical students at similar age but have delay, Down syndrome, ADHD, autism, significant difficulty in spelling, reading and intellectual disability, slow learner and writing. These students have low academic
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 1 - 18 (2014) 5 Dzalani, H. and Shamsuddin, K. achievement, generally 2 years behind The IQ test which measures the general their peers without disabilities (Special intelligence performance “g” is necessary in Education Department, 2003). identification of persons with SLD. It helps ‘Learning disabilities’ definition, as rule out intellectual disabilities, slow learner defined and used by the SWD is also and ability-expectation mismatch (Wodrich being adopted by other government and & Schmitt, 2006). However, some scholars non-government organizations (NGOs) in the field of SLD in the United States in Malaysia. Generally the usage of this disagreed on the use of IQ in defining person term demonstrates eligibility for disability with learning disabilities. Seigel (1989) support and services (Fonseca, 1996). argued that the IQ test score is inappropriate However, there are NGOs, such as the as measurement of a person’s intelligence in Dyslexia Association of Malaysia which defining SLD as it fails to predict the specific provides services for people with dyslexia, cognitive functions central to academic which used an SLD definition drawn skills, reading, spelling, and language from the international literature (Dyslexia task. Furthermore, studies had shown Association of Malaysia, 2011). higher reading achievement in individuals with low IQ (Seigel, 1989; Share et al., IDENTIFICATION OF SPECIFIC 1989). In addition, academic achievement LEARNING DISABILITIES is also influenced by other factors such A discrepancy between intellectual ability as motivation, self-discipline, attention, and academic achievement is the long- motor and phonological processing skills established method in identification of (Duckworth & Seligman, 2005; Rindermann SLD in most developed countries. The & Neubauer, 2001). The ability-achievement IQ-achievement discrepancy refers to the discrepancy approach is criticised for its concept of “unexpected’ achievements in disadvantages in identification of children the SLD definition. The child’s achievement with SLD. This includes its inability to (mostly refer to academic achievement) is discriminate between children with SLD low compared to his or her ability (mostly from those who are ‘low achievers’ (Fletcher refer to intellectual capacity). The ability- et al., 1994; Hale et al., 2011) and leads to a achievement is measured using standardized ‘wait-to-fail’ situation before children with tools such as Kaufman Assessment Battery SLD get needed services (Vaughn & Fuchs, for Children (K-ABC) and Wechsler 2003; Hale et al., 2011). Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC). ‘Response to intervention’ (RTI) is a However, this traditional approach of new alternative approach to definition and identification is criticised for its limitations identification of SLD that is currently being especially in the development of intervention researched and practiced in the United for persons with SLD. States. The main criterion of this approach
6 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 1 - 18 (2014) A Review of Definitions and Identifications of Specific Learning Disabilities in Malaysia and Challenges in Provision of Services is the replacement of the use of the IQ score (Hale et al., 2008). An example of this test as measurement for the achievement research-based procedures approach is the discrepancy approach (Fletcher et al., ‘Concordance-Discordance Model’ by Hale 2004, Fuchs & Fuchs, 2006). RTI focuses & Fiorello (2004). The Federal Regulations on discrepancies relative to age-based for identification methods for students expectations and instructions instead of with SLD in the United States permitted cognitive discrepancy (Fletcher &Vaughn, three methods of identification which 2009). Many scholars in this field supported are Ability-Achievement Discrepancy, the RTI process-based identification of RTI and Alternative Research-Based SLD (Fletcher et al., 2004, and 2011, Procedures (United States Department Fuschs & Fusch, 1998; Ysseldyke, 2005). of Education, 2006). In addition, Using this approach, students who do not many researchers suggested the use of benefit from general education classroom comprehensive evaluation of cognitive are given research-based interventions. and/or neuropsychological processes in Those who do not respond to interventions, identification of SLD even if the RTI labelled as ‘non-responders’ are provided approach is used first (Fletcheret al., 2005; with additional intensive interventions. Kavale & Spaulding, 2008; Hale et al., Students who consistently fail to show 2006, 2011; Wodrich et al., 2006). response to these intensive interventions are deemed to need special education IDENTIFICATION OF SPECIFIC services (Sotelo-Dynega et al., 2011) and LEARNING DISABILITIES IN MALAYSIA are required to undergo more comprehensive evaluation to determine their eligibility for In 2003, the Special Education Division, special education and identification of SLD Ministry of Education developed a local (Fletcher et al., 2011). instrument, the Instrumen Senarai Semak The most recent approach in Disleksia (ISD), to screen students in the identification of SLD uses ‘research-based primary schools suspected to have dyslexia. procedures’. This approach uses alternative This screening instrument consists of three research-based procedures instead elements: (i) students’ level of mastery of conventional IQ achievement-based in reading and writing (spelling) and assessment in the evaluation of the strengths numeracy skills (difficulties); (ii) teachers’/ and weaknesses of persons with SLD in their parents’ perception of students’ abilities abilities (Hale et al., 2011; Sotelo-Dynega (strengths); and (iii) predictors of dyslexia. et al., 2011). The individual standardized The purpose of the screening instrument is cognitive and achievement measures are to help teachers identify students who have used to identify the cognitive strengths, or who are at risk of having dyslexia. Using cognitive deficits, and achievement deficits this instrument, students who are identified associated with the cognitive deficit as probably having dyslexia are further
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 1 - 18 (2014) 7 Dzalani, H. and Shamsuddin, K. referred to the medical or healthcare services these students varied, the majority of them for confirmation of the diagnoses (Ministry do not have intellectual disability. Toh et al. of Education, 2003). (2011) reported that 10.8% of the year one The Ministry of Education Malaysia student in their study had SLD. introduced the Literacy and Numeracy In Malaysia, the clinical psychologists Screening (LINUS) programme for primary are responsible in providing data on children school children in 2010. The LINUS behaviour psychological performances that program aim for each child to master their are normally required to establish diagnosis. basic literacy and numeracy skill after The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children following the three year primary education (WISC) is commonly used as a clinical tool (Ministry of Education, 2010a). Children are to provide a child’s IQ estimation score. screened using LINUS Assessment for their The evaluation of child’s behaviour (for reading, writing and arithmetic skills when example, Vineland Adaptive Behaviour they enter primary school at age 6 years. Scales, Child Behaviour Checklist), Three LINUS assessments are carried out dyslexia characteristics using Dyslexia for year one students in March, June and Screening Test, the child’s academic/school September. Those who fail this screening performances (based on teachers report and/ are either placed in LINUS programme or or tests in the clinic), and family report are referred to the health facilities for diagnostic equally important and have been taken into evaluation prior to placement in programs consideration when making a diagnosis. The for students with special education needs. diagnosis is established based on the input The LINUS intervention program focuses from a multi-disciplinary team which most on improving the students’ basic reading, commonly consist of clinical psychologist, writing and arithmetic skills. Remedial psychiatrist and/or paediatrician. teachers and selected high performance teachers are assigned to teach students in CHALLENGES IN PROVIDING the remedial classes which consist of smaller SUPPORT AND SERVICES FOR INDIVIDUALS WITH SPESIFIC number of students (Ministry of Education, LEARNING DISABILITIES IN 2010a). This recent move by the Ministry MALAYSIA of Education is seen as a positive step Standardized definition is essential for towards early identification of students with accurate identification of persons with ‘learning disabilities’ in Malaysia (The Star, SLD for the purpose of services planning 2012). Toh et al. (2011) found that out of and implementation (Fonseca, 1996; Jung, 93 primary one students who were referred 2007). Standardized definition facilitates for ‘learning disabilities’ at Lau King Howe assessment, intervention and research on Memorial Children Clinic, 72% of them the problems and needs of this group. The failed the LINUS assessment. Although the absence of consensus on the standardized clinical diagnosis and non-verbal ability of definition makes estimation of its prevalence
8 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 1 - 18 (2014) A Review of Definitions and Identifications of Specific Learning Disabilities in Malaysia and Challenges in Provision of Services difficult and this will compromise services The Ministry of Education special provision (Jung, 2007). programme, the ‘dyslexia programme’, In Malaysia, services including was initiated following the implementation educational and social services for persons of the dyslexia screening instruments with SLD are deemed for those grouped under in schools. However, this programme is the umbrella term ‘learning disabilities’ by limited to children in primary and secondary the SWD. Historically, special education schools. Support and services at post- services for people with disabilities in secondary school level are not documented. Malaysia started with services for persons Currently the ‘dyslexia programme’ is with sensory disabilities (hearing and visual available in 51 primary schools and 16 impairment) and subsequently followed for secondary schools all over Malaysia those with intellectual disabilities (Aminah (Ministry of Education, 2010b). This Bee et al., 2009; Jamila, 2005). The Special number is relatively small compared to the education classes for students with ‘learning number of students with SLD in the country. disabilities’ at government funded schools In schools with no ‘dyslexia programme’, were started in 1988 for primary school students with SLD can choose to study in children and in 1995 for secondary school either mainstream classes without support students (Jamila, 2005). It is only recently, services from special education teachers since 2004 that the education programme or opt to follow the Special Education for students with dyslexia is made available Integrated Program (SEIP). According in the governments funded schools. In other to their performance, students with SLD word, the special education classes for who followed the SEIP are placed in either students with ‘learning disabilities’ were the inclusive class (together with typical established mainly to serve children with students and following the mainstream intellectual disabilities who were previously curriculum) or segregated class (with known as ‘mentally handicap’ and not those students with ‘learning disabilities’; and with SLD. Many students with SLD are following alternative curriculum). Support left to struggle in the mainstream classes and services for students with SLD in the due to lack of support from the education inclusive or segregated classes vary based on system and are at risk of becoming academic available resources in schools. In addition, failures or labelled as low achieving students the alternative SEIP curriculum developed (Sariah, 2008). It is of no surprise when for students with intellectual disabilities many parents share their deep feelings of had been criticised as being inappropriate dissatisfaction and concerns on the unmet for those with SLD (Sariah, 2008). Mohd needs of their children within the local Sharani (2004) emphasised that students educational system in their conversations with special needs including those with SLD and discussions on these issues (Sariah, should use similar curriculum to that given 2008; The Star, 2010; Suet, 2007; personal to typical students in the mainstream classes. interviews with parents). However, modification of the curriculum
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 1 - 18 (2014) 9 Dzalani, H. and Shamsuddin, K. should be made whenever necessary and Behaviour Scales, Dyslexia Screening Test supported by the best teaching and learning and academic skills assessments for local approaches (Mohd Sharani, 2004). Adnan use. Although some may use the translated and Hafiz (2001) had suggested that the version of these instruments, these are mainly current approaches in the implementation limited to the Malay Language. Moreover, of inclusive education in Malaysia are due many of these translated assessment tools to the inability to define and characterise are still beset by validation issues. Imprecise persons with disabilities in this country. identification of persons with SLD leads to While educational services for students misconception about their needs for support with SLD has received considerable attention and services (Jung, 2007; Mohd Zulkifli, from the Ministry of Education, advocates 2011). of those with SLD including parents of Disparity in services provision for children with SLD, as well as special persons with SLD is evident in countries educators and professionals involved in this where definition and identification of group perceived that progress is relatively persons with SLD are not clear. Like in slow and inadequate (Star, 2003; Cho, 2005; Malaysia, in South Korea, SLD is recognized Suet, 2007). They felt that the political will as a disorder and included as a category and commitment on the development of under special education (Jung, 2007). The services for person with SLD in Malaysia concept of SLD is not well distinguished is still relatively low. Jung (2007) suggested from underachievement, slow learning, governments’ low supports for research and mental retardation. Generally there is based definition and identification of SLD minimal understanding or misconception of is due to concern about cost since special SLD among teachers and parents. The lack education services is expensive. of set criteria and assessment instruments In Malaysia, the number of professionals for identifying students with SLD in South such as child psychiatrists, paediatricians/ Korea has lead to inadequate educational child neurologists and clinical psychologists, services at secondary and tertiary level necessary for identification and evaluation (Jung, 2007). of children with learning disabilities are The Malaysian broad and generic limited. There is also no educational definition of “learning disabilities” that psychologist placed in schools or the school include SLD as a sub-group also post district offices. In addition to this, we also challenges on maintaining database and lack standardized assessments tools that are research on SLD. Data from studies that locally and culturally sensitive. The current include or combined many disability groups practice in identifying persons with SLD may provide a broad viewpoint on problems involves using the western assessments faced by persons with disabilities and carry tools such as the Wechsler’s products of the risk of over generalizing the findings intellectual assessments, Vineland Adaptive (Caton & Kagan, 2006; Levine & Nourse,
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1998). It is of no surprise that special scientific database (Fonseca, 1996; Keogh, education teachers in this country also have 1986; Lam, 2009). Nevertheless, Fonseca low understanding of ‘learning disabilities’ (1996) urged professions involved in this and SLD (Mohd Zulkifli, 2012). Two field to take up a professionally honest local studies on transition programme for and accurate definition of SLD for better students who attended SEIP in government development of services for this group of funded schools, reported findings on broadly people. defined ‘learning disabilities’ and did not address the specific needs of sub-groups Identification of children with learning labelled to have ‘learning disabilities’ disabilities (Abdul Rahman, 2004; Noraini, 2009). A multidisciplinary team and an inter- Rojewski (1992) recommended that the sectoral assessment approach are necessary needs of individuals with SLD must be for identification of children with SLD. further studied to ensure that educational We need to have effective, efficient and and transition programmes offered reflect quality screening and assessment services. and fulfil those needs. Professionals involved should equip themselves with the most recent knowledge RECOMMENDATIONS and information on SLD so that timely and Definition of specific learning disabilities accurate counselling and support can be given to persons with SLD and their families The definition of SLD must to consider (Chan, 2008). the international concept that include Research based approach to definition what is SLD (using the inclusive criteria); and identification of SLD need to be adopted. and what SLD is not (using the exclusion The current approach of identifying SLD criteria) (Hammil, 1990; Kavale & Forness, such as use of RTI needs to be considered 2000; NJCLD, 1998). To achieve these, for students who are having similar learning more dynamic approaches to assessment problems in our country. However, to apply and evaluation are necessary. Psycho- such approach, Malaysia should ensure educational assessment which is very the education services provide intense limitedly used yet important for identification and quality educational instruction and of LD/SLD should be developed for local interventions to students who have difficulty use. Professionals involved in this field in learning or are at risk of such difficulty. should receive adequate training to achieve Looking at our current educational system diagnostic competency. and practices, applying the conventional The lack of agreement on the definition approach of identification of SLD is more of SLD among policy makers and services reasonable since even in developed countries providers from different agencies may be such as the U.S., where identification and due to social and political reasons, pressures educational and training services for persons and needs, and not from empirical and
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 1 - 18 (2014) 11 Dzalani, H. and Shamsuddin, K. with SLD are mandated by the country’s Research on SLD national acts, their educational services Little is known about the characteristics require further improvement in its resources and needs of people with SLD in this and facilities to ensure the validity of the country. The number of people having this RTI approach (Gerber, 2005; Harr-Robins type of disability is unknown (Gomez, et al., 2009; Samuels, 2008). However, in 2004). Accurate and comprehensive data line with such moves, more resources should on number of children with disabilities and be allocated for research on new modalities their characteristics is crucial for planning for children with SLD in our local contexts. and improving services (Mooney et al., Assessment for SLD should start early 2008). Government ministerial report also before school entrance. Services should concurred that “lack of a comprehensive focus on identification at the pre-school database on disability in the Malaysian level so that early intervention can be context pose the greatest challenge to initiated focusing on those at risk. For effective intervention and successful school children suspected of having SLD, monitoring of policies and programmes diagnosis can be early if made in the regarding real achievements of targeted schools by educational psychologists using goals” (Malaysia, 2007). We also need to standardized validated tools. The current consider the systematic and scientific way practice of using clinical psychologists who of defining and identifying persons with are limited in numbers, and at hospitals, will SLD in Malaysia that reflect the global further delay diagnosis. Ong et al. (2009) understanding of the field. Research funds estimated the prevalence of SLD (dyslexia) must be provided to study and test new or among undergraduate students in Malaysia other concepts and models for providing as 4.66%. Thus, assessment at tertiary level services to this group. is also necessary to identify students in colleges/universities who are not earlier CONCLUSION diagnosed as having SLD. This move will Malaysia has used the generic term LD facilitate support services for such students to describe all persons with ‘learning in our local colleges and universities. disabilities’ and in so doing misclassify SLD Ong et al. (2009) also recommended that and made them ‘invisible’. This classification the Ministry of Higher Education as well led to inadequate and inappropriate services as universities/colleges draw disability for this group. Policy makers and services statements or policies for training staff providers need to recognize the problem as well as providing support services and to better advocate, support and provide accommodations to assist students with SLD appropriate services and interventions for to better cope and manage their learning persons with SLD in the country. obstacles (Ong et al., 2009).
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Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 1 - 18 (2014) 17
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 19 - 33 (2014)
SOCIAL SCIENCES & HUMANITIES
Journal homepage: http://www.pertanika.upm.edu.my/
Short Communication
The Challenges, Potentials, and Experts’ Opinions on Developing a Malaysian Garden Identity
Osman Mohd Tahir and Mina Kaboudarahangi* Faculty of Design and Architecture, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
ABSTRACT As well as generally being considered as symbols of national and country identity, gardens fulfill various functions within society such as being aesthetically beautiful, satisfying human needs, and also functioning as places for various activities. In accordance with this, the Malaysian government in her newly launched National Landscape Policy put forth a vision to achieve “The Most Beautiful Garden Nation” by the year 2020, reflecting a desire to develop a distinctive landscape identity for the country. Due to this, the National Landscape Department of Malaysia suggested developing a garden identity as an indispensable part of this vision because even though the country has great potential in the development of parks and gardens, an exclusive garden identity is still lacking. This paper aims to justify that the development of a garden identity could enhance national and landscape identities for the country. It is also presumed that such development faces several challenges. Moreover, the study intends to highlight Malaysia’s great potential for developing its gardens. A review of existing literature along with Malaysia’s new landscape policy was thus undertaken, and findings were then triangulated by conducting face-to-face interviews with Malaysian local landscape architects. Consequently, the importance of creating a unique garden identity corresponding with Malaysia’s new landscape policy was confirmed. Furthermore, challenges (which mainly relate to political, social, cultural, and economic viewpoints) and potentials for such development were recognised. The results can ultimately be utilised to contribute ARTICLE INFO to the formation of gardens with distinct Article history: Received: 1 March 2012 Malaysian identities. Accepted: 19 September 2012
E-mail addresses: Keywords: Park, garden identity, garden development [email protected] (Osman Mohd Tahir), [email protected] (Mina Kaboudarahangi) * Corresponding author
ISSN: 0128-7702 © Universiti Putra Malaysia Press Osman Mohd Tahir and Mina Kaboudarahangi
INTRODUCTION the future (Helmreich, 2002). According Malaysia’s unique natural and cultural to Hunt (2000), gardens have historically heritage gives it great potential in developing provided an ideal form for creating place distinctive gardens and landscapes. As identity. Not only are they built upon forms such, landscape development in Malaysia and visual appropriations, but are also has received strong support from the containers for the formation of identity government, and a lot of effort has been (Goode & Lancaster, 1986; Hunt, 2000; made to improve the development of Johnston, 2005). Helmreich (2002) further landscapes in the country (Osman & Suhardi, claimed each culture endows its gardens 2007). It is observed that Malaysia, through with individual forms, which in return its newly endorsed National Landscape contribute meaning and identity to society. Policy, has recognised landscape as an Additionally, Clayton (2007) described the aspect with economic benefits for both the practice of gardening as one aspect of social people and the government. Moreover, the identity, which reflects local and personal policy emphasises that through landscape identities. Furthermore, as a collection of development, the general well-being of ideologies in smooth harmony with nature, Malaysian citizens will be increased, and gardens afford various uses that then sustainable spaces could be created for stimulate the formation of national identity society (NLP, 2011).Therefore, developing (Helmreich, 2002; Gross & Lane 2007). a garden identity is politically significant Based on the above-mentioned for Malaysia. Consequently, recognising statements, gardens with their various the challenges and potentials for such functions have always been significant development is essential, as it can then aspects of national identity. Furthermore, provide the primary guidelines for the garden identity depends strongly on the creation of garden identities. identity of people and their culture, and it also enhances environmental knowledge. LITERATURE REVIEW As discussed, Malaysia, as a developing country, has recognised a clear objective Gardens and national identity for the development of an identity for Gardens play a significant part in landscapes its landscapes and parks (Bunnell, 2004; and have always been reputed as a symbol of Osman & Suhardi 2007; Aziz, Salleh, & national identity (Goode & Lancaster, 1986; Ribu, 2010). The principles of Malaysia’s Ross, 1998; Helmreich, 2002; Waymark, National Landscape Policy indicate that 2003). For a long time, gardens have not cultural values and the natural heritage of just been mere physical forms, but also the nation should be preserved through encapsulations of community identity, landscape development programs. Attention a vehicle to enhance past glories, and a should be placed on sustainability and space that represents common wishes for functional aspects in landscape designs
20 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 19 - 33 (2014) The Challenges, Potentials, and Experts’ Opinions on Developing a Malaysian Garden Identity
(NLP, 2011). Hence, the development plays an important role in global economy of a garden identity should be one of (Watson & Bentley, 2007). According to the key areas in national and landscape MARDI (2005), visitors come to Malaysia identity development, because gardens to visit her natural beauty and unique provide sustainable settings with functional landscapes. Hence, the country will certainly aspects, whilst conveying cultural values enhance credit by developing its landscapes and reflecting national identity. and gardens. Sternberg (1977) claimed that most tourists arrange to visit a place Challenges in Developing a Garden because of the potential images that they Identity for Malaysia can collect, and because they are interested Malaysia is a multiracial, multicultural, in taking photos. Gardens can thus be seen multilingual and multi-religious country. as a pictorial phenomenon and they can In relation to this, socio-cultural aspects of function as an important tourist attraction for Malaysian society have been identified as Malaysia that provides economic benefits. the most important challenge in creating an overall Malaysian identity (Watson & Political viewpoint Bentley, 2007). Aziz, Salleh, and Ribu During his term in office, Malaysia’s fourth (2010), pointed to the political, social and Prime Minister, Tun Dr Mahathir Mohamad, economic associations based on ethnic set up a vision for Malaysia’s development groups in creating Malaysian landscape (Osman, 2005). The vision stated the country identity. Accordingly, the development should be developed in all aspects including of Malaysia’s national identity through landscapes and environments by the year creating a unique garden identity faces 2020. To achieve this, the government has several challenges. These challenges mainly planned to employ policies and supervise refer to the economic, political, cultural, and activities for the development of landscapes social aspects of garden development. and gardens (MARDI, 2005). For example, the formation of the National Landscape Economic value Department in 1996, as the government Connell (2005) showed in his study that a overseer of landscape development, has large number of tourists visit the gardens of led Malaysia towards better-organised Great Britain annually. He also discussed the landscape programs in comparison with economic value of garden visits for both the other developing countries (Bunnell, 2004; government and public. Rambonilaza and Osman, 2005). According to Abdullah and Dachary (2007) discussed the visual quality Nakagoshi (2006), Landscape changes in of landscapes and its direct relationship Malaysia are influenced by development with economic value. And this can certainly politics. As such, landscape development apply to the case study, Malaysia. Malaysia has received strong support from the benefits from its geographic position and government, and a lot of effort has been
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 19 - 33 (2014) 21 Osman Mohd Tahir and Mina Kaboudarahangi made to improve landscape developments Therefore, culture and the cultural in the country (Osman & Suhardi, 2007). background of Malaysia is one of the aspects Therefore, in relation to the political to be considered when developing a garden significance of the subject, developing a identity for the nation. garden identity is relevant for Malaysia. Social differences Cultural heritage Malaysia has a complex multiracial Aside from a unique natural environment, population, including Malay, Chinese, Malaysia also has a diverse cultural heritage Indian and ethnic minorities. These different (Aziz, Salleh, & Ribu, 2010). There is great races have different religious backgrounds, potential for the development of gardens predominantly Islam, Buddhism, Hinduism, in the country based on her rich legacy and Christianity (Jamil, 2002; NLP, 2011, in traditions, cultures and beliefs, through Cambon & Harper, 2004). It has been which she can identify herself (MARDI, argued that it is crucial that the development 2005; Huzeima, Hussain, & Ahmad, 2010). of landscapes and gardens are relevant to The development of landscapes in Malaysia people’s culture and daily lives (Watson can be interpreted by considering the & Bentley, 2007). As Osman and Suhardi country’s history (Bunnell, 2004; Kamariyah (2007) argued, the Malaysian public — with 1989 in Aziz & Osman, 2007). In the early all their differences in race, culture and stages, during the period of sultanates, there religion — still maintain different and even were royal gardens in urban centres, but they diverse routines. This statement has also have already been destroyed (Jamil, 2002). confirmed in the course of a study by Aziz, Additionally, MARDI (2005) pointed out Salleh, and Ribu, (2010). Not surprisingly, forbidden gardens in the Malacca Palace. Watson and Bentley (2007) identified the Nowadays, Malaysian landscapes difference between social and cultural are shaped based on foreign ideas (Aziz groups as the most challenging issue for & Osman, 2007) to provide aesthetic creating a single Malaysian identity. Hence, beauty and needs of new sustainable and creating a single Malaysian garden identity livable landscapes (Hussain & Byrd, is considered a challenge for the country. 2012). However, the National Landscape Department of Malaysia (2008) has issued a Potentials in Development of a Garden definition for Malaysian gardens. According Identity for Malaysia to the definition, the Malaysian garden Abdullah and Nakagoshi (2006) pointed or “Taman Malaysia” is a garden with a to the Malaysian economic development Malaysian identity that projects images based on the agriculture sector. They of tropical environment, utilises spaces pointed that development of this sector that satisfy socio-cultural life, and which could have an impact on landscape planning, is strengthened by artistic achievement. management and strategies for the country.
22 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 19 - 33 (2014) The Challenges, Potentials, and Experts’ Opinions on Developing a Malaysian Garden Identity
Therefore, there is an economic potential Selecting Respondents for garden development in Malaysia. As based on the statement of the availability Moreover, Huzeima, Hussain, and Ahmad of respondents as suggested by Rea and (2010) indicated that unique traditions and Parker (1997), the interviewees encompassed cultures should be considered to design an Malaysian landscape architects. Previous image or identity of Malaysian landscape. researchers have also believed that non- This statement has previously suggested by random sampling method provides an Mustafa and Noor Aziz (2009) as a potential opportunity to obtain the opinion of the most for garden development in Malaysia. potential respondents in this field, as well Accordingly, people’s activities in relation as their judgment of the responses (Rea & to the landscape is another potential for Parker 1997, p.160). Hence, the interviewees landscape and garden development of encompassed university professors in the Malaysia (Mustafa & Noor Aziz, 2009; field of landscape architecture with more Huzeima, Hussain, & Ahmad, 2010; Hussain than 15 years experience. They were selected and Byrd, 2012). Jamil (2002) discussed from “Institute of Landscape Architects about plants with specific symbolism and Malaysia” (ILAM) executives and members value in Malaysian culture. In a similar on the basis of their great potential and vein, Huzeima, Hussain, and Ahmad (2010) enthusiasm in the garden development concluded that plant is a landscape element of Malaysia. These respondents were with both symbolic and practical functions considered the most available for this in Malaysian culture, and could be one of present study, and they were also selected the potentials in development of Malaysian based on their level of proficiency and landscape identity. experience.
METHODOLOGY Sample Size The literature review recognised the fact Mason (2010) stated that samples in that creating a unique garden identity qualitative studies are smaller than samples for Malaysia could enhance national and in quantitative ones due to the type of landscape identities. The main challenges information and analysis. In this form in this development were also suggested of research more data does not lead the and the new National Landscape Policy for researcher to more information, since the development of Malaysian landscapes quantitative research is concerned about (NLP, 2011) was reviewed, recognising meaning in creating framework not the main issues in such development. In testing hypothesis (Crouch & McKenzie, order to triangulate findings, and recognise 2006). The saturation point theory was specific potentials in the development also utilized in sampling the interviews of Malaysian gardens, interviews with (Kumar, 2005). This approach is used in landscape architects were conducted. qualitative researches as a flexible method
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 19 - 33 (2014) 23 Osman Mohd Tahir and Mina Kaboudarahangi to collect and analyse data for development gardens. Show cards were offered to them of theoretical frameworks. This process is during the interviews to make each interview based on selection of cases which are most easier and faster (Appendix II). likely to generate a collection of relevant data (Seidman, 2005; Bloor & Wood, 2006). RESULTS FROM FACE-TO-FACE According to Bloor and Wood (2006) ,at INTERVIEWS WITH LANDSCAPE EXPERTS this point the repited evidance are found to support researcher’s conceptual framework. The data collected from the interviews When the sample size in this kind of was coded and the content was analysed. research is very large, answers are repetitive The respondents’ opinions of developing a and redundant. Moreover, analysis of garden identity, its related challenges and qualitative data is very difficult and selecting potentials are presented as follows: a large sample would be time consuming too (Mason, 2010). It has suggested that The importance of garden identity researchers follow the concept of saturation, development for Malaysia when collection of data will not lead to new The respondents were asked how important information of subject (Seidman, 2005; garden identity development was to enhance Crouch & McKenzie, 2006). Therefore, the national identity. All respondents agreed saturation point theory was employed in on the subject and mentioned that the this study. After 7 interviews, attention to issue of landscape identity development the repetition of answers, recognition and was one of the most important goals put confirmation of challenges and potentials forward by Malaysia’s National Landscape in garden development, the interviews were Department. Two of the respondents added stopped. that emphasis on creating a garden identity would enhance civilization and strengthen Interview Procedure the country’s national identity. In addition, The interviews were semi-structured five respondents mentioned that developing which allowed the researcher to ask a a garden identity integrates national identity, predetermined set of questions using the because the culture of a nation is reflected same order and words (Kumar, 2005). in its gardens. According to Kumar (2005,pg 135), the “open-ended questionnaire provides Challenges in the development of Malaysian gardens respondents with the opportunity to express themselves freely, resulting in a greater The Malaysian experts interviewed variety of information”.” Therefore, open- confirmed all of the suggested challenges. ended questions were asked regarding Six out of seven of the respondents agreed the importance, challenges and specific that cultural and political challenges were potentials for the development of Malaysian the most important in the development
24 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 19 - 33 (2014) The Challenges, Potentials, and Experts’ Opinions on Developing a Malaysian Garden Identity of a garden identity. They also agreed in relation to religion, beliefs and people’s on the importance of social challenges attitudes were suggested. The respondents in terms of differences between the also discussed the importance of culture and perceptions, preferences and cultural values symbolic ideology, adding that we have to of the multifaceted Malaysian public. They define and compare the specific motifs of mentioned that although gardens can be a Malaysia’s different states. It was stated that good place for social gatherings, in terms although some differences exist among the of political challenges, there could be a motifs of Malaysia’s different states, we can bias, and so Malaysian gardens should be recognise their particular patterns which are deemed acceptable by Malaysia’s three main different from the motifs of other countries different ethnicities. that share common cultural aspects with One of the respondents notably Malaysia. This, for example, can be seen said “there are different ethnicities in the differences in the architecture and in Malaysia… we even have different carving patterns of Malaysia and her ethnicities in Malaysia in different Southeast Asian neighbour, Indonesia. regions… they differ in culture or The majority of the respondents believed philosophy…” and concluded that the that historical disputes have caused a loss of political aspect is the most important character and value in landscape designs, challenge. In contrast, the majority of the and one of the experts pointed to the specific respondents believed that the economy icons that can be recognised from Malaysian is the least important challenge in the rural landscapes. All of the respondents development of a Malaysian garden pointed to the unique traditions, activities, identity. Two respondents agreed that histories, stories, costumes, and vegetation people’s needs based on their different of Malaysia that should be identified and social classes should be considered too. employed in the country’s garden design. Finally, the interviews concluded that The interviews concluded that gardens cultural differences between the ethnic should create harmony within the landscape, groups should be considered in the whilst paying attention to history. The development of gardens for Malaysia. findings of the interviews indicated that the starting point is crucial and that the emphasis Potentials of the garden development of should be on developing enforcements, Malaysia guidelines and politics. Ultimately, all The interviews confirmed that Malaysia has interviewees felt that technology and the use a great interest and urge to develop her own of new materials could be one of the great garden identity. The interviewees argued that potentials for the development of Malaysian the garden could be a symbol of power and gardens. civilization for a nation. In addition, cultural potentials of developing Malaysia’s gardens,
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 19 - 33 (2014) 25 Osman Mohd Tahir and Mina Kaboudarahangi
DISCUSSION attention to the distinctive visual quality of Importance gardens and their importance in reflecting national and cultural identity –creating a The findings from the literature review unique garden identity for Malaysia could and Malaysia’s vision –to be “The Most be one of the aspects that can be used to Beautiful Garden Nation”– clarified the enhance national and landscape identities. importance of the development of a garden identity to enhance national and landscape Challenges identities. This was confirmed during face- to-face interviews with local landscape The literature review clarified existing architects. In fact, the interviews concluded challenges in the development of a that creating a distinct garden identity could Malaysian garden identity.The findings were be regarded as one of the best approaches confirmed by local landscape architects to enhance national and landscape identities during face-to-face interviews. Social and whilst reflecting culture. These findings cultural differences along with potential correspond with Malaysia’s landscape economic benefits of garden development policy (Fig.1), as the new policy –launched were confirmed, and the experts pointed by the government (30 Sep 2011) –indicates to the politics in such development. In this that there is a need to identify a “high value regard, the NLP has focused its policy of visual landscape, and to integrate local landscape development on socio-cultural, landscape character and natural environment environmental, and economic aspects, in development process” (NLP, 2011, pg and put emphasis on the development of 22). Therefore –whilst paying particular a Malaysian landscape identity. It should
Fig.1: Garden identity as a vehicle to reflect culture, landscape, and national identities (Model suggested by authors)
26 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 19 - 33 (2014) The Challenges, Potentials, and Experts’ Opinions on Developing a Malaysian Garden Identity also be noted that the policy puts stress on development for Malaysia. Finally, with driving the nation towards attaining higher regards to the experts’ recommendations income in its economy through landscape and Malaysia’s landscape policy, there were development “to attract local and foreign two more issues that should be considered investments” (NLP, 2011,pg3). Accordingly, in the development of a Malaysian garden the development of landscapes based identity. These issues are sustainability and on cultural values, heritage, and for the maintenance, which were suggested by the purpose of research and public recreation respondents through their interviews and was mentioned in the 2011 NLP policy. which have also been considered in the new Another considered issue in the policy NLP policy. was the potential increase in tourists by improving the quality of national landscapes CONCLUSION and creating public parks to preserve and Malaysia has a vision to become the most showcase cultural heritage and indigenous beautiful garden nation by the year 2020 and, plants (NLP, 2011:30). With these findings, it as such, it puts emphasis on the development is concluded that Malaysia faces economic, of a unique identity of its own landscapes. social, cultural, and political challenges in Malaysia’s National Landscape Policy the pursuit of developing its own garden (NLP) has focused on the development identity. of sustainable landscapes with a unique identity to provide economic benefits and Potentials enhance the well-being of society. In this Besides the above-mentioned challenges, regard, the development of a distinctive the specific potentials for the development garden identity is recognised as one aspect of a garden identity for Malaysia were of landscape identity development for recognised through existing literature Malaysia. But, however challenging from a and face-to-face interviews. The face-to- political viewpoint while considering social face interviews confirmed that attention differences these developments seem, they should be paid to specific customs, beliefs, gardens could potentially increase economic rural landscapes, and also the historical value and could exhibit the country’s and cultural background of the nation. cultural heritage as well. And, it is presumed These findings were with NLP’s mission, that Malaysian gardens will be sustainable, which puts emphasis on preserving cultural maintained and well-designed, meeting the backgrounds as well as rural landscapes. In needs and expectations of her multicultural summary, existing literature and interviews, society. Thus, the development of a garden the strength of Malaysia’s natural and identity has to be an echo of Malaysia’s cultural heritage, in addition to politics and unique natural and cultural heritage, whilst new technologies could be identified as utilising new materials, technology, and powerful potentials in the garden identity ideas to attract local users and tourists.
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 19 - 33 (2014) 27 Osman Mohd Tahir and Mina Kaboudarahangi
Accordingly, this study provides a rural landscapes and cultural heritage could diagram which illustrates the relationship create gardens that are sustainable and well between Malaysia’s national landscape received. Above all, social differences from policies and the development of a unique the multiracial society of Malaysia have to garden identity (Fig.2). The economic be considered in setting the main guidelines value of gardens in presenting natural and politics in such developments. resources and attracting tourists is one of the aspects that enhance income for both ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS the government and the people. In addition, This paper is a part of a PhD study entitled there is a great interest in the development “Preferred iconography for development of gardens in the country. New technology of new garden identity”. We would like to and materials could be exploited to create express our respect and thank to Professor gardens as suitable and well-maintained Dr Mustafa Kamal Mohd Sharif and Dr public places to improve the well-being of Suhardi Maulan who have had a great Malaysian citizens. Furthermore, making influence on us to develop this approach. use of local materials and plants inspired by
Fig.2: Policy, Challenges, and Potentials in Developing a Malaysian Garden Identity (Suggested by authors)
28 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 19 - 33 (2014) The Challenges, Potentials, and Experts’ Opinions on Developing a Malaysian Garden Identity
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Bunnell, T. (2004). Malaysia, Modernity and MARDI. (2005). Landscape gardens of Malaysia. the Multimedia Super Corridor: A critical Kuala Lumpur: Malaysian Agricultural Research geography of intelligent landscapes. London: and Development Institue. RoutledgeCurzon. Mason, M. (2010). Sample Size and Saturation in PhD Crouch, M., & McKenzie, H. (2006). The logic of Studies Using Qualitative Interviews. Forum small samples in interview based qualitative Qualitative Sozialforschung / Forum: Qualitative research. Social Science Information , 45(4), Social Research, 11(3), Art. 8. Retrieved from 483-499. http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:0114- fqs100387. Clayton, S. (2007). Domesticated nature: Motivations for gardening and perceptions of environmental Mustafa, K. M., & Noor Aziz, A. (2009). Malaysian impact. Journal of Environmental Psychology, Garden: An Iconographical perspective. Taman 27, 215–224. Malaysia Seminar. Kualalumpur: National Landscape Department, Malaysia. Goode, J., & Lancaster, M. (1986). The Oxford Companion to Gardens. Oxford: Oxford NLP. (2011). National Landscape Policy. Kuala University Press. Lumpur: National Landscape Department, Ministry of Housing and Local Government. Helmreich, A. (2002). English garden and national identity:the competing styles of garden design. Osman, M. T., & Suhardi, M. (2007). Sustaining Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Malaysia Garden Nation Development through Improved Urban Landscape Management Hunt, J. D. (2000). Greater perfections:the practice System. IFLA 2007. Kuala Lumpur. of garden theory. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: University of Pennsylvania Press. Osman, T. M. (2005). Urban Landscape Management in Malaysia:In search of a Sustainable Hussain, N. H. M., & Byrd, H. (2012). Towards a Management System. Unpublished PhD, 67- Compatible Landscape in Malaysia: An Idea, 69. NewCastle, United Kingdom: University of Challenge and Imperatives. Procedia - Social Newcastle.
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Rambonilaza, M., & Dachary, B. J. (2007). Land- Sternberg, E. (1977). The iconography of the tourism use planning and public preferences: What experience. Annals ofTourism Research, 24(4), can we learn from choice experiment method? 951-969. Landscape and Urban Planning, 83, 318–326. Watson, G. B., and Bentley, I. (2007). Identity by Richmond, S., Cambon, M., & Harper, D. (2004). Design. Oxford: Elsevier Ltd. Malaysia, Singapore and Brunei. Melbourne: Waymark, J. (2003). Modern garden design, innovaton Lonely Planet. since 1900. London: Thames and Hudson Ltd. Ross, S. (1998). What Gardens Mean. University of Chicago Press.
Seidman, I. (2005). Interviewing as Qualitative Research: A Guide for Researchers in Education and the Social Sciences. New york: Teachers College Press.
30 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 19 - 33 (2014) The Challenges, Potentials, and Experts’ Opinions on Developing a Malaysian Garden Identity
APPENDIX I
EXPERTS’ INTERVIEW FORM:
Interview NO: Date:______Start time:______End Time:______Place: ______Academic qualifications: Master PhD Other: (Please state)______
Greetings, The aim of the study is to clarify challenges and potentials for development of a Malaysian garden identity. Malaysia is gearing toward a developed country by the year 2020. The Country has a vision to become the Most Beautiful Garden Nation has been selected as my case study. I have reviewed related literature to clarify importance of garden development in addition to the challenges and potentials which Malaysia is facing in this approach. In order to complete my findings, I would like to seek your professional opinion regarding the subject matter. Your identity will remain anonymous, and the information will only be used in my research to develop a guideline for creating and proposing design of garden in Malaysia with Malaysian identity.
1. General about Garden a. What is your definition of a garden? (Record sound) b. What items do you think have been considered in creation of gardens in the past? (Record sound)
2. Garden and Identity a. How do you define a garden identity? (Record sound) b. Can we create a garden identity? (If Yes, then go to c) c. How can we create a new garden identity? (Record sound) d. Do you agree that creating a garden identity can enhance the national identity of a nation? (Please explain your answer) (Record sound)
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 19 - 33 (2014) 31 Osman Mohd Tahir and Mina Kaboudarahangi
3. Development of New Garden Identity Based on the literature, I have defined some issues and problems in the development of a garden identity (Give them Show Card #1); a. Do you agree with these issues (Please explain your answer.) (Record sound) b. Please suggest other issue related to this subject (Record sound)
4. Development of a Garden Identity for Malaysia I have identified some challenges in the development of garden identity for Malaysia (Give them Show Card #2); a. What is your opinion regarding these stated challenges? (Record sound) b. Please state other challenges regarding the topic that you know? (Record sound)
5. Comments and Recommendations Please state your comments and recommendations. (Record their sound)
Thank You for Your Cooperation
32 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 19 - 33 (2014) The Challenges, Potentials, and Experts’ Opinions on Developing a Malaysian Garden Identity
APPENDIX II
Show Card 1: Key Issues in Garden Identity Development
Show Card 2: Challenges in Development of Malaysian Gardens
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 19 - 33 (2014) 33
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 35 - 56 (2014)
SOCIAL SCIENCES & HUMANITIES
Journal homepage: http://www.pertanika.upm.edu.my/
The Rural Learning Environment and Pupils’ Learning of the English Language
Wreikat, Y. A.*, Kabilan, M. K. and Abdullah, A. C. School of Educational Studies, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Penang, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia
ABSTRACT This paper outlines encouraging and discouraging factors in developing an English language learning environment for rural pupils with Asian backgrounds. This is achieved by first establishing a theoretical background to govern the research exploration. This research utilized social cognitive theory of learning as guidance in the current research explorations. Specifically, the study sample is drawn from six rural schools in Sabah, Malaysia (Southeast Asia). The study utilizes a mixed-method approach whereby findings are triangulated through interviews, observations, and questionnaires. The study reveals that majority of the schools visited lacked the necessary resources indicating a serious problem that hinders learning of the English language in rural schools. Conclusions consider the impact of certain environmental drawbacks on pupils’ English language proficiency and the verdict that the existing environment has a negative impact on Asian rural pupils’ language development. Further, it is emphasized that environmental issues in Asia require a deep grasp of the subject as well as various multi-disciplinary approaches, whose perspectives provide the basis for the functions of different environmental aspects.
Keywords: Rural pupils, English language, learning environment, achievement
INTRODUCTION Though 70 percent of the world’s population resides in rural regions, where hunger, literacy, and low school achievement are
ARTICLE INFO widespread, rural pupils have received Article history: minimal attention in comprehensive Received: 17 January 2011 Accepted: 17 December 2013 educational reform plans (Kam et al., E-mail addresses: 2006; Rigg & Ritchie, 2002). Those plans [email protected] (Wreikat, Y. A.), [email protected] (Kabilan, M. K.), are targeted to upgrade the literacy level [email protected] (Abdullah, A. C.) * Corresponding author in rural areas, which in turn increases the
ISSN: 0128-7702 © Universiti Putra Malaysia Press Wreikat, Y. A., Kabilan, M. K. and Abdullah, A. C. productivity and earning potential of the Other than the lack of the latest population, and therefore directly reduces educational resources, rural schools poverty (UNISCO, 2002). face other challenges associated with its In Asia, literacy levels specifically in the geographic location, such as limited school English language are below average due to and community resources (Hannum, Irvin, historical and continuing weaknesses in the Banks & Farmer, 2009). Although a handful national education system (UNDP, 2010). of rural schools have successfully met This has resulted in the fabrication of an various challenges, many remain unable to enormous percentage of illiterate population cope with the demand of modern education in Asian rural areas. Furthermore, national standards (Arnold, Newman, Gaddy & regional reports have indicated that a Dean, 2005). significant number of Asian rural pupils The situation in Malaysia is quite complete their schooling yet remain unable similar to that of other Asian countries. to read or write (Ozkal et al., 2009). There is a general agreement that Malaysian Educationists familiar with the Asian rural schools suffer from a dearth of basic rural context asserted the need to identify elements such as effective teaching learning the reasons behind Asian rural pupils’ low environments and availability of suitable literacy levels, especially in the English resources in ensuring the attainment of goals language. Likewise, they affirmed the specified in the Vision 2020 plan; these goals need to identify the obstacles that hinder include becoming a developed nation by the pupils’ development process in rural areas year 2020 (Ministry of Education, 2009). (UNESCO, 2010). Improving Asian rural These shortcomings hinder the educational pupils’ ability to read and write as well mission and reduce rural pupils’ ability to as identifying learning obstacles will acquire knowledge and skills that their urban encourage pupils to participate more fully in counterparts obtain more readily. society and access the benefits of prosperous Research on this matter has indicated educational development (AusAID, 2005). a wide disparity between rural and urban The current research posits that a pivotal pupils’ achievements especially in the obstacle is the absence of an effective learning context English as a second and / learning environment and resources in Asian or foreign language (Ghani & Gill, 2003). rural schools and communities. Scholars In the state of Sabah, for example, existing who have investigated issues related to literature indicates that Malaysian rural education standards in rural settings have schools do not benefit from an appropriate reported a general dissatisfaction over the learning environment, nor do they have the effectiveness of rural education (Nelson, resources to support and assist teachers in 1983). In line with such findings, various teaching English as a Second Language organizations have undertaken measures to (Ming et al., 2010). However, it must improve the learning environment in rural be noted that studies that investigate the schools.
36 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 35 - 56 (2014) The Rural Learning Environment and Pupils’ Learning of the English Language impact of rural environment on Malaysian Primary School Evaluation Test “UPSR” in pupils’ language learning process are rare. the state of Sabah, as shown in Fig.1. Furthermore, there is a lack of studies This paper attempts to examine how that investigate the role of families and the surrounding environment affects pupils’ communities in supporting and advancing learning of the English language and their English as a Foreign Language, pupil literacy ability in Sabah rural schools. It proficiency and language learning in establishes the need for further research Malaysian rural schools. targeted to detect environmental impact To participate fully in the economic and on Malaysian rural pupils’ educational political life of a country, adults are expected development levels. Thus, contribution to have a good command of the English to increased understanding of the rural language, which will enable them to obtain students’ situation will be significant for a jobs after finishing school. Furthermore, considerably wider application. good English language proficiency will enhance the ability to achieve aspired goals RESEARCH OBJECTIVES (Abdul Majid et al., 2005). However, pupils’ This study came from the need of having performance in the English language in a better understanding of the problems in Malaysian rural schools, especially in the English language learning among Malaysian state of Sabah, is unsatisfactory. This is rural pupils. This study also aimed at confirmed by the low achievement level of identifying some of the reasons behind rural pupils in the English language in the Malaysian rural pupils’ low marks in
English Language Results in UPSR Examination (Malaysia-Sabah) 45,5
45
44,5
44
43,5 Percentage
43
42,5
42
41,5 2007 2008 2009 Year
Fig.1: English Language Results in Primary School Evaluation Test “UPSR”, Malaysia-Sabah (Ministry of Education-Sabah 2010)
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 35 - 56 (2014) 37 Wreikat, Y. A., Kabilan, M. K. and Abdullah, A. C.
English language. To achieve the objectives, and outside media influences. If one were the study attempts to answer the following motivated to learn a particular behavior, then research questions: that particular behavior would be learned 1. Does the existing physical learning through clear observations. By imitating environment suit the pupils’ English these observed actions, the individual language acquisition needs? observer would solidify the learned action and be rewarded with positive reinforcement 2. What is the teacher’s role in creating (Miller & Dollard, 1941). In addition, social an effective learning experience for the cognitive theory was defined as a series of a pupils? triadic, dynamic, and reciprocal interaction 3. Are there sufficient learning resources of personal factors, behavior, and the in the pupils’ schools, homes and environment (Bandura, 1986). In subsequent community? research, Banadura (1989) argued:
REVIEW OF LITERATURE “In social cognitive theory, people are neither driven by inner forces Research Underpinning Theory nor automatically shaped and This research utilizes social cognitive controlled by the environment. theories of learning as guidance in the As we have already seen, they current research explorations. This theory function as contributors to their assisted the researchers in examining the own motivation, behavior, and nature and status of literacy in the rural development within a network of learning environment. Pupils in school reciprocally interacting influences. are influenced by external factors on the Persons are characterized within one hand and by their environment on the this theoretical perspective in terms other hand (Sawyer, 2002). In addition of a number of basic capabilities, to to environmental cultural influence, the which we turn next.” researchers endeavored to lay emphasis (Bandura, 1989, p.8) on the cognitive elements of literacy, skills, and development of such in a social In providing a full understanding of cognitive learning environment. The social the functions of social cognitive theory, the cognitive theory is a learning theory based researchers were able to generate a general on the idea that people learn by watching question related to this theory; this is the what others do and that human thought extent to which this theory is beneficial in processes are central to understanding gathering the aspired research data. personality (Darville, 1999). In other words, This social cognitive theory provides knowledge acquisition can be directly the researchers with guidelines and a strong related to observing others within the foundation to address the literacy issues with context of social interactions, experiences,
38 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 35 - 56 (2014) The Rural Learning Environment and Pupils’ Learning of the English Language a slightly different view from other cognitive a conducive learning environment that theories, which consist of significant traits heightens development levels. In other that are helpful in detecting different factors words, creating a friendly and conducive that may influence the learning environment learning environment can assist pupils in rural environment. In addition, the social especially in rural areas to acquire cognitive theory provides clear guiding knowledge in an effective manner. This type principles on how to construct a flexible of environment is founded on the support sense of self-efficiency, which operates in from society and culture on the one hand, concert with other socio-cognitive factors and the formation of a conducive home and in a multifaceted causal structure (Bandura, school learning environment on the other 1999). The social cognitive theory provides hand. a large body of particularized knowledge Focus on the school environment has on how to develop cognitive structures been detected in early Asian educational and enlist the processes of the self system initiatives driven by the rationale that the governing human adaptation and change school is a significant entity and so is the (Bandura, 1997a). The determinants and social environment in the lives of pupils. mechanisms through which they operate To address this concern, a child-friendly are clear; hence, the theory provides explicit schools (CFS) program was launched in guidelines on how to structure conditions 1997 in Thailand to emphasize the rights that foster personal and social changes of the child to receive effective “child- (Bandura, 1999). friendly” education that is environmentally and physically safe (Shaeffer 1999). Child-friendly Schools (CFS) in Asia The CFS framework consists of five The Ministerial Conference on Environment broad dimensions. and Development (MCED) in Asia has “Inclusiveness; effectiveness effectively launched a major regional (relevance and quality); health, discussion for reviewing the state of safety and protection; gender- environment and development in Asia. friendliness; and involvement The review is based on evaluation of students, families and criteria, obstacles and challenges, voices communities.” and perspectives towards achieving an (UNICEF, 2006: iii) educational environment conducive to the development process (Barley & Beesley, In line with the CFS program, many 2007). In line with such discussions, Asian countries in May 2004 agreed to sensitive public awareness of various develop child-friendly schools in their environmental problems has been witnessed respective educational contexts in an throughout research and initiatives, pointing attempt to achieve quality education this was towards the regional concern for creating designed for all pupils with the support of
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 35 - 56 (2014) 39 Wreikat, Y. A., Kabilan, M. K. and Abdullah, A. C. teachers, families, and all the segments of areas, it is crucial to identify specifically society, with goals of achieving the principal the problems faced by these rural pupils. aim of “education for all” (UNICEF, 2005). Meanwhile, educationists asserted the need Since then, the CFS approach has for educational comprehensive educational continued to influence the educational policy reform that takes into account the systems in various countries. As a result, different dimensions of effectual reform the program has evolved into the “Whole (Karsou, 2005). In addition, the importance School Reform,” which is geared towards of education was declared as the main improving the outcomes of children’s element in fostering the goal of being a fully learning by altering schools and education developed nation by 2020. Therefore, the systems to develop child-centered education Ministry of Education is committed towards in child-friendly schools (Beska et al., making this a reality (Ministry of Education, 2007). 2009). Based on the aspirations to become In Malaysia, numerous educational an industrialized nation, Malaysia has made initiatives have been witnessed, such as the conscious efforts to improve and develop Malaysian Education Summit, that have education to achieve a literacy rate of 100% sought to help educationists in rural areas to by the year 2020. Though the country has a embrace modernization by effecting reforms long way to go, there are positive indications in educational systems. This is because that the literacy rate is increasing (Morad, education in Malaysian rural schools has 2002). become a serious issue in the wake of neglect (Malaysian Education Summit, Learning Environment’s Impact on Pupils’ 2008). Early Education The country launched many literacy Recent research (Asici, 2009; Walker programs targeted at eliminating illiteracy in & Clark, 2010) on pupils’ learning the country especially in rural areas such as environment emphasized the impact of the state of Sabah. The launched programs particular environments, culture, and the prioritized the rural pupils’ needs. With this classroom on pupils’ early education and awareness, educational research now pays behavior. Meanwhile, other researchers significant attention to factors affecting discovered that as income level increases rural students’ educational levels as well as and the surrounding environment becomes the learning and teaching process involved comfortable, children’s natural learning (Miner, 2006; Wenger & Dinsmore, 2005; experiences related to language learning Wang, 2009). increase as well (Asici, 2009). Young On the other hand, as the Malaysian children respond differently based on the Ministry of Education continually attempts design of the environment in which they live, to provide a pathway to meet the need an effectively designed classroom has the for comprehensive policy reform in rural potential for positively influencing all areas
40 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 35 - 56 (2014) The Rural Learning Environment and Pupils’ Learning of the English Language of children’s development: physical, social their own knowledge driven from their /emotional, and cognitive. Language and interaction with different environmental learning are nurtured in an environment that aspects; these enhance their proficiency values and plans appropriate opportunities levels and language learning. On the other (Burns, Griffin & Snow, 1999). hand, parents play an effective role in Adequate quality facilities will allow pupils’ language development process and in teachers, pupils, subject matter, space, and guiding children to learn essential elements time to interact within the learning and of language learning prior to attending teaching process, which in turn creates a school (Mason, 1980; Walker & Clark, conducive and well structured learning 2010). According to Clay (1993), many environment. A well-organized classroom researchers have discovered that preschool physical environment will positively assist children explore the details of print in their teachers and students to create a climate environment, on signs, cereal packages, conducive to language learning (Savage, and television advertisements. Children 1999; Stewart & Evans, 1997). Appropriate develop concepts on books, newspapers, and classroom physical arrangements form a other print available in their environment. base for supplementing pupils with effective Consequently, more advanced concepts education and facilitate positive language on print emerge from children’s earlier learning and language teaching interactions. understandings. In other words, the classroom physical Children’s early years are characterized arrangement should be set according to the by rapid increase and improvement. varied cultural and linguistic characteristics Children enter their pre-school years with a of the pupils; it should satisfy the considerable amount of learning experiences learner’s needs as well (Bettenhausen, from their friends and relatives. Since 1998; MacAulay, 1990). The physical education is specific to each language and arrangement of the classroom environmental culture, a young child requires assistance print is considered an important aspect in making sense of environmental print that contributes to student proficiency. from a more able peer, parent, or teacher Collectively, environmental print is defined (Vygotsky, 1978). Children are influenced as the print found in the natural instant by multiple contexts in which there are environment of children, including logos, reciprocal interactions between them and labels, road signs, billboards, clothing labels, their environment. Likewise, children are coupons, and newspaper advertisements. affected by face-to-face interactions, such Children encounter environmental print as as those that occur at home or school. a first stage before reading print in books However, children are influenced as well by (Kirkland, Aldridge & Kuby, 1991). their parents’ or guardians’ workplace and In addition, a center-based environmental the social, historical, political, and economic print activity allows pupils to construct realities of the times.
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 35 - 56 (2014) 41 Wreikat, Y. A., Kabilan, M. K. and Abdullah, A. C.
The day-to-day context is especially diagnostic tests were administered to Year important in using environmental print to 3 and Year 5 pupils. The Year 3 pupils plan and implement an integrated curriculum attempted the diagnostic test that were to meet children’s needs (Kirkland, 2006). developed based on the Year 3 English Children’s inventions and approximations curriculum, while the Year 5 pupils sat for about language in a society full of print the diagnostic test developed based on the begin long before they attend school. Year 5 English curriculum. Furthermore, children develop ideas about The items in the Year 3 test were divided language in the same way they develop ideas into 6 sections: in other learning areas. 1. Section A: subject verb agreement; There are a number of activities that 2. Section B: Correcting sentences through support children’s language learning rearrangement of words development. These are derived from families, communities, and schools. The 3. Section C: colours and basic shapes; family’s involvement in the learning process 4. Section D: reading comprehension; always indicates positive impact on student 5. Section E: sentence construction and; achievement levels, including attendance, activities, and school awareness (U.S. 6. Section F: guided composition writing. Department of Education, 1994). Parents, The items in year 5 test consisted of 5 teachers, and the community are the most sections: important sources for knowledge acquisition, and research on the improvement of pupils’ 1. Section A: pronouns; proficiency levels illustrated that children 2. Section B: Correcting sentences through perform better in school when parents are rearrangement of words; involved in the educational process (Eagle, 3. Section C: basic grammar- articles, 1989). comparatives, connectors; 4. Section D: reading comprehension and; RESEARCH PROCEDURES The targeted population of this research are 5. Section E: guided composition writing the rural teachers’ and pupils’ in the Malaysian The questionnaire consists of 4 sections rural schools, using both qualitative and designed and administered to the teachers quantitative research methods. The research in the rural areas who are teaching English instruments used on the target sample language in the selected schools. The were namely; questionnaire, interviews, questionnaire for teachers (Appendix observations and document analysis. In B), was developed by the researchers addition, quantitative data was obtained from Brown’s theory (1995) as shown from the pupils’ diagnostic tests. The in (Appendix A). The deployment of
42 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 35 - 56 (2014) The Rural Learning Environment and Pupils’ Learning of the English Language quantitative techniques entailed the use of For example, an interviewer’s response the teachers’ questionnaire in order to ensure that is recorded from Teacher No. 1 at the objectivity and generalizability. first school located on the riverside will be As for the collection of qualitative data, referenced as Teacher A-S1-R. Similarly, classroom observations were done and an interviewer’s response from Teacher No. structured interviews with teachers were 3, who is from the fourth school located on carried out by the researher. the Island, will be referenced as Teacher Group interviews were not used C-S4-I. because of the concern that remarks made by participants may affect the type of FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION the information in focus groups sessions The results and analysis of data was done (Debus, 1988). On the other hand the and the research questions below were classroom observation technique was answered: activated through observing teachers teaching, pupils’ interaction with teacher Does the existing physical learning and among themselves and classroom environment suit the pupils’ needs? or school environment. Using the data An environment that is conducive to from the questionnaire, the interviews, learning is the main determinant of effective observations and the analysis of documents, education. The results obtained from the a triangulation was done. data collection techniques employed in the The sample of the study was from six current study indicated that the environment rural schools (Island, Riverside & Foothill) was not conducive in S1, S3, and S6 for in the state of Sabah during the school English language learning. As shown in year (2007-2008) and it consisted of seven Fig.2, the notice boards and classroom were teachers and 105 pupils. The sample of the almost empty. Aside from the unhelpful current study is representative of the rural learning environment, the schools lacked pupils in Sabah. Table 1 shows the codes of appropriate facilities such as spacious and the interviewed teachers and schools in the comfortable classrooms equipped with study sample. suitable learning tools. The study also found
TABLE 1 Codes given to the Teachers and Schools
School Code Category Code Teachers Code School No. 1 S1 Island I Teacher No.1 Teacher A School No. 2 S2 Riverside R Teacher No.2 Teacher B School No.3 S3 Foot Hill FH Teacher No. 3 Teacher C School No.4 S4 Island I Teacher No.4 Teacher D School No.5 S5 Riverside R Teacher No.5 Teacher E School No.6 S6 Foot Hill FH Teacher No.6 Teacher F
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 35 - 56 (2014) 43 Wreikat, Y. A., Kabilan, M. K. and Abdullah, A. C. that the classrooms were shared by two or classroom organization that considers all the three cohorts of pupils. elements constituting balanced education. In contrast, schools such as S4 and S5 Moreover, organizing an effective physical (Fig.3 and Fig.4) did have some materials on environment of the classroom will prevent the walls, such as poems and charts. However, pupils and teachers from experiencing these materials were unsuitable for the pupils behavioral difficulties (Savage, 1999; because they used a highly advanced level Shores, Gunter & Jack, 1993) and improve of vocabulary. Creating and maintaining student proficiency levels (Walker, Colvin, stimulating learning environments have & Ramsey, 1995). been shown to be achieved through effective
Fig.2: ‘Empty’ classroom, ‘Empty’ walls do not promote a conducive learning environment
Fig.3: Poster- Too difficult for pupils
44 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 35 - 56 (2014) The Rural Learning Environment and Pupils’ Learning of the English Language
What is the teacher’s role in creating faced several stumbling blocks, such as lack an effective learning experience for the of materials and resources. In S4 and S5, pupils? charts and pictures throughout the school The findings of the study revealed that made the environment very cheerful (Fig.5 most of the teachers at the sample schools and Fig.6). However, in S6, although some were not professionally qualified, did not of the teachers were professionally qualified, prepare instructional materials, and lacked they seemed unconcerned about the pupils’ ability to plan student management for progress. Thus, teachers’ professional different educational needs and capabilities. qualification in different aspects of teaching One of the main reasons behind this was can be considered insufficient in upgrading inadequate teachers’ training. In fact, in pupils’ performance. For teachers to interviews, many teachers declared that possess the drive and a set of values is they lacked training and language skills, more important to improve their teaching which are required for their teaching. A practices and subsequently raise their pupils’ well-implemented teacher training program proficiency level. For example, teachers did will not only help improve teachers’ abilities not implement any of the data derived from (Werikat, 2009) but will also influence pupils’ assessments, hindering their ability pupils’ performance (Wiley & Yoon, 1995). to devise suitable instructional strategies The findings of the study indicate and create an environment conducive to that in S1, the teachers were not very learning. Such assessments provide teachers concerned about school activities, resulting with valuable information on developing in poor classroom management. In contrast, appropriate opportunities for learning teachers in S2 and S3 showed concern but improvement (Chrisman, 2005).
Fig.4: Vocabulary Poster- Too difficult for pupils
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With regard to teachers’ role in creating Moreover, they considered passing the an effective learning environment, the study exams more essential. The teachers did not revealed the following: apply motivational strategies to improve -- Teachers did not clarify the role of their pupils’ drive to learn the language. Pupils’ pupils in the surrounding environment. motivation is recognized as one of the most important factors in acquiring language -- Teachers did not provide situational skills. In addition, “motivation serves as dialogues related to their communities. the initial engine to generate learning and -- Teachers did not find inventive ways to later functions as an ongoing driving force teach language in an effective learning that helps to sustain the long and usually laborious journey of acquiring a foreign Teachers’ deficiency in creating an language” (Cheng & Do¨rnyei, 2007, p.153). effective learning environment awareness Only S4 organized activities related to decreased pupils’ understanding of various English language learning, such as English environmental aspects, which in turn reflected Week. According to Teacher B (S4-I), negatively on pupils’ interest in learning the some activities were conducted for the language. The study found that apart from pupils. He also recalled the previous year’s S4, all the schools lacked language-related establishment of a pupils’ learning club and initiatives to build pupils’ confidence and holding of outdoor activities. Some schools, motivation to learn English. Teachers in such as S4 and S5, attempted to create these schools were highly examination- an environment conducive to learning by oriented because English was not considered hanging colorful posters on the walls and important in pupils’ immediate needs. building reading huts for pupils.
Fig.5: Notices on the classroom walls
46 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 35 - 56 (2014) The Rural Learning Environment and Pupils’ Learning of the English Language
However, the pupils lacked the they provide the content of the lesson and motivation to learn the language because supplement teachers’ instructions. Textbook the teachers did not use examples from their structure, which is targeted to upgrade surrounding environment. Those that were teachers’ professional adequacy and pupils’ often used contained outdated information language learning levels, provides support not related to the pupils’ environment or their for new teaching approaches related to needs. Textbooks are considered the basis environmental aspects (Stanley, 2003) inside of language input pupils receive because and outside the classroom.
Fig.6: Notices on the Library Wall- Effective pictures
Fig.7: A Reading Hut in S4
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 35 - 56 (2014) 47 Wreikat, Y. A., Kabilan, M. K. and Abdullah, A. C.
The study suggests that textbooks help many of them were irrelevant in terms of in teaching numbers, colors, and greetings language and content. In S2, resources were in S2 Year 1. According to a teacher, the not readily available to the pupils. Even aspects of numbers and colors are repeated newspapers were not available for reading in Math and Science. One weakness of S4 is or referencing, to both teachers and pupils. that the level used is too high for the pupils, In S3, pupils had access to some of the and the content is not appropriate to their resources. In S4, resources were inadequate; background and experience. the books’ contents were so difficult for the pupils that too many books remained I used the textbook before but, unused. Only a handful of pupils in all unfortunately, the content is very the schools visited the mini-library; they long. The story inside is also very seldom read English materials or borrowed long. Eventually, I gave priority to books, especially books written in English. the UPSR material. However, pupils in S6 used the library and (Teacher C, S5-R) borrowed books, especially English books. No, I think the textbook in use now School libraries can generate a positive is not suitable for pupils’ abilities effect on pupils’ proficiency and learning and academic level; the syllabus is levels if they are used in a efficient manner, above the pupils’ levels. especially at the primary levels (Williams (Teacher D, S6-F) et al., 2002). Year 5 pupils in S1 acknowledged the fact that their teachers used different The preceding quotations derived from teaching aids, such as pictures and numbers, the interviews with teachers revealed their in teaching English. However, Year 3 and 4 dissatisfaction with the existing curriculum, pupils said that their teacher only used the which is not suitable for pupils due to the textbook in class. difficult topics which are beyond the pupils’ In S4, when there is electricity supply, academic abilities. It is important that teachers use computers or television; in most curriculum be designed with topics that are instances, they use handouts in teaching. in accordance with pupils’ needs, abilities Teachers in S5 use the Internet and resource and academic level. books. In S6, when electricity supply is available, teachers use computers, otherwise Are there sufficient learning resources in the pupils’ schools, homes, and rely on textbooks. community? The survey results showed that teachers Both quantitative and qualitative data in this used various technologies (LCD panel, study showed that S1 had resources in the overhead projector, video, TV, and Internet) form of a mini-library. However, the books as teaching aids (mean=3.48). Teachers were not suitable for the learners because also concurred that their schools provided adequate teaching aids for ELT (mean=3.21).
48 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 35 - 56 (2014) The Rural Learning Environment and Pupils’ Learning of the English Language
Fig.8: Outdated English books in the S4 library/Do not motivate pupils’ to learn
Fig.9: Resources available in S6
Fig.10: Resources available in S6
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 35 - 56 (2014) 49 Wreikat, Y. A., Kabilan, M. K. and Abdullah, A. C.
I have used television before to In the case of S1, newspapers were support my teaching. Sometimes I unavailable on the island. According to allow my pupils to watch cartoons the pupils, the shops did not sell any in English language. newspapers. There were also no resources at (Teacher B, S4-I) home for the pupils. According to a teacher in S2 , nobody in the village has the ability I, myself, bought books for my to converse in English. Even the community students. Sometimes I let them use had no resources for the pupils’ use. A my broadband Internet connection teacher affirmed this point in the interview: for surfing. I think they don’t have newspapers. (Teacher F, S4-I) I asked them before if they had any and replied that they didn’t know. It was observed that teachers still used very traditional teaching methods. A main (Teacher C, S5-R) cause for this situation is the lack of quality technological resources that should be The unavailability of resources in the provided by the Ministry of Education for community center was common in all each educational level in these rural schools. the schools in the study.. This resulted in Pupils in these schools looked to their the lowering of pupils’ English language teachers as their main source of knowledge learning levels and the community because of the absence of resources at home centers’ reduced ability to make a positive or community center for the pupils’ use. educational difference. The study also One of the teachers interviewed verified revealed that parents did not give the pupils this point: any encouragement to learn English. The parents in these areas are unaware of the I gave them four story books, importance of supporting their children in namely, Cinderella, Sleeping learning the English language. Beauty, Snow White, and Jack and There is concrete evidence that the Jill. The pupils were very excited; home environment affects pupils’ learning sometimes they would ask me to act outcomes in their early life (Nechyba et al., inside the classroom based on the 2005). Research worldwide indicates that story book. But sometimes I do not families are linked to schools in different have enough time, so I ask them to activities, such as “parent participation” or read and try to understand the story “school-family associations” (Jordan et al., book themselves. 2001). Lack of support negatively affects (Teacher C, S5-R) pupils’ English language learning. However, only the parents in S3 gave encouragement
50 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 35 - 56 (2014) The Rural Learning Environment and Pupils’ Learning of the English Language to their children to learn English. As one compelling need to understand the effect teacher stated in the interview, of the environment and resources on rural Malaysian pupils’ learning. Pupils do not learn the English In sum, the results of the study show that language even at home. There the learning environments in the selected is also no encouragement and schools are not conducive to English support from the parents. If pupils language learning. For example, notice don’t have any guidance in English boards and classroom boards are almost bare. language, it will be hard for them The schools also lack adequate facilities to learn. such as appropriately sized classrooms (Teacher B, S3-I) equipped with suitable effective teaching tools that provide comfortable learning Parents’ increased level of positive conditions. encouragement and involvement in their The teachers lack concern in children’s education will reflect on their implementing positive changer are children’s knowledge and activities in not adequately trained to manage their school, which in turn will positively affect classrooms and lack the language skills their proficiency levels. required to help the pupils. Pupils lack motivation to learn the language because CONCLUSION teachers do not use examples such as from The triangulation of data postulates clearly the surrounding environment, to help them the effect of the environment on rural understand better. However, those who Malaysian pupils’ English language levels. do use relevant examples that match the Evidently, the findings of the study show pupils’ background knowledge often rely that they face many difficulties in early on outdated information. education in terms of the language learning The interviews with the teachers suggest environment inside and outside the school. their dissatisfaction with the existing However, the two principal causes of curriculum, which is not suitable for rural Malaysian pupils’ low proficiency the pupils. The curriculum’s topics are levels (i.e., poor learning environment and challenging and beyond the pupils’ academic lack of resources) are rarely discussed in abilities and English language proficiency. professional journals or books on applied Rural teachers have been observed linguistics. The relevant literature indicates to lack quality technological sources in lack of studies specifically focusing on schools, forcing them to teach in accordance the effect of environment and resources with traditional methods that are unable on pupils’ English language development to keep up with the massive worldwide and their role in improving rural pupils’ educational development. In turn, these proficiency levels. Thus, there is a traditional methods compel pupils to look
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 35 - 56 (2014) 51 Wreikat, Y. A., Kabilan, M. K. and Abdullah, A. C. to their teachers as the main resource of of resources in Malaysian rural areas knowledge. In the interviews, the teachers and schools. indicated their frustrations with the schools’ •• The Ministry of Education should assign lack of proper educational resources. teachers who are trained to manage The problem also largely stems from the pupils’ educational development. absence of sufficient family support and encouragement because rural parents do IMPLICATIONS AND DIRECTIONS not realize the importance of their own role FOR FURTHER RESEARCH in advancing children’s proficiency levels. The results of the study and the identification Although policy makers are concerned of the factors that influence pupils’ about the factors influencing the community proficiency levels led to suggestions on how structure of rural areas, the need to direct best decision makers can create conducive their efforts towards developing rural learning environments in Malaysian rural education is critical. This is important schools. Determining the various factors to narrow the gap of the communities’ affecting pupils’ conducive learning knowledge Determining the various factors environments has serious implications facilitating rural education development for the way learning inside classroom is provides a good start. The theory (i.e., conducted and for the way recourses for social cognitive theory) that underpins language learning is considered effective the research, suggests that pupils function and useful in rural schools. as contributors (Bandura, 1999) to their The utilization of social cognitive theory own motivation within an environment of in this study integrated pupils’ language commonly interrelated influences. It also acquisition with learning environment. suggests that these pupils do not apply This will aid decision makers to refine everything that they have learned because the processes that guide rural education of various environmental factors influencing development in order to monitor and develop the interpretation of the learning acquired language learning in rural classrooms. (Bandura, 1996). In addition, identifying teachers’ role in This study is significant because it has creating an effective learning experience for investigated and discussed rural pupils’ rural pupils will aid teachers in rural schools proficiency development and the factors to undertake the roles while managing their that influence these proficiency levels. classrooms and to create better educational Based on the results of the study and in climate that would realize the aspired light of the rural pupils’ needs, the following standards in promoting language learning recommendations are made: and teaching process in Malaysia. •• The Ministry of Education should There are several important questions investigate the reasons behind the lack that need to be investigated in future
52 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 35 - 56 (2014) The Rural Learning Environment and Pupils’ Learning of the English Language research. With regards to feature set, this Asici, M. (2009). Determination of Foundational study has confirmed the influence of the Literacy 1 Knowledge and Skills of Pupils learning environments (the physical learning Attending Preschool Education. Reading Improvement, 46(3), 1-9. environment, learning experience, and resources ) on rural pupils’ learning of the AusAID. (2005). Australian aid: Approaches to English language. The motivation of both literacy. Australian Agency for International Development. Canberra ACT 2601 Australia. teachers and students has not been discussed Retrieved from-www.ausaid.gov.au. in this study as a major influencing factor. We believe that this may be a useful research Bandura, A. (1997a). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: W.H. Freeman. direction, with the view of investigating motivation in comprehensive research Bandura, A. (1996). Failures in self-regulation: where motivational factors may not always Energy depletion or selective disengagement? Psychological Inquiry, 7, 20-24. be available. We also believe that further research should explore the background Bandura, A. (1989). Perceived self-efficacy in the of both teachers and students and its effect exercise of personal agency. The Psychologist: Bulletin of the British Psychological Society, 2, on the teaching and learning processes in 411-424. rural areas. The researchers in this study have suggested the possible causes of rural Bandura A. (1986). Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social Cognitive Theory. Englewood students’ lack of knowledge and showed a Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. portion of the current educational situation in the Malaysian rural context. Determining Barley, Z. A., & Beesley, A. D. (2007). Rural school success: What can we learn? Journal of Research other causes is a research aim that deserves in Rural Education, 22(1), 1-11. to be investigated in the future. Beska, V. O., Z. Kadriu, S. Adamcevska, M. Nikolovska, B. Ancevska, M. Raleva, N. Kenig, REFERENCES M. Bojadzieva, M. Najcevska, & L.Redzepi. Abdul Majid, B. N., Muhammad, F., & Puteh, ( 2007). Child-friendly schools: A situation B. F. (2005). English Language Literacy in analysis for FYR Macedonia. Draft. Macedonia: Rural Community Setting: An Analysis of the UNICEF. Environment to Encourage and Sustain the Bettenhausen, S. (1998). Making proactive Development of English language Learning modifications to your classroom. Invention in outside the Classroom. Modern Language school and clinic, 33(3), 181-183. Department, Faculty of Management and Human Resources Development. University Technology Brown, J. D. (1995). THE Elements OF Language Malaysia. Teaching Curriculum. A Systematic Approach to Program Development. University of Hawaii Arnold, M. L., Newman, J. H., Gaddy, B. B., & at Manoa. Dean, C.B. (2005). A look at the condition of rural education research: Setting a direction for Burns, M. S, Griffin, P., & Snow, C. E. (1999). Starting future research. Journal of Research in Rural out right: A Guide to Promoting Children’s Education, 20(6), 1-25. Reading Success. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
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SOCIAL SCIENCES & HUMANITIES
Journal homepage: http://www.pertanika.upm.edu.my/
A Comparative Study: Verbal Versus Printed Guiding Grid
Kanthimathi Letchumanan1, Karthiyaini Devarajoo2 and Paramasivam Muthusamy3* 1Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Seri Kembangan, 43300 Seri Kembangan, Selangor, Malaysia 2Kuala Lumpur Infrastructure University College (KLIUC), Unipark Suria, Jalan Ikram-Uniten, 43000 Kajang, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia 3Faculty of Modern Languages and Communication, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
ABSTRACT Assessment is a crucial part of education as it provides information to be used as feedback to support the teaching and learning process. Oral assessment is conducted at both primary and secondary schools in Malaysia. Previous researches highlight that students are unable to score well in their oral assessment. Therefore, the aim of this study is to examine the effectiveness of sharing assessment criteria, the Guiding Grid (GG), with students to improve oral performance among them. This study was conducted with Form Four students from an urban school. The students’ oral assessments were conducted three times and their scores were recorded. The first assessment was done without sharing the GG with the students. Before the second assessment the researchers shared the GG verbally. Finally, 12 students who scored below the satisfactory level were given the printed GG and were assessed for the third time. The findings show a marked improvement in students’ oral performance after the sharing of GG, orally as well as in print form. There is a significant improvement on the 12 selected students’ oral performance when the printed GG was shared with them. This study also explores students’ opinions on sharing the GG with them.
Keywords: Oral assessment, guiding grid, motivation, flexibility, designing guiding grid
INTRODUCTION Assessment in learning can take place ARTICLE INFO Article history: in many forms. Some of the modes used Received: 17 January 2011 Accepted: 17 December 2013 by teachers in assessing their students’
E-mail addresses: achievement are conducted through [email protected] (Kanthimathi Letchumanan), examinations, tests, quizzes, assignments, [email protected] (Karthiyaini Devarajoo), [email protected] (Paramasivam Muthusamy) special projects or doing portfolios. These * Corresponding author
ISSN: 0128-7702 © Universiti Putra Malaysia Press Kanthimathi Letchumanan, Karthiyaini Devarajoo and Paramasivam Muthusamy modes of assessment are conducted either This study involves assessing students’ individually, in pairs or in small groups. oral achievement in an urban school in For example, in the teaching of the English Malaysia. It is the Education Ministry’s Language, all the four language skills i.e. requirement that English Language teachers listening, speaking, reading and writing assess their students’ oral achievement twice are assessed according to the requirement a year in Form Four and once in Form Five. of the individual institutions. Generally, In Form Four, the first assessment is carried in formative or summative assessments, out individually in the first semester and the students are assessed throughout the second assessment is conducted in pairs in semesterthroughcontinuous assessment or the second semester. In Form Five, this oral at the end of the semester respectively, so assessment is conducted in small groups that they can be given grades. of 4 to 6 students. The researcher used the Assessment is “… all those activities Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia (SPM) Oral English undertaken by teachers, and by their students Assessment Criteria which is called the in assessing themselves which provides Guiding Grid (GG) in this study. The SPM information to be used as feedback to in Malaysia is a public examination for Form modify the teaching and learning activities Five students which is equivalent to the O in which they are engaged” (Black, P. Level Examination. The GG (Appendix A) and William, D., 1998). It should provide has five constructs or tasks and the score information on the current state of students’ for each construct ranges from 1 to 6. The achievements in order to provide students 5 constructs are: “To converse effectively with information that will help them to on a topic with appropriate response”, “To improve their learning in future. Assessment speak fluently using correct and acceptable requires imparting results that conveys pronunciation”, “To speak coherently”, “To sufficient, understandable details to guide speak the language using a wide range of the students’ actions.It can also be defined appropriate vocabulary within contexts”, as “the process of seeking and interpreting and “ To speak using correct grammar” evidence for use by learners and their (MOE, 2010). 1 mark is awarded for very teachers to decide where the learners are weak performance, 2 marks areawarded for in their learning, where they need to go weak performance, 3 marks when students’ and how best to go there” (Assessment performance is satisfactory, 4 or 5 marks are Reform Group, 2002). In this way, both awarded if students’ performance is good the students and the teacher will be able to and 6marksareawarded to students who are distinguish not only the students’ current excellent in their oral performance. Each level of achievement, but also how much the construct or task in the GG is given with students’ability have improved, which is a clear explanation on how many marks are great booster for confidence and motivation. awarded to students who accomplish the
58 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 57 - 71 (2014) A Comparative Study: Verbal Versus Printed Guiding Grid task. For the purpose of this study, the marks told that the first assessment will be done 4 and 5 are labelled as “Good” and “Very individually and the second assessment in good” respectively. pairs. Students are not provided with the GG The practice of using scoring rubrics has to show them what they should do to qualify been researched extensively and researchers for the highest score. As such students do have documented support for its use at not have an opportunity to read the rubrics schools, colleges as well as at universities for each construct so that they can attempt (State of Colorado, 1999; Schrock, 2000; their oral assessment to thebest of their Moskal, 2000; Knecht, Moskal & Pavelich, ability. Students’ performance is inhibited 2000). Scoring rubrics are descriptive due to lack of understanding and this scoring schemes that are developed by reversely affects theiractions. Some teachers teachers to guide the analysis of students’ provide the information or rubrics in the work (Brookhart, 1999). However, recent GG verbally. This practice does not seem studies have shown that scoring rubrics as to bring about positive learning experiences a Guiding Grid (GG) can support students’ because students do not get the opportunity performance and also guide the teaching and to reflect on their own performance and learning processes (Karthiyaini.D, 2009). are unable to critique their own learning as This study focuses on the difference in supported by Shulman’s Table of Learning. students’ performance when sharing the GG The students’ inability to reflect and critic verbally as compared to the printed forms. their own learning process impairs their ability to make sound judgements and design STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM positive actions for future learning. The lack Generally, the teachers do not share their of the above learning skills in the students teaching goals with their students which prevent them from being committed to the would ideally be their learning goals. learning that happens which should ideally These teaching and learning goals are the create an identity and instil values in them. basis of the designing of the GGShulman’s Table of Learning supports the fact that OBJECTIVES engagement and motivation enhances The study aims to explore the use of the increase in knowledge and understanding of GG provided by the Ministry of Education what is learnt. Thus, the sharing of the GG (MOE) as a link between teaching, learning with the students is the point of engagement and assessment as championed by Shulman’s and motivation that occurs in the teaching Table of Learning. The objectives of this and learning process. However, teachers in study are: the identified school do not use the GG for 1. To identify the effectiveness of using the oral assessments. Students are informed GG as an instrument to guide students that they have to prepare a topic of their to enhance their oral performance and choice for the oral assessment.They are also the learning process.
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 57 - 71 (2014) 59 Kanthimathi Letchumanan, Karthiyaini Devarajoo and Paramasivam Muthusamy
2. To explore students’ views on the has five classes and the researcher was given implementation of GG for their oral the high proficiency level Science streamed assessment, which is an attempt to class. The researcher used all the students support reflection, critical thinking, in her class to conduct this research. This making judgements, designing future method of subject selection is known as actions and being committed to their convenience sampling (Creswell, 2005). identity as learners. 3. To assess students’ oral achievement CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK after the implementation of GG. The conceptual framework for this study is adapted from Shulman’s Table of RESEARCH QUESTIONS Learning (Carnegie Foundation, 2005). The In view of the objectives mentioned above, introduction of the Guiding Grid supports this study seeks to answer the following the engagement and motivation of students research questions. with the task given. This engagement has a positive effect as it leads to understanding 1. What is the difference in the students’ and supports the depth of knowledge gained. English Language oral performance The sharing of the teaching and learning before and after the GG is given goals motivates students and improves verbally? performance and action by the students. 2. What is the difference in the students’ Students’ views on the effectiveness English Language oral performance of using the Guiding Grid encourage when the GG is given verbally and in judgement making skills, whichencourage the printed form? students to be able to use knowledge gained 3. What are the students’ views in in various other situations. Eventually, implementing the GG for their English this ability to judge and apply knowledge Language oral assessment? builds confidence in students. They are able to be more committed to their own 4. What are the teachers’ views on the use learning process and this commitment in of the GG for the English Language oral return creates a strong individual identity. assessment? This is a cyclic process where students complete one cycle of learning and move POPULATION AND SAMPLING on to another cycle of learning. The above The population of this study is from a framework manifests itself positively in the semi-urban school and is focused on Form methodology used in this study. Four secondary school students. There are fifteen Form Four classes in this school and FLEXIBILITY OF THE GG the classes are divided into three different Traditionally the scoring rubrics are used proficiency levels. Each proficiency level for assessing various students’ activities.
60 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 57 - 71 (2014) A Comparative Study: Verbal Versus Printed Guiding Grid
This includes language skills and group they need to do to move on to the next level. as well as individual activities (Chicago As for the teachers, the grid guides Public Schools, 1999; Danielson, 1997a; them to plan their teaching to meet the 1997b; Schrock, 2000; Moskal, 2000; students’ needs. The students’ weaknesses Karthiyaini.D, 2009). Students’ writing and in a subject or certain areas in a subject oral work can also be assessed using the are easily identified based on the students’ scoring rubrics. performance and the rubrics given in the GG. The scoring rubrics can also be used Thus, the teachers get to address weaknesses for various subjects such as Language, of the students in the next lessons. Mathematics and Science (e.g., ChicagoPublic Schools, 1999; State of DESIGNING THE GG Colorado, 1999; Danielson, 1997a; 1997b; The GG should ideally be designed before Danielson & Marquez, 1998; Schrock, (Assessment Rubrics, 2001) the teaching of 2000). Each task given to students can be the subject begins.This allows the teacher to supported with a specially designed scoring plan the teaching to meet the skills that will rubric. be assessed in a particular subject and to The use of the scoring rubrics as GG is match the teaching to achieve the subject’s dual-pronged. It guides the students to move learning outcomes by the end of the term on to the next level of improved performance or semester(Klenowski, 2003). Brookhart because the detailed description in the asserts that the first step in designing a rubrics guides the students to know where scoring rubric is to clearly identify the they are in the learning process and what qualities that need to be displayed in a
Engagement and Motivation (Guiding Grid)
Knowledge and Understanding
Commitment and Identity (Understanding the learning goals) (Enhances confidence)
Performance and Action Judgment and Design (Oral performance) (Response on effectiveness)
Reflection and Critique (Views on effectiveness of the Guiding Grid)
Fig.1: Conceptual Framework (Adapted from Shulman’s Table of Learning - Carnegie Foundation, 2005)
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 57 - 71 (2014) 61 Kanthimathi Letchumanan, Karthiyaini Devarajoo and Paramasivam Muthusamy student’s work to demonstrate proficient This is because assessment should evaluate performance (Brookhart, 1999). what has been taught in the classroom and Hence, the programme learning not on levels that have not beentaught by outcomes and the subject learning outcomes the teacher. However, a GG designed by are carefully matched based on the syllabus one teacher can be adapted and improved provided for the subjects. The rubrics in to cater for evaluating work in other sub- the GG closely support the subject learning areas in the subject. Even the same teacher outcomes at the end of the term or year. Each who designed the GG might want to make task designed for a particular subject should slight changes or improvements to the grid closely shadow the learning outcomes for according to requirements of the same task the subject. when used for another round of assessment. The designing of the GG also enables These improvements will support and different teachers teaching the same subject enhance the teaching and learning process. to assess students in an objective manner. This is to maintain inter-rater and intra- THE GG AS A MOTIVATION FOR rater reliability. The descriptive rubrics in STUDENTS the GG follow a systematic improvement Recent studies have shown that the use of in performance from a weak student to the the GG has improved students’ performance. best student. The highest marks are allotted “Educative Assessment” (Wiggins, 1998) to work which display the best qualities and is a term used to describe techniques and the lowest marks for work that has the least issues that should be considered when qualities. The levels in-between depends on designing and using assessments. The the teacher who is designing the GG. For assessment designed should be educative. example, the best student can be graded Students at a teacher training institute were as “Excellent” and the weakest as “Weak” given a GG with their English Language and the in-between level can be “Good” and semester assignment. This study compared “Satisfactory”. The mark for each level is a the grades achieved by students before range and students can be given a grade for and after the GG. The grades achieved by the range rather than a rigid digit (mark) the students improved after being given for their performance. It is the description the GG (Karthiyaini.D, 2009).Wiggins provided in the GG that is crucial to support (1998) supports the idea that the nature of learning than the grade orthe mark given. the assessment procedure influences the The qualities to be displayed in the work learning process and students’ involvement at every level must be distinct and easily in the process. He also supports the practice differentiated from the level before and after of assessment for learning as compared to it. If meaningful distinctions between the assessment of learning. He contends that levels cannot be made, then additional levels assessment should provide feedback to should not be created (Brookhart, 1999). encourage revision to improve learning.
62 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 57 - 71 (2014) A Comparative Study: Verbal Versus Printed Guiding Grid
Black & Wiliam (1998) show that student’s recorded. The researcher selects twelve self-assessment skills, learned and applied respondents whose scores are below 4 as part of formative assessment, enhances marks. The researcher gives the selected student achievement. twelve respondents the GG in the printed The use of the GG as an assessment form and explains how they can move to instrument guides and motivates the students the next level. The twelve respondents are to improve their performance as well as the tested again after two weeks and their scores teachers’ performance. The GG functions are recorded. as an analysis to survey students’ needs Apart from the 44 respondents, seven and using these findings the teacher is able English Language teachers in this selected to plan future lessons to address their needs school are given a questionnaire to find (Shepard, 2000). The fact that teachers get outtheir perceptions of the GG. Their to address the students’ needs, functions as a answers are tabulated and counted in motivation to encourage students’ learning. percentages. The qualitative approach involves the detail analysis of structured METHODOLOGY AND DATA interviews carried out with the twelve COLLECTION respondents who are given the printed GG. This study is a combination of both qualitative and quantitative research Students’ Performance which has qualitative data (interview) The students’ performance shows an and quantitative data (oral scores and improvement after the introduction of the questionnaire). The quantitative approach GG. Table 1 charts the students’ performance involves data collected from the scores for the first two oral assessments where of thestudents’ oral assessmentsand the Assessment 1 is conducted without sharing questionnaire answered by the teachers. the GG while Assessment 2 is conducted The oral assessment for the respondents after sharing the GG verbally. After sharing of this study is conducted prior to sharing the GG, the students are given two weeks the GG with them. Respondents are tested to prepare for their oral assessment. The individually with the topic of their choice. constructs given in Table 1 are based on The researcher listens carefully and assesses the documents provided by the Ministry of them. Education. The second assessment is conducted The respondents performance is after the researcher shares the rubrics in graded in 6 levels which is 6 – Excellent, the GG with them verbally. The researcher 5 and 4 – Good, 3 – Satisfactory, 2 – Weak explains each rubric and the scores which and 1 – Very Weak. There is a marked start from 1 being the lowest and 6 the difference in the respondents’ performance highest score. Respondents are assessed from Assessment 1 to Assessment 2. In again after two weeks and their scores are Assessment 2, 20 respondents (45.4%)
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 57 - 71 (2014) 63 Kanthimathi Letchumanan, Karthiyaini Devarajoo and Paramasivam Muthusamy obtained 5 marks as compared to 4 marks construct after they are given the GG (9.1%) in Assessment 1 for Construct 1. verbally. These findings answer Research There was also an improvement in the Question 1. The students’ performance in the respondents’ performance for Construct various levels for the first two assessments 2 where in Assessment 1 only 2 (4.5%) is shown in the Fig.2 to Fig.4. respondents obtained 6 marks as compared Statistically, the paired sample t-test to 8 (18.1%) in Assessment 2. Likewise, was conducted to compare the students’ the difference in respondents who obtained performance in Assessment 1 without the 5 marks for Construct 2 improved from 3 use of the GG and Assessment 2 with the use (6.8%) in Assessment 1 to 17 (38.6%) in of the GG. There was a significant difference Assessment 2. For Construct 3, a total of 40 in the scores for the Assessment 1 (M=3.69, (90.9%) respondents obtained marks in the SD=0.705) and Assessment 2 (M=4.59, range of 4-6 in Assessment 2 as compared to SD=0.775) conditions; t(-12.879), p=0.000. 26 (59%) respondents in Assessment 1. The This is shown in Table 2. improvement for marks in the range of 4-5 is After the second assessment, there from 11 (25%) respondents for Assessment werestill respondents’ who did not meet 1 to 32 (72.7%) respondents in Assessment the desired grade of “Good” which carried 2 for Construct 4. As for Construct 5, the total marks of 20 for the 5 constructs. Out performance improved from 5 respondents of the 44 respondents, 12 did not meet the (11.3%) in the range of 5-6 marks to 23 above desired grade. These 12 respondents respondents (52.2%). wereprovided with the printed form of The above analysis shows an the GG and rubrics wasexplained to them improvement in respondents’ performance again. These respondents werealso given for they obtain higher marks for each two weeks to prepare for their next oral
TABLE 1 Students’ performance in the first two oral assessments (N=44)
Assessment/ Assessment 1 Assessment 2 Constructs Marks Marks 6 5 4 3 2 1 6 5 4 3 2 1 1. Converse on a topic effectively 2 4 24 14 0 0 9 20 10 4 1 0 with appropriate responses 2. Speak fluently using correct and 2 3 15 24 0 0 8 17 18 1 0 0 acceptable pronunciation 3. Speak coherently 1 5 21 15 2 0 5 20 15 4 0 0 4. Speak the language using a wide 0 5 6 23 0 0 3 21 11 9 0 0 range of appropriate vocabulary within context 5. Speak using correct grammar 0 5 20 18 1 0 1 22 9 12 0 0
64 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 57 - 71 (2014) A Comparative Study: Verbal Versus Printed Guiding Grid assessment. The comparison of the weak A repeated- measure ANOVA, with students’ performance before sharing the Greenhouse-Giesser correction, was GG (Assessment 1), after introducing the conducted to assess whether there were GG verbally (Assessment 2) and after giving differences between the average ratings of the printed GG (Assessment 3) are charted the three assessments. Results indicated in the Table 3. that the participants did rate the three
Students Performance in Assessment 1
30
25 Construct 1 20 Construct 2 15 Construct 3 Marks Construct 4 10 Construct 5 5
0 Excellent Very Good Good Satisfactory Weak Very Weak
Fig.2: Students’ performance in Assessment 1
Students Peformance in Assessment 2
25
20 Construct 1 15 Construct 2 Construct 3 Marks 10 Construct 4 Construct 5 5
0 Excellent Very Good Good Satisfactory Weak Very Weak
Fig.3: Students’ performance in Assessment 2
Comparison of students performance in Assessment 1 and 2
30 25 Construct 1 20 Construct 2 15 Construct 3 Marks 10 Construct 4 5 Construct 5 0 Good Good Weak Weak Excellent Excellent Very Good Very Good Very Weak Very Weak Satisfactory Satisfactory
Assessment 1 Assessment 2
Fig.4: Comparison of improvement in performance before and after introducing the GG verbally
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 57 - 71 (2014) 65 Kanthimathi Letchumanan, Karthiyaini Devarajoo and Paramasivam Muthusamy assessments differently, F (1.204, 13.245) The selected students’ performances in =78.566, p < 0.001, eta =.877. The mean the three assessments are shown in Fig.5 and standard deviations for the assessments to Fig.8. are represented in Table 4. Examination of The respondents’ performance these means suggest that respondentshave for Construct 1 shows a progressive improved in their oral assessment after the improvement from Assessments 1 to 3 use of GG. The mean of Assessment 2 is where the majority of the respondents higher than that of Assessment 1 and the obtained 3 marks (75%) in Assessment 1, mean of Assessment 3 is higher than that of 4 marks (91.6%) in Assessment 2 and 5 Assessment 2. marks (91.6%) in Assessment 3. The sharing
TABLE 2 Mean and Standard Deviation of Assessment 1 and Assessment 2
Mean N Std. Deviation Pair 1 Assessment 1- Before GG 3.6955 44 .70545 Assessment 2 – After GG 4.5955 44 .77578 Significance level p < 0.001
TABLE 3 The selected students’ performance in all the three oral assessments (N=12)
Assessment/ Assessment 1 Assessment 2 Assessment 3 Constructs 6 5 4 3 2 1 6 5 4 3 2 1 6 5 4 3 2 1 1. Converse on a topic 0 0 3 9 0 0 0 0 11 1 0 0 0 11 1 0 0 0 effectively with appropriate responses 2. Speak fluently using 0 0 1 11 0 0 0 0 12 0 0 0 0 10 2 0 0 0 correct and acceptable pronunciation 3. Speak coherently 0 0 1 10 1 0 0 0 9 3 0 0 0 10 2 0 0 0 4. Speak the language 0 0 0 12 0 0 0 0 3 9 0 0 4 8 0 0 0 0 using a wide range of appropriate vocabulary within context 5. Speak using correct 0 0 0 12 0 0 0 0 0 12 0 0 0 2 10 0 0 0 grammar A repeated- measure ANOVA, with Greenhouse-Giesser correction, was conducted to assess
TABLE 4 Mean and Standard Deviation Comparison of the 3 Assessments Mean N Std. Deviation Assessment 1- Before GG 3.0667 12 .19695 Assessment 2 – With verbal GG 3.5833 12 .13371 Assessment 3 – With print GG 4.5833 12 .43029
66 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 57 - 71 (2014) A Comparative Study: Verbal Versus Printed Guiding Grid of the printed GG improved respondents’ In Assessment 1, respondents obtained 3 performance. marks which is “Satisfactory” for Construct As for Construct 2, the majority of 5 (100%). In Assessment 2, there was no the respondents gradually improved from improvement. However, the respondents’ obtaining 3 marks (91.6%) in Assessment performance improved in Assessment 3 1, 4 marks (100%) in Assessment 2 to where all 12 (100%) were able to obtain 5 marks (83.3%) in Assessment 3. The “Good” with 4 and 5 marks. same pattern of improvement is observed This indicates that weaker students for Construct 3 and 4 where respondents benefit from the sharing of the printed form gradually improved from obtaining 3 marks of the GG. It could be because they are able
(83.3%) in Assessment 1, 4 marks (75%) to read and understand the rubrics at their in Assessment 2 to 5 marks (83.3%) and own pace and prepare themselves for better 3 marks (100%) in Assessment 1, 4 marks grades. These findings answer Research (75%) in Assessment 2 to 5 marks (66.6%) Question 2. in Assessment 3 respectively.
Selected students performance in Assessment 1
14 12 Construct 1 10 Construct 2 8 Construct 3
Marks 6 Construct 4 4 Construct 5 2 0 Excellent Very Good Good Satisfactory Weak Very Weak
Performance
Fig.5: Selected Students’ Performances in Assessment 1
Selected students Performance in Assessment 2
14 12 Construct 1 10 Construct 2 8 Construct 3
Marks 6 Construct 4 4 Construct 5 2 0 Excellent Very Good Good Satisfactory Weak Very Weak
Performance
Fig.6: Selected Students’ Performances in Assessment 2
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 57 - 71 (2014) 67 Kanthimathi Letchumanan, Karthiyaini Devarajoo and Paramasivam Muthusamy
Students’ views on the implementation of The respondents also confirmed that the the GG GG given verbally improved their grades Twelve students who werethe weakest in the oral assessment. However, they cited respondents were interviewed for their various reasons how the printed GG helped views on the implementation of the GG. All them improve their oral performance further. twelve respondents agreed that the rubrics in Seven respondents ( 58.3%) stated that they the GG helped them in their oral assessment. knew more about marks, how to score better Six students (50%) identified that the GG marks in order to improve their performance. had improved their performance in various Five of the respondents (41.6%) viewed manners such as improved in their oral test, the printed GG as a source of reference conversation, minor mistakes and grades. for it showed them the mistakes and Four respondents (33.3%) asserted that the weaknesses. There werean equal number GG helped them improve their performance of responses (33.3%) that identified the through scoring better marks or higher printed GG as a memory jolt for it helped marks. them remember and also understand
Selected Students Performance in Assessment 3
12
10 Construct 1 8 Construct 2 6 Construct 3 Marks Construct 4 4 Construct 5 2
0 Excellent Very Good Good Satisfactory Weak Very Weak
Fig.7: Selected Students’ Performance in Assessment 3
Comparison of selected students performance in Assessment 1, 2 and 3
14 12 10 8 6 Construct 1 Marks 4 Construct 2 2 0 Construct 3 Construct 4 Good Good Good Weak Weak Weak Construct 5 Excellent Excellent Excellent Very Good Very Good Very Good Very Weak Very Weak Very Weak Satisfactory Satisfactory Satisfactory
Assessment 1 Assessment 2 Assessment 3
Fig.8: Selected Students’ Performance in Assessment 3
68 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 57 - 71 (2014) A Comparative Study: Verbal Versus Printed Guiding Grid the oral assessment as well as how the in the GG by the Ministry of Education. teachers awarded marks. However, all the seven respondents The twelve respondents agreed that confessed that they do not use the GG every student should be given the GG provided by the Ministry of Education. before the oral assessment. The reasons Various reasons were cited for not using they cited included the following: ten of the the GG. Five out of the seven respondents respondents (83.3%) claimed that students claimed that they were “not aware” and can get better marks by rectifying their “didn’t know” that the GG existed while mistakes; six respondents (50%) supported three of them claimed that the GG was not that sharing of the GG prepared them better provided to them. This reflects a situation for the oral assessment and gave them more where an effective system can be introduced practice. There were also two respondents but implementation can be faulty due to who stated that other students “deserve” to lack of support at grass root levels. At the know the GG. Based on the above analysis, institutional level, there must be an alert it can be concluded that students benefit panel to enforce the practice to support from the sharing of the GG especially in effective teaching and learning. the printed form because it functions as a There were three respondents who memory jolt as well as a reference point for reasoned that the assessment evaluation them to improve their performance in the form with the condensed version of the oral assessment. These findings answered GG rubrics was sufficient as explanation Research Question 3. to the students and to evaluate them. There was one respondent who asserted that the Teachers’ views on the implementation of rubrics is “too wordy” and students “might the GG be put off” by the details in the grid and A questionnaire was administered to gather this might “affect the spontaneity of their views from teachers on the implementation performance”. These views seem to reflect of the GG in the classroom for the English a lack of understanding of the effectiveness language oral assessment. Seven teachers of using the GG to support teaching and were involved in this study. All seven learning. Teachers at various levels should respondents carried out oral assessments be introduced to the advantages of using twice a year. They claimed that students the GG as a motivating tool to improve were given a general explanation about the students’ performance as well as a guide requirements for the oral assessment and for teachers to plan for effective teaching. they also guided the students with the topics. Assessment links teaching and learning Three out of the seven teachers showed through matching assessment goals with the oral assessment form to the students and learning outcomes. explained to them about the scores. This The introduction of the GG as an oral assessment form carries the simplified assessment tool to support teaching and version of the assessment rubrics provided learning should ideally be done as an
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 57 - 71 (2014) 69 Kanthimathi Letchumanan, Karthiyaini Devarajoo and Paramasivam Muthusamy induction to all new staff at schools and performance or lack of performance other institutions. It can also be introduced indicates what the focus of teaching should during sharing sessions and continuous be in each case. This helps teachers plan professional development of teachers their teaching to support effective learning. (CPD). The implementation of the GG This study further confirms the versatility should be monitored regularly to sustain of the GG as a tool for effective teaching the usage. Besides the above, students’ and learning. views should also be gathered to gauge the effectiveness of assessment instruments ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS used in educational institutions. This study was funded by the Infrastructure University Kuala Lumpur (formerly known CONCLUSION as KLIUC). The use of the Guiding Grid encourages students’ learning through engagement and REFERENCES motivation. This leads to knowledge and Assessment Rubrics. (2001). Retrieved from http:// understanding which support performance edtech.kennesaw.edu/intech/rubrics.htm. and action. Reflection is an important part Black, P., & Wiliam, D. (1998). Inside the black box: of the learning process and leads to higher- Raising standards through classroom assessment. order thinking. Students who areable to Phi Delta Kappan, 80(2), 139-148. think criticallyare able to make judgments Brookhart, S. M. (1999). The Art and Science of and apply the knowledge and skills gained. Classroom Assessment: The Missing Part of The ability to make judgements leads to Pedagogy. ASHE-ERIC Higher Education commitment to their own actions and thus Report (Vol. 27, No.1). Washington, DC: The the formation of personal identities and George Washington University, Graduate School of Education and Human Development. Carnegie values of individual students. Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching The GG also supports“Educative (2005). Michigan State University. Assessment” (Grant Wiggins, 1998) because Chicago Public Schools. (1999). Rubric Bank. it is an assessment instrument that supports Retrieved from http://intranet.cps.k12.il.us/ assessment for learning. It is flexible for Assessments/Ideas_and_Rubrics/Rubric_Bank/ use in assessing various content subjects as rubric_bank.html. well as languages. Targeted skills as learning Creswell, W. J. (2005). Educational Research: outcomes are specified in the GG so that Planning, conducting and evaluating qualitative students are aware of what is expected of and quantitative research. New Jersey, NJ: them. Students are also motivated by the Pearson Education, Inc. use of GG because they can chart their own Danielson, C. (1997a). A Collection of Performance learning progress based on the rubrics. The Tasks and Rubrics: Middle School Mathematics. rubrics can also be a guide for teachers Larchmont, NY: Eye on Education Inc. in planning their teaching. The students’
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Danielson, C. (1997b). A Collection of Performance MOE. (2010). English Language Syllabus: Primary Tasks and Rubrics: Upper Elementary School and Secondary Schools. Malaysia. Ministry of Mathematics. Larchmont, NY: Eye on Education Education, Malaysia. Inc. Moskal, B. (2000). AssessmentResource Page. Danielson, C., & Marquez, E. (1998). A Collection Retrieved from http://www.mines.edu/ of Performance Tasks and Rubrics: High School Academic/assess/Resource.htm. Mathematics. Larchmont, NY: Eye on Education Schrock, K. (2000). Kathy Schrock’s Guide for Inc. Educators.Retrieved from http://school. Jabatan Pelajaran Selangor, Malaysia. (2010). Manual discovery.com/schrockguide/assess.html. Rujukan Penskoran SPM 2010. (Ujian Lisan Shepard, L. A. (2000). The role of assessment in a Berasaskan Sekolah) – Bahasa Inggeris KOD learning culture. Paper presented at the Annual 1119/3 (1990). Sektor Penilaian dan Peperiksaan, Meeting of the American Educational Research Jabatan Pelajaran Selangor, Malaysia. Association. Retrieved from http://www.aera.net/ Karthiyaini, D. (2009). A Gateway to Practitioners. meeting/am2000/wrap/praddr01.htm Conference Proceedings of theselected papers Shulman, S. Lee. (2005). Making Differences: A at the2nd IPBA International Conference, Teacher “Table of Learning”in Change. November/ Training Institute of International Languages, December 2002. Volume 34, Number 6 pp. Selangor, Malaysia. 36-44. Knecht, R., Moskal, B., & Pavelich, M. (2000). The State of Colorado. (1999). The Rubric. Retrieved from Design Report Rubric: Measuring and Tracking http://www.cde.state.co.us/cdedepcom/asrubric. Growth through Success. Paper to be presented htm#writing. at the annual meeting of the American Society for Engineering Education. Wiggins, G. (1998). Educative assessment: Designing assessments to inform and improve student Klenowski, V. (2003). Attending to StudentsLearning performance. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Needs Using Assessment.Assessment in Retrieved from Amazon.com Education: Principles, Policy and Practice, 11(2), 213-226.
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Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 73 - 83 (2014)
SOCIAL SCIENCES & HUMANITIES
Journal homepage: http://www.pertanika.upm.edu.my/
Political Cartoons in the First Decade of the Millennium
Iro Sani*, Mardziah Hayati Abdullah, Afida Mohamad Ali and Faiz S. Abdullah Department of English, Faculty of Modern Languages and Communication, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
ABSTRACT The beginning of the new millennium (the year 2000 to 2010) has witnessed a dramatic increase in the political cartoons’ research. By their nature, political cartoons constitute a specific genre of political reporting in that they are pictorial representations which depict political and social issues and events, as well as the parties involved, in an immediate and condensed form. The genre is characterised by humorous depiction of events, exploiting the ability of irony and satire to unravel, ridicule and attack in a playful, witty and artful fashion (Test, 1991). They project a particular point of view (El Refaie, 2009) and enlighten readers on public issues while exposing wrong practices (Akande, 2002). Due to the increasing research on political cartoons, this study reviews previous studies conducted in the area from the beginning of the millennium (2000) to the year 2010 that marks the first decade of the 21st century millennium. It is hoped that the review will highlight how the genre contributes to social and political commentary and to provide an inspiration for further research in political cartoons.
Keywords: Political cartoons, First Decade, Century Millennium, Media, Messages
INTRODUCTION This decade (provide years) has witnessed a considerable development of research in the area of political cartoons where many
ARTICLE INFO researchers have examined these cartoons Article history: from various perspectives. Now that the first Received: 29 September 2011 Accepted: 20 April 2013 decade of the century has come to an end, E-mail addresses: there is a need to review related literature [email protected] (Iro Sani), [email protected] (Mardziah Hayati Abdullah), in the area, considering its significant [email protected] (Afida Mohamad Ali), [email protected] (Faiz S. Abdullah) communicative purposes in societies. The * Corresponding author
ISSN: 0128-7702 © Universiti Putra Malaysia Press Iro Sani, Mardziah Hayati Abdullah, Afida Mohamad Ali and Faiz S. Abdullah year 2000 marked the beginning of the METHODOLOGY millennium. During this period, major events In order to provide a succinct account of of global attention have occurred across related previous research in this review, the the world. These events have tremendous method employed therefore, is to explore impact on social and political dimension different variables that previous research on the lives of peoples and societies today. have considered in describing the nature For instance, the September 11 attack on the and function of political cartoons. In this USA have triggered war against terrorism context, the present study reviews relevant as the world’s contemporary primordial research conducted in the area of political policy. Obviously, the situation at hand cartoons across the world from the year needs important mode of communication 2000, which marked the beginning of that can succinctly deliver messages which the new millennium up to the year 2010 summarizes contemporary societal issues respectively, making a period of one decade. that can easily be absorbed and processed Thus, the review was aimed at synthesizing by audiences in order to create meaning for major themes, framework of analyses them and keep informed about such issues and overall findings of previous research in different contextual backgrounds. within the stipulated period. This will Political cartoons therefore, are a provide an easy avenue for assessing the form of media message that harnesses communicative roles of political cartoons linguistic and nonlinguistic devices used as a medium of social practice and also to not only as vital instruments of information serve as an inspiration for further research dissemination reflecting social practices in the area of political cartoons. and happenings, but also as a principal means of public access by which the public ANALYSIS OF POLITICAL participates in the societal wider spectrum CARTOONS of debate about a particular event or social In recent years, there have been considerable phenomenon (Giarelli and Tulman, 2003). studies in literature which focused on the Political cartoons have been used to uncover nature and functions of political cartoons. the reality of events in society. Moreover, Several studies of political cartoons cartoon messages have been manipulated to looked at their capability to effectively set political and social agenda in different communicate social and political messages societies across the world. To this effect, to mass audiences. These studies have the review has explored various analytical been synthesized and grouped into related frameworks which have been employed for variables based on their overall findings: examining how cartoons are ingeniously a.) Many studies focused on communicative used to convey meanings. These frameworks functions of political cartoons. This of analyses include Critical Discourse variable posits that the cartoons are used Analysis, CDA hermeneutic and Semiotic as a vehicle for political communication. Analysis.
74 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 73 - 83 (2014) Political Cartoons in the First Decade of the Millennium
In his study for instance, Streicher exaggeration to communicate social issues (1965 cited by Benoit, W.L, et al., in society. His findings indicated that visual 2001) his findings indicated that visual rhetoric serve as a persuasive device that messages are much more succinct and cartoonists use to convey messages. provide clear summary of an event or In another study, Duus (2001) explored issue at hand as such, are given much Japanese cartoons depictions where he preference over conventional media examined the historical development of news. He claimed that cartoons help political cartoons in Japan. His findings audiences to read news and to scan indicated that political cartoons were used through the meaning of an issue or in Japanese media in a form of political an event particularly those audiences critique. He added that political cartoons who give much preference to visual were used as a vehicle for expressing news and those who have little time. political opinion. This development came He contended that political cartoons as a result of the emergence of an elite capability to comment on social and opposition to the government. political issues make them a distinct Generally, as a distinct media genre, medium that contributes significantly political cartoons appeal to the minds of by facilitating effective communication. audience and at the same time challenge their communicative and interpretive In his study, Walker (2003) examined competence. In this regard, El Refaie political cartoons in respect of political (2009) carried out a study on how readers communication. He argued that the interpret political cartoons. The result of cartoons are used as a powerful weapon the pilot study indicated that in the case of for communicating political issues for the political cartoons, interpretation lie- solely fact that cartoon messages can easily be on many different kinds of literacy including absorbed by audiences and transmitted in a familiarity with cartoon conventions and a mass circulation. His findings indicated that broad knowledge of current affairs and the political cartoons are of social importance ability to draw conclusions or analogies. because they are used in setting social Therefore, the author challenges those who agenda and provide satirical commentary are of the opinion that cartoons are simple aimed at transforming social and political and easy to read. His findings suggest that norms of society. even the highly educated audiences who In his research note on political cartoons, are to some extent more informed about Minix (2004) explored the nature and political issues need to put into play a whole conventions of political cartoon art. He also range of literacies such as good analogies expounded cartoonists’ talents and creativity of idioms and metaphors as well as other in portraying issues of public interest in their linguistic skills in order to grasp fully the depictions which exploit a wide range of meanings conveyed in the cartoons. Given visual rhetorics such as humor, blending and
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 73 - 83 (2014) 75 Iro Sani, Mardziah Hayati Abdullah, Afida Mohamad Ali and Faiz S. Abdullah their nature, cartoons depictions are usually social psychology, anthropology and the satirical; their militant effects are just like cartoon code. However, the researcher did that of armory used for launching attacks not provide adequate explanation of the on the political leaders and the democratic code as an important semiotic concept; process through pictorial depictions (Morris, and this hinders proper understanding of 1992). the cartoons’ messages. The term code as b.) Construction of ideologies, social and Fiske (1982) defines it, simply refers to “a political identities: Various studies have system of meaning common to members of a looked into this variable. Based on this culture” (p. 20). The code comprises both the variable, cartoons can also be explored sign and the convention for interpreting that to constitute identity of a particular sign. Nevertheless, the study demonstrates group of people. For instance, Medubi the influence of the cartoon as a medium (2003) examined language and ideology of political expression in the Arab world. in Nigerian political cartoons, where In fact, the study claims that cartoons he applied metaphor theory known offer a unique form of social and political as the conceptual integration theory commentary specifically to the cartoonist in the analysis of the cartoons in the and his society in general. Thus, the claim Nigerian social and political context. is constructive for the fact that the cartoon His findings indicated that the interplay samples in the study vividly portray self- between images and words cues in the identity by easily depicting identifiable cartoons that portray group ideologies. features of Palestinian refugees such as These group ideologies are given much clothing styles, related artifacts, shape and priority over national interest and size of body (physique) as well as mode projected Nigeria as a nation without of behavior and body images which are so a clearly defined ideology as a result revelatory in representing Palestinian people of colonially inherited problem which and their culture. is the conglomeration of many ethnic c.) The Influence of Political cartoons on groups of culturally diverse origin. public opinions: Political cartoons can be a powerful weapon in influencing In another study, Najjar (2007) public opinion pertaining to issues conducted an exploratory study of the most of public interest such as audiences’ popular Palestinian cartoonist, Naji al- views on candidates especially during Ali. The author contends that cartoons are campaign and voting period. This essential sites for the construction of people’s variable indicates the persuasive power identity, which he refers to the “identity of of the cartoons, because the point they the self and others” (p. 256). He used a are making can be quickly transmitted combined approach extracted from various and absorbed by the audience. On this analytical perspectives such as cognition, account, Conners (2005) explored
76 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 73 - 83 (2014) Political Cartoons in the First Decade of the Millennium
political cartoons and the popular Townsend et al. (2008) explored the nature culture in the 2004 American of political cartoons at a time of major presidential campaigns. He claims that political and social reform specifically on political cartoons are used as tools for how political, satirical cartoons illustrated manipulating voters’ opinion on the Australia’s WorkChoices debate using candidates captured in a single cartoon cartoon images published in mainstream message during the campaign period. Australian newspaper. The researchers This demonstrates that political cartoons have employed qualitative methods where are unique forms of media messages cartoon samples were categorized into that have strong impact on the audience tone and content categories. Cartoons’ in terms of public opinion making. content depicted many issues on the newly Furthermore, the in-depth analysis introduced industrial relation laws in of cartoons in the study has really Australia at that time(specify time period). demonstrated that political cartoon can The findings indicated that political cartoons be harnessed and monopolized through formed significant part of political discourse its specific messages to form formidable and a medium through which important and elaborate campaign machinery in a debate on industrial reform was presented period of elections. to Australian workers and the general public (source). Considering their influence on public In his recent study, El Refaie (2010) opinion, Hogan (2001) examined political explores young people’s responses to cynicism in political cartoons. He observed political cartoons published in newspapers. that there is a lack of balance in visual He claims that newspaper cartoons are part comment on politics in political cartoons. of multimodal texts because they combine Cartoons that merely describe politicians verbal and visual semiotic mode in creating and political institutions do not appear in and conveying meaning. The researcher his analysis of the cartoons perhaps due piloted the use of newspaper cartoons as a to the fact that they are not humorous means for soliciting young people’s views and satirical. Although satire is essential, concerning the meanings of the cartoons. the level at which politicians and politics The findings indicated that the young are negatively depicted will have serious peoples’ opinion can be influenced through repercussions to democratic societies like the cartoons’ messages and interpreting political cynicism which will result in high multimodal text is often more complex than level of abstention from voting and distrust comprehending verbal texts. on democratic system and lead audiences to Frameworks for analyzing Political resort to violence, hatred or even civil war. cartoons: In terms of framework of analysis, Political cartoons function as a medium different analytical frameworks have been representing the response of a particular used to examine political cartoons, such as group over sensitive issues. For instance,
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 73 - 83 (2014) 77 Iro Sani, Mardziah Hayati Abdullah, Afida Mohamad Ali and Faiz S. Abdullah hermeneutic analysis that has been used by and design of newspapers as well as the political cartoon researchers to interpret influence of the political culture and the political cartoons. For instance, Diamond cartoons ability of conveying the unsayable (2002) studied cartoons depictions of through its depictions of visual images, the post-September 11 attack. He used a text- author claimed that political cartoons will oriented hermeneutic interpretation to continue to flourish in Britain and in her examine themes of the cartoons. He found future. that cartoons are used to reveal a number Correspondingly, in recent times, of frequent themes such as description of researchers have contemporarily started to events related to 11 September and issues employ various approaches in analyzing in the aftermath of the attack. how political cartoons operate. In society In another study, (Benoit et al. (2001) these include semiotics, content and explored and analyzed 2000 political document analysis, rhetorical and narrative cartoons concerning Clinton-Lewinsky- analyses. The review has explored studies Starr affair which concentrated on the that were conducted using these analyses investigations, impeachment and trial of Similarly, semiotics seeks to address media President Clinton. The analytical framework texts using repetitive signs for meaning used for the analysis was a fantasy theme production. Thus, semiotic analysis “focuses analysis of political cartoons using symbolic on the system of rules governing the implied convergence theory. Thus, it is a tool for discourse involved in media texts and assessing rhetorical discourse with emphasis stresses on the role of hermeneutic content on the visual message that provides basis for in shaping meaning” (Wollacott, 1982, the analysis of imaginative language and pp.93-94). imagery usually embedded in the cartoons. In her study, El Refaie (2003) The analysis demonstrated that political incorporated semiotics to investigate the cartoons are complex visual or symbolic concept of visual metaphor in newspaper discourses which employ rhetorical devices cartoons using in Australian newspaper that require rhetorical analysis in order to cartoons. He argued that visual metaphors make sense of the messages and their impact cannot be expressed precisely in formal on the public. terms only. Rather, they must be seen as Taking into account the influence of visual representations of metaphorical the political cartoons, Seymoure-ure (2001) thoughts or concepts. Taking into predicted the future of British political consideration the method of analysis, the cartoons. He analyzed the depictions of party author has clearly demonstrated that visual leaders in the 1997 general election in the metaphors are described in terms of the UK and categorized the dominant images. visual mode particularly in newspaper Tracing the development of cartoons’ cartoon. He also suggests that “visual traditions in respect of changes in the size metaphors are best described in terms of
78 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 73 - 83 (2014) Political Cartoons in the First Decade of the Millennium their underlying metaphorical concepts” and metaphor. Unlike what others consider, (El Refaie, 2003, p.75). Thus, cartoons as cartoons are not so easy to grasp.. Therefore, pictorial representations portray the real-life people need to pay close attention to both events through comparison into condensed verbal and visual details contained in each graphical form that can only be understood cartoon. However, the general theory of and interpreted by the public when they verbal humor employed by the researcher map on the visual depictions contained in is too broad to give an elaborate account of the cartoons with the real-life events and humor based on the visual depictions in the this is the cognitive process through which cartoons. Usually, the pleasure in political metaphors convey meanings. cartoon as described by Press (1981) is Cognitive approach is another specifically derived from the joy of sticking framework used by Bergen (2003) where pins into fools and villains or watching he focused on cognition and culture in the others doing it the humor is so surprising analysis of September 11 political cartoons. and ridiculous as such, incongruent theory He identified cognitive mechanisms as: might be more appropriate for the analysis conceptual blending, conceptual metaphor of the cartoon in the study. and cultural models. His findings In addition, critical discourse analysis indicated that cognitive mechanisms play (CDA) has also been used for the study vital roles in reflecting social events by of political cartoons. For example, Mazid revealing significant similarities in the (2008) examined Bush and bin Laden cartoons through which audiences can cartoons using CDA and semiotic-discursive easily understand at the moment of such aspects as analytical method. The author events. Moreover, they appear to interact demonstrates that cartoons can be used to in political cartoons much easier than they present ideological differences between do in language due to visual reifications of opposing parties or societies. He achieved these mechanisms. Therefore, cognitive this through depicting two repugnant mechanisms make cartoon messages more enemies in person of Bush’s administration accessible to audiences through reification representing the west, who was portrayed of relatively abstract concepts in visible and as a devil and at the same time his Western easily recognizable concrete domains. ideologies as equally devilish; bin Laden In another study, Tsakona (2009) used on the other side represented the Middle- multimodal theory of humor as an analytical East, who was portrayed as a terrorist and framework to study language and image his ideological beliefs were presented as interaction in cartoons. The author indicated that of the terrorists. Therefore, using CDA that cartoon humor is a complex process that provides in a communicative interaction, involves different mechanisms of language a framework of analyzing cartoons to interplay between verbal and nonverbal express information, ideology and properties devices such as exaggeration, contradiction capable of effectively conveying implicit
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 73 - 83 (2014) 79 Iro Sani, Mardziah Hayati Abdullah, Afida Mohamad Ali and Faiz S. Abdullah and explicit meaning to the target audience. abuse (Foucault, 1994c, p.785; Monga, Political cartoons possess linguistic features 1996, p.56). Even though the researcher which are used for constructing ideologies explored how some African leaders were and social identities reflecting real-life dehumanized in some African newspapers, events in the political arena of a society his concept of governmentality did not (Chouliaraki and Fairclough, 1999). adequately address the written captions of From the African perspective, Eko the cartoons that formed one of the central (2007) investigated how African newspapers questions which led to his research. dehumanized and deterritorialized four In another study, Udoakah (2006) used African political leaders in the post-cold Uses and Gratifications Theory as theoretical war era. The author analyzed post-cold framework to examine the political cartoon war cartoon depictions of power abuse readership in the Nigerian context. He by four typical African leaders. The study verified the claim made by editors and is a typical African narrative style which cartoonist in Nigeria that cartoons are is a kind of mythology characterized by alternative forms of communication meant the use of some animals that are given for the lowly educated and illiterate. human attributes to represent humans. It Interestingly, the findings indicated that is a satirical narration whereby human the readership was made up of elites or beings are animalized, in other words, educated and politically conscious class humans are brought out as animals in order contrary to the commonly held view that to reveal their brutal nature with the aim cartoons are largely meant for the illiterates of satirizing them. Similarly, they are in and low educated class. He demonstrated some instances deterritorialized, in the that apart from literacy, many things are sense that they are taken out of their natural required from the audience members to domains or environments symbolically understand political cartoons. He was of the for the purpose of denouncing their extra- contention that for better comprehension and authoritarian leadership (Eko, 2007). To this interpretation of cartoons, one needs to have effect, the author used animalization and a sense of humor, knowledge on current deterritorialization as counter-discourses political issues and historical background of to project the concept of authoritarianism the society. However the researcher did not as animalistic and self-destructive. He provide clear theoretical explanation of his incorporated the analytical framework of framework of uses and gratification theory, Foucault’s concept of governmentality which is a theory attempts to explain the which is a construct that refers to the uses and functions of media and how readers relationship between the government and the actively look for specific media to satisfy governed characterized by abuse of power specific needs. This is the major weakness on the part of the government and attempts of the study given the fact that his claims by the governed to reduce or overcome that were based on the theoretical assumptions.
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DISCUSSION and representation specifically in the form To this effect, in the studies reviewed, of texts and media (Chandler 2002). A text different analyses for studying political in this context refers to the assemblage of cartoons have been explored. These include signs such as words, images and sounds content analysis which is used for evaluating created and interpreted with reference to numerically dominant tendencies in political the conventions associated with a genre and cartoons. Fantasy Theme Analysis is another in a specific medium of communication. analytical framework used for assessing For semioticians, a text can exist in any rhetorical discourse. Moreover, humor medium and can be verbal, nonverbal, or which is an essential human attribute has both. Political cartoons are media texts that been used as framework of analysis in contain both verbal and non-verbal devices. form of multimodal theory. In addition, In summary, the review highlights Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) and several studies which have been conducted semiotic-discursive approach has been used in political cartoons focusing on different as frameworks of analysis. For instance, variables. Some studies focused on the nature Mazid (2008) used this analysis analytical and functions of political cartoons, while framework to examine Bush and bin others looked into the visual projections Laden cartoons. Eko, (2007) incorporated and how issues are encapsulated in cartoons. Foucault’s concept of governmentality Similarly, communicative functions of to analyze political cartoons depictions political cartoons have been explored of African leaders. Given a few studies such as their ability to satirize and ridicule in literature on political cartoons, Taking political figures and their bad policies. into consideration the Nigerian context, Finally, the review is aimed at establishing there is a need for more research paucity a niche as well as inspiration for further of research in the area of political cartoons. research in political cartoon literature. However, Udoakah (2006) employed Uses and Gratification theories as a theoretical CONCLUSION framework to investigate the political This review provides an overview of various cartoons readership in Nigeria. studies conducted on political cartoons. In In terms of analytical framework used fact, from the examined previous research, in the analysis of political cartoons, semiotic it becomes evident that political cartoons analysis is so pertinent in providing an in- rely heavily on the interplay between images depth interpretation of cartoons. Semiotics and words specific language use especially was used to analyze the cartoon text which satire as a tool to communicate social and is regarded as a sign. Semioticians study political messages. Thus, through creative signs as part of semiotic sign systems such combination of images and words, satire, as medium or genre. The main concern of political cartoons have the potentials of semiotics in this context is meaning-making entertaining and informing the public on
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 73 - 83 (2014) 81 Iro Sani, Mardziah Hayati Abdullah, Afida Mohamad Ali and Faiz S. Abdullah current issues. The cartoons can also be Considering the polysemous nature of used to criticize vice and folly as a way political cartoons, one analytical framework of transforming society and its polity. As is not adequately enough to provide such, they are used as agents of social and exhaustive analysis and interpretation political reforms in society. In addition, of messages depicted in the cartoons. political cartoons serve as the mirror of Therefore, considering the identified gap society reflecting its social happenings in political cartoon literature; this review and practices. Considering their increase has the potential to provide an inspiration use in media, political cartoons constitute for further research which might bring a vital social discourse that mediates theoretical and analytical understanding of media and society thereby contributing to political cartoon genre which has become a political communication, social debate and vital medium of communication in diverse commentary. Despite the fact that political social and political contexts. cartoons rely on satire as a linguistic weapon to critique politicians and authorities and REFERENCE communicate effectively, the reality of issues Akande, O. (2002). A Semiotic Analysis of Political and events, existing studies have not yet Cartoons: A case study of Nigeria. University of explored how satire is used; neither does it Oklahoma, Oklahoma. examine linguistic and nonlinguistic devices Benoit, W., Klyukovski, A., McHale, J., & Airne, employed for creating and conveying satire D. (2001). A fantasy theme analysis of political in political cartoons. It could be argued from cartoons on the Clinton-Lewinsky-Starr affair. the review that political cartoons play a Critical Studies in Media Communication, 18(4), 377-394. vital communicative role through which the general public is informed, and reoriented Bergen, B. (2004). To awaken a sleeping giant. on contemporary social issues affecting Cognition and culture in September 11 political cartoons. Language, Culture and Mind. the society. Thus, this study responds to Standford, CA: CSLI, 23–35. the call for further studies by political cartoons academics who have suggested Conners, L. J. (2005). Visual Representations of the 2004 Presidential Campaign: political cartoons that research about political cartoons has and Popular Culture References. American been overlooked for far too long (Walker, Behavioral Scientist, 49(3), 487-497. 2003; El Refaie 2003; Udoakah 2006). Diamond, M. (2002). No laughing matter: Post- Further research should focus on the role September 11 political cartoons in Arab/Muslim of satire in satirical representation of social newspapers. Political Communication, 19(2), and political issues in political cartoons 251-272. using multiple analytical frameworks. for Duus, P. (2001). Presidential Address: Weapons of the analyzing political cartoons because it has Weak, Weapons of the Strong-The Development been identified that previous studies have of the Japanese Political Cartoon. Journal of mainly focused on one analytical framework. Asian Studies, 60(4), 965-997.
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Eko, L. (2007). It’s a Political Jungle Out There. Najjar, O. (2007). Cartoons as a Site for the International Communication Gazette, 69(3), Construction of Palestinian Refugee Identity. 219. Journal of Communication Inquiry, 31(3), 255.
El Refaie, E. (2003). Understanding visual metaphor: Seymour-Ure, C. (2001). What Future for the British the example of newspaper cartoons. Visual Political Cartoon? Journalism Studies, 2(3), Communication, 2(1), 75. 333-355.
El Refaie, E. (2009). Multiliteracies: how Test, G. (1991). Satire: spirit and art: University of readers interpret political cartoons. Visual South Florida Press (Tampa). Communication, 8(2), 181. Townsend, K., McDonald, P., & Esders, L. (2008). El Refaie, E., & Hِrschelmann, K. (2010). Young How political, satirical cartoons illustrated people›s readings of a political cartoon and Australia’s WorkChoices debate. Australian the concept of multimodal literacy. Discourse: Review of Public Affairs, 9(1), 1-26. Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education, Tsakona, V. (2009). Language and image interaction 31(2), 195-207. in cartoons: Towards a multimodal theory of Foucault, M. (1994c). Dits et Ecrits [Sayings and humor. Journal of Pragmatics, 41(6), 1171-1188. Writings]. Vol. IV, Paris: Gallimard. Udoakah, N. (2006). Political Cartoons Readership Hogan, M. (2001). Cartoonists and political cynicism. Among Uyo Residents of Akwa Ibom State in The Drawing Board: An Australian Review of Nigeria. The Western Journal of Black Studies, Public Affairs, 2(1), 27–50. 30.
Mazid, B. (2008). Cowboy and misanthrope: a Walker, R. (2003). Political Cartoons: Now You See critical (discourse) analysis of Bush and bin Them! Canadian Parliamentary Review, 26(1). Laden cartoons. Discourse & Communication, 2(4), 433.
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Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 85 - 93 (2014)
SOCIAL SCIENCES & HUMANITIES
Journal homepage: http://www.pertanika.upm.edu.my/
Diversifying the Input and the Outcome: A Case Study
Phuong thi Anh Le 1 Nguyen Chanh, Nha Trang,Vietnam
ABSTRACT Creating an enjoyable classroom session is considered an essential goal of teaching (Dornyei, 2001) as this can help to enhance learning outcome (Hamilton 2010; Klein, Noe & Wang 2006; Oxford & Shearing 1994). This article reflects a case study in which attempts were made to turn the classroom into not only a delightful place for language learning, but also a stage for personal enjoyment and performance for college students. The diversity in the input and outcome was achieved via the use of various materials as warmers and different types of assessment activities. Observation showed that our students truly enjoyed these activities and they manifested improved creativity, confidence and language skills development. Implications and suggestions for other class contexts were also discussed.
Keywords: Motivation, teaching materials, learning autonomy, assessment
INTRODUCTION and to turn their classrooms into a place not It has been widely believed that creating a only for textbooks and exams but also for relaxing atmosphere for the learners is an fun activities, this article reports on a case important task for the teachers (Dornyei study where the introduction of authentic 2001; Lewis & Hills 1985; Mitcham 2009; materials as warmers and various activities Tudor 2009; Umstatter 2002) because such for assessment can serve these purposes in an environment can enhance the learning our context. outcome (Hamilton 2010; Klein, Noe & Wang 2006; Oxford & Shearing 1994). CONTEXT With an aim to create a diversity of The case study was conducted with 80 input and outcome for the students’ learning final-year English-major students from two classes in a three-year college in ARTICLE INFO Vietnam. While 30 students were trained Article history: Received: 11 November 2011 to become school teachers of English, Accepted: 27 July 2012 the other 50 students were trained to E-mail address: [email protected] (Phuong thi Anh Le) work for the tourist industry in the local
ISSN: 0128-7702 © Universiti Putra Malaysia Press Phuong thi Anh Le province. The case study lasted for an (Elgar 2001; Tissington & LaCour 2010), academic year and it involved four courses and improve their emotional development of British Life, American Life, Cross- as well as thinking skills (Ghosn 2002). cultural Communication and American In our context, warmers were understood Literature, with each course consisting of as short activities which lasted from 5 to 15 lessons of 150 minutes each. Most of 15 minutes at the beginning of each class the students came from the rural areas and to create a delightful atmosphere for the they experienced considerable pressure students. For this purpose, motivation was from their job prospects, families or studies, the main criteria in selecting materials while which made learning a burden to many of accompanying activities were designed them. In this context, it was considered to explore the content of the materials to useful for the teacher to create a relaxing develop students’ general knowledge and classroom environment to encourage the language improvement. Thus, these warmers students in their learning. were not necessarily linked to the content of the lesson that followed and in this way, the MATERIALS AND METHODS knowledge that students learned from these While language games are often used warmers was more varied and not confined to motivate learners, especially younger to the lesson prescribed by the syllabus. ones (Casanave 2002; Wright, Betteridge & Buckby 2006), many of these games Songs and pictures were not suitable to the interests and In our context, popular English songs maturity of our college students. Therefore, were used to provide students with some authentic materials, namely songs, films, enjoyment and they served as a starting point pictures, stories and poems were adopted to generate some discussion. For example, for this purpose instead. These materials after listening to a song, students were asked can provide not only lots of fun for the class to talk about the songwriter, the singer, or (Baurain 2000; Moon 2010; Tissington & their taste in music and their favorite singers. LaCour 2010; Tran 2003; Tudor 2009) but This kind of information was prepared by also useful input to students in language the teacher in the form of questions for a learning. For example, songs can improve quiz that students were expected to answer. students’ pronunciation (Luu & Pham 2010; Competitions among groups made this kind Salcedo 2010), films can help them to learn of activities even more interesting to the about cultural content (Qiang, Teng & class. Songs which were unfamiliar to the Wolff 2007) and pictures can facilitate their students were employed as listening texts imagination (Wong 2004). Likewise, stories with language tasks like gap fill, matching and poems can provide them with social or questions and answers. The songs we and cultural values (Ho 2002; Hall 2003; used included popular songs available on Miccoli 2003), promote their language YouTube and video clips from Britain Got
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Talent and American Got Talent which were comprehension. Activities such as dubbing, well liked by our students. acting, role-playing (Qiang, Teng &Wolff A wide range of pictures/photos about 2007) were not used due to time allocation different topics including nature, animals, but students were asked to provide the words people, places of interest, countries and for silent videos like Mr. Bean series and cultures were used for quizzes, discussion Charlie Chaplin film clips. or further information. For example, after watching a set of pictures about a cave Poetry and short stories newly discovered in the country, students For our warmers, none of the literature worked in teams to answer questions on with linguistic or content challenges to our this cave. Pictures about famous places in students was chosen. Instead, poems which the world or various kinds of animals were were readily understood and appreciated also shown and students were asked to tell by our students, such as those from Life what they they know about these places or in Words and Words in Life (edited by animals and the teacher later gave them Maley, Mukundan & Rai 2009) or Asian basic information about what they saw in Poems for Young Readers (edited by the form of a quiz. Students were sometimes Maley & Mukundan 2009) and selected asked to watch photos about different people haikus were introduced. For example, and create a profile of a character based after reading the poem “Can You Let Me on a photo and answer questions about Pass the Exam, Please?” (Appendix A), this character’s life, as suggested by Wong students were asked to work in pairs to talk (2004). about the backgrounds of those learners and to identify the most or least acceptable Films and video clips excuse(s) in the poem. They were also Short films or video clips on YouTube required to role play selected scenarios from which varied from Oscar award-winning the poem or to create new excuses, making animated short films like Oktapodi (2007), use of gestures, facial expressions and voice Lavatory love story (2009) to inspiring effects to increase efficiency of the excuses advertisements were often chosen for given. In these warmers, language activities students to watch and these films/clips developed from the poems varied from served as cues for conversations between simple comprehension or interpretation pairs about what they liked or disliked about questions to creative writing. One useful the clips. Selected parts of longer films about activity was to ask students to recite the different countries were also shown, for poems in two different ways to show example the Iranian “Children in Heaven” different moods or different personality. or Indian’s “Darling”. The language in Short stories were another source these films was relevant to the students’ of materials that were used to enrich levels so that it did not hinder the students’ the students’ feelings, living experiences
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 85 - 93 (2014) 87 Phuong thi Anh Le and literary appreciation. In the form of (Bishop & Kimball 2009) as well as timing PowerPoint slides, illustrated with music were specified to the students in advance. and pictures, the stories chosen often highlighted human values, such as love, Story telling friendship, sacrifice, gratitude, patience and As our students were trained to become optimism which students could relate to teachers or tour guides, storytelling was their own experiences. Students were often considered a highly useful skill for them. asked to talk about their favourite character Therefore, it was chosen to form part of in the story, to share their impressions or the assessment of the American literature raise any questions that they might have course. In pairs, students talked about a film about the story. or a story of their choice which varied from such famous films as Gone with the Wind, ASSESSMENT King’s Speech or Frankenstein to great In addition to the written exams which stories like After Twenty Years (O’ Henry), made up half of the total course score as A White Heron (Orne Jewett), Mrs. Bixby required by the college, another half of and the Colonel’s Coat (Roald Dahl) and the score came from other tasks, such Snow Goose (Paul Gallico). To help students as presentations, quizzes, storytelling, with their storytelling skills, sample videos portfolios and minidramas which had been on effective story telling on YouTube were used effectively in a similar context (Le also shown and analysed. Apart from clear 2001). language, other requirements regarding the use of voice, illustrated pictures and music Presentations were emphasized and assessed in their For courses such as “American Life” and performance. “British Life”, students worked in groups of three or four to give a presentation on a topic Minidramas of their choice about the USA or the UK. As a group activity, mini-dramas were The topics students chosen included Oscar used in the literature and cross-cultural awards, Disneyland in the USA, the Boeing communication course where students were company, places of interest in London, asked to produce part of a story they had popular British music bands and famous read or a scenario they had experienced. castles in the UK, etc. The teacher was also While the students were expected to write available for guidance during the preparation their own scripts and directtheir own stage so that students could give informative mini-dramas, the teacher offered to help and interesting PowerPoint presentations. with script editing or giving guidance on Criteria about content structure, language staging. Stories students chose to perform use, voice, body language and visual aids for the literature course included The Magic
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Barrel (Bernard Mullamud), Soapy and The summaries of the stories that they read as Cop (O’Henry), Story of an Hour (Kate a form of extensive reading for the course. Chopin) while mini-dramas for the cross- cultural communication course were built NON-ASSESSMENT TASKS on critical incidents that students had read Poetry writing or experienced. As a way to develop students’ abilities to the maximum, students were encouraged to Quizzes write poems. Since these students had never Quizzes were another form of assessment written poems in English language before, which the students were allowed to choose they were advised to imitate the forms of the in place of a presentation on a topic for poems introduced in the warmers to relate the course on American or British Life. to their own experiences. For example, These quizzes were required to encompass students were asked to use the form of the information that the students had learnt poem “Can You Let Us Pass the Exams, during the course and students were asked Please?” to write about students’ excuses. to add excitement to their quizzes with Another example in the Appendix was the pictures, sound effects, as well as small poem Blue (Saito 2008) which inspired the awards for correct answers. students to write about their own perceptions of different colors. Nearly all students wrote Portfolios their own versions and the teacher organized As a good way to enhance learners’ a session for the students to share their autonomy, portfolios (i.e. Le 2004; Zhenhui poems with their class. 2005) were used as an assessment activity where our students were asked to produce English performances a collection of useful materials for their Like poetry writing, music performances future jobs either as teachers or tour guides. were a voluntary activity. These classes Students worked in pairs to collect materials were encouraged to give English musical on some topics of their choice about the UK/ performances and were encouraged to US and inter-cultural interaction. With the organize celebrations like New Year, guidance and feedback from the teacher, Christmas, or Halloween with activities students learnt to select and arrange the such as singing, dancing and dramatization. materials to professional “products” which they could use as reference materials for DISCUSSION their future job prospects. . However, in The warmers and the assessment in our the literature course, students’ portfolios context seemed to have resulted in a comprised individual work which consisted desirable outcome for the class. The first of poems that they liked or had written and change was a very relaxing atmosphere
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 85 - 93 (2014) 89 Phuong thi Anh Le observed in the classroom, with the warmers poems, irrespective of the quality, were well helping to break away the monotony of received by their peers, which increased the the lessons. The impact of this change was students’ self esteem, especially with less witnessed in students’ positive attitude proficient students who never thought that towards learning by going to class earlier they could write poems in English. than expected, eagerly waiting to watch a In summary, the introduction of the film/video clip, to read a story, or to listen to warmers and various assessment activities a song. These students even asked for these seemed to play a big role in transforming the activities during the break time. In addition, classroom from a serious place for lessons videos like Mr. Bean and Charlie Chaplin’s and exams into an inspiring environment series created wholehearted laughter while where students enjoyed their learning. In award-winning films were often useful in addition, the input was not only restricted developing the students’ critical thinking to the lessons and the outcome was not skills. The variety of materials helped only seen in formal tests and examinations. the teacher to introduce various kinds Though the whole working process was an of knowledge and skills to the students excitement for the teacher who witnessed which ranged from social knowledge about positive change in the classroom, it was still films, music to cultural knowledge about a challenge for the teacher to be in constant countries, to language and academic skills, search for interesting materials for the such as presentation, research, and computer warmers. In addition, the diverse assessment skills. tasks required the teacher of additional time The pleasant and supportive atmosphere to assist the students in their tasks. is believed to increase students’ voluntary participation in class activities (Goll, CONCLUSION AND 2002). In our case, students’ increased RECOMMENDATIONS involvement was manifested not only during In conclusion, teaching ESL is not simply the warmers, but also during the lessons that teaching a school subject (Stockton, 2001), followed, and in their assessment. but it also aims to equip learners with For example, the students’ presentations practical knowledge and skills beyond and quizzes included a wide range of their classroom to prepare them for lifelong illustrations with pictures, stories, video learning. clips, and music, which suggested some Despite our observation and findings influence that they gained from the materials obtained in this case study, the adoption shown for the warmers in the class. In of these activities in other contexts may addition, their storytelling and acting need further experiment in other contexts. performances showed remarkable creativity In this process, adaptation of activities can in writing scripts, selecting and developing be necessary to suit the students’ abilities, scenes, and preparing props. Likewise, their needs and interests, as well as requirements
90 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 85 - 93 (2014) Diversifying the Input and the Outcome: A Case Study about time, assessment and facilities of Casanave, C. P. (2002). Writing Games. New Jersey: each institution. To ensure higher rate of Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers. success, it is highly recommended for Dornyei, Z. (2001). Motivational Strategies in the the teacher to collect a bank of inspiring Language Classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge materials for the warmers. Newspapers University Press. and television programs can be a rich Elgar, A. G. (2001). Student playwriting for language source of materials that can add updated development. ELT Journal, 56(1), 22-28. information to the students’ knowledge Ghosn, I. K. (2002). Four good reasons to use and create awareness and involvement literature in primary school ELT. ELT Journal, in current issues in the society and the 56(/2), 172-179. world. Another recommendation is to ask Goll, R. (2002). Curing silent student syndrome. the learners to conduct warmers for their Teacher’s Edition, 9, 4-7. class as this can reduce the workload for Hall, G. (2003). Poetry and second language learning the teacher and increase the students’ classrooms. Applied Linguistics, 24(3), 395-399. responsibility and autonomy. In addition, Hamilton, R. (2010). YouTube for two: Online video assessed tasks should also be designed to resources in a student-centred task-based EFL/ meet the needs’ and abilities of the students ESL environment. Contemporary Issues in to avoid unnecessary pressure on them. Education Research, 3(8), 27-31.
Since assessment is generally considered Ho, T. M. H. (2002). Developing pragmatic important to the students, students should be competence in Vietnamese learners of English. involved in the discussion about the form of Teacher’s Edition, 10, 4-11. assessment adopted, and that their opinions Klein, H. J., Noe, R. A., & Wang, C. (2006). need adequate consideration. Motivation to learn and course outcomes: As William Butler Yeats (1865-1939) The impact of delivery mode, learning goal once said, “Education is not filling a bucket, orientation, and perceived barriers and enablers. but lighting a fire”. Thus, these activities Personnel Psychology, 59, 665-702. deserve a trial in other contexts to create a Le, T. A. P. (2001). Task-based syllabus design and new and effective atmosphere in class and public speaking. Teacher’s Edition,7, 12-17. make a useful difference to our teaching Le, T. A. P. (2004). Challenges and responses in and learning of English language in an ESL teaching a British culture course. Teacher’s context Edition, 15, 16-21. Lewis, M., & Hills, J. (1985). Practical Techniques REFERENCES for Language Teaching. Heinle and Heinle Baurain, B. (2000). Learning and enjoying literature Publishers. in English. Teacher’s Edition, 3, 15-20. Luu, T. T., & Pham, T. V. A. (2010). Teaching English Bishop, K., & Kimball, M.A. (2006). Engaging rhythm by using songs. Studies in Literature and students in story telling. Teacher Librarian, Language, 1(2), 13-29. 33(4), 28-31.
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Maley, A., & Mukundan, J. (Eds). (2009). Asian Stockton, J. (2001). English is a language, not a Poems for Young Readers. Malaysia. Pearson. subject. Teacher’s Edition, 6, 4-7.
Maley, A., Mukundan, J., & Rai, V. S.(Eds). (2009). Tissington, L., & LaCour, M. (2010). Strategies and Life in Words and Words in Life. Bagbazar, content areas for teaching English language Kathmandu. Bhundipuran Prakashan. learners. Proquest Education Journals, 47(3), 166-172. Miccoli, L. (2003). Using drama for oral skills development. ELT Journal, 57I(2), 122-129. Tran, T. N. (2003). Incorporating literature into English classes in Vietnam. Teacher’s Edition, Mitcham, K. (2009). Teaching for the fun of it. English 11, 20-25. Journal, 98(6),13-14. Tudor, I. (2009). Promoting language learning in Moon, J. (2010). Using Story in Higher Education and European higher education: An overview of Professional Development. Routledge. strategies. European Journal of Language Policy, Oxford, R., & Shearing, J. (1994). Language 1( 2), 188-206. learning motivation: Expanding the theoretical Umstatter, J. (2002). English Brainstormers. San framework. The Modern Language Journal, Francisco, California: Jossey Bass. 78, 12-26. Wong, R. M. H. (2004). Facilitating imagination Qiang, N., Teng H., & Wolff, M. (2007). China EFL: in teaching creative writing. In T. B. Tin (Ed), Teaching with movies. English Today, 90, 23(2), Creative Writing in EFL/ESL Classrooms (pp.30- 40-46. 41). Serdang. Universiti Pura Malaysia Press. Saito, A. P. (2008). Between me and the world: Wright, A., Betteridge, D., & Buckby, M. (2006). Teaching poetry to English language learners. Games for Language Learning. Cambridge Teaching Artist Journal, 6(3), 197-208. University Press. Salcedo, C. S. (2010). The effects of songs in foreign Zhenhui, R. (2005). Developing learner autonomy language classroom on text recall, delayed text through portfolios. Teacher’s Edition, 19, 20-24. recall and involuntary mental rehearsal. Journal of College Teaching and Learning, 7(6), 19-30.
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APPENDIX
Sample poems Can you let me pass the exam please? Can you let us pass the exam please? Can you let me pass the exam please? Because we already failed your exam twice Tan Bee Tin And we know you can pass us On “Confessionate” grounds as we confess. Dear Teacher Can we all pass the exam please? I’m stressed Because English is not my mother tongue Source And I live in a foreign country Maley, A., Mukundan, J., & Rai, V. (Eds). 2009. And my cat died the day before my exam. Life in Words and Words in Life (pp. 16-17). Bagbazar, Kathmandu. Bhundipuran Prakashan. Can you let me pass the exam please? I failed your exam Blue Because my pen broke down. Just when I knew what to write Blue the sky And the invigilator said, “Time”. where the doves fly. Can you let me pass the exam please? Blue the sea I missed your exam where the fish swim. Because my relatives arrived in town Blue your eyes And I had to show them around where I lose myself. And I forgot that we had the exam. Blue the moon Can you let me pass the exam please? that comes every night. I was sick Blue the flower Because my mother was sick that I give you. And my stomach also got sick when I think about you. Because of food we ate last night. Blue the flag Can you let me pass the exam please? from my country. I was depressed Blue the crayon Because my son failed his exam I wrote your name with And my wife ran away with another guy on my heart. And my boss gave me too much work. Can you let me pass the exam please? Source I did badly (Saito, A. P., 2008. Between me and the world: Because the library barred me from Teaching poetry to English language learners. Teaching Artist Journal, 6(3), 197-208. Borrowing books due to unpaid fines. And the light went out just as I decided to study.
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Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 95 - 118 (2014)
SOCIAL SCIENCES & HUMANITIES
Journal homepage: http://www.pertanika.upm.edu.my/
The U.S. Geopolitical Code and the Role of the Persian Gulf Oil in the U.S. Military Intervention in 2003
Saeid Naji* and Jayum A. Jawan Faculty of Human Ecology, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
ABSTRACT This paper seeks to explore the motives of the U.S. military presence in the Persian Gulf region vis-a-vis the energy resources of the region. Studying geopolitical codes helps reveal the intentions behind a state’s foreign policy through defining national interests, threats, actions and justification. Examining the U.S. code suggests the importance of oil as a vital strategic interest for the country. It defines the preservation of the U.S. hegemonic position as an ultimate goal for its presence in the Persian Gulf. In this respect, the threat of Saddam Hussein’s Iraqi government to three vast fields of energy reservoirs in the Persian Gulf made it necessary to affect regime change so as to protect the free flow of oil to the West and this was done through the control and preservation of the U.S. hegemonic position.
Keywords: U.S. geopolitical code, Persian Gulf’s energy resources, the Bush Administration, pre-emptive war, U.S. hegemonic position
INTRODUCTION Britain shifted the fuel source of its Royal The Persian Gulf region has always been Navy ships from coal to oil (Yergin, 2006). considered a strategic area among powerful This region has also been significant to countries since the earlier centuries because the United States of America since before of its geostrategic location and especially the Second World War, and especially so its energy resources. It became particularly after Britain’s withdrawal from the region important during the First World War when in 1971 when the U.S. military presence in the region was reinforced. This was evident in the U.S. leader’s statements, in particular ARTICLE INFO after the Oil Crisis in 1973, which explicitly Article history: Received: 11 November 2011 signify the importance of this region to Accepted: 6 October 2012 America’s vital interests. In the country’s E-mail addresses: [email protected] (Saeid Naji), military response against any aggression in [email protected] (Jayum A. Jawan) this area, the following except asserts one * Corresponding author
ISSN: 0128-7702 © Universiti Putra Malaysia Press Saeid Naji and Jayum A. Jawan of the most notable statements made by Persian Gulf. More interestingly, concurrent President Carter in 1980; with the end of the Cold War era and the collapse of the Soviet Union, the United “Let our position be absolutely States increasingly attempted to redefine clear: An attempt by any outside its geopolitical code and keep its high force to gain control of the Persian position in the new geopolitical order. The Gulf region will be regarded as an military attack against Iraq was carried assault on the vital interests of the out by an international coalition led by United States of America, and such the United States in 1991. Bush Senior an assault will be repelled by any (1991) had explicitly referred to protecting means necessary, including military oil fields in the Persian Gulf as one of the force.” war objectives. The U.S. decision makers continued to pay to this area until the Basically, due to its position as outbreak of the September 11 attacks against America’s vital interest, this area became the U.S. symbols, which consequently the prominent geopolitical assumption caused a change in America’s geopolitical during the Cold War era and had been linked code and ultimately encouraged the U.S. to the U.S. geopolitical code, which was government to fire up a pre-emptive war generally referred to as the Containment against Iraq in 2003. Policy. It therefore played an important role as a major factor in the U.S., who pursued LITERATURE REVIEW different policies against the Soviet Union The review of related literature shows that expansionism. It was directly related to growing industrialization and consequently the existence of vast amounts of oil and increasing demands cause the necessity gas in this area, and of the dependence of to control raw materials across the world. the U.S. and its allies on these resources. These needs and dependence of great According to Levy (1980), the Persian Gulf powers such as the United States on oil and supplied over 30 per cent of America’s oil the large reservoir of oil in the Persian Gulf imports, 60 per cent of Western Europe’s area were the main reasons for tensions, needs and more than 70 per cent of Japan’s conflicts and competitions. From this view, demands. In this respect, the main defined after the Cold War, securing access to oil as a threat was Soviet expansionism towards the vital resource had become a major theme in West’s geostrategic realm and its interests. the U.S. security planning and this justified To prevent a growing Soviet influence in the use of force (Clark, 2004; Klare, 2001; this area and to protect America’s vital Le Billon, 2004; Peters, 2004; Singh, 2007). interests, especially in the free flow of oil After the Cold War, with increasing to the West, different policies, such as the demands for oil and replacing economic ‘Twin Pillars’, were projected towards the rivalries instead of ideological competitions,
96 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 95 - 118 (2014) The U.S. Geopolitical Code and the Role of the Persian Gulf Oil in the U.S. Military Intervention in 2003 great powers such as Russia, the European as (Renner, 2003; Singh, 2007) refer to powers, China, Japan and even India came the military operation as the reduction of to the region to compete with the United OPEC and Saudi Arabia dominance over States to access oil reservoirs. In this the international oil market. respect, the stability of supplies became Another view refers to the oil reserves the main concern among the world powers as an important element in the U.S. grand (Amirahmadi, 1996; Klare, 2001; Sen & strategy, which believes that Iraq’s oil Babali, 2007). For this reason, the control of reservoir was even bigger than Saudi’s. oil was considered as “the centre of gravity Thus, , Iraq became a significant objective of U.S. economic hegemony” (Bromley, for Cheney and Bush (Iseri, 2009). This view 2006), where the U.S. presence in the emphasizes Iraq’s oil as the main reason for Persian Gulf was interpreted as gaining the U.S.’s attack on Iraq and it compares effective rule over the global economy for Iraq with North Korea, in the sense that the next 50 years, which would be achieved both had been suspected of proliferating by controlling “the global oil spigot” weapons of mass destruction, but only (Harvey, 2003, p. 24). Iraq was selected for pre-emptive action With reference to the Iraq Wars, (Le Billon, 2004). In this respect, Mercille however, some believe that the second Iraq (2010) stresses that “the main reason for War in 2003 was a continuation of the first intervention is control over world supply Iraq War in 1991 (Krauthammer, 2005). and not American consumption” and the Another view, on the other hand, sees the United States “will seek to control the region Iraq War as a normal extension of the Carter containing two-thirds of energy resources in Doctrine, which posited the vital importance order to exert leverage over industrial rivals of the Persian Gulf to America (Klare, 2006). and regulate the smooth functioning of the There is also a notion that Saddam Hussain world economy” (Mercille, 2010, p.6). was a serious threat to the U.S. friendly Hence, this paper analyses the U.S. states as well as to the continued flow of geopolitical code and attempts to explore large amounts of the world’s oil (Klare, the motives of the U.S. military presence 2004b). In addition, this notion also asserts in this region in relation to the Persian Gulf that “no real improvement in either the oil. In addition, this study also attempts to security environment or regional production answer this question, “How did the United levels would be possible so long as Saddam States geopolitical code justify the role of remained in power” (Klare, 2004a, p. 94). the Persian Gulf oil in the U.S. military Conversely, Clark (2004) views the United intervention in 2003 after the September 11 States military operation against Iraq in attacks?” Therefore, to obtain the answer, relation to petrodollar recycling, whereas the U.S. geopolitical code will be examined Russell (2005) relates it to the stability of and analyzed. In fact, what could distinguish oil price. Meanwhile, other scholars such this study from other similar works, is the
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 95 - 118 (2014) 97 Saeid Naji and Jayum A. Jawan use of the United States geopolitical code to there is no higher ruling in the international explain the relationship between the Persian system. There is no government over Gulf energy reserves and the U.S. military government” (Mearsheimer, 2001, p. presence in this area. 30). Second, the assumption stresses that great powers have always possessed some THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK offensive military capacities which enables This study perceives that the great world them to hurt or destroy each other. From this powers are always looking for opportunities point of view, countries are dangerous to to obtain more power for more security each other, and thus, those states which have purposes . Needless to say, from an offensive stronger military power are more dangerous realist theoretical perspective, this study than others. Third, the assumption states also assumes that due to natural tendency, that no country can ever be sure about the great powers always attempt to maximize other countries’ intentions. Indeed, “no state their supremacy and gain a hegemonic can be sure that another state will not use position in international order, which has its offensive military capability to attack been determined as the ultimate objective the first state.”(source ?) Nevertheless, it of a conquest. In this respect and under does not mean that every state has hostile the banner of offensive realism, John intentions, “but it is impossible to be sure Mearsheimer has been a well-known of that judgment because intentions are participant who offers his theory in his work impossible to divine with 100 percent titled, ‘The Tragedy of Great Power Politics’ certainty.” In fact, there are many causes for (Elman, 2004; Iseri, 2009; Snyder, 2002). aggression, and every state can be motivated The theory clearly provides persuasive by one of them to attack the other state. What answers to the aggressive strategies of is important here is that, “intentions can great powers so that such strategies are change quickly,” and from this viewpoint, considered as “a rational answer to life in the one friendly state today can be turn to be international system” (Toft, 2005, p. 381). hostile tomorrow. Therefore, “states can This theoretical approach, basically, never be sure that other states do not have relies on five main assumptions. First, it offensive intentions to go along with their is assumed that the international system is offensive capabilities”(Mearsheimer, 2001, anarchic and there is no dominant central p. 31). power to carry out rules effectively and The fourth assumption emphasizes discipline perpetrators. It does not mean that that survival is sought by all states. It is, the system is chaotic, but the international specifically, “the primary goal of great system includes independent states, and powers.” Indeed, maintaining territorial thus, none of them has any central authority integrity together and preserving autonomy above them. In this respect, “sovereignty, of domestic political order are significant in other worlds, inheres in states because goals sought by any states. As indicated by
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Mearsheimer “Survival dominates other to ensure their security “is to achieve motives because, once a state is conquered, hegemony now,” and thus, any possibility it is unlikely to be in a position to pursue to form a challenge by any other great other aims.” (Mearsheimer, 2001) For this powers should be eliminated (Mearsheimer, reason, security is the most important goal 2001, p. 35). “A hegemon is a state that is which is pursued by any states. Finally, the so powerful that it dominates all the other fifth assumption posits that great powers states in the system. No other state has the in this theory are regarded as rational military wherewithal to put up a serious entities that are conscious of their external fight against it. In essence, a hegemon is the environment. Mearsheimer (2001) reinstates only great power in the system.” From this this point by the following statement where perspective, there are conceptually “global he mentions, “They think strategically about hegemons, which dominate the world, and how to survive in it.” Such states are able regional hegemons, which dominate distinct to evaluate other states’ behaviors through geographical areas” (Mearsheimer, 2001, considering their preferences and influence p. 40). of their own behavior over the behavior This position offered by the offensive of other states. They also consider the realism theory could be linked to the view influence of other states’ behavior on “their that, with the end of the Cold War, the own strategy for survival” (Mearsheimer, United States, as the sole superpower as 2001, p. 31). well as the most powerful state, has always More importantly, and more related to attempted to preserve and promote its this paper, Mearsheimer’s offensive realism hegemonic position in the new geopolitical theory claims that states in the international world order. This attempt, particularly after system are seeking their survival guarantee the September 11 attacks, led to militaristic in confront of other states as potential behavior compatible with offensive realist threats. In this view, states are not able to reasoning that appeared in the Afghanistan rely on other states for their own security, and Iraq wars. Obviously, these geopolitical and as noted by Mearsheimer (2001), “in practices and aggressive behavior were the international politics, God helps those results of redefining the U.S. geopolitical who help themselves” (p. 33). In this code known as the so-called ‘War on respect, states make a special attempt to Terrorism’ (Flint, 2006). increase their share of power in the world. This work relies on examining the This tendency to maximize their power United States geopolitical code because the continues through looking for opportunities foreign policy of every state is the output to attain more power, and they only quit of those geopolitical assumptions that are the pursuit for power once a hegemony behind its geopolitical code (Flint & Taylor, position is achieved. Therefore, according 2007). Such a code, indeed, “will have to to this theory, the best way for great powers incorporate a definition of a state’s interests,
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 95 - 118 (2014) 99 Saeid Naji and Jayum A. Jawan an identification of external threats to those analyze related data, this work applies a form interests, a planned response to such threats of qualitative content analysis, which can be and a justification for that response” (Taylor used to analyze documents of a qualitative & Flint, 2000, p. 62). Therefore, analyzing study (Merriam,1989). It is important to the United States geopolitical code for a note that, although documents are generally specific period of time helps understand used as supplemental information, there is America’s interests in the Persian Gulf a view that states, “qualitative researchers region, the threats to these interests, and are turning to documents as their primary the military intervention as a response to sources of data” (Bogdan & Biklen, 1998, p. those threats. With reference to the offensive 57). The usage of documentary material has realist approach, it obviously indicates that been regarded in part similar to interviews all attempts and practices of the United or observations. From this view, there States as a great power, such as the Iraq are various voices that have surrounded a War, are interpretable in order to respond researcher in the library, and these voices to a threat and prevent the emergence of a are represented as books, articles and so on regional hegemonic power as well as the (Merriam, 1989). continuation of its presence in that region Public or archival documents have been to preserve and promote its hegemonic used for analyzing the data in this work, position in the post-Cold War era. which are adopted from official sources of the United States such as the White House MATERIALS AND METHODS web site. The documents deal with written On the whole, it has been emphasized that evidence termed as ‘published evidence’ qualitative research is researcher centric. (Gillham, 2000). Here, the recorded official In this approach, the researcher determines speeches of the U.S. president, George W. the importance, value and originality of the Bush, and some of his cabinet members in materials. The researcher also decides on his first term, such as the Vice President the documents and selects a sample of text (name), Secretary of State (name) , and for the analysis (Burnham, Lutz, Grand, Secretary of Defense (name) , were used as & Layton-Henry, 2008). In this work, the the main data for the analysis. The speeches content analysis is used due to the nature also comprise some official reports which of research and its related information. are related to the period between 2001 and Content analysis has also been introduced 2004. These documents include the National as an appropriate method to study Political Energy Policy (NEP) report that indicates Science and its branches of this discipline the United States strategy about energy, (Babbie, 2007). This method takes place and National Security Strategy (NSS) that every time somebody reads or listens, presents the annual exercise which updates summarizes and then interprets a content the U.S. geopolitical code (Flint,(2006). of body (Burnham et al., 2008, p. 259). To These types of documents are categorized as
100 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 95 - 118 (2014) The U.S. Geopolitical Code and the Role of the Persian Gulf Oil in the U.S. Military Intervention in 2003 primary sources in this study (Ary, Jacobs, the United States. This geopolitical act is Razavieh, & Sorensen, 2006). Besides, also applied to express representations in secondary data are also included in the order to justify America’s actions (Flint et research data. Therefore, the presidential al., 2009, p. 605). speeches and other official documents To obtain the main objective of this prepared by or under the supervision of study, secondary sources are also used for the President are regarded as primary the source of information (McNabb, 2005). resources. These documents form the the These sources, such as relevant books and main foundation of data in this paper. articles, comprise previous works which With regard to the collection of speeches have been studied by other researchers as the main documents for this study, it and serve as supplementary documents should be noted that the geopolitical codes (Merriam, 1989). Finally, through coding of a state are strongly linked to presidential all the data and defining specific themes, the speeches. These speeches reflect those process of analyzing the data in this work is beliefs and geopolitical assumptions that done based on the content analysis method. construct the foundation of geopolitical codes. These assumptions, in fact, define RESULTS AND DISCUSSION national interests, threats and responses, In responding to the main question of as well as adequate justifications of the this study, the analysis on the content of state. The foreign policy also relies on selected data, such as speeches, official these geopolitical assumptions, and thus, documents, and previous studies, has led they are seen as a close relation between to a focus on some specific themes that the President and the events. In the United help the researcher identify the important States, however, this relation is more notable geopolitical assumptions which could form because the President is the ‘Commander the U.S. geopolitical code in relation to in Chief’. Internationally, the President is the Persian Gulf oil and the Iraq War. The a subject who has a particular world view arguments and discussions stress the oil and agenda. The President interprets events experience of the Bush administration, the and characterizes them for specific political oil shortage and the severe threat to the goals (Flint, Adduci, Chen, & Chi, 2009). United States industry, the dependency on This paper also focuses on the State of the foreign oil, the Persian Gulf oil as the U.S. Union address, which is “an annual act of vital interests, influence of neoconservatives’ political theatre that demands the President thoughts, the September 11 attacks, Iraq as a claim that the U.S. is ‘strong’ or ‘healthy’.” serious threat, pre-emptive war as a response It is a geopolitical act that “places the to the threat, and oil control of the Persian President at the center of the foreign policy Gulf as a necessity for the continuation of agenda”. Apparently, this type of speech America’s hegemonic position. represents a global benevolent picture from
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The Bush Administration and Oil Industry campaigned for in his 2000 presidential ― Assumptions and Experiences election campaign. He declared in his first Midland in the West Texas is a flat, dry presidential debate on October 3, 2000, that and dusty place, which has been seen as “I was a small oil person for a the capital of the Permian Basin. It was while in west Texas... You bet I the place where George W. Bush and his want to open up a small part of parents returned to in 1950. Despite the Alaska. When that field is online, it seemingly dreary landscape, a sea of oil will produce one million barrels a swims beneath it. Notably, in 1950s, it day.” With reference to the import comprised nearly 20 percent of America’s of one million barrels from Iraq, oil production. Following his father’s he commented, “I would rather path to business and for other political that a million come from our own reasons, Bush Jr. returned to Midland in hemisphere, have it come from our 1975. It coincided with the quadrupling own country as opposed to Saddam of oil prices due to the Yom Kippur War1 Hussein”. and the establishment of OPEC in 1973 (Bush, G.W., 2000) and 1974 (Zelizer, 2010). In Midland, he experienced an entry-level position in the oil industry and the funds raised via his Later, when George W. Bush became family connections helped form his oil the United States President and in response exploration company (Greenstein, 2003). to the influence from domestic oil producers, He noted, “In 1979, I started a small energy he nominated some famous politicians for exploration company in Midland. I raised important positions in his administration. money, mostly from the East Coast, to Dick Cheney was appointed as the Vice finance drilling in low-risk, low-return oil President in 1993 when President Clinton and gas wells” (Bush, G.W., 2010, p. 30). took the Office. Cheney was CEO of He also continued his oil company business Halliburton Company, which is one of the instead of political activities; however, biggest oil-services companies in the world he was not as successful as his father, to date. Prior to that, when Cheney was Bush Sr. Furthermore, it coincided with a the Defense Secretary in the Bush Senior recession in the oil industry around 1982. administration, Halliburton won a five-year Subsequently, his oil company, Arbusto, contract to provide logistics for the United was merged with Spectrum 7, which was States Army, and it won defense contracts a big oil exploration company in 1984 worth over $2.2 billion when Bush Jr. was (Marquez, 2007). Although he ultimately inaugurated. Moreover, Cheney resigned left the oil business in 1990, supporting the from Halliburton Company in 2000 while oil drilling in the Arctic National Wildlife he still received about $1 million annually Refuge became an important issue that he from the company (Burman, 2007). Another
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Bush Cabinet member, Donald Rumsfeld, increases in gasoline prices, shortage of who was the Defense Secretary, held natural gas in some regions, and rolling different positions especially in the Reagan blackouts in California. This difficult administration; the most important of them situation continued until George W. Bush was related to his mission as Reagan’s entered the White House in early 2001. In Special Envoy to Iraq. There is a view that response to this crisis, the National Energy his aim was to increase Iraq’s oil exports Policy Development Group (NEPDG) through Jordan by using an oil pipeline, was created by the President, led by Vice which could supply cheaper oil for the U.S. President Dick Cheney. This group was and Israel (Wogan, 2004). Furthermore, from appointed to analyze the difficult situation this position, he managed to gain valuable concerning America’s energy and plan experiences, particularly concerning Iraq suitable solutions for that problem (Klare, and the Middle East oil. In this context, 2004c). others to be considered were Donald Evens as the Commerce Secretary, who was the The United States Oil Industry ― owner of Colorado Oil Company, Gen. National Energy Policy and Increasing Thomas White, the Secretary of the Army Dependency on Foreign Oil who was from Enron Energy, and Robert According to the National Energy Policy Jordan, the Saudi Arabia ambassador, who (NEP) report, this body was established was a member of Baker Botts and active in by the President in his second week in the oil and defense affairs (Pfeiffer, 2004). office, an act which in the first instance reveals the significance of oil and natural The United States Oil Industry and the gas to the Bush administration’s view. This Severe Oil and Gas Shortage report concludes that the United States Indeed, although there is this view that the faced the most serious crisis of energy intention of toppling Saddam Hussein in shortages in 2001 – a situation which had Iraq had been formed at the beginning of the its beginnings during the oil embargoes in Bush administration in early 2001 (Clark, the 1970s. The nation’s energy crisis was a 2005), at that time, however, preventing result of a basic imbalance between supply terrorism or controlling the spread of and demand. This posits that even increasing weapons of mass destruction (WMD) after levels of energy production at the same rate the September 11, 2001 attacks was not which occurred during the previous decade yet a top priority of Bush foreign policy. could not meet the increasing levels of There was a severe oil and gas shortage, consumption during this energy crisis. This especially in some parts of the United imbalance could have undermined the U.S. States, which began months before Bush economy, the Americans’ standard of living, Jr. became the President (Klare, 2004b). as well as the U.S. national security. At that time, the nation was suffering from
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On the other hand, estimates indicated position in the Bush administration, and it that by 2020, the U.S. oil and natural gas explicitly refers to the U.S. dependence on consumption would increase by 33 and oil as a serious long-term challenge, as well 50 percent, respectively, and the existing as stresses a close linkage between U.S. growth rate for oil production would economic security and its trading partners, improve the gap between demand and on the one hand, and the global oil market supply. Statistically, following the report, the development, on the other (p. 1-11). United States daily oil consumption would grow by over 6 million barrels between 2000 The Persian Gulf Oil as the United and 2020. Moreover, according to previous States Vital Interests ― A Geopolitical Assumption growth patterns of production, it would face a decline of about 1.5 million barrels per NEP refers to the role of the Middle East in day. It stressed that by 2020, only 30 percent terms of “where supply is geographically of America’s oil needs would be supplied concentrated” in determining the oil price. from the U.S. oil production, and thus, the In this respect, it declares that among U.S. would have to import nearly two out those regions which supply the world oil, of every three barrels of oil (NEP, 2001)2. “Central and South America account for 9 This document explicitly looks at percent”, Africa and North America, 7 and other regions outside the U.S. territories 5 percent, respectively, and Eastern Europe which could supply America’s energy and the former Soviet Union, 5 percent. needs, although it considers five specific As stated in the report, the rest of Asia and national goals as follows: “America must Western Europe, account for 4 and 2 percent, modernize conservation, modernize our respectively. energy infrastructure, increase energy Among all regions, the Middle East supplies, accelerate the protection and dominates almost “two-thirds of world improvement of the environment, and proven reserves” and this explains how this increase our nation’s energy security” (NEP, region has a huge dominant impact over the 2001, p. ix). price of oil, which is a vital matter for the As Klare (2004c) correctly noted, U.S. and West (p. 1-12). Just consider what instead of stressing conservation and the had been said in 1999 by Dick Cheney, when rapid expansion of renewable energy he was Chairman of Halliburton Company. sources as the main challenges, the report He declared that, although there are many reflects increasing U.S. dependence on regions around the world that provide great oil, and because U.S. oil production oil opportunities, only the Middle East was declining, any rise in the U.S. oil region “is still where the prize ultimately consumption would increase its dependence lies” and this is due to its huge reservoirs on imported petroleum. The report (NEP, and its lowest cost (Cheney, 1999). 2001) represents the importance of energy
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In this respect, according to the United most significant element determining this States Department of Energy, the Persian area as a vital interest, which prescribes Gulf region supplied about 12.6 per cent the United States military presence in the of U.S. demands and about 23.8 percent of Persian Gulf. its oil imports in 2000. Moreover, about 21 Apparently, this was explicitly and 75 percent of West Europe and Japan, emphasized by President Carter, known respectively, were also supplied via the as the Carter Doctrine. According to Klare Persian Gulf (EIA, 2002b). It is interesting (2006), the doctrine has been continued to note that at that time, like the previous through to the Bush administration so that administrations3, the Persian Gulf region any threat to these interests will always be was identified as the U.S. vital interests. answered by military action. However, to Hence, from this point of view, access to that define geopolitical codes, it is necessary to region was one of the key considerations specify and define the potential threats to in the U.S. foreign policy at the time America’s interests, the adequate response (O’Tuathail, 2003). to threats and the justification to choose that The Bush administration in this report response (Flint & Taylor, 2007). The Bush (NEP, 2001) stressed that by 2020, between administration also required an adequate 54 and 67 percent of the world’s oil demands opportunity to act, which was, of course, would be supplied by the oil producers in the provided by the September 11 attacks in Persian Gulf. Therefore, dependency of the 2001. global economy on the supply of oil from the Organization of Petroleum Exporting The Neoconservatives and Redefining the Countries (OPEC) members would also United States Geopolitical Code be increased. Consequently, “this region As O’Loughlin noted, it was a reality will remain vital to U.S. interests”. It also that although the United States desired stressed that “the Gulf will be a primary to reorder the geopolitical condition of focus of U.S. international energy policy” the post-Cold War world, it had not yet (pp. 8-4 & 8-5). consistently accepted a certain geopolitical Therefore, since the Second World code (O’Loughlin, 2000). It was an attempt War, as a principal element in defining the to redefine its geopolitical code with geopolitical code, the Persian Gulf region regard to keeping its position as the sole has repeatedly been positioned as the United remaining superpower from the Cold War States vital interests, and this has been a era, and reordering the new geopolitical persistent geopolitical assumption among world order. It started with the geopolitical the U.S. political leaders. Along with some transition period immediately after the fall other different factors, the issue of energy of the Berlin Wall in 1989, and the policy security with focus on the energy resources was pursued even more actively with the of the Persian Gulf has obviously been the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991. The
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 95 - 118 (2014) 105 Saeid Naji and Jayum A. Jawan most remarkable attempt to redefine a new Later, especially after the September 11 geopolitical code was between 1991 and attacks, both these geopolitical discourses 2000 with Bush Senior’s pronouncement influenced the U.S. action. The Middle of the New World Order. The 1991 Gulf East remarkably became the geographical War was based on this idea to construct a context to practice these discourses. Al new geopolitical world order, but was not Qaeda, a terrorist group which had its roots pursued by the Clinton Administration (Flint in Saudi Arabia, designed an unprecedented et al., 2009). attack on the West’s world symbols while In 1993, not long after Bill Clinton claiming its purpose was to protect the became the President, the neoconservatives Muslim world’s interests against the West began a number of censures against his (Bin Laden, 2002). administration. Within this period, two It is also important to note the particular geopolitical discourses emerged as variants importance of PNAC to the Middle East of neo-conservatism and became influential region, where the ‘Statement of Principles’ visions of twenty-first century geopolitics. emphasized the vital role of the U.S. in One of them was Samuel P. Huntington’s maintaining peace and security in the ‘Clash of Civilization,’ which portrayed ‘the Middle East. Furthermore, history has also West’ against ‘the Rest’ so that others would shown that along with the survival of try to challenge the West’s primacy. A new Israel, energy resources of the Persian cross-civilizational concept was introduced, Gulf had always been America’s most namely, the ‘Confucian-Islamic connection’ vital interest in the Middle East. More that would be a network of ‘weapon states’ interesting is that, PNAC was organized and provide a dangerous ‘otherness’ to ‘the by neoconservatives, some of whom were West’. That new enemy would threaten nominated by Bush Jr. in his administration, the ‘Western interests, values and power’. namely, Dick Cheney (Vice President), Huntington, as a neoconservative, extended Donald Rumsfeld (Defense Secretary), Paul a vision of a ‘culture war’ between ‘the Wolfowitz (Rumsfeld deputy), as well as Jeb West’ and the ‘Otherness’, which was a Bush and Lewis Libby (Cheney’s Chiefs ‘standard neoconservative preconception’. of Staff). Conservative views were clearly In addition, the second neoconservative demonstrated, especially after September geopolitical discourse related to the 11, in the framework of the National ‘Statement of Principles’ announced by a Security Strategy document (NSS-2002), group called Project for a New American as well as in decisions made concerning the Century (PNAC). Reasserting the American invasions of Afghanistan and Iraq. supremacy in world affairs was the main It is noticeable also that overthrowing goal of PNAC, on which basis the United Saddam Hussein was one of the greatest States would become sufficiently strong causes of neoconservatives in the late 1990s and would need greater levels of defense (O’Tuathail, 2006). It was on January 26, spending (O’Tuathail, 2006, pp. 120-123). 1998, when some neoconservatives, such
106 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 95 - 118 (2014) The U.S. Geopolitical Code and the Role of the Persian Gulf Oil in the U.S. Military Intervention in 2003 as Elliot Abrams, Francis Fukuyama, The United States Geopolitical Code and Robert Kagan, Paul Wolfowitz and Donald the 11/9 Attacks ― A Unique Opportunity Rumsfeld, wrote a letter to President Clinton, The September 11 terrorist attacks, 2001, urging the United States administration indeed provided an opportunity for the to act decisively (Abrams et al., 1998). Bush administration to reconstruct the As noted by O’Tuathail (2006), after the United States geopolitical code, and based September 11 attacks, the worldview of on these unprecedented events, the ‘War on neoconservatives was not only changed but Terrorism’ introduced what scholars knew also strengthened, in which they applied as a geopolitical code. It had its roots in the more aggressive policies to pursue their NSS-2000, which was the foundation of agenda. It started with the “preparations the “Bush Doctrine. In addition, NSS was for the public relations campaign to justify actually an annual exercise that updated the invasion of Iraq.” In this respect, the U.S. geopolitical code (Flint, 2006). “the campaign was launched with the Obviously, the immediate U.S. response publication of new National Security to the September 11 attacks was ‘War in strategy in September 2002” (O’Tuathail, Afghanistan’. It took place on October 7, 2006, p. 127). 2001, against the terrorist training camps Before that, on September 20, 2001, of al Qaeda and the military camps of the a letter was written to George W. Bush Taliban regime in Afghanistan (G. W. Bush, through PNAC and signed by some neocons, 2001), and effectively introduced the Bush supporting the necessary military action Doctrine and War on Terrorism. in Afghanistan to remove Saddam from According to NSS, what became power. The signatories to this letter, namely, known as the Bush Doctrine, the identified William Kristol, Jeffrey Bergner, Francis geopolitical threat “contained an apparent Fukuyama and Geoffrey Bell, emphasized vagueness, but was able to become fixed that, “even if evidence does not link Iraq on particular countries quite easily” (Flint, directly to the attack, any strategy aiming at 2006, p. 72). This document emphasized the eradication of terrorism and its sponsors that, “the United States of America is must include a determined effort to remove fighting a war against global reach.” Based Saddam Hussein from power” (PNAC, on this document, the enemy was not a 2001). It clearly demonstrated removing person or a political regime; it was also Saddam from power as a previously not a religion or ideology, but the enemy determined project as well as influencing was “terrorism” (NSS, 2002, p. 5). Placing the neoconservative assumptions about the terrorism in a global context enabled Bush administration, especially about Iraq. activity at different times and in specific geographical regions. It was indeed seen as a combination of different paradigms, namely, ‘noblesse oblige’ and ‘eagle triumphant’
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 95 - 118 (2014) 107 Saeid Naji and Jayum A. Jawan paradigms, which were the results of children” and it was “a regime that had Global War on terror rhetoric. This helped something to hide from the civilized world” to form a militaristic foreign policy for (G. W. Bush, 2002). What is important is democratization and development, on that, all the three countries, namely, North the one hand, and a ‘world of regions’ Korea, Iran and Iraq, were accused of paradigm, on the other, for the U.S. response proliferating WMD and were considered and responsibility against terrorists in the opposites of freedom and civilization. specific geographical regions. From this However, among the three mentioned view, the U.S. code was grounded with an countries, why only Iraq was selected for emphasis on specific countries, although the invasion, while even, according to Bahgat agenda was global (Flint et al., 2009). This (2003), “fifteen out of the nineteen 9/11 kind of orientation in Bush’s geopolitical hijackers carried Saudi passports”(p. 448). assumptions had portrayed an “axis of evil” with an emphasis on specific regions, Iraq ― A Threat to Interests which included Iran, North Korea, and Iraq. The importance of energy resources in the President Bush declared in his state of the Persian Gulf region has been discussed union address in 2002 that, “states like these above, not least as it ensures the free flow and their terrorist allies constitute an axis of of oil towards the industrial world as vital evil.” For him, “these regimes pose a grave interests for the United States of America. and growing danger” ( Bush, G. W., 2002). In this respect, however, what was the role Regarding these geopolitical of Iraq among these interests? assumptions, terrorism, state supporters of Firstly, at that time, Iraq, with about terrorism, and weapons of mass destruction 112 billion barrels of oil, possessed the were identified as threats, which were second largest proven crude oil reserves in elements of America’s geopolitical code. the world. It contained about 11 percent of Moreover, the pre-emptive strike was the global total, while, according to a report identified as a response to an identified of the Congressional Research Service threat in some specific countries, which (CRS) 2003, only 17 out of 80 oil fields was clearly aimed against Iraq. Based on had been developed, which concentrated this view, justifications were provided around Kirkuk in the north and Rumaila for these decisions and actions, some in the south of Iraq. This country also had of which were considered opposites of significant proven natural gas reserves, in freedom, global order of prosperity and which almost all were undeveloped (CRS, civilization (Flint, 2006). According to the 2003). At that time, Iraq contained about Bush administration, Iraq was a regime that 110 trillion cubic feet (TCF) of natural had already used “poison gas to murder gas or about 20 percent of the world total thousands of its own citizens - leaving the (EIA, 2002a). Furthermore, according to bodies of mothers huddled over their dead the annual report of the Organization of the
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Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) in 2001, among the Middle Eastern producers, In this respect, Kuwait possessed about Iraq possessed the second largest proven 10 percent of the world’s proven oil reserves oil reserves after Saudi Arabia. It covered and about 0.8 percent of the world’s proven more than 16 percent of the total Middle natural gas (OPEC, 2001). On the other East proven oil reserves. Based on this hand, Saddam Hussein, however, had report, the proven natural gas in Iraq also proven that he was a potential threat for contained more than 4 percent of the Middle two of Iraq’s neighboring countries, namely, East total natural gas reserves in 2001 Kuwait and Saudi Arabia. They were two (OPEC, 2001). In the same year, oil exports regional friends of the U.S. and it was vital from Iraq were about 2 million barrels per to the U.S. interests in the region to secure day, representing 12 percent of total oil their stability. The invasion of Kuwait in exportation from the Persian Gulf, making 1990 and the greed of Saddam4 for oil fields Iraq the third oil exporter after Saudi Arabia of the Persian Gulf countries, especially and Iran, and also equal with Kuwait (EIA, Kuwait, as an old desire had made him a 2002b). More importantly, there is the view certain threat to the Persian Gulf region and that Iraq was capable to explore and exploit the flow of oil to the West. In President Bush many additional oil fields due to its vast oil Jr.’s statement during his speech in a Union reservoirs; therefore, it had the capability to address in January 2003, he clearly declared: become an oil producer on a par with Saudi “Our Nation and the world must Arabia in the future. For this reason, it was learn the lessons of the Korean called the second Saudi Arabia (Morse, Peninsula and not allow an even 2004). greater threat to rise up in Iraq. Secondly, it became more important A brutal dictator, with a history when Iraq was considered along with of reckless aggression, with ties the two other important Middle Eastern to terrorism, with great potential oil producers, namely, Saudi Arabia and wealth, will not be permitted to Kuwait. In 2001, Saudi Arabia, as the dominate a vital region and threaten world’s largest oil exporter, held the leading the United States” position in the world’s proven oil reserves (G. W. Bush, 2003b). with more than 25 per cent of the total and about 3.5 percent of global proven natural gas reserves (OPEC, 2001). It also produced Despite the lack of direct reference about 44 percent of total Persian Gulf oil to oil in most of his important speeches output (EIA, 2002b), and was the most concerning Iraq and terrorism, Bush important oil supplier to the United States introduced directly and explicitly Saddam’s after Canada in 2000, accounting for some government as a threat in the Union address, 14 percent of U.S. total oil imports (NEP, and deliberately alleged that Saddam was a 2001). threat greater than North Korea. For him,
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Saddam was a dictator, and thus, posed situation among the world’s oil supplies a potential threat to other countries, in (Morse, 2004). The threat could be supposed particular, the Iraq’s neighboring states. In when Saddam was potentially capable of this respect, “precluding hostile domination threatening the U.S. allies, especially Saudi of critical areas” such as “the Middle Arabia and Kuwait. East and Southwest Asia” had also been It was apparent that by dominating considered as one of the objectives of the Iraq, Saddam would threaten three key United States Armed Forces, as mentioned oil producers and reserves in the world, in the Quadrennial Defense Review Report countries which were exporting about 68 of the United States Department of Defense percent of the Persian Gulf oil exports. (QDRR, 2001) . These were three oil countries with common Bush Jr. also explicitly referred to Iraqi borders, and because Iraq had always faced oil as a great potential wealth. This was geopolitical limitation to access the high similar to the previous U.S. presidents, seas through the Persian Gulf, there was especially after the Second World War, in always the possibility of Iraqi invasion of which he emphasized the Persian Gulf as Kuwait and Saudi Arabia (and even Iran, a vital region for the United States. Based given what happened from 1980 to 1988). on his view, Saddam’s domination over this Therefore, Iraq could be a serious potential region would translate as a peril to the U.S. threat to the United States and on the basis vital interests, and thus, threaten the U.S. of the Bush Doctrine and neoconservative national security. Dick Cheney also stated thought, Iraq as a ‘rogue state’ required an clearly in his statement as Vice President adequate response, which was defined as the in the Bush administration on August 25, ‘pre-emptive attack’. 2002, “The whole range of weapons of mass destruction then would rest in the The Pre-emptive Action ― A Response hands of a dictator... Armed with an arsenal to Threat of these weapons of terror and seat at a Bush already announced in his state of the top ten percent of the world’s oil reserves, Union address in 2002 that, “all nations Saddam Hussein could then be expected to should know: America will do what is seek domination of the entire Middle East, necessary to ensure our Nation’s security...I take control of great portion of the world’s will not wait on events while dangers energy supplies directly threaten America’s gather. I will not stand by as peril draws friends throughout the region and subject closer and closer” (G. W. Bush, 2002). the United States or any other nation to This geopolitical assumption was also nuclear blackmail” (Cheney, 2002). Indeed, reflected in the National Security Strategy Saddam could not be a threat to the U.S. (NSS) through the framework of pre- interests or to the status quo in the region if emptive action. This document stressed Iraq did not have the central geographical the U.S. “right of self-defense by acting
110 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 95 - 118 (2014) The U.S. Geopolitical Code and the Role of the Persian Gulf Oil in the U.S. Military Intervention in 2003 pre-emptively” (NSS, 2002, p. 6). It simply democracy and protection of freedom as the emphasized striking before America’s U.S. values. From this viewpoint, it was a enemies strike first (Flint, 2006). At that ‘resource war’ – a war for natural resources time, although the Containment policy that which has always been a critical motive (Le was the U.S. geopolitical code during the Billon, 2004), whether because of acquiring Cold War era had been changed to War on important raw materials for domestic Terrorism, in both times, using military force needs, or for controlling vital resources in to protect U.S. vital interests was considered a competitive world environment. In fact, as adequate response. In this regard, just accessing global resources, in particular as the Carter Doctrine determined military oil, has always been seen as a battleground. action in response to the Soviet expansion Apparently, the twenty-first century will towards the Persian Gulf, the Bush Doctrine be the same as the twentieth century and selected Iraq as a rogue state and pre- one that appears to be the century of oil too emptive action was prescribed as a response (O’Loughlin & Wusten, 1993). to prevent domination of a dictator over the Tracing the reasons for al Qaeda’s oil fields in the Persian Gulf. September 11 attacks, it is also important As a result and apart from different to note that Osama bin Laden in his ‘Letter representations of the U.S. geopolitical to America’ noted, “You steal our wealth code, such as spreading freedom and and oil at paltry prices... This theft is democracy as values to justify war against indeed the biggest theft ever witnessed by Iraq, war as a response to protect a vital mankind in the history of the world” (Bin interest in the Persian Gulf region could be Laden, 2002). On the other side and one considered a fact. As Flint (2006) noted, year later, protecting this ‘wealth’ was also “if the calculations for war can be traced stressed by President Bush to justify the war to material interest, such as access to oil, against Saddam Hussein in Iraq in 2003 (G. governments must emphasize values or W. Bush, 2003b). Therefore, there was a ideas in justifying their foreign policy, strong linkage between the U.S. geopolitical especially when it involves invading a code and the Persian Gulf oil as America’s country rather than defending one’s own” vital interests, such that along with other (p. 101). This geopolitical fact of protecting security reasons, this could influence the the Persian Gulf energy resources as the U.S. U.S. leader’s geopolitical assumptions in vital interest along with other geopolitical determining the U.S. geopolitical code, reasons such as the Greater Middle East and ultimately the orientation of U.S. Project (Guney & Gokcan, 2010; Naji, foreign policy toward the invasion of Iraq. 2004) was what could be existed behind Needless to say, this was the reason Iraq was the U.S. foreign policy or using military selected for invasion, as clearly evident in action against Iraq. This policy was justified the statement by the Deputy of U.S. Defense through justifications such as promotion of Department, Wolfowitz on May 31, 2003,
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“Look, the primary difference – to put it a said, the uncivilized world had been defined little too simply - between North Korea and as a significant mission and responsibility Iraq is that we had virtually no economic for the United States. Bush further said that, options with Iraq because the country floats “America is a nation with a mission, and on a sea of oil”6 (Wolfowitz, 2003). that mission comes from our [American] most basic beliefs” (G. W Bush, 2004). In Oil Control for Hegemonic Goals this respect, the National Security Strategy of the U.S. stressed freedom as “the non- With reference to the offensive realism negotiable demand of human dignity,” theoretical approach, the invasion of that the U.S. assumed the responsibility of America in Iraq in 2003 and consequently leading the expansion of it and its benefits its military presence in the Persian Gulf across the world as a great mission (NSS, could be interpreted as America’s attempts 2002). to prevent emerging regional hegemons From this perspective, invading Iraq and promote its own hegemonic position was also to promote democracy as the in the world. From the perspective of American value in Iraq and the Middle geopolitics of oil in the world, this can be East. For Bush, a free Iraq in the Middle seen as a strategic decision to control the East would mean “a watershed event in the largest basin of oil in the world. Thus, this global democratic revolution,” and indeed, is also a means of controlling other great Iraq could be regarded as “a model for the powers, in particular those states which are broader Middle East” ( Bush, G. W., 2003a; potential regional hegemonic states such 2003; 2004a). Simultaneously, terrorism as China. This perspective is reminiscent was defined as a threat to the American of “the global oil spigot” for gaining an values and the civilized world, which was efficient rule over the global economy under the leadership of the United States. In (Harvey, 2003) and exerting leverage over this respect, all countries which supported industrial rivals (Mercille, 2010). Indeed, terrorism would be considered as a threat it stresses that the control of oil has always as well. These threats were specified as the been defined as “the centre of gravity of ‘axis of evil’ (G. W. Bush, 2002), the ‘rogue U.S. economic hegemony” (Bromley, 2006). states’(NSS, 2002), the ‘outlaw regimes’ America’s desire to continue in its (G. W. Bush, 2003b), and the ‘dangerous highest position, which had remained from regimes’ ( Bush, G. W., 2004b). Iraq was the Cold War era, was clearly seen in Bush’s also defined as a state that was trying to speeches and the NSS-2002. However, it had proliferate weapons of mass destruction been stated as a necessary step to protect (WMD) and was allegedly a supporter of the American values as well as promoting terrorist groups. these values across the world. Expansion of These justifications facilitated the U.S. freedom, democracy and peace throughout action against Iraq as well as its military the countries especially amongst, as Bush
112 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 95 - 118 (2014) The U.S. Geopolitical Code and the Role of the Persian Gulf Oil in the U.S. Military Intervention in 2003 presence in the Persian Gulf region. In this two imperative geopolitical assumptions respect, two significant objectives could be that influenced the Bush administration. reached through the Iraq War, which were Second, amongst the three states in conformity with the U.S. geopolitical claimed as the ‘axis of evil’ by Bush, Iraq code: first, a regime change that was done was selected as the target for the U.S. pre- to remove a regional threat to the U.S. rich emptive war. It was done because Iraq oil friendly countries such as Kuwait and possessed a huge extendable amount of oil Saudi Arabia, and second, by using these reserves and its oil was necessary for the justifications, the United States would be industrial world. In addition, history had able to continue its military presence in this also shown that the Iraqi government could area and consequently control the largest be a potential threat to neighboring states, in oil reservoir in the world. By controlling particular Saudi Arabia and Kuwait, which this region, the U.S. would control the were regional allies of the United States. oil flows to the industrial countries, and More importantly, the Iraqi oil, along with thus, control the global economy. Finally, that from the two mentioned countries, it could be resulted in controlling other constituted about 68% of the Persian Gulf potential regional hegemonic states as total exports. Hence, from this view, Iraq well as preventing the emergence of new could threaten significant amounts of regional hegemons while promoting its own the Persian Gulf oil exports. In the Bush hegemonic position globally. Doctrine, Iraq was introduced as a threat, and thus, the pre-emptive action was defined CONCLUSION as a response with the expansion of freedom After the terrorist attacks on September 11, and democracy being the justifications for 2001, the U.S. leaders found an opportunity the action. From this perspective, therefore, to redefine the U.S. geopolitical code it formed a strong link between protecting as a Global War on Terror. This global the Persian Gulf oil as a crucial element geopolitical code relied on those geopolitical for the U.S. national security and defining assumptions that would pursue the U.S. the Iraqi government as a certain threat global hegemony in particular after the Cold to oil fields of the region and a supporter War geopolitical order. With regard to this of terrorism as well. Finally, the Bush geopolitical code and through observing Doctrine and Bush’s speeches emphasized the U.S. foreign policy toward the Persian the importance of expanding the American Gulf, in particular the Iraq War 2003, this values and defending them across the world research suggests two important issues. as a global mission for the United States. It First, the importance of the Persian Gulf was a justification for going to war abroad oil as a vital interest for the U.S. and the such as in Iraq. removal of Saddam from his power were
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Furthermore, it was considered as a Union, and led to a near-confrontation between global responsibility to prevent terrorist them. That war was also called the Ramadan War, or the Fourth Arab-Israel War. For more attacks on the civilized world and to promote information see (Dunstan, 2007). democracy in the Middle East. However, it 2 clearly revealed the U.S. attempt to keep In this respect, the U.S. Department of Energy in ‘International Energy Outlook 2002’ with and promote its own hegemonic position, reference to the United States as the largest as well as deter other great powers from consumer of oil in the world, for more than one- becoming regional hegemonic states, and quarter of total world demand had predicted this conforms to the tenets of the offensive that the primary consumption of oil in America would increase by 1.5 percent annually from realism theory. Tracing the Bush Doctrine 1999 to 2020. Moreover, that oil share in the and his presidential speeches, there was U.S. energy mix would increase slightly from clearly a strong linkage between preserving 39.4 percent in 1999 to 39.7 percent in 2020, the U.S. hegemonic position and promoting totaling 26.7 million barrels per day (EIA, 2002a). the American values around the world. In this respect, to preserve its hegemony, the 3 All administrations from President Truman U.S. had to continue its global presence and to President Clinton, as well as documents such as ‘A National Security Strategy for A protect its values. Obviously, adopting the New Century - 1998’ and ‘A National Security U.S. culture and ideology by other states Strategy for A New Century - 1999’ and ‘A would reinforce U.S. hegemonic position National Security Strategy for A Global Age and consequently prevent the emergence of - 2000’, which had been projected before the beginning of Bush’s presidency emphasized the other potential regional hegemonic powers. importance of the Persian Gulf region for the In addition, the U.S. military intervention United States to ensure the security of oil flow in Iraq and the removal of Saddam Hussein toward the U.S. and its allies, namely, West from power would stop Iraqi hegemonic Europe and Japan. For more information, see (NSS, 1998, 1999, 2000). ambitions. As Bush (2003b) and Cheney (2002) noted, this would prevent the Iraqi 4 From Saddam’s view, Kuwait was part of regime from dominating the entire Middle the Ottoman province, which was under the authority of Basra, and thus, Kuwait belonged East. to Iraq. However, Saddam’s main concern was oil, and from his view, Kuwait owed Iraq ENDNOTES because Iraq had fought against Iran for all the 1 The Yom Kippur War which took place Arabs. He also claimed that Kuwait’s oil must between October 6 and October 25, 1973, was be used for all the Arabs. For more information, fought between Israel and a coalition of some see (Long, 2004) and (Flint, 2006). Arab countries, led by Egypt and Syria. It began 5 Saddam had been introduced as a threat to the when forces of the coalition crossed ceasefire security, peace and oil fields of the region as lines and entered the Sinai Desert and Golan mentioned through Bush Senior in his state of Heights, which had been occupied by Israel the Union address on January 29, 1991 (G. H. since the Six-Day War in 1967. This conflict W. Bush, 1991) and Clinton’s speech in 1988 also created serious tensions between the two (G. W. Bush, 2010, p. 227). superpowers, the United States and the Soviet
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SOCIAL SCIENCES & HUMANITIES
Journal homepage: http://www.pertanika.upm.edu.my/
Exploring Lecturers’ Perception on Learning Organization Dimensions and Demographic Variables in Technical and Vocational Colleges
Khosrow Nazari1*, Zaidatol Akmaliah Lope Pihie2, Khairuddin Idris3 and Ramli Basri1 1Foundation of Education, Faculty of Educational Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia 2Science and Technical Education, Faculty of Educational Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia 3Department of Professional Developments and Continuing Education, Faculty of Educational Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
ABSTRACT The purpose of this study was to explore the perception of 295 lecturers on learning organization dimensions and demographic variables in technical and vocational colleges in four provinces of Fars, Khuzestan, Boushehr, and Kohgilouyeh and Boyerahmad in Iran. Data was collected using a questionnaire and analyzed utilizing SPSS which included the use of descriptive and inferential statistics. The findings showed that respondents’ perceptions were rated from moderate to high in learning organization dimensions with significant differences based on the type of employment, academic rank and education level. No significant differences were observed in gender and marital status towards learning organization dimensions. The relevant literature shows few studies regarding learning organization dimensions and demographic variables locally and internationally. Therefore, the findings can be evaluated as useful information and guidance for educational administrators and leaders in utilizing learning organization dimensions in the management of educational institutions.
Keywords: Demographic Variables, Learning organization Dimensions, Technical and Vocational Colleges
ARTICLE INFO Article history: INTRODUCTION AND PROBLEM Received: 23 November 2011 STATEMENT Accepted: 23 July 2012
E-mail addresses: Several researchers have shown that [email protected] (Khosrow Nazari), organizations which give emphasis on [email protected] (Zaidatol Akmaliah Lope Pihie), [email protected] (Khairuddin Idris), learning and employees empowerment have [email protected] (Ramli Basri) * Corresponding author
ISSN: 0128-7702 © Universiti Putra Malaysia Press Khosrow Nazari, Zaidatol Akmaliah Lope Pihie, Khairuddin Idris and Ramli Basri come become more successful, adaptive regarding the processes, products, and to changes and survive longer than their technological application (Alas & Sharifi, counterparts (Asadi, Ghorbani, & Naderan, 2002; Garvin, 2003). Second, they provide 2009; Dirani, 2009). Garvin (2003) stated opportunities for leadership and promote that the lack of learning culture makes a transformational and shared style of organizations and individuals simply repeat leadership within the managerial level old practices. The development of learning of the organization (Chajnacki, 2007; culture not only helps organization members Ellstrom, 2001; Yulk, 1998). Third, learning to create new knowledge, but also helps organizations help to generate, analyze, them remain dynamic too. store and distribute increasing amount Learning in organization is really about of knowledge with the organization and empowering the workforce and integrating provide appropriate access to employees work with learning in a continuous manner who deal with more urgent and multifaceted (Bryson, Pajo, Ward, & Mallon, 2006; problems (Alas & Sharifi, 2002; Chajnacki, Ortenblad, 2004). Accordingly, many 2007; Garvin, 1993; Marquardt, 2002). organizations are trying to recognize and Fourth, learning organizations provide adapt new ways of learning to keep with opportunities and resources to balance the the enormous changing pace of work. In personal and professional growth needs of addition, it has been found that providing employees and encourage them to use new learning opportunities for employees to skills in innovative ways (DiBella, Nevis, carry out their tasks more effectively with & Gould, 1996; Senge, 1990). more autonomy and innovative practices However, a quick review of learning are strategies for attaching people to the organization literature shows few empirical organizations psychologically (Agarwala, researches on learning organization 2003; Krishna, 2008). Watkins (2005) also dimensions. In addition, little is known has stated that educational institutions about whether the concept of the learning more than any time need to make rapid organization, which originated in a Western and difficult decisions. “One way to help context (Marquardt, 2002; Marsick & higher education institutions preserve their Watkins, 2003) and in business companies professional cultures, while still retaining (Senge, 1990) is applicable in educational both faculty governance and rapid response, settings. Moreover, the application of is to create a learning culture, a culture that learning organization dimensions in is structured to make changes more readily” educational settings together with the (p. 415). impact of demographic variables on learning The subsequent benefits have often organization dimensions have not been the been cited as reasons for creating learning focus of attention in the past (Tseng, 2010; organizations. First, learning organization Wang, 2005). Furthermore, as Iran is a help to increase the levels of innovation developing country with different social
120 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 119 - 136 (2014) Exploring Lecturers’ Perception on Learning Organization Dimensions and Demographic Variables and organizational culture, the research With regard to Iran, the social, political pertaining learning organization is scarce. and economic environment has changed This raised the question whether the learning fundamentally in comparison to the past organization model which origin in the three decades. This difference has become West has the capacity to be conducted in more important over the past ten years Iranian educational contexts to fill the gap with main reforms occurring in educational of theoretical and empirical knowledge sectors (Mehralizadeh, 2005; Veisi, 2010). pertaining learning organization dimensions Technical and Vocational Colleges (TVCs) and provide empirical evidences to help which were established in 1930 served as educational leaders to manage their colleges a means for educating skilled manpower more efficiently and effectively. in post high school training i.e. higher education in the technological line in TECHNICAL AND VOCATIONAL Iran. These professional colleges were the COLLEGES recommendation of a German consultant as Providing skilled and semi-skilled human complementary to the Faculty of Engineering resources for both governmental and private of the University of Tehran which was sectors as one of the basic priorities and an academically oriented institution. The policies of developed and developing activities of these colleges were gradually countries has increased the importance terminated in 1965 due to the lack of social of technical and vocational trainings in status of the Technical and Vocational globalization era (Sadeghi, Sabheyeh, & Education (TVE) as compared with white Keshavarzi, 2008; Tilik, 2002; Zainabadi, collar institutions such as the Faculty of Salehi, & Parand, 2007). Asian countries Engineering (Ebtekar, 1996). have placed varying emphasis on technical Developing quantitatively and and vocational education, depending qualitatively after Islamic Revolution upon several historical, social, economic in 1979, TVCs have played significant and political considerations. UNESCO roles in training, nurturing, and educating adapted in 1974 an important detailed competent and qualified manpower in recommendation pertaining to technical Iran. They are also a pioneer in providing and vocational education, and argued technical and vocational human resources for provision of technical and vocational in all fields for both boys and girls. They education as a) an integral part of general train human resources to fill the vacancy of education; b) a means of preparing for an lack of technicians in both governmental occupational field; c) and as an instrument and private sectors. In line with Iran’s march to reduce the mismatches between education towards a comprehensive development plan, and employment and between school and TVCs have focused their efforts to develop society at large (King, 2007). technical and professional trainings in all
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 119 - 136 (2014) 121 Khosrow Nazari, Zaidatol Akmaliah Lope Pihie, Khairuddin Idris and Ramli Basri fields to educate skilled and competent staffs, both educational and non-educational human resources (Behbahani, 2010; to enhance their knowledge, skills and Khalaghi, 2003). The number of TVCs is attitudes. 148 which are the biggest technical and vocational institutions for boys and girls. LEARNING ORGANIZATION They admit students from technical and DIMENSIONS vocational schools which consist of three The literature of learning organization theory fields of industry, agriculture and services. shows that for more than three decades it has All TVCs have been distributed based been the focus of attention as a subject of on geographical considerations in seven study, research, training and development regions throughout Iran. These institutions (Asadi et al., 2009; Pimapunsri, 2008). need educational personnel who know how It has been conceptualized and explored to match theory and practice in action. They from different angles and through different should be able to apply the newest teaching models by many researchers. Numerous strategies in class situation, too (Behbahani, attempts have been made in the past to define 2010; Ebtekar, 1996; Sadri & Zahedi, 2010). the concept of learning organization. Some Despite their great importance in providing researchers indicate that the concept itself is competent and skillful human resources, still unclear and confusing (Fulmer, Gibbs, they have not been the focus of attention & Keys, 1998), whereas some are happy in relation to research and study of new with that (K. Watkins & Golembiewski, theories of organizational development in 1995). Others recognize the difficulty the past (Asadi et al., 2009). of describing what a complete learning In addition, the literature of learning organization looks like (Watkins & Marsick, organization shows that the concept of 1993). Scholars argue that each organization the learning organization has received produces its own learning organization and much attention in organizational studies; these particular learning organizations are however, educational institutions have vigorously and frequently changing (Dirani, not fully attributed learning organization 2009). In addition, many organizations practices (Alam, 2009; Attafar & Bahrami, in various countries of the world have 2009; Yang, Watkins, & Marsick, 2004). preferred to adapt learning organization, White and Weathersby (2005) reported because of its profound effects and impacts some obstacles including challenges of on professional and skill development of strategy, structure and culture, as well as their employees (Alam, 2009). Top-level academic culture clashes that may prevent managers in organizations have realized that educational institutions to become learning to increase efficiency, improve customer organizations. In this regard, the concern is service, provide defect-free products, and whether these institutions have the capacity achieve organizational objectives, the to create a learning culture to help their learning organization is the best choice
122 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 119 - 136 (2014) Exploring Lecturers’ Perception on Learning Organization Dimensions and Demographic Variables
(Ayupp & Perumal, 2008; Jamali & Sidani, To be innovative and act effectively 2009). Asadi et al., (2009) also stated that in managing the organizations, managers the learning organization is valuable as it need to create learning opportunities for creates innovative pattern of thinking. all organization members. Learning in Senge (1990) defined learning organization is really about empowering organization as the “organization where the workforce and integrating work with people continually expand their capacity to learning in a continuous manner (Bryson et create the results they truly desire, where al., 2006; Ortenblad, 2004). In a learning new and expansive patterns of thinking organization, every individual’s contribution are nurtured, where collective aspiration is is important to the life and well-being set free, and where people are continually of the organization (Argyris & Schon, learning to learn together” (p.3). Ortenblad 2002; Hiatt-Michael, 2001). Despite (2002) defined learning organization as an the importance of learning organization organization that is constantly increasing its which has been approved by theoretical capacity to form its future. Sugarman (2001) and empirical researches internationally, stated that a learning organization would be little research can be found in the Iranian good at making new solutions and sharing context, particularly in educational settings. knowledge with other members who may The following sections provide some need it. Watkins and Marsick (1993) defined information of the methodology, findings learning organization as “an organization and recommendations of this study. that learns continuously and transforms itself and one that is distinguished by total RESEARCH OBJECTIVE employee involvement in a process of jointly The overall purpose of this study is conducted and collectively responsible to determine the level of respondents’ change directed towards shared values or perception on learning organization principles” (p.118). Central to Watkins and dimensions and differences in continuous Marsick’s (1993) theoretical framework of learning, dialogue and inquiry, collaboration, learning organization, are seven dimensions embedded system, empowerment, system including: continuous learning, dialogue connection and strategic leadership based and inquiry, collaboration, embedded on employment type, academic rank and system, system connection, empowerment education level to help administrators of and strategic leadership. Watkins and TVCs to manage their staff more effectively Marsick further developed dimensions of in Iran. learning organization questionnaire (DLOQ) measuring the learning dimensions on seven RESEARCH QUESTIONS dimensions. These seven dimensions are For this purpose, the research questions defined based on Watkins and Marsick’s posed in this study is worded as the (1993) conceptualization in Table 1. following, .
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1. What is the level of lecturers’ perception METHODOLOGY of learning organization dimensions in This study employed a quantitative TVCs? research design to explore the levels of 2. Is there any significant difference in learning organization dimensions and their perception of learning organization significant relationship with educational dimensions by lecturers based on level, type of employment and academic employment type? rank among 1606 lecturers of TVCs in four provinces of Fars, Khuzestan, Boushehr, 3. Is there any significant difference in and Kohgilouyeh and Boyerahmad in Iran. perception of learning organization G-power statistical software was utilized to dimensions by lecturers based on determine the sample size. Two sampling academic rank? methods including proportional stratified 4. Is there any significant difference in random sampling and simple random perception of learning organization sampling were employed to collect data dimensions by lecturers based on from 295 respondents (from all the four education level? provinces)*. It was revealed that the majority
TABLE 1 Learning Organization Dimensions Applied in TVCs
Dimensions Definitions Continuous Learning The extent to which learning is designed into work so that people learn, acquire knowledge, values and skills for personal and career development on the job. The degree an organization tries to create continuous learning opportunities for all of its members. Dialogue and Inquiry The extent to which the climate and culture of the organization allows organization members to talk, discuss, explain their experiences and skills and the capacity to listen and inquire into the views of others. Collaboration The degree to which an organization tries to design work for organizational members, have shared vision and personal mastery to exchange their views and ideas to think and learn collectively and strengthen working collectively. Embedded System The extent an organization prepares organizational members to try to use both high and low technology systems to capture and share learning. Empowerment The process of enabling people to act, and participate in policy making in creating a shared and collective vision. This process continues to get feedback from organization members to recognize the gap between the current status and the new vision and to implement a shared vision. System Connection The degree to which an organization has open systems to connect the organization to its external and internal environment to help people to see the impact of their work on the entire organization and think globally. Strategic Leadership Refers to organizational leaders’ competence to think strategically and energize organization to create change, and develop collective vision to help organization members to move in the new direction.
124 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 119 - 136 (2014) Exploring Lecturers’ Perception on Learning Organization Dimensions and Demographic Variables of participants were lecturers (52.5%) who class interval width. It is the difference had masters degree (89.4%), while 58.3% between the lower endpoint of an interval were part-time masters students. and the lower endpoint of the next interval DLOQ developed by Watkins and according to the next formula. Class interval Marsick (1997) consists of 43 items in width = highest scale value – lowest scale a 5-point Likert Scale range from “1” as value / number of categories. Class interval “almost never” to “5” as “almost always was width = (5-1)/3 = 1.33. Thus, 1-2.33 = Low, employed to measure lecturers’ perception on 2.34 – 3.66 = Moderate; and 3.67 – 5 = High seven learning organization dimensions. The (Nunnally & Bernstein, 1994). In addition, original questionnaire in English language descriptive analysis such as mean, standard was translated into Persian language using deviation and frequency were employed. the forward-back translation approach Table 2 depicts the results of descriptive (Chen, Holton & Bates, 2005). To validate analysis as required by Research Question the DLOQ in both English and Persian, 1 as follows: academics (how many) and lecturers (how many) with the experience in research What is the level of lecturers’ perception in the field of extension and continuing of learning organization dimensions in TVCs? education, educational administration and organizational behavior were employed Table 2 displays TVCs lecturers’ perception in Malaysia and Iran. They confirmed the on the level of learning organization appropriateness of validity of DLOQ for dimensions among their colleges. The conducting in TVCs. A reliability test (pilot results indicate that lecturers’ perception on test) was performed on the DLOQ. The continuous learning, dialogue and inquiry reliability coefficient, Cronbach’s alpha for and strategic leadership are at high level, seven learning organization dimensions was whereas their perception on collaboration, from .80 to .87, indicating that the reliability embedded system, empowerment, and of this instrument was relatively high, and system connection are at moderate level. thus suitable for this study to be carried Findings indicated that lecturers’ perception out. (confirm with studies to show that this in dialogue and inquiry was high with Cronbach alpha value is reliable). a mean rating of M=3.78 and SD = .41, whereas 166 (56.3%) of lecturers rated high FINDINGS on this dimension, 129 (43.7%) moderate and none rated low. Similarly, the results To determine respondents’ perception showed that lecturers’ perception in strategic on learning organization dimensions, the leadership was high with M = 3.72 and SD = possible mean scores based on five point .49, whereas 148 (50.2%) of lecturers rated Likert Scales were categorized into three high and 147 (49.8%) rated moderate on levels of low (1-2.33), moderate (2.34- this dimension. 3.66) and high (3.67-5). It is based on
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Likewise, findings revealed that learning organization dimensions among lecturers’ perception in continuous learning their colleges at high and moderate levels. was high with a mean rating of M = 3.69 The level rating from moderate to high in the and SD = .46, whereas 169 (57.3%) of study indicate that these seven dimensions lecturers rated high, and 126 (42.7%) are carried out and practiced in TVCs and rated moderate on this dimension. The lecturers are not alien with the concept of findings also indicated that four out of learning organization dimensions. seven dimensions of learning organization including: empowerment (M = 3.53, SD = Independent sample t-test was utilized .53), collaboration (M = 3.47, SD = .57), to answer Research Questions 2 to 4 as embedded system (M = 3.43, SD = .55) follows: and system connection (M = 3.40, SD = Is there any significant difference in .53) were at moderate level. None of the perception of learning organization dimensions were rated low. Overall, 189 dimensions by lecturers based on (64.1%) of lecturers rated moderate, 106 employment type? (35.9%) rated high and none rated low with The results of t-test in Table 3 reveal that M = 3.58, SD = .28 on overall learning there are significant differences between organization dimension. These results full time and part time lecturers’ perception indicate that TVCs’ lecturers perceive in learning organization dimensions. Data
TABLE 2 Descriptive Statistics of Learning Organization Dimensions
Frequency Descriptive Statistics Mean SD Low Moderate High (43-100) (101-158) (159-215) Continuous Learning 3.69 .46 -- 126 a 169 (42.7) b (57.3) Dialogue and Inquiry 3.78 .41 -- 129 166 (43.7) (56.3) Collaboration 3.47 .57 9 189 97 (3.1) (64.1) (32.8) Embedded System 3.43 .55 18 200 77 (6.1) (67.8) (26.1) Empowerment 3.53 .53 -- 190 105 (64.4) (35.6) System Connection 3.40 .53 10 205 80 (3.4) (69.5) (27.1) Strategic Leadership 3.72 .49 -- 147 148 (49.8) (50.2) Overall Learning 3.58 .28 -- 189 106 Organization (64.1) (35.9) Note: Low (1-2.33), Moderate (2.34-3.66), High (3.67-5), a = Frequency/Count, b = Percent
126 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 119 - 136 (2014) Exploring Lecturers’ Perception on Learning Organization Dimensions and Demographic Variables indicated that full time lecturers had higher significant differences between lecturers mean scores in learning organization and teachers in all learning organization dimensions than part time lecturers in TVCs dimensions signify that academic rank was in Iran. Thus, it can be concluded that full an appropriate indicator to make difference time lecturers’ perception was different from between lecturers and teachers in TVCs. part time lecturers’ perception on learning organization dimensions in TVCs. Table 5 depicts the analysis of learning organization dimensions towards Table 4 displays analysis of learning education level as required by Research organization dimensions based on Question 4 as follows: academic rank as required by Research Is there any significant difference in Question 3 as follows: perception of learning organization dimensions by lecturers based on Is there any significant difference in Education Level? perception of learning organization dimensions by lecturers based on T-test analysis in Table 5 reveals that academic rank? there were significant differences between Table 4 shows significant differences in perceptions of doctorate and master degree lecturers and teachers’ perception towards holders and below in relation to learning learning organization dimensions. Lecturers organization dimensions in TVCs. Doctorate had higher perception level than teachers in lecturers showed higher mean scores than all learning organization dimensions. The master and below degree holders in TVCs,
TABLE 3 Means Comparison of Learning Organization Dimensions by Employment Type
Learning Organization Dimensions Employment Type N Mean SD t-value p Continuous Learning Full Time 123 3.83 .46 4.605 .001 Part Time 172 3.60 .42 Dialogue and Inquiry Full Time 123 3.97 .37 7.259 .001 Part Time 172 3.64 .38 Collaboration Full Time 123 3.60 .57 3.321 .001 Part Time 172 3.38 .56 Embedded System Full Time 123 3.54 .59 2.633 .009 Part Time 172 3.36 .51 Empowerment Full Time 123 3.63 .53 2.699 .007 Part Time 172 3.46 .51 System Connection Full Time 123 3.55 .52 4.275 .001 Part Time 172 3.29 .51 Strategic Leadership Full Time 123 3.89 .49 5.175 .001 Part Time 172 3.60 .46 P<.05 df=293 SD = Standard Deviation
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 119 - 136 (2014) 127 Khosrow Nazari, Zaidatol Akmaliah Lope Pihie, Khairuddin Idris and Ramli Basri
TABLE 4 Means Comparison of Learning Organization Dimensions by Academic Rank
Learning Organization Dimensions Academic Rank N Mean SD t-value p Continuous Learning Lecturer 155 3.89 .42 9.074 .001 Teacher 140 3.46 .38 Dialogue and Inquiry Lecturer 155 3.95 .38 8.260 .001 Teacher 140 3.59 .35 Collaboration Lecturer 155 3.63 .59 5.025 .001 Teacher 140 3.30 .51 Embedded System Lecturer 155 3.53 .60 3.280 .001 Teacher 140 3.32 .48 Empowerment Lecturer 155 3.63 .54 3.523 .001 Teacher 140 3.41 .50 System Connection Lecturer 155 3.52 .55 4.120 .001 Teacher 140 3.27 .48 Strategic Leadership Lecturer 155 3.89 .48 6.571 .001 Teacher 140 3.54 .43 P<.05 df=293 SD = Standard Deviation
TABLE 5 Means Comparison of Learning Organization Dimensions by Education Level
Learning Organization Dimensions Education Level N Mean SD t-value P Continuous Learning Doctorate 34 4.01 .42 4.435 .001 Master and below 261 3.65 .44 Dialogue and Inquiry Doctorate 34 4.00 .36 3.515 .001 Master and below 261 3.75 .40 Collaboration Doctorate 34 3.77 .52 3.296 .001 Master and below 261 3.43 .57 Embedded System Doctorate 34 3.67 .62 2.683 .021 Master and below 261 3.40 .53 Empowerment Doctorate 34 3.92 .49 4.708 .001 Master and below 261 3.48 .51 System Connection Doctorate 34 3.67 .49 3.211 .001 Master and below 261 3.36 .53 Strategic Leadership Doctorate 34 4.02 .46 3.888 .001 Master and below 261 3.68 .48 P<.05 df=293 SD = Standard Deviation
128 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 119 - 136 (2014) Exploring Lecturers’ Perception on Learning Organization Dimensions and Demographic Variables indicating that doctorate lecturers, though implies that establishing a climate in which their number is less than master degree lecturers felt safe to offer an opinion and holders and below, spend more times to have an expectation that their opinions to participate in practicing of learning would be valued, was a significant key factor organization dimensions than master degree and the role of administrators seemed to be holders and below. significant in this process. This result was in line with Asadi et al., (2009) findings in Iran DISCUSSION among physical educational professionals, The findings revealed that lecturers had a Zahabioun and Yousefy’s (2006) results moderate to high level of understanding of and Kumar’s (2005) findings in Malaysia, what the learning organization dimensions whereas contradicting with Dirani’s (2007) concepts might mean. The DLOQ results and Wang’s (2005) findings. obtained from self rating indicated that Strategic leadership dimension was the lecturers’ perception in continuous second highest, indicating that educational learning, dialogue and inquiry and strategic leaders of TVCs had charismatic power, leadership dimensions were at high level, mentor and coach, give people control whereas their perception in collaboration, over the resources they need to accomplish embedded system, system connection and their work and are authoritative in creating empowerment were at moderate level, learning opportunities by preparing a suggesting that these dimensions could be fine knowledge management system. The further improved. In addition, the findings high level also indicates that educational showed that lecturers’ perception in overall leaders and administrators have a clear learning organization dimensions was at understanding of their responsibility to act moderate level. as facilitators and supporters of learning Dialogue and inquiry dimension was in TVCs. This result was supported by rated at high level indicating that lecturers Zahabioun and Yousefy’s (2006) findings give open and honest feedback to each other, in Iran, and Pimapunsri’s (2008) findings listen to others before speaking, treat each in Thailand. other with respect, spend time building Similarly with dialogue and inquiry and trust with each other and are encouraged strategic leadership, continuous learning to ask why regardless of the rank in TVCs. opportunities was rated at high level, The high level rating in dialogue and indicating that lecturers in TVCs have inquiry pointed to the significant role the opportunity of discussing mistakes, played by educational administrators and share knowledge and skills with their leaders in promoting a learning culture at colleagues, help each other learn, consider the individual level by providing an open problems as opportunities for learning, atmosphere of talking, communicating and supported and rewarded financially for questioning among lecturers in TVCs. It also learning. In addition, it can be concluded
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 119 - 136 (2014) 129 Khosrow Nazari, Zaidatol Akmaliah Lope Pihie, Khairuddin Idris and Ramli Basri that communication among staffs, feedback, through shared practices in organizations will and active listening are encouraged, and create a strong bonding among organization prioritized in comparison to hierarchy and members. Accordingly, the moderate level of status. The high level rating in continuous embedded system in TVCs can be the result learning indicated that there was general of not having enough tools and technology consensus that learning culture was in knowledge management, limitation in supported by educational administrators as paying attention to establishing knowledge long as the learning was seen to bring benefit networks and communities of practice, few to the colleges. Zahabioun and Yousefy’s opportunities of sharing information and not (2006) findings, and Pimapunsari’s (2008) having enough facilities for lecturers to use results were similar to the continuous their skills and knowledge. Dirani’s (2007) learning results in this study. findings in banking sector in Lebanon and System connection dimension was Wang’s (2005) results in China are also revealed to be at moderate level according consistent with the results of the current to the lecturers’ perception in TVCs. study. System connection reflects global thinking, It was revealed that empowerment connecting the organization to its internal dimension was at moderate level. and external environment, reciprocal Kanter (1993) based on organizational communication at all levels among lecturers, empowerment theory, stated that employees’ balancing between work and family affairs, empowerment towards a collective vision and working to meet mutual needs. Watkins will provide opportunities for learning and Marsick (1996) stated that training which in turn influence employees’ global leaders, providing virtual networks, work, attitudes and behaviors. Chen and performing employee opinion surveys, and Chen (2008) also stated that employees’ providing computer data bases are various empowerment can occur as a result of strategies that can be used to connect the participating employees in decision making institutions to the environment. Asadi et process. In addition, O’Nail (2003) and al., (2009) also stated that being low at Watkins and Marsick (1993) have remarked system connection maybe the result of that lack of necessary coordination among not connecting with internal and external different parts of the organization and professional communities to meet mutual existence of an overcautious atmosphere needs. that leads to conservative behaviors can Lecturers’ perception on embedded affect empowering people towards a system was at a moderate level. According collective vision negatively. Regarding the to Watkins and Marsick (1993), creating empowerment dimension, Dirani (2009), new systems will have a basic contribution Wang (2005), Asadi et al., (2009) and Veisi towards providing continuous learning (2010) has reported results similar to the opportunities in organizations. Krishna and current study. Casey (2008) also stated that social contacts
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The results regarding collaboration remains unknown (Tseng, 2010; Wang, revealed that lecturers have rated this 2005). The results indicated that there dimension at a moderate place. Watkins were significant differences in lecturers’ and Marsick (1996) stated that collaborative perception towards learning organization atmosphere of learning in organizations dimensions based on type of employment, foster and develop job related skills. The education level and academic rank. This collaborative efforts cause each member indicates that lecturers had different of the organization shares knowledge and understanding pertaining learning experience with each other. The findings organization dimensions in TVCs. pertaining collaboration are in line with In terms of type of employment, there White and Weathersby’s (2005), Bui and were significant differences between full Baruch (2010) statements that academics are time and part time lecturers’ perception in highly individualistic in their work and seek all learning organization dimensions. In all to reach personal development. The findings comparisons, full time lecturers scored the of this study were also in line with governing highest. Mean score of full time lecturers culture in higher education organizations in all dimensions were higher than mean and the society in Iran. Based on a cross- score of part time lecturers in all dimension cultural study, Alavi and McCormick (2004) of learning organization. It signifies that stated that Iranian organizations face some full time lecturers pay more attention to problems in team learning, system thinking the activities performed regarding learning and developing shared visions. They stated organization dimensions in TVCs in Iran. that some aspects of management theories Another possibility is related to the fact and models which their roots are in highly that part time lecturers are not permanent developed countries may not be completely employees that may affect their perception in line with cultural characteristics of regarding learning organization dimensions other countries such as Iran (Alavi and in TVCs. This phenomenon indicates that McCormick, 2004). What emerged from part time lecturers have the strongest sense this study was a picture of TVCs that of the need to improve learning organization were utilizing learning to develop their dimensions. competitive edge, remain dynamic, create For academic rank, there were significant knowledge and skills, and integrate work differences between lecturers’ perception of with learning to attach lecturers to colleges being in the position of lecturer and teacher psychologically. in learning organization dimensions in TVCs Since there have been few researches in Iran. Those who were lecturers showed studying how demographics can impact higher perception level in comparison to learning organization dimensions, whether those who were in position of teacher in demographic compositions characterize seven learning organization dimensions. learning organization dimensions or not The results indicated that the higher the level
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 119 - 136 (2014) 131 Khosrow Nazari, Zaidatol Akmaliah Lope Pihie, Khairuddin Idris and Ramli Basri of academic rank, the more mean scores lives. The study provided empirical and regarding the perception level of learning theoretical information for educational organization dimensions. administrators and leaders to prepare For education level, the significant educational programs, standards and other differences between perception of lecturers professional development activities. It with degree of doctorate and master and also helps them develop and sustain a below connote that doctorate lecturers culture conducive to learning and adapt may have higher education contributes it as a means of survival and success. to one’s understanding of the value of The findings of this study are valuable learning organization dimensions than sources for educational administrators, master and below degree holders in TVCs. leaders and human resource developer Lecturers in higher level of education obtain professionals to understand the present higher perception on learning organization status, differences and relationships in dimensions than lecturers in lower level of learning organization dimensions in TVCs. education. It was revealed that education By providing learning opportunities in the level was a significant indicator in learning light of learning organization dimensions, organization dimensions between doctorate educational administrators send a message and master and below degree holders in to lecturers that TVCs care about them and TVCs. The result of this study regarding support them. education level is in line with Tseng’s (2010) The results revealed that respondents findings in Taiwan, whereas Lim’s (2003) in the position of full time, doctorate and findings in private organizations in Korea lecturer had higher perception of learning were inconsistent with the results of this organization dimensions than part time study. These results revealed that perception lecturers, master and below degree holders level of learning organization dimensions and teachers in TVCs. This indicates that was varied according to education level, educational administrators should try to type of employment and academic rank. preserve and further develop the present status of full time, doctorate and lecturers CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS in TVCs by providing them opportunities The study indicated that lecturers were to attend such events as courses, seminars, clearly aware of the learning organization conferences and workshops. In addition, dimensions and generally saw the learning to enhance and develop perception of organization evident in their colleges part time lecturers, teachers and master through the provision of opportunities to and below degree holders pertaining increase their knowledge and skills. On learning organization dimensions in TVCs, the other hand, it was evident that lecturers educational administrators should provide were quite content with their working them programs such as training, meetings, project teams, symposiums and workshops.
132 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 119 - 136 (2014) Exploring Lecturers’ Perception on Learning Organization Dimensions and Demographic Variables
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SOCIAL SCIENCES & HUMANITIES
Journal homepage: http://www.pertanika.upm.edu.my/
The Effect of Exposure to Cartoons on Language Proficiency
Taher Bahrani2* and Tam Shu Sim1 1Faculty of Languages and Linguistics, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia 2Department of English, Mahshahr Branch, Islamic Azad University, Mahshahr, Iran
ABSTRACT Today, access to various audiovisual programs such as cartoons has become very easy through the development of audiovisual technologies such as CD and DVD players. In the same line, many studies have emphasized on the psychological values of utilizing cartoons in language learning. Accordingly, the present study aims at investigating the effect of exposure of cartoons on language proficiency at the intermediate level. To this end, a language proficiency test was administered to 90 language learners. Then, a smaller population of 40 language learners were selected as intermediate language learners and randomly divided into two groups, i.e. group one and group two. During the experiment, group one was instructed via the use of cartoons. In contrast, group two was instructed by a sample of selected audiovisual programs rather than cartoons. At the end of the study which lasted for 6 weeks, both groups took another sample language proficiency test to find out whether or not if any changes happened regarding their language proficiency. The results of the post-test showed that the first group participants who had exposure to cartoons had lesser language proficiency improvement in comparison to the second group of participants who had exposure to non-cartoons programs. This proved that the quality of the language input should be given initial importance.
Keywords: Exposure, Cartoons, Language proficiency
INTRODUCTION There are many internal as well as external factors which influence second language
ARTICLE INFO acquisition (SLA). Among them, the Article history: language input that learners receive in Received: 2 January 2012 Accepted: 14 August 2012 SLA is one of the external factors which E-mail addresses: plays a fundamental role. According to [email protected] (Taher Bahrani), [email protected] (Tam Shu Sim) Ellis (2008),, “theories of SLA attach * Corresponding author
ISSN: 0128-7702 © Universiti Putra Malaysia Press Taher Bahrani and Tam Shu Sim different importance to the role of input in speaker or writer. In the same line, Nunan language acquisition process but they all (1999) defined authentic language materials acknowledge the need for language input” as spoken or written language material (Ellis, 2008, pg.243).. Considering the fact that has been produced in the course of that some sort of language input is necessary real communication and not specifically to acquire the language, the ever-lasting produced for the very purpose of language developments in audiovisual technologies teaching. has proven to be very effective in providing There are varieties of authentic teaching the language learners with easy access to sources and materials available to EFL/ various audiovisual programs which can be ESL teachers to utilize different materials incorporated in various language learning for different needs for various teaching situations (Bahrani & Tam, 2012). In fact, situations in formal and in informal language various types of audiovisual mass media learning settings. While social interaction as programs brought by different technologies a source of authentic language input is not have the potential to provide the necessary available in EFL context, other sources of language input for language learning in authentic language input are available in both English as a Foreign Language (EFL) both EFL and ESL contexts. In this relation, context and English as a Second Language desktop technology such as computers and (ESL) context. These types of programs non-desktop technologies such as through are considered as sources of authentic the use of TV and radio can provide easy language input which have the potential to access to authentic audiovisual language indirectly involve the language learners in input for SLA development in both EFL and the language learning process. ESL contexts. The use of authentic language input The review of the literature on the through authentic materials in foreign/ integration of different audiovisual mass second language learning has a long history. media programs that provide authentic For example, Henry Sweet (1899, cited in language input for language learning Gilmore, 2007) is considered as one of the highlight the pedagogical value of such first linguists who utilized authentic texts materials. As Gebhard (1996), p. 183) because he was aware of their potential put forth, there are “many sources of advantages over contrived materials. authentic language materials from various Taylor (1994) defined authentic audiovisual sources such songs, cartoons, language material as any material in English news broadcasts, movies, and documentaries which has not been specifically produced for that language teachers and learners can use the purpose of language teaching. Gilmore for language learning purposes” (Gebhard (2007) considered authentic language 1996, p. 183). materials as the language conveying a In the same line, many studies have real message which is produced by a real highlighted the pedagogical values of
138 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 137 - 146 (2014) The Effect of Exposure to Cartoons on Language Proficiency employing various audiovisual mass CARTOONS IN LANGUAGE media programs such as news broadcasts, LEARNING movies, songs, and cartoons to provide The application of various authentic authentic language input for language programs such as news, movies, songs, and learning. Among them, news broadcasts cartoons from a wide range of audiovisual have been observed to boost listening technologies such as satellite or conventional comprehension and speaking proficiency TV to provide the necessary language as well as help language learners build input for SLA have attracted increased up their vocabulary over time (Bahrani interest among researchers since the 1970s. & Tam, 2011; Baker, 1996; Brinton and Although, the review of the related literature Gaskill, 1978; Poon, 1992). Movies, songs, indicates that most of the researches around and cartoons, for example, have also been the use of audiovisual news for SLA considered to be pedagogically valuable were anecdotal than experimental, a few authentic audiovisual language materials researchers such as Brinton and Gaskill for language learning because they reduce (1978), Baker (1996), and Poon (1992) the affective filter and increase motivation provided empirical evidence of the role of (Aida, 1994; Chapple & Crutis, 2000; Clark, exposure to news on improving listening 2000; Doring, 2002; Heffernan, 2005; skills. The results of these studies were Lowe, 1995; Ryan, 1998; Schoepp, 2001; based on the findings from pre-post tests Trapp, 1991). However, more particularly, which were administered to an experimental the studies that have considered cartoons and a control group of language learners as a source of authentic language input where the experimental group had exposure have focused on the psychological aspects to news whereas the control group did not. of employing such materials in language More recently, Bahrani and Tam (2011) also learning (which source). Indeed, the effect found out that exposure to news as a genre of exposure to cartoons on language learning specific listening material compared to has not been investigated empirically. miscellaneous listening materials reinforces In the view of the above, the present speaking proficiency more. research aims at shedding light on the Without providing empirical evidence, studies which highlight the use of different Ryan (1998), Chapple and Crutis (2000), audiovisual programs, particularly cartoons, Heffernan (2005) also considered movies as as authentic sources of language input for authentic and appropriate teaching materials SLA. More specifically, the present research which are intrinsically motivating for SLA. will provide empirical evidence on the Aida (1994), Lowe (1995), Schoppe (2001), effect of exposure to cartoons as a source and Trapp (1991) have also proposed songs of authentic language input on language in the foreign/second language classroom proficiency. to lower anxiety and increase motivation, provide physiological benefits, guide
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 137 - 146 (2014) 139 Taher Bahrani and Tam Shu Sim lesson planning and practical classroom, cause high degree of motivation. The high familiarize the language learners with motivation achieved through exposure to dialectal variations, and enhance cultural cartoons is claimed to improve the memory awareness and sensitivity. of the language learners when they try to The pedagogical value of cartoons make connection between the new materials as an authentic source of language input and the prior knowledge through analogy in has been the focus of few studies . In a comfortable atmosphere (Rule & Ague, an anecdotal study conducted by Clark 2005). Rule and Ague also claimed that (2000), it was underscored that cartoons students who use cartoons can improve can engage the attention of the learners and different language skills and achieve higher present information in a non-threatening test scores. However, they did not further atmosphere. Moreover, cartoons have the clarify which language skill(s) can be potential to push thinking processes and enhanced through exposure to cartoons. discussion skills (Clark, 2000). Another In short, the point to be highlighted is study was carried out by Doring (2002) the lack of empirical evidence to support focusing on the effect of exposure to the pedagogical values of cartoons for cartoons on language learning. Reflecting language development. In fact, the limited on his own experience of utilizing cartoons, number of studies on the use of cartoons in Doring (2002) underscored the point that language learning classes has highlighted cartoons can encourage thinking processes the pedagogical value of cartoons in an and discussion skills. Cartoons can also anecdotal manner. In other words, they engage the attention of the learners and have emphasized the psychological aspects present information in a non-threatening of utilizing cartoons in language learning atmosphere. To Doring (2002), the language without providing empirical evidence of the learners who had exposure to cartoons effect of the pedagogical values of cartoons. could produce oral answers that were very proactive and interesting in various RESEARCH QUESTIONS discussions held in the classes. In addition, The present study was set to answer the the discussions were linguistically rich and following research questions: the students had high confidence. It seems 1. To what extent does exposure to cartoons that the high confidence that the language as a source of authentic language input learners acquired is due to exposure to the improve intermediate language learners’ cartoons which create low affective filter language proficiency? atmosphere for learning. In the same line, Rule and Ague (2005) 2. To what extent does exposure to carried out a research on students’ preferences miscellaneous programs as a source to use cartoons in language learning. Similar of authentic language input improve to songs, cartoons are preferred because they intermediate language learners’ create low affective filter atmosphere which language proficiency?
140 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 137 - 146 (2014) The Effect of Exposure to Cartoons on Language Proficiency
METHODOLOGY was to verify that the two sample IELTS Participants tests were parallel. Parallel tests are two tests of the same ability that have the same The participants involved in this research statistical means and variances with the same comprised 40 intermediate language psychometric indices such item difficulty, learners, both males and femalesaged item discrimination, reliability, validity between 22 to 31 selected from the Islamic when administered to the same group with a Azad University in Iran, which is an EFL short interval. Although we may never have context. The 40 intermediate participants strictly parallel tests, we treat the two tests were selected from a population of 90 as parallel if the differences between their language learners majoring in TEFL on the means and variances are not statistically basis of the scores which they obtained from great (Bachman, 1990, p. 168). a sample language proficiency test. In view of that, both sample IELTS language proficiency tests were administered Instruments and materials to 10 trial language learners with an interval The first instrument was a sample IELTS of 2 days. Then, the means and the variances language proficiency test which was used of both tests were calculated separately. The as a pre-test. The second instrument which results of the statistical analysis of the both was used as a post-test was another sample tests are shown in the following table. language proficiency test from IELTS. Both According to the statistical analysis of sample IELTS language proficiency tests the data obtained from the administration of were verified to be parallel and reliable both tests, the mean score for the first test before the study was carried out. was 5.57 and the mean score of the second Regarding the materials that were used, test was 5.43. Furthermore, the variance of it should be noted that two kinds of different the first test was 0.51 and the variance for audiovisual materials in the form of CDs the second test was 0.54. This implies that were prepared and utilized. The first material the means and the variances of both tests was a collection of 10 hours of various were almost the same. Accordingly, both cartoons such as Shrek 1, 2, 3, Toys, and Ice tests were verified to be parallel. Age. The second material was a collection The second step was to verify the of 10 hours authentic programs rather than reliability of the two parallel IELTS language cartoons including various segments of proficiency tests. Utilizing the scores news, movies, documentaries and songs. obtained from the administration of both IELTS tests in the first step of instruments Procedure verification process, the researchers This research was conducted based on pre- employed parallel tests method to verify the test and post-test design. The first step to reliability of the two sample parallel IELTS take, before the participants were selected, tests. The results of the statistical analysis of
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 137 - 146 (2014) 141 Taher Bahrani and Tam Shu Sim the reliability coefficients of the two parallel During the experiment and for every tests are shown in the following table. session, group one was asked to watch and From the results of the statistical listen to a sample from the cartoon collection analysis, the correlation between the two which was selected by the instructor outside parallel tests was positive and significant. the classroom. Participants were required Moreover, the reliability coefficients of the to write a summary of whatever was heard. two tests were calculated as 0.73 and 0.80. Later, when the class met, the instructor After verifying both tests to be parallel played the selected part of the cartoon and reliable, one of them was administered again and the participants were required to to 90 language learners and 40 participants participate in a follow up discussion. The who scored 5 or 5.5 out of 9 were selected same was done with the second group with as intermediate language learners. The the miscellaneous programs. 40 language learners were then randomly After 6 weeks of exposure, all the assigned to group one and group two with participants took the second sample equal number of participants. language proficiency test from IELTS as a Throughout the experiment which post-test to find out whether there was any lasted for 6 weeks (4 hours a week) in change in their language proficiency. two separate conversation classes run by the same instructor, the experimental RESULTS AND DISCUSSION group was instructed with cartoons, while To provide answers to the research questions, the the control group was instructed with the data obtained from the administration of miscellaneous programs. pre-post tests to group one and group two
TABLE 1 Descriptive statistics related to the administration of the two tests to the same group
N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation Variance First Test 20 4.00 6.00 5.57 0.758 0.51 Second Test 20 4.00 6.50 5.43 0.745 0.54 Valid N 20
TABLE 2 Reliability Statistics related to the two parallel tests
Common Variance 0.46 True Variance 0.49 Error Variance 0.06 Common Inter-Item Correlation 0.83 Reliability of Test 1 (Cronbach’ s Alpha) 0.73 N=10 Reliability of Test 2 (Cronbach’s Alpha) 0.80 N=10
142 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 137 - 146 (2014) The Effect of Exposure to Cartoons on Language Proficiency were compared statistically by means of the scores of group two. The result of the paired samples t-tests. The following tables t-test that was performed shows that the show the statistical analysis of group one difference is significant (t=-3.764, df=19, and group two participants’ pre-post tests paired sample, one-tailed, p<0.01). scores. The reason behind the difference in the In relation to group one performance language proficiency development of both in the pre-post tests, it should be mentioned groups may be related to the quality of the that the mean score of the participants in language input embedded in the type of group one in the pre-test was 5.04 out of audiovisual mass media programs which 9. This mean score rose to 5.09 in the post- they had exposure to during the experiment. test which indicates the fact that a minor In relation to the first group of participants’ progress was made in their performance. insignificant improvement in language The t-test result obtained was not significant proficiency through exposure to cartoons, (t=-0.754, df=19, paired sample, one-tailed, the point can be mentioned that although ns.) which indicates that the improvement cartoons are considered to be pedagogically was not significant. valuable sources of authentic language In relation to the data obtained from the materials which have the potential to be pre-post tests for group two, the mean score utilized for language learning (Clark, 2000; in the pre-test was 5.03 out of 9 and in the Doring, 2002; Rule & Ague, 2005), the type post-test was 5.67 out of 9. This progress can of language input which is embedded in be interpreted as improvement. However, cartoons is largely modified or simplified in order to find out if this positive change to ease comprehension. However, while in the mean score can be interpreted as a comprehending modified or simplified significant improvement or not, a statistical language input of cartoons requires less analysis of t-test should be conducted for cognitive processing for intermediate
TABLE 3 Descriptive statistics related to group one pretest and posttest results
Groups N MEAN SD t-test Group one pretest 20 5.04 0.43 _0.754* Group one posttest 20 5.09 0.65 *T-observed= -0.754 T-critical=1.729 T-observed is smaller than t-critical
TABLE 4 Descriptive statistics related to group two pretest and posttest results
Groups N MEAN SD t-test Group two pretest 20 5.03 0.58 _3.764 Group two posttest 20 5.67 0.49 T-observed=-3.764 T-critical=1.729 T-observed is bigger than t-critical
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 137 - 146 (2014) 143 Taher Bahrani and Tam Shu Sim language learners because of the type of which required more input processing for data which is presented in a way to facilitate comprehension. Cartoons, on the other comprehension, it does not contribute a lot hand, include more modified input which to SLA. facilitates comprehension rather than According to the observations of causing language acquisition. As a matter the researchers from both groups, the of fact, comprehending other types of participants in the first group showed audiovisual programs rather than cartoons great interest in watching the selected may require much more input processing. cartoons and participated in the follow up However, these types of materials include discussions about the content. Moreover, unmodified input which can contribute they had fewer problems in comprehending much more to SLA than modified input. the language embedded in the dialogues of the cartoons. This could be due to the fact CONCLUSION that the language, and more particularly Various types of audiovisual programs the vocabulary items, which are used in such as cartoons, movies, songs, and cartoons are not specialized. Nevertheless, documentaries have proved to be effective the type of language input which the first in increasing the motivation of the language group participants had exposure to might learners. It is also believed that these types not have included much language data of programs are rich sources of authentic as opposed to the current level of the language input. However, some of these intermediate language learners to contribute materials may not include the necessary to language proficiency development. or enough language input to contribute to According to White (1987), when an aspect language proficiency development. of the language input is comprehensible, the In view of the above, the present acquisition of the missing structures would research showed that intermediate language not occur. In fact, the incomprehensibility of learners do not benefit a lot from exposure to some aspects of the given language input to cartoons. In contrast, they can benefit more the language learners draws their attention from exposure to non-cartoon materials. to specific features to be acquired. One of the reasons behind the insignificant In contrast, the participants in the second improvement of those intermediate group who had exposure to various types of participants who had merely exposure to audiovisual programs, could improve their cartoons may be related to the amount language proficiency to a significant level of language input which is embedded although they expressed some difficulties in cartoons. Cartoons include a type of in relation to comprehending the language language input which may not contribute input which was presented to them. Non- to intermediate level language learners’ cartoons materials such as news and movies language proficiency enhancement. include more unmodified language input
144 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 137 - 146 (2014) The Effect of Exposure to Cartoons on Language Proficiency
LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY REFERENCES This study examined the effect of exposure Aida Y. (1994). Examination of Horowitz, Horowitz, to cartoons as a source of authentic language & Cope’s construct of foreign language anxiety: The case of students in Japanese. Modern input compared with the exposure to Language Journal 78, 155-168. miscellaneous audiovisual programs rather than cartoons on language proficiency of Bachman, L. F. (1990). Fundamental considerations in language testing. Oxford University press, intermediate language learners. Empirical Oxford, London. evidence in the form of class observations in the two groups and student opinions on other Bahrani, T., & Tam, S. S. (2012). Informal Language Learning Setting: Technology or Social types of audiovisual programs could be the Interaction? The Turkish Online Journal of investigations for future studies. In addition, Educational Technology 11(2), 142-149. the non-cartoons programs grouped together Bahrani, T., & Tam, S. S. (2011). Technology and for this comparative study is movies, songs, language learning: Exposure to TV and radio news and documentaries. Other Studies news and speaking proficiency. Kritika Kultura which focus on other forms of non-cartoons 17, 144-160. programs may offer different results. The Baker N. (1996). Using the TV news in the EFL participants of the present research were classroom. Zielsprache 26(2), 30-33. intermediate language learners. Therefore, Brinton, D., & Gaskill, W. (1987). Using news the findings cannot be generalized to low or broadcasts in the ESL/EFL classroom. TESOL advance levels language learners. In fact, Quarterly 12(4), 403-413. the need to conduct the future studies with Chapple, L., & Curtis, A. (2000). Content-based low or advanced levels language learners instruction in Hong Kong: Students responses is warranted. Finally, another limitation to films.System 28, 419-433. of the study that should be highlighted is Clark, C. (2000). Innovative strategy: Concept related to the language input of the two cartoons. Instructional and learning strategies types of materials used. Although the 12, 34-45. instructor used the same methodology for Doring, A. (2002). The use of cartoons as a teaching both classes, first by watching the ‘input’, and learning strategy with adult learners. New summarizing and then participating in the Zealand Journal of adult learning, 30, 56-62. follow-up discussions, there was no control Ellis, R. (2008). The study of second language on the ‘input’ in terms of similarity of theme acquisition (second edition). Oxford: Oxford and level of difficulty. Accordingly, further University Press. studies can be conducted using various types Gebhard, J. G. (1996). Teaching English as a Foreign of audiovisual programs which include Language: A Teacher Self-Development and almost the same difficulty level of language Methodology Guide. Ann Arbor: The University input. of Michigan Press.
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Gilmore, A. (2007). Authentic materials and Ryan, S. (1998). Using films to develop learner authenticity in foreign language learning. motivation. The internet TESL journal, 13(11). Language Teaching, 40, 97-118. Retrieved on February 3, 2006 from http:// iTESLj.org/articles/Rayan-Film.html. Heffernan, N. (2005). Watching movie trailers in the ESL class. The internet TESL journal Schoepp, K. (2001). Reasons for using songs in EFL/ 9(3). Available at: http://iTESLj.org/Lessons/ ESL classrooms. The internet TESL Journal, Heffernan movie trailers.html. Retrieved 7(2). Retrieved on February 3, 2006 from http:// February 23, 2006. iTESLj.org/articles/Schoepp-Songs.html.
Lowe, A. S. (1998). L’enseignement de la musique Sweet, H. (1899). The practical study of languages. et de la langue seconde: pistes d’intégration London: Oxford University Press. et conséquences sur les apprentissages (The Taylor, D. (1994). Inauthentic authenticity or authentic teaching of music and second languages: Text inauthenticity? Teaching English as a Second or integration and consequences for learning). The Foreign Language, 1, 1-10. Canadian Modern Language Review 54(2), 219-238. Trapp, E. A. (1991). Break down inhibitions and build up understanding with music, music, music. Nunan, D. (1999). Second Language Teaching and Hispania, 74: 437-438. Learning. Boston: Heinle and Heinle Publishers. White, L. (1987). Against comprehensible input: Poon, A. (1992). Action research: A study on using TV The Input Hypothesis and the development of news to improve listening proficiency.Research L2 competence. Applied linguistics, 8, 95-110. Report, 14, 1-70.
Rule, A. C., & Auge, J. (2005). Using humorous cartoons to teach mineral and rock concepts in sixth grade science class. Journal of geosciences education 53(3), 548-558.
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SOCIAL SCIENCES & HUMANITIES
Journal homepage: http://www.pertanika.upm.edu.my/
Lifelong Learning: The Experiences of Malaysian School Teachers
Jin Kuan Kok Department of Psychology and Counselling, Faculty of Arts and Social Science, Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman, Jalan Universiti, Bandar Barat, 31900, Kampar, Perak, Malaysia
ABSTRACT Lifelong learning has been closely related to the development of human capital from an economic perspective. The focus of this research study is the social and cultural motivating and facilitating factors that might have contributed to the life long learning experience as perceived by the interviewees. Fifteen participants, who have worked as educators or who are currently teaching in various educational settings, which include primary, secondary and tertiary levels, took part in this study. The themes that emerged, from a phenomenological in-depth qualitative interview approach, were analyzed using the constant comparison method. The findings reveal that the process of life long learning experience encompasses various stages, namely dissatisfaction, reflection, decision making, overcoming obstacles, and on-going growth. Both system support from a wider context and micro family support were found to be essential. Various facilitative factors from the local culture were revealed. A model of lifelong learning for school teachers was identified.
Keywords: Lifelong learning, lifelong learning experience, lifelong learning model, school teachers, motivation
INTRODUCTION education as a vital means to increase its Higher tertiary education has been identified human capital, thus higher education has worldwide as an engine of economical been regarded as “catalysts for industry growth (Brown & Lauder, 2003). Malaysia, transformation” (PEMANDU, 2010). High aiming to become a developed and high amount of funds have been invested in income nation by the year of 2020, views education and it seems that a high return was obtained. The education sector has contributed close to RM27 billions or 4 ARTICLE INFO Article history: percent of it Gross National Income in 2009 Received: 3 January 2012 Accepted: 4 March 2013 (Economic Transformation Programme,
E-mail address: 2010). [email protected] (Jin Kuan Kok)
ISSN: 0128-7702 © Universiti Putra Malaysia Press Jin Kuan Kok
However, one of the main concerns in viewed in a broader context which includes the higher education sector in Malaysia is the interaction with society. As the purpose of mismatch between education and the skills education is to draw out “the treasure within” needed to meet the increasing demands of individuals and individuals are living within a forever changing environment (Kok & a community, the wider education such as its Tan 2011). Sulaiman and Burke (2009) philosophy, learning climate, practices and found that skills development is needed the environment within which the individual to address the issues of unemployment learner is located should be viewed as a among Malaysian graduates. Therefore whole. both formal and lifelong education are The dimension of “To Know” is needed in the development of human capital inseparable from the dimension of “To in order to keep skills relevant and the Do”, meaning, true knowledge will lead workforce competent. In order to facilitate to behavioural change that should enhance the continued acquisition of knowledge occupational skills in the workforce. and development of those skills in the Furthermore, the dimension of “To Do” world of work, the implementation of the which involves engaging in activities, concept of lifelong learning is essential, exhibiting behavioural change is bound to being beneficial for the development of have effect on the dimension of “To Be”, individuals as well as society (Field, 2005). the learner’s identity and the way he leads his life. This has been further described in Lifelong learning and human capital terms of the development of personality This concept of lifelong education was that would enable a person to act with initiated by UNESCO in 1965. Since then “greater autonomy, judgement and personal the development of adult education began responsibility” (Lee, Chia & Nik Hasnaa, to promote the extension of the education 2011). The emphasis on “To Live Together” process throughout life. It advocated reminds us that we live in a diverse society continuous learning (OECD, 1996), and and in order to live harmoniously with highlighted the importance of knowledge others who are different from us, we need and skills development throughout life to learn to know them and to understand (Europa, 2003). Jacques Delors, the their culture, tradition and values. Lifelong President of the European Commission learning has been used not only as a mean passionately promoted the “four pillars of to cope with the challenges of a rapidly lifelong education” in his introduction to changing workplace in this post modern “The necessary Utopia” (Delors, 1999). The world which include “uncertainty, risk and four pillars of lifelong education include insecurity” (Beck, 1992), but also as a way learning to know, learning to do, learning to teach individuals to live in appreciation to be and learning to live together. He was of others. This concept encourages learners of the opinion that education should be who engage in the lifelong learning process
148 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 147 - 163 (2014) Lifelong Learning: The Experiences of Malaysian School Teachers to develop a positive attitude to diversity of lifelong learning should not be limited and differences so that they respect the to economic gains, as it is found that values of pluralism, which is essential in this lifelong learning has many other benefits increasingly “globalized village”. such as transformative and empowering In summary, the above mentioned four effects on individuals (Bennetts, 2003), pillars of lifelong learning, the ultimate creation of wisdom, values, compassion goal of lifelong learning experience, are not and the construction of meanings (Ikeda, merely directed towards the betterment of 2001). Secondly, there are challenges and self but also in the relationship with others. obstacles to be overcome when learning is extended throughout life such as coping Lifelong learning in Malaysia with fragile learning identities (Gallacher et Malaysia has adopted human capital theory al., 2002). Furthermore, adult learners are as the dominant theory in lifelong learning. often faced with many challenges as they Developing human capital was one of the need to balance several social and family six main thrusts highlighted in the National responsibilities while engaged in learning. Education Blueprint 2006-2010, and the Human capital theory does not address human capital theory is closely related to issues such as motivating, or facilitating economic development (PEMANDU, 2010; factors in learning. Therefore this paper Tenth Malaysian Plan 2011-2015). A study focuses on those elements of the external by Ghebllawi and his associates (2011) have environment that serve as motivating factors confirmed that the development of lifelong that enable or facilitate learning. learning in Malaysia was largely initiated by the government and closely connected Motivating and facilitating factors in lifelong learning to employability and productivity. This is in line with the development in many countries Motivation in learning has progressed from (Aston & Sung, 2003; Coleman, 2003), using a behavioural approach to focusing where the promotion of lifelong learning on students’ needs (Brophy, 1983), and is aimed at developing human capital and also on the effect on learning (Nisan & thus promoting a healthy economy (Peter, Shalif, 2006). The former uses rewards and 2007). Hence, lifelong education is viewed punishments, whereas the latter focuses as an investment for imparting economically on intrinsic motivation. According to Deci useful knowledge and developing skills. and Ryan (1985, 2000), intrinsic motivation However, Peter (2007) reminds us that is largely based on the internalization of lifelong learning should not be limited to social expectation which arose from a its instrumental utility. Hence, this human social learning theory perspective (Bandura, capital theory may not sufficiently describe 1977). Intrinsic motivation describes self- the notion of lifelong learning experienced determined activities which seem to be by the lifelong learners. Firstly, the benefits innately a quality of a person which is
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 147 - 163 (2014) 149 Jin Kuan Kok similar to the construct of ‘locus of control’ The model proposed by Cross advances (Heider, 1960). our understanding of lifelong learning Maslow (1943) proposed a hierarchy as it takes into consideration the internal theory of needs to explain human choices processes involved, especially the effects of behaviours. His “needs hierarchy theory” of life events and transitions (Merriam & includes basic needs at the bottom and self- Caffarella, 1999; Ng, 2006). actualization at the top. According to this However, both need approaches such theory, taking up learning opportunities, be as that of Maslow’s and Cross’s models it formal or informal, could be understood have been criticized for being highly as a means to fulfill the need to cope with psychologically focused and for discounting challenges from the environment. In a the effects of the external environment. constantly changing society, people tend It was proposed that individuals could to seek education in order to upgrade their function in a lineal and unaffected manner knowledge and skills in order to cope regardless of the influences or impacts of with the challenges of work. All the above their context or environment. The critics mentioned motivation theories basically of those psychologically focused models have their foundation in the psychology nevertheless believe that because individuals of learners, and are relevant to lifelong live within a society, the interaction between learning, because research shows that environment and individuals is important. motivation is essential for learning (Gallo Subsequently, building on Cross’ model, & Ronaldo, 2011). Ng (2006) developed a complementary Cross (1981) proposed a chain-of- lifelong learning model which incorporates response (COR) model for lifelong learning. several sociological factors. While Cross She held that learning activities should be started with self-evaluation, Ng started with viewed as series or a chain of behaviours the triggering factors, hence contributing to or activities. The assumption of her model our understanding of the lifelong learning was that participants have an inner logic concept by adding on the antecedent guiding them to various kinds of learning sociological factors. Cross also suggested activities, “whether in organized classes that self-evaluation is the triggering or self-directed, is not a single act but the motivation of lifelong learning, while Ng result of a chain of responses, each based on argued that it is external sociological factors evaluation of the position of the individual that trigger contemplation of learning. In in his or her environment” (Cross, 1981, short, Ng stresses that, since individuals pp. 125). She holds that a seven-stage live within a community, the context of the process of adult learning is initiated from environment in which the individuals are within and it involves the learner’s own located is important. self-evaluation, attitude, motivation, life While there are many other models transitions, opportunities and barriers, in lifelong learning, this paper focuses on information and decision making. the interaction between individuals and
150 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 147 - 163 (2014) Lifelong Learning: The Experiences of Malaysian School Teachers the environmental motivators for learning, in recruiting fifteen research participants therefore Cross’s and Ng’s model will (seven males and eight females) who had be preferred. This approach emphasizes engaged in lifelong learning experiences. the importance of environment and is The participants were recruited through supported by Vygotsky (1987). However, snowball sampling and their ages ranged he also pointed out the need for learners to from 45to 65 years. All but two of the take responsibility for their own learning. participants were interviewed two times, While acknowledging the effect from the half an hour to two hours per participant. environment, individuals play an active role Since both researchers were over 50 years in learning to make it meaningful. It is not old, perhaps the participants felt quite the issue of whether the triggering event or comfortable interacting and mingling with the contemplating mind is more important, the researchers as they both might be viewed rather it is the interaction between the two. as part of the group members who pursuing Therefore, the intrinsic motivation can be lifelong learning. Consequently, it was triggered or enhanced through a positive very easy and natural for them to engage response from the environment (Law et al., in processes of disclosing their past, and 2009). talking about their present and the plan for the future. They were encouraged to explore OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY their inner thinking and feeling through their Drawing on the synthesis of Cross’s and Ng’s sharing of their struggles or difficulties as work, this research seeks to understand and they traveled in their learning journey. The discover the following from the participants: commonality of all of the participants was that they either have worked as educators 1. The facilitating factors, both the or are still working at various educational external environmental and the micro institutions at the time of interview. Two perspectives, which might have of the participants are retirees. One of contributed to their lifelong learning the retirees is currently doing his Masters experiences. course while the other one had worked as 2. The participants’ common lifelong a technician with a government agency learning experiences. and is now a foundation student. The next twelve participants are currently teaching METHODOLOGY in schools with six of them at elementary This is a qualitative phenomenological level and the other six at secondary level. inquiry-oriented research study which The last two participants, on the other hand, focuses on in-depth narrative interviews to are university lecturers, though they were draw out the participants’ stories (Seidman, secondary school teachers before. 2006). Two researchers were involved in the Semi structured questionnaire was used data collection and data analysis processes. during the interview with the participants. The purposive sampling method was used The participants’ stories were recorded,
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 147 - 163 (2014) 151 Jin Kuan Kok transcribed and further analyzed for common RESEARCH FINDINGS themes. The themes which emerged from Motivating factors and various stages this phenomenological qualitative interview involved in the process of lifelong learning approach were analyzed using the method were uncovered. suggested by Creswell (1998). Common (A) Motivating factors themes from the verbatim responses were Two overarching motivating factors (refer analyzed and constant comparison method to diagram 1) were discovered in this study. was done in order to focus on the deep One was the external support from the and lived experiences provided by the government (Ministry of Education) and the participants. other was the micro and socio-contexts that All the participants had given their have contributed to the participants’ lifelong consent for the interviews to be recorded as learning endeavors. From the participants’ they were assured that their personal identity narrative accounts of their learning journeys, would be kept anonymous. In their sharing it is apparent that lifelong learning would about their past experiences, they discovered not be possible without the macro supports how their decisions to participate in this from the system such as the NKRA scheme learning journey have made impact in their and the support of their family members, lives and the lives of their significant others. colleagues and friends. This narrative approach of storytelling Many participants mentioned the NKRA from a retrospective perspective is thus scheme, one of the strategic initiatives capable of producing social knowledge of implemented in line with the 10th Malaysia qualitative aspects such as the meaning Plan to upgrade all primary and secondary making process and of revealing patterns teachers to degree level. Consequently, there for the phenomenon under studies, thus was a massive recruitment of teachers’ into “explains what is going on in this world” various degree programs starting in 2011. (Glaser & Strauss, 1967) Data analysis followed rigorous “Most teachers are very happy constant comparison techniques developed to sign up as long as it is fully by Strauss and Corbin (1998). Excerpts were supported by the government, quoted using the original spoken English so I also signed up. There is an of the participants without “tidying up ” to atmosphere of learning and we will retain the voice of the participants. car pool to attend course together” (Female primary school science teacher, 18 years teaching experience from Skudai, Johor).
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Other participants said: typically was a deep sense of dissatisfaction and unhappiness at some point of time in “My parents help me to take care of participants’ lives. It was followed by some young children during the weekends evaluation as participants reflected on their when I need to travel to another city life experiences whereby: to study.” (1) they compared their life with other (Female, primary school teacher, people around them; (2) they felt bored with of 7 years teaching experience, their work doing the same teaching chores, from Ipoh) thus feeling a burning need for a change; (3) they were challenged by the rising demands of their jobs in term of new skills “When I am not around, my and competencies; (4) they were motivated husband helped me to oversee and to pursue a long hidden dream as they had supervise children doing homework, felt that they had completed their family especially for my secondary school responsibilities or had reached a turning son. Without my husband’s help, I point in life such as retirement. will be torn apart.” A few participants disclosed that they (Female, primary school teacher, had compared their salaries with recent of 7 years teaching experience, graduates who had just started teaching from Ipoh) but are earning a higher salary. To date, the salary scale for non-degree holder teachers (B) Process oriented with various stages is DG29 to DG32, but a degree holder is on The findings show that the lifelong learning scale DG41, which is a big jump in terms of as experienced by these participants was starting salary. Thus, their main motivation process oriented with various stages, was to earn a better salary. namely: dissatisfaction, reflection, decision Turner (2002) summarized the making, overcoming obstacles, and on- experience of employees in the United going growth. The enabling and facilitating Kingdom who had taken responsibility for factors that prompted and supported their their own learning and development in the lifelong learning were revealed. A learning phrase, “Lifelong learning equals to lifelong model was derived from these participants. earning” which describes the job market reality that education is a way to social Stage One: Reflection and Evaluation mobility and an increase in one’s status and The narratives of the participants revealed prosperity (Brown & Lauder, 2003). that their lifelong learning experiences Besides salary comparison with their started with life reflection or life evaluation. colleagues, the demands of changes in The event that triggered off changes workplace also played a role in their decision
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 147 - 163 (2014) 153 Jin Kuan Kok to continue their study. The following are better access to relevant information, good some of their statements: support network from family and friends, and attractive government incentives, and “We have to update ourselves with support system. abundant of knowledge, the world The financial support scheme from is changing.” an eco-systemic environment, such as the “I remember I felt really bored of NKRA scheme from the educational system day in and day out repeating the mentioned earlier, is essential to motivate same teaching course. I was 38 lifelong learning. years old then. I felt like I won’t be This participant grasped the opportunity able to bear such boring routine available and made the decision to sign up schedule if I were to continue a degree course: teaching for 20 more years. I was looking for a change, something “I signed up when I was 48 year old more challenging” because I have to wait till all of my three children were in the secondary (Female, primary school Home schools. Then the following year, Science teacher, 24 years of new regulation for application of teaching experience, from Kulim, biasiswa (scholarship) had changed Kedah). and was only available for those teaching staff under the age of 46. One participant signed up for a Masters I was very lucky. But my colleagues course after his retirement. commented that I won’t be benefited much after my graduation as I was “When I finally retired, I asked quite aged then. The whole degree myself, what is next?” course cost fifteen thousands, but (Male, 58, secondary school with sponsorship, I only paid $120 teacher, retired after 32 years of per term and $360 per year. I would teaching, from Ipoh, Perak). regret it very much if I never did it. It was like making up for the loss Stage Two: Opportunity and Decision and pursuing my dream.” Making (Female, 53, primary school teacher The decision making process for engaging in with 33 years teaching experience, lifelong learning shows that the participants from Kampar, Perak). were motivated after a critical life review and they took action, responding positively The biasiswa mentioned above is a to the opportunities available to them. government scholarship provided to enable Some of the important factors influencing teachers to upgrade themselves in the their decision to return to education were
154 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 147 - 163 (2014) Lifelong Learning: The Experiences of Malaysian School Teachers teaching profession. Due to the increase in on time, arrange for home-stay, and plan salary scale from DG32 to DG 41, many for the traveling time. Each course lasted of the participants were motivated by the for 10 weekends. She had classes from 8am monetary benefit. This particular participant to 10pm on Saturday, and 8am to 12pm on had waited until three of her sons entered Sunday. It took perseverance as she usually secondary schools before taking up this had to stay up late to do her research and opportunity. With hindsight, she commented writing. she was lucky as it was the last time that 48 “But, it really is worth all the year old applicants were accepted, as the efforts. When I compare myself with policy changed in the subsequent year to other colleagues who have young limit the applicant’s age to 46. Therefore children, who need to struggle to responding quickly to the opportunity balance between family, career available was important. and studies, I consider myself fortunate.” Stage Three: Supports and Overcoming Obstacles (Female, 40, primary school science After the decision making stage, the teacher, 18 years of teaching participants’ journey towards the completion experience, from Skudai, Johor). of a four year degree course was not easy as all but one of the applicants were still This realization occurred during her holding full time teaching positions. Their conversations with other colleagues. This challenges included having to balance participant considered herself to be lucky their many responsibilities to families, because she found out that some of her children, and work. Occasionally, they female colleagues with young children had questioned their own rationale for signing a much harder struggle to manage their time. up for the courses. There were also times It was found that women in this study when some felt like giving up. However, have to overcome more obstacles to learning the encouragement and support they than did the male participants. Traditionally received helped them to persevere until the women deal with multiple roles and family completion of their studies. tasks and therefore face more obstacles to One participant faced a two hour drive learning. once a fortnight to another university (UTHM in Batu Pahat) which is more “A group of supporting course- than 150 miles from her hometown in mates helps a lot. I need not drive Johor Bahru. She felt that she had learnt to since my other colleague is driving, organize her time more effectively so that so a group of us car-pool when she could prepare lessons for her full-time travelling from Ipoh to Penang on teaching job, finish the course assignments alternate weekends”.
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Besides overcoming the travel Negative comments from loved ones difficulties and sharing domestic tasks, made participants think hard. Those elderly participants struggled with learning moments of reflection and critical soul to utilize and be familiar with the modern searching enhanced the decision to study. information communication technology “My wife once told me ‘Stop doing (ICT). all those study and examination. It “As I am in my age of 60, so it was is our children turn now and our tough for me to use the modern time is over’. When I finished my information communication MA, she said, ‘So what?’ Those technology (ICT). But the young negative comments motivated me a people in my class helped me a lot.” lot. I wanted to show and let people know, I can do it.” “It was the younger classmates who (Male, 65, Assistant Professor, did the assignment very fast using retired from government sector, computer, but I was really slow.” administrative position in a private university, from Perak). Information technology has transformed the way we learn and communicate with Another participant had gone through a others. Elderly people may need help in process of self doubt. She asked herself some adapting to these changes. soul searching questions, and eventually she realised that it was her need for self- Soul searching question: “Why am I doing improvement that sustained her through the this?” difficult process. This is a very difficult question which kept confronting the participants. When facing “It was a great challenge for me. with unceasing demands and challenges, the Alternate weekends, I had to attend participants kept questioning their motives my tutorial classes which were for their commitment to lifelong learning. from 9am to 5pm. There were assignments and examinations. It “I felt guilty sometimes, as I was not was very stressful. At times I felt like there for my children, to supervise giving up, and I kept asking myself them for their school work”. why do I commit myself to such a (Female, 50, primary school task I am no longer young?” Home Science teacher, 24 years of (Female, 50, Secondary school teaching experience). teacher, 27 years of teaching experience, Ipoh, Perak).
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Postponement and temporary exit “I waited till my children have gone Two of the female participants waited for to the university. And 3 years ago I their children to enter secondary school decided to uproot my family from before signing up for a degree course. But Alor Star to Kampar to pursue my by that time they are already in their mid and dreams for a university education.” late forties. A male participant postponed (Male, 65, Foundation student at his studies due to work commitments which UTAR, 32 years working experience required him to travel extensively. as technician in Drainage and Irrigation Department of Ministry “I have to postpone the idea of of Public Services). study. After my full retirement I have more time and financially stable I felt that it is time for me to pursue One of the participants who was 65 and my dream for tertiary education.” currently a lecturer in a private university, said he was like “a little boy who always (Male, 65, Consultant in Malayan enjoys study” so his dream never ceased Employer Association, from Kuala and eventually he got his PhD degree when Lumpur). he was 64.
More female than male participants Role model postponed their studies because of family There were a few participants who felt that responsibilities, especially taking care they were encouraged by some role models of young children. Postponement among around them and after taking up the learning male participants was mainly due to the process, they themselves hoped to be role heavy work load of their jobs and their models for others. responsibility for family finances. However, they finally got to return to studies. They “I remember there was one described the return to studies as pursuing assignment, my other classmates a “dream”. took only an hour to complete while I sat there for 5 hours. It was a new “And now I have more time and subject for me, I really put my focus financially stable I felt that it is down on that subject, I told myself time for me to pursue my dream for if they could do it, I also can do it. tertiary education.” Since I was a matured students, I (Male, 65, Consultant in Malayan didn’t want just get a pass, I wanted Employer Association, from Kuala to be a role model for my own Lumpur). children.” (Primary school teacher, 26 years of teaching experience).
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She herself was inspired by a sixty-year different people; more confident, daring to old former headmaster whom she met in the take risks and able to perform better at work, university. He looked quite elderly with grey more competent, and able to face other hair and he hoped to pursue a PhD after a challenges in their lives. degree course. All of his children graduated “Previously I wanted to stay in from university and he was a “free man” in my comfort zone, but now I have his golden age. With a lot of time, he was grown a lot and more confident to pursuing a high degree. After speaking with take on new courses. I feel that I am him, she concluded, “We should not put a more equipped and feel very much full-stop to learning.” refreshed to teach the students.” Another mother shared: (Female, 50, primary school “I felt that I am so fortunate to Home Science teacher, 24 years of do assignments together with my teaching experience). teenage son. Every night he studies for his examination and I also busy This lifelong learning journey was found with my home work. He cannot to be transformative and rewarding (Kok & complain because I am also doing Low, 2011). While not meant for drawing the same.” generalizations, the following diagram of (She has 20 years teaching the learning model serves to describe the experience and she is teaching in overall lifelong learning experience of the a secondary school in Perak state). participants which encompassed various stages as a result of interaction with the Stage Four: On-going Growth environment: The diagram (Fig.1) presents a When asked in what ways they have visual summary of the findings. benefited from this learning process, the participants said that they had gained DISCUSSION new knowledge and learnt new teaching strategies that could be applied in the work Environmental motivating factors in lifelong place. Most mentioned they were happy learning, both the macro and micro will because the last pay drawn before their be discussed in this section. Interpersonal retirement would affect the amount of the relationships were found to be a motivational pension they could look forward to. Most factor in the complex process of lifelong importantly, they were proud to have the learning. recognition of having completed a degree course. It showed that they had done Environmental motivating factors something significant in their lives. Besides, The facilitating factors found in this study they also shared that they had become very confirm previous research findings on the
158 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 147 - 163 (2014) Lifelong Learning: The Experiences of Malaysian School Teachers
On-going Growth
Family
/other System Soul Searching, support s& support Support & Role & Overcome obstacles Models Informa tion Decision Making & Engaging in Lifelong learning Postponement & Temporary Exits
Reflection & Evaluation Comparison, Being challenged,
Life Events & Hidden Dreams
Fig.1: Lifelong learning model derived from school teachers importance role of motivation from the a motivational construct that is driven environment (Pan, 1977; Law et al., 2009) from within and seen as a preferred way which has its theoretical framework from of learning compared to the latter which is Bronfenbrenner (1979) where family, and seen as being driven by external rewards. community play a role in learning. The The findings of this study reject the above similar pattern in the learning process also simplistic dichotomy classification, as it highlighted the relational aspect in learning. was evidently found that there was complex Just as Cross (1981) conceptualized lifelong interactions between individuals and the learning as a chain of activities instead of environment. It was found that most of a single isolate event, the findings of this the participants rose to the occasion when research found that lifelong learning should challenged by external environmental be conceptualized from a large community. factors. Both the presence of challenges and What actually constitutes lifelong learning supports were found. Challenges include is a complex process and should not be the demands from work and coping with viewed from personal and individualized the forever changing environment. The perspectives. environmental supports include the macro Traditionally, motivation theories (NKRA scheme initialed by Malaysian were constructed on a two dichotomy government) and micro aspects (practical extreme, which is either intrinsic or help from the immediate family and friends). extrinsic classification. The former depicts On one hand reflecting upon and making the
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 147 - 163 (2014) 159 Jin Kuan Kok decision to engage in lifelong learning is in the experience of lifelong learning as intrinsic, on the other hand, learning may revealed by the participants. Firstly it was not be possible without the environmental due to comparisons with colleagues that the supports from both the macro and micro participants felt frustrated and dissatisfied; system These supports facilitate and sustain the postponement of learning was caused learning, help the learners to overcome by social and family responsibilities; the obstacles to learning. Therefore, it would facilitating factors that enable and sustain not be correct to attribute the learning solely learning also came from the family and to external rewards even in the cases that learning communities, from colleagues and participants were motivated by a rise in friends; role models were also available from salary as there was a complex interaction the context within which the individuals between individuals and environment interacted. Lastly, the self-identity of the which involved meaning making process learners was transformed (Gallacher et al., (Connelly & Clandinin, 2006; Ikeda, 2001). 2002). Gallo and Ronaldo (2011) acknowledged Interpersonal relationships: a complex of the limitation of intrinsic motivation theories interactive processes in learning and hold that the extrinsic motivators in Lifelong learning is viewed as a contested learning are important. Hazidi and Hamid concept, compounded by multi-dimensional (2011) who conducted research on the aspects; neither simple dichotomy motives of in-service teachers pursuing a classifications nor theories of linear bachelor degree on teaching programs also construction can sufficiently explain its found that the study’s participants had given complex learning process. Bandura (1977) similar answers such as “being left behind” has rightly located the complex learning “feel pressured” “was forced to get ready”. process in a social context, whereas many Those answers were the consequence of their psychological motivational construct that response to changes in their environment. derived from Maslow’s approach (1943), Ng’s research findings (2006) have showed such as locus of control and intrinsic that interaction triggered life reflection, motivation theory approach (Heider, 1960) which subsequently facilitate the decision will be individualised focused. Coffield to engage in lifelong learning. Socio- (2000) criticized a pure psychological cultural and contextual factors indeed play motivational construct as being a lack of important roles in motivating and supporting interpersonal relationships. When examining lifelong learning (Law et al., 2009). Those closely the common lifelong learning emotions were the result of complex patterns of the participants presented in this interaction processes with the people in the study, the relational aspect was found to be environment. The role of emotions arising heavily loaded with emotions. There was a from the interpersonal relationship that strong sense of human bonds and support promote and sustain lifelong learning cannot be undermined.
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LIMITATION OF THE STUDY micro supports are needed to facilitate and This research has some limitations. First, it sustain lifelong learning. Motivation for is not meant as a generalization, the model lifelong learning would include the aspect presented reflects only the common pattern of complex interpersonal interactions. of learning experiences of a handful of high status professional people who engaged in ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS formal education. There are many people The author is grateful for all the research outside the government sector or educational participants who shared their learning system who are not qualified to apply for experience, and Ms Low Sew Kim who has sponsorship for formal education. They helped in the data collection process. may want very much to fulfill their long felt education needs and ambitions, but REFERENCES do not have the money to fund learning. Ashton, D. N., & Sung, J. Education, skill formation, Their learning experience may be different. and economic development: The Singaporean Second, the factors gathered in the research approach. In A. H. Halsey, H. Lauder, P. Brown, may be situational; dependent on the context & A. S. Wells (Eds.) (2003). Education: Culture, economy, society. Oxford: Oxford University of the research. It revealed values from the Press. support system of Malaysia, a collectivist context where family support normally is Brown, P., & Lauder, H. Education, globalization, and economic development. In A. H. Halsey, H. valued. Lauder, P. Brown, & A. S. Wells (Eds.) (2003) Field (2000) has highlighted the Education: Culture, economy, society. Oxford: phenomenon that few opportunities were Oxford University Press. presented for unskilled workers and this Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying may create new inequalities. It is hoped theory of behavioral change. Psychological that similar learning opportunities can be Review, 84(2), Mar 1977, 191-215. doi: expanded to people from a wider range of 10.1037/0033 social backgrounds to develop a learning Beck, U. (1992). Towards a new modernity. Sage community and society (Gorard & Rees, Publication. 2002). Bennetts, C. (2003). The impact of transformational learning on individuals, families and CONCLUSION communities. International Journal of Lifelong The findings of this research highlighted Education, 22(5), 457-580. the motivational aspects of lifelong learning Bronfenbrenner, U. (1997). Toward an experimental which were absent from an economic or ecology of human development. American human capital approach. It also highlights Psyhologist, 32, 513 – 531 the importance motivational factors from Brophy, J. (1983). Conceptualizing student motivation. the environment. Both the macro and Educational Psychologist, 18, 200–215.
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SOCIAL SCIENCES & HUMANITIES
Journal homepage: http://www.pertanika.upm.edu.my/
Willingness-To-Pay for Monorail Services: Case Study in Penang, Malaysia
Lee, L. Y.1 and Cheah, Y. K.2* 1School of Social Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Minden, Penang, Malaysia 2School of Economics, Finance and Banking, College of Business, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah Darul Aman, Malaysia
ABSTRACT The main objective of this study is to examine the determinants of consumers’ willingness- to-pay for monorail transportation in Penang (Malaysia). Cross sectional primary survey data with a total of 498 respondents is used for the analysis via a censored regression model. The results demonstrate that habit of recycling, experience in using urban rail-based transportation and problems of insufficient cark parks have the significant effects on the willingness-to-pay for a trip of monorail to travel to work. Whereas, age, gender, ethnicity, income, education and personal perspective on public transportation system are found to have no significant impact on the willingness-to-pay for a trip of monorail to travel to work. Based on these findings, several policies are recommended.
Keywords: Congestion, monorail, transportation, willingness-to-pay, Malaysia JEL classification code: D10, D12
INTRODUCTION said situation. First, the existence of great In this age of industrialisation society, job opportunities in Penang where the the problems of heavy traffic congestion free trade zone in Bayan Lepas posed as in Penang, which is one of the developed a centre to cluster all the labour-intensive 1 states in Malaysia, is getting more serious. manufacturing industries (Yeoh, 2011) . Two primary reasons exist attribute to the Second, Penang ranks as the eighth most liveable cities in Asia, which has a very good standard of living (Tan, 2010). For these ARTICLE INFO Article history: reasons, many people migrate to Penang. Received: 11 January 2012 As a result of an increasing population in Accepted: 1 August 2012
E-mail addresses: 1 [email protected] (Lee, L. Y.), Bayan Lepas is Penang’s main factory area [email protected] (Cheah, Y. K.) where consists of nearly 200 multinational * Corresponding author companies (MNC).
ISSN: 0128-7702 © Universiti Putra Malaysia Press Lee, L. Y. and Cheah, Y. K.
Penang, the demand for private vehicles However, a fundamental question yet to in Penang increases in tandem which be answered is whether there exist the eventually results in the rise of and problem significant benefits received by the residents of serious traffic congestion, especially in using this alternative transportation mode during office rush hours. in the debate of how much an individual is Report shows that there are willing to pay for the monorail system as approximately 2.21 million registered an alternative public transportation to avoid vehicles in Penang in 2010 with a large congested roadways. The main research proportion of them are private owned question that arises include what factors vehicles (The Star, 2011). Despite of its will affect individual’s willingness-to-pay small land capacity, Penang has the third (WTP) for the monorail as an alternative most number of newly registered vehicles public transportation to work daily. A in Malaysia where a total of 110882 new better understanding of these determinants vehicles are registered (The Star, 2011). is important for the public policymakers in Besides, it is noteworthy that there is promoting usage of the monorail system, currently a lack of public transportation in solving the traffic congestion problem in Penang due to a huge increase in travel as well as for future planning purposes. demand. Worst of all, it is estimated Considering this research gap, present that the travel demand will increase by study attempts to contribute to the existing approximately 25% – 50% by 2030 (Kaur, literatures and society by investigating 2012). Kaur (2012) also highlighted that the determinants of WTP for the monorail if the authorities can improve the public system in Penang. transportation system in Penang, the third link between the island and mainland would THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK not be necessary. In view of these serious In present study, the SLOTH model, which traffic woes in Penang, monorail (i.e. urban originally introduced by Cawley (2004), rail-based transportation) is proposed by the is used as a proxy to explain individuals’ government as the solution to these matters. behaviour in using public transport. SLOTH However, the project has been rejected is a model to describe how individuals indefinitely after being reviewed. Hence, allocate their time on various activities in not much significant traffic improvements order to maximise their utility. Specifically, have been made thus far. the SLOTH model is written as: Given the fact that Penang residents are often burdened with having to put up with U (S, L, O, T, H) (1) serious daily traffic congestion problem daily, the monorail system appears to where, U = utility; S = time spent in pose as the most viable alternative public sleeping; L = time spent in leisure activities; transportation to overcome this problem. O = time spent in occupation; T = time
166 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 165 - 179 (2014) Willingness-To-Pay for Monorail Services: Case Study in Penang, Malaysia spent in transportation; and H = time spent Assuming that individuals are not allowed in home activities. All of these activities to borrow money, the money that individuals possess direct impacts on individuals’ utility spend on transportation goods and other but the impacts may vary across individuals. non-transportation goods must equal to their According to Cawley (2004), SLOTH earning. As such, the budget constraint is model also refers to the time constraint that expressed as: individuals face when maximising their utility. Since there is only 24 hours per day, Y.P Y + X.PX = W.O (3) the sum of the time spent in SLOTH must equal to 24. As such, the time constraint that where, Y = amount of non-transportation based on SLOTH model is written as: goods purchased; PY = price of non- transportation goods; X = amount of
S + L + O + T + H = 24 (2) transportation goods purchased; PX = price of transportation goods; W = hourly wage; As argued by Cawley (2004), if given and O = time spent in occupation. the choice, individuals would rationally Similarly, if given the choice, individuals choose to allocate their time in the activity would rationally choose to spend their that could yield larger marginal net utility. money on the goods that could yield larger For example, if the marginal net utility marginal net utility. For instance, if the of spending time in public transport is marginal net utility of spending money on smaller than private owned vehicle, rational private owned vehicle is larger than public individuals will choose to use more private transport, rational individuals will choose to owned vehicle than public transport. use more private owned vehicle than public However, by holding the marginal net transport. However, by holding the marginal utility of spending time in private owned net utility of spending money on private vehicle constant, if the marginal net utility owned vehicle constant, if the marginal of spending time in public transport rises net utility of spending money on public dramatically due to an improvement in transport rises due to a reduction in its usage public transport system, individuals would price, individuals would tend to reallocate tend to reallocate their time and choose to their money and choose to use more public spend more time in public transport than transport than private owned vehicle. It is, private owned vehicle. therefore, one can conclude that rational Moreover, Cawley (2004) also people would choose to forgo the type of emphasised that individuals maximise their transportation that they value less for the utility depend on their budget constraint. type of transportation that they value more. Given the limited resources, individuals need to choose to purchase between transportation goods and other non-transportation goods.
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 165 - 179 (2014) 167 Lee, L. Y. and Cheah, Y. K.
LITERATURE REVIEW & Maitra, 2007; Asensio & Matas, 2008; Since the early development of literatures, Takada & Fujiu, 2010). WTP has been used as a tool to measure the Study by Brownstone et al. (2003), who values and the benefits of non-market goods investigated the determinants of WTP for a and services given that it can accurately reduction in travel time in San Diego, found reflect the consumers’ preferences. To our that women, middle age cohorts and those knowledge, WTP is initially used by the with higher income and higher education environmental economists to value the level are willing to pay more for faster goods that are non-traded and without transportation. Using toll fees as a proxy to property rights such as air, water, forests and measure individuals’ WTP to avoid traffic wildlife populations (Tietenberg & Lewis, congestion, Calfee and Winston (1998) 2008). To date, researchers from various observed that income is not significantly disciplines have used it for policy planning correlated with the value of travel time. purposes. For instance, Johnson et al. Senbil and Kitamura (2004), who (2000), Wagner et al. (2000) and Milligan explored the factors affecting WTP for et al. (2010) used it to determine the values expressways, suggested that females of health care, Steelman and Powell (1991) generally value the highway more than and Gertler and Glewwe (1992) used it to males. Markose et al. (2007) exhibited that value education system, Davis and Tisdell higher income earners are willing to pay (1999) and Kim et al. (2007) applied it as more to save their travelling time because a tool to value the place of interest where of their greater opportunity cost, whereas, tourists visit, Surendran and Sekar (2010) lower income earners are less responsive use it to study the forest eco-system, and to the increasing cost of congestion. Brent Zarkin et al. (2000) and Cohen et al. (2004) (2006) and Carson (2000) indicated that used it to evaluate the drug abuse treatment individuals who are more aware of the and crime control programmes. environmental issues are more likely to use On top of that, WTP has also been used public transport. to measure the value of transportation related Based on the case of Barcelona, Asensio goods such as air and traffic noise pollution and Matas (2008) found that males and (Feitelson et al., 1996; Saelensminde, 1999; those individuals with more children value Bjoner, 2004; Fosgerau & Bjorner, 2006), their travel time more by using a more improvement in transportation (Khattak et expensive but shorter alternative route. The al., 2003; Molin & Timmermanns, 2006; study also revealed that older commuters Eboli & Mazzulla, 2008), improvement are willing to pay more money to save their in road surface (Walton et al., 2004) and travel time. Phanikumar and Maitra (2007) reduction in travel time (Calfee & Winston, examined the WTP for rural bus services and 1998; Brownstone et al., 2003; Phanikumar observed that socioeconomic factors such
168 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 165 - 179 (2014) Willingness-To-Pay for Monorail Services: Case Study in Penang, Malaysia as age, gender and income do not possess habit of using recyclable bags, experience any significant impacts on the WTP for a in using urban rail-based transportation reduction in travel time. (e.g. monorail, MRT, LRT, Komuter), personal perspective on Malaysia public METHODS transportation system and problems of Variables insufficient cark parks (Table 1). Age of respondents is included in Owing to the current lack of study on the present study as a continuous variable, and WTP for public transport in Malaysia, the it is hypothesised to have positive effect on explanatory variables for present study the WTP for monorail. Respondents’ gender are selected closely based on the previous is included as one of the dummy variable in studies that have been conducted elsewhere present study, where males are represented (e.g. Calfee & Winston, 1998; Brownstone by a value of 1 and females are represented et al., 2003; Phanikumar & Maitra, 2007; by 0. Based on the findings of past studies, Asensio & Matas, 2008; Takada & Fujiu, females are expected to have higher WTP 2010). To sum up, the explanatory variables for monorail than males. of present study consist of age, gender, Provided the homogeneous nature of the ethnicity, marital status, income, education, population in most of the countries, previous
TABLE 1 Definition of variables in the statistical model
Variables Definitions Dependent variable monorail Willingness-to-pay for a trip of monorail to travel to work (RM) Explanatory variables Age Respondent's age in years Male Respondent is male Malay* Respondent is Malay Chinese Respondent is Chinese Indian Respondent is Indian/others Single Respondent is single Low Respondent's income is < RM 1000 Lower-mid Respondent’s income is RM 1000 – RM 2999 Upper-mid Respondent’s income is RM 3000 – RM 5999 High* Respondent’s income is > RM 5999 Tertiary Respondent has tertiary education Recycle Respondent prefers to use recyclable bag than plastic bag Experience Respondent has the experience in using urban rail-based transportation Efficient Respondent thinks that the Malaysia public transportation system is efficient Park Respondent faces the insufficient cark park problems Note: *Refers to the reference groups.
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 165 - 179 (2014) 169 Lee, L. Y. and Cheah, Y. K. studies often do not take into account of RM 2999), upper-middle (RM 3000 – RM ethnic variables. However, since Malaysia 5999) and high (> RM 5999). Based on is well known for its uniqueness of multi- the previous findings, it is hypothesised ethnic composition, respondent’s ethnic that higher income individuals would have background is taken into consideration in higher WTP for monorail than the lower present study as three major groups (i.e. income individuals. Malay, Chinese and Indian/others) to allow Present study uses a dummy variable to ethnic comparison. This is in light of the indicate respondent education background possible impacts of cultures, religions, as 1 refers to the respondents who have at racial-political and ethnic privileges on least tertiary education, 0 otherwise. Based individuals’ preferences for monorail. As on the previous studies, it is anticipated that emphasised by Ng et al. (2009), Chinese individuals who have tertiary education are in Malaysia tend to face more barriers willing to pay more for monorail than those in economic advancement compared to who without tertiary education. Malays, thus they often engage in a hectic In present study, respondents’ recycling and fast-paced lifestyle in order to cope behaviour is used as a proxy to indicate their with their high cost of city living. For these environmental awareness. Respondents who reasons, Malaysian Chinese are expected to prefer to use recyclable material made bag value monorail more than Malays given that than plastic bag are coded as 1, whereas monorail could ease their busy schedule. those who do not have such preferences Since the presence of children in a are coded as 0. The hypothesis is that family may pose as a barrier to use monorail individuals who have recycling behaviour services as an alternative transportation would have higher WTP for monorail than to work as parents often need to provide those who do not have such behaviour. transports for their children. Given the Considering the possibility limited availability of data, present study that familiarity with urban rail-based uses marital status as a proxy to measure transportation may positively impact one’s these family commitments, whereby, WTP for monorail, respondents who have respondents who are single are coded as the experience in using urban rail-based 1, and those who are married, divorcé or transportation is entered into the current widow(er) are coded as 0. As such, it is model as 1, and 0 otherwise. Further, anticipated that single individuals would respondents’ personal perspective on the have higher WTP for monorail than the Malaysia public transportation system is married, divorcé and widow(er). also included as a dummy variable in present Following the guideline used by Cheah study, given that it may be a determining (2011) based on a sample of Penang, income factor of individuals’ WTP for monorail. variable is divided into four groups: low As such, if individuals think that the current (< RM 1000), lower-middle (RM 1000 – public transportation system is efficient are
170 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 165 - 179 (2014) Willingness-To-Pay for Monorail Services: Case Study in Penang, Malaysia coded as 1, otherwise 0. It seems reasonable yXuttt=ββ + if Xu tt +> 0 to anticipate that individuals who think that =0 if Xuttβ +≤ 0, the current public transportation system tN=1,2,..., (4) is efficient would have higher WTP for monorail. where, y = WTP for a trip of monorail Last but not least, respondents who t to travel to work (RM); X = explanatory are currently facing the insufficient cark t variables that are hypothesised to affect the park problems in their residing areas or WTP for monorail; β = coefficients for the workplaces are denoted as 1, whereas explanatory variables; u = error terms of the those who are not facing such problems are t regression which assumed to be zero mean indicated as 0. It is expected that car park and constant variance N(0,σ2). issues in the residing areas or workplaces may affect individuals’ preference for Data monorail. In particular, individuals who face the insufficient car park problems may have Data used in present study was collected higher WTP for monorail than those who are based on convenience sampling method. not facing such problems. The survey was conducted at the selected manufacturing factories located in Bayan Statistical analysis Lepas, Penang from February 2011 to April 2011. The inclusion criteria were By using the cross sectional survey data, a those who were being employed full-time problem that occurs is the existence of zero in the factories and had been residing in amounts reported by large observations Penang for at least 12 months. Prepared in the sample. Possible reason that arises questionnaires were distributed for self- may due to the lack of preference for the administration by the respondents, despite, good and services. As such, application some explanations were provided upon of ordinary least square (OLS) that does giving out the questionnaires. not take into account of such barriers for During the survey, several questions statistical analysis will definitely yield regarding the perspectives for monorail biased and inconsistent results (Maddala, were addressed. In particular, respondents 1983; Kang & Tan, 2004; Greene, 2007). It were asked to indicate whether they were is therefore, to deal with such censored data willing to use monorail as an alternative (censored at the limit of zero expenditure), transportation to travel to work, and how tobit model is suggested to be used (Tobin, much they were willing to pay for a single 1958). In general, tobit model can be trip. The targeted sample size was 508 expressed as: respondents which represented 1611600 populations of Penang (SERI, 2011). The response rate was about 98% (498
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 165 - 179 (2014) 171 Lee, L. Y. and Cheah, Y. K. respondents). Stata statistical software Approximately 47% of the respondents are (version 9) was used to perform the statistical male, and 50% are single. analysis. Overall, the ethnic breakdown is as follows: 27% Malay, 61% Chinese and 12% RESULTS Indian/others. Majority of the respondents The characteristic of survey respondents is are in the lower-middle income group presented in Table 2. Out of the total 498 (54%), followed by those in the upper- respondents, 424 (85%) are willing to pay middle (32%), high (10%) and low (4%) for a trip of monorail to travel to work, income groups. A large proportion of the and 74 (15%) are not willing. The average sample (78%) have tertiary education. amount of money that the respondents are About 87% of the respondents prefer to willing to pay for a trip of monorail to use recyclable material made bag than travel to work is around RM 2, which is plastic bag. More than three-quarter (84%) almost equivalent to the average price of of the respondents have the experience in monorail in Kuala Lumpur. Mean age of the using urban rail-based transportation. Only respondents is approximately 31 years old. minority (33%) of the respondents think that
TABLE 2 Descriptive analysis of variables in the statistical model
Percentage or mean (SD) Those who are willing to Those who are not willing Variables Total sample pay for monorail to pay for monorail (N = 498) (n1 = 424) (n2 = 74) Monorail 2 (2) - 2 (2) Age 31 (6) 31 (7) 31 (6) Male 46 49 47 Malay 26 35 27 Chinese 61 58 61 Indian 13 7 12 Single 51 42 50 Low 4 4 4 Lower-mid 53 58 54 Upper-mid 33 27 32 High 10 11 10 Tertiary 80 68 78 Recycle 91 68 87 Experience 84 78 84 Efficient 35 22 33 Park 84 57 80 Note: For continuous variable, the value refers to mean, whereas for dummy variables, the value refers to percentage. SD refers to standard deviation.
172 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 165 - 179 (2014) Willingness-To-Pay for Monorail Services: Case Study in Penang, Malaysia the current Malaysia public transportation Further, Likelihood Ratio (LR) test is used system is efficient. Last, around 80% to test the goodness-of-fit of the model. The of the respondents face the problems of LR chi-square with 13 degree of freedom insufficient cark parks in their residing areas has the value of 27.09, with the probability or workplaces. of 0.012. Hence, the null hypothesis can be Estimation results for tobit analysis of rejected at 5% level, and conclude that the WTP for monorail is summarised in Table 3. current model is very good fit. Correlation coefficients between income and The results show that only habit of education variables are calculated to detect recycling, experience in using urban the potential multicollinearity problem. The rail-based transportation and problems results show that the correlation coefficients of insufficient cark parks variables are between income and education variables are statistically significant in affecting the less than 0.8, thus indicating that there exists individuals’ WTP for monorail. Whereas, no multicollinearity problem in the current the rest of the variables like age, gender, model (Studenmund, 2006) (Appendix 1). ethnicity, income, education and personal
TABLE 3 Results for tobit analysis of WTP for monorail in Penang
Coefficient Std. Err. t-stat p-value Variables (1) (2) (3) (4) Constant 0.1175 1.0547 0.11 0.911 Age -0.0008 0.0200 -0.04 0.970 Male 0.2954 0.1966 1.50 0.134 Malay - - - - Chinese 0.1382 0.2402 0.58 0.565 Indian 0.2458 0.3349 0.73 0.463 Single -0.0730 0.2314 -0.32 0.753 Low -0.0229 0.6538 -0.03 0.972 Lower-mid -0.3822 0.3912 -0.98 0.329 Upper-mid -0.5022 0.3616 -1.39 0.166 High - - - - Tertiary 0.3257 0.2826 1.15 0.250 Recycle 0.6220 0.3022 2.06 0.040** Experience 0.4730 0.2771 1.71 0.088* Efficient 0.3007 0.2120 1.42 0.157 Park 0.5965 0.2474 2.41 0.016**
LR χ2 (13) 27.09 P> χ2 0.012 Observations 497 Note: Asterisks *** indicate significance at the 1% level, ** at the 5% level, and * at the 10% level.
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 165 - 179 (2014) 173 Lee, L. Y. and Cheah, Y. K. perspective on Malaysia public transportation Kitamura (2004), there are no gender system are not significantly associated with differences in the preference for monorail. individuals’ WTP for monorail. In terms The reason may be that there exists an of environmental awareness factor, it is equal labour force participation rate found that individuals who prefer to use between males (51%) and females (49%) recyclable material made bag than plastic in Malaysia, and thus somewhat indicating bag are willing to pay RM 0.62 more for a that both Malaysian males and females have trip of monorail to travel to work compared the same likelihood of engaging in a busy to their counterparts who do not have such working lifestyle (Department of Statistics awareness. Meanwhile, individuals who Malaysia, 2010). It appears, therefore, one have the experience of using urban rail- can conclude that Malaysian males and based transportation are found to have RM females may equally value their travel time 0.47 higher of WTP for a trip of monorail in this urbanisation society. to travel to work in relative to their peers It is surprising to observe that there is who do not have such experience. Further, no significant relationship between ethnicity individuals who face the problems of and the WTP for monorail. The absence of insufficient cark parks in their residing ethnic differences in present study may be areas or workplaces are willing to pay RM because of the data that used in present study 0.60 more for a trip of monorail to travel to is unable to represent the ethnic Malays work as compared to their peers who are not in Malaysia given that it consists of small facing such problems. proportion of Malay respondents (27%). It is worthwhile to note that marital status DISCUSSION does not possess any significant impacts on Age is found to have no significant one’s WTP for monorail. Although single impact on the WTP for monorail. This individuals do not have as much family observed outcome contradicts the studies commitments as those married, divorcé or by Brownstone et al. (2003), Asensio and widow(er), they equally appreciate their Matas (2007) and Phanikumar and Maitral travel time. The reason may be that both of (2007), who claimed that age is able to affect these groups of individuals utilise their time one’s preference for public transportation. in a different manner. For instance, single Perhaps, this is due to the widely known individuals would often allocate most of facts that monorail transportation system in their time for works, whereas, those who Malaysia is designed to be user friendly to are non-single would tend to spend most of both the elderly and youngsters. Therefore, their time with their family. the taste for monorail does not vary across Present study found that income is the age of individuals. not significantly associated with the WTP Contrary to the arguments by for monorail. These unexpected outcomes Brownstone et al. (2003) and Senbil and contradict the previous arguments by
174 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 165 - 179 (2014) Willingness-To-Pay for Monorail Services: Case Study in Penang, Malaysia
Brownstone et al. (2003), Markose et al. Hence, they tend to find monorail easier to (2007) and Phanikumar and Maitra (2007). be used. Second, they are also more aware Based on these, one can conclude that of the advantages of using monorail. opportunity cost of time does not play an Contrary to the prior supposition, it is important role in affecting individuals’ ascertained that individuals’ perspective on decision to use time saving transportation the Malaysia public transportation system is such as monorail. In contrast to the findings not significantly correlated with the WTP by Brownstone et al. (2003), no significant for monorail. This may be mainly due to relationship is found between education majority of the people in Penang have the and the WTP for monorail. It may be confidence that the public transportations because both education and income are will improve substantially in the future. complementary in nature. Hence, education Based on these outcomes, one can reject per se does not possess any significant the notion that people who do not think that impacts on the WTP for monorail given that the current public transportations system is income is not significant. efficient would not value the monorail. With regard to the environmental In agreement with the earlier awareness factor, individuals who have the expectation, individuals who are currently habit of recycling such as using recyclable faced with insufficient cark park problems material made bag are observed to have a in their residing areas or workplaces tend higher preference for monorail in relative to place higher value on monorail. In other to those who do not have such recycling words, insufficient cark park problems pose habit. The fact of the matter is that monorail as an incentive for one to use monorail. transportation is more environmental This is owing to use of urban rail-based friendly as compared to automobile due transportation can ease the troubles in to its low carbon emission system. Hence, finding car parks. those commuters who are more aware of the environmental issues would be more CONCLUSION likely to use monorail as an alternative The present study has shed new light on transportation to work. the determinants of WTP for monorail in Conform to the prior conjecture, Penang, Malaysia. Findings of present individuals who have the experience of study appear to be very useful for the using urban rail-based transportation tend to policy makers in designing the proper value the monorail system more than their interventions for solving the problems of peers who do not have such experience. heavy traffic congestion. Specifically, the Two likely reasons exist for these findings. factors that found to be able to affect one’s First, individuals who have the experience preference for using monorail include habit of using urban rail-based transportation are of recycling, experience in using urban more familiar with the monorail system. rail-based transportation and the problems
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 165 - 179 (2014) 175 Lee, L. Y. and Cheah, Y. K. of insufficient cark parks. Based on these public transportation system. As a result, findings, several policies are recommended. rational individuals would be more likely First, environmental awareness to substitute monorail for private owned programmes directed toward the public vehicle as the transport to travel to work to increase the awareness of the risks of during rush hours. excessive carbon dioxide in the atmosphere Given the budget, time and geographical may help reduce the traffic congestion in constraints, several limitations are Penang. As a suggestion, these programmes acknowledged in present study. First, the should take into consideration of making collected survey data is somewhat limited to environmental courses and seminars adults who are working in the Bayan Lepas compulsory in the schools and workplaces to areas. Ideally, respondents travelling to/from deliver the information about environmental work throughout the Penang Island as well issues. Nevertheless, efforts could also be as mainland should be canvassed in order to made to invite the environmental specialists obtain a more representative sample. Others to become the spokespersons to highlight such as students and pensioners should also the alarming evidence of environmental be examined for their travel patterns and pollution. preferences. Second, owing to a lack of Second, policy makers are suggested to measuring instrument, few variables that are promote the benefits of monorail, such as deemed important are not taken into account less expensive, quicker and environmental in present study. For instance, the distance friendly, to the community, with focus on of travelling from house to workplace and those individuals who without the experience the time spent in traffic congestion. As such, of using urban rail-based transportation. For suggested future researches should not only instance, multi-lingual mass media such as be limited to the Bayan Lepas area. Since the newspaper, magazine, radio channels and city of Georgetown is facing heavy traffic television programmes could be used as the issues during rush hours as well, the study channel to deliver the messages regarding should be extended to the whole of Penang the benefits of monorail to the public. While, island. this is to guarantee the messages to reach a wider population. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Moreover, based on the economic The authors are grateful to Associate interventions to discourage people from Prof. Dr. Andrew Tan Khee Guan for his using private owned vehicle, government insightful comments and suggestions to should consider imposing heavy parking this manuscript. All the remaining flaws fine in the areas where have a lot of illegal are the authors’ responsibility and the usual car parking. Government can thus use this disclaimer applies. collected revenue to further subside the
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APPENDIX CORRELATION COEFFICIENT BETWEEN INCOME AND EDUCATION VARIABLES Variables Low Lower-mid Upper-mid High -0.3349 -0.1222 0.1985 0.1135 Tertiary (0.000)*** (0.006)*** (0.000)*** (0.011)** Note: P-value in parentheses. Asterisks *** indicate significance at the 1% level, ** at the 5% level, and * at the 10% level.
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Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 181 - 193 (2014)
SOCIAL SCIENCES & HUMANITIES
Journal homepage: http://www.pertanika.upm.edu.my/
Job Satisfaction among School Counsellors in Secondary Schools in Mid-Western Nigeria
Friday Osamwonyi Eduwen, Oyaziwo Aluede* and Austine Itohan Ojugo Department of Guidance and Counselling, Ambrose Alli University, Ekpoma 310001, Nigeria
ABSTRACT This study investigated the job satisfaction among school counsellors in secondary schools in mid-western Nigeria. The study adopted a survey research design. The participants were 121 secondary school counsellors drawn from secondary schools in mid-western Nigeria. A questionnaire titled “Counsellor’s Job Satisfaction Questionnaire (CJSQ)” was used to collect data for this study. The results indicated that the majority of the secondary school counselors are satisfied with their jobs. Also, promotion was the best single factorr predicting job satisfaction. In addition, job dimension variables such as promotion, job tenure, salary, social support and supervision significantly correlated with job satisfaction among school counsellors. Based on these findings, it was recommended that school counsellors’ job satisfaction could be further enhanced and sustained by government and school administrators by paying adequate attention to the welfare of counsellors in terms of regular promotion, enhanced remunerations, guaranteed job security, adequate social support system and provision of well equipped counselling centres for counselling practice.
Keywords: Job satisfaction, secondary school counsellors, best counselling practices, career advancement, career counselling
INTRODUCTION Counselling is a notable field for its diversity and dynamism. It is influenced by diverse political, economic and social forces within the society. As a result, tremendous ARTICLE INFO expansion has been witnessed in the field of Article history: Received: 2 February 2012 counselling in terms of promotion of good Accepted: 2 August 2012 health, family dynamics, career assessment, E-mail addresses: [email protected] (Oyaziwo Aluede), school adjustments, development tasks, [email protected] (Austine Itohan Ojugo) * Corresponding author ethical standards, and research training.
ISSN: 0128-7702 © Universiti Putra Malaysia Press Friday Osamwonyi Eduwen, Oyaziwo Aluede and Austine Itohan Ojugo
One of the tasks of school counsellors is scarce, government shall continue to make to educate and assist students in their overall provisions for the training of interested development. In the 21st century, the job of teachers in guidance and counselling. The helping students to achieve success in schools thrust of this policy is that government and become more productive members of believes that guidance and counselling is a the society is challenging. According to crucial educational service that can enhance Gysbers, Lapan and Blair (1999), today’s the personal growth and psychological youth must confront a rapidly changing development of students in the school world of work and labour force, violence in system (Federal Government of Nigeria, the home, school and community, divorce, 2004). teenage suicide, substance abuse, and sexual For counsellors to be able to provide experimentation. Thus, school counsellors this crucial educational service to the occupy an important position within the students, they have to be interested and school system to assist students to cope willing to contribute meaningfully to the with these crucial issues and the normal students’ personal growth and psychological developmental tasks adolescents face in life development. Therefore, the study of job (Aluede, 2009). satisfaction among school counsellors The demand for school counsellors is very crucial to the improvement of would continue to be on the increase. productivity among school counsellors. This This is especially so in Nigeria in the is because for members of a profession to face of increasing school enrolments with discharge their duties effectively, they must the introduction of the Universal Basic be satisfied with their jobs (Eduwen, 2008). Education on September 30, 1999 (Imonikhe Job satisfaction is a pleasurable & Aluede, 2010). This programme has made emotional state resulting from the appraisal school attendance compulsory for children of one’s job. There are a number of factors aged between six and thirteen years of age. that can influence a person’s level of job It is in realization of this fact that the Federal satisfaction. Some of these factors include Government of Nigeria has devoted much the level of pay and benefits, the perceived time to the planning and implementation fairness of promotion in an organization, of guidance and counselling programmes recognition, favourable working conditions in secondary schools. Hence, the Federal and the job itself (DeMato, 2001). The need Government of Nigeria (2004) stated that to cater for the working conditions of school in view of the apparent ignorance of many counsellors and ensure their job satisfaction young people about career prospects and in the school system becomes imperative if personality maladjustments among school they are to carry out their responsibilities children, career officers and counsellors shall to the admiration of all. If they are unable be appointed to post primary institutions. to achieve their goal as counsellors, Since qualified personnel in this category are they experience feelings of inadequacy
182 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 181 - 193 (2014) Job Satisfaction among School Counsellors in Secondary Schools in Mid-Western Nigeria and unhappiness that may make them satisfaction and the best conclusion to draw vulnerable to stress and job dissatisfaction. from these works is that, although there are Job dissatisfaction promotes stress, fatigue, many specific and diverse job dimensions, frustration and low productivity (DeMato, which have been shown to relate to job 2001). satisfaction at one time or the other, there is a set of dimensions common to most Extent of Job Satisfaction among School jobs that is sufficient to describe most of Counsellors the predictable variances in job satisfaction Among the existing studies on school ( DeMato & Curcio, 2004). The specific counsellors’ job satisfaction, is that of dimensions identified represent those job DeMato and Curcio (2004), which examined characteristics typically used to assess job how elementary school counsellors in satisfaction for which the organizational Virginia reported their job satisfaction. members have some positions on a like- Results of the study indicate that a vast dislike continuum. majority (90.4%) of Virginia elementary Job satisfaction characteristics have school counsellors surveyed in 2001 been classified into two namely intrinsic and were either satisfied or mostly satisfied in extrinsic dimensions (Rose, 2001; Eduwen, their positions. Similarly, Baggerly and 2008). Intrinsic dimension is the ‘outcome’ Osborn (2006) reported a survey of school or the result of a work situation that people counsellors in Florida in 2002, which enjoy, because they are in charge and they revealed that majority of the respondents have the opportunity to acquire new skills (39.8%) were either satisfied or somewhat and abilities to make a different challenge, satisfied (44.7%) in their positions. Baggerly or because they are part of success team and Osborn’s (2006) study further asked (Clark, 2005). Intrinsic motivation leads respondents to report the frequency with to outstanding creative productivity energy which they performed appropriate and that seems to have virtually no limit. inappropriate school counsellors’ roles as Intrinsic motivation, which has to do with defined by the American School Counselling the job content, then, is motivation which Association (ASCA). The study revealed comes from the inside of a person. It is that school counsellors who implemented an emotional preference for a task that appropriate duties more frequently indicated gives pleasure and enjoyment. It arises greater job satisfaction, while those who from having a strong emotional interest implemented inappropriate duties more in an activity and a sense of freedom and frequently indicated low job satisfaction. autonomy relating to it (Kashel, 1994). Extrinsic dimension involves the job Facets of Job Satisfaction context, that is, the external environment in Over the years, considerable time and efforts which the worker operates. This includes: have been devoted to studies on facets of job the social and administrative atmosphere;
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 181 - 193 (2014) 183 Friday Osamwonyi Eduwen, Oyaziwo Aluede and Austine Itohan Ojugo working conditions; remunerations; and Salary is recognized as a factor in other benefits (Clark, 2005). A thorough employee’s job satisfaction. Akintoye review of literature reveals that these (2000) asserted that money remains the facets of job dimension include promotion, most significant motivational strategy job tenure, salary, school support and to achieve greater productivity. Tella, supervision (Clark, 2005; Eduwen, 2008). Ayeni and Popoola (2007) stated that to Promotion has been recognized as use salaries as a motivator effectively, a factor in employee’s job satisfaction. personnel managers must consider four Promotion constitutes an important aspect major components of a salary structure. of workers’ labour mobility most often These are the job rate, which relates to the carrying substantial wage increase (Kosteas, importance the organization attaches to each 2009; Blau & Devaro, 2007; Cobb- Clark, job; payment, which encourages workers 2001). Accordingly, lack of promotion or groups by rewarding them according breeds lower staff morale resulting in to their performance; personal or special frustration, resignation and premature allowances, associated with factors such retirement (Clark, 2005). Souza-Poza and as scarcity of particular skills or certain Souza-Poza (2003) estimated the effect of categories of information, professionals, or promotion on workers’ satisfaction, focusing with long service; and fringe benefits such on promotion satisfaction in a small sample as holidays with pay, pensions, and so on. of managers. They found that managers who Collins (2008) reported the relationship received promotions were more satisfied between social support and job satisfaction. with promotion opportunities and have Specifically, Collins stressed the importance greater promotion expectation for the future, of social support in an organization, asserting than those who did not. that the workers’ support group encouraged Job tenure correlates with job discussion, built consensus, coalitions and satisfaction. Kosteas (2009) asserted that networks, helped members articulate agency there is a correlation between job tenure and demands, enabled them to be clearer about job satisfaction. Job satisfaction appears to explicit and implicit rules and conflict issues- initially decline with job tenure and then encouraging movement towards resolution rises. This finding is consistent with the of these issues, while clarifying the workers’ dynamics that individuals with lower job own sense of role and mission. Similarly, satisfaction are more likely to leave their Coulshed and Mullender (2006) revealed jobs, but will give it some time on a new job that learning sets or seminars based around before doing so. Conversely, Duffy, Ganster social workers’ own agenda, work-based and Shaw (1998) reported that individuals issues, seeking practical outcomes, are other with longer tenure were more likely to possible means of providing mutual group experience dissonance and leave the job if support and shared problem-solving. This they become dissatisfied. implies that a wide range of opportunities
184 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 181 - 193 (2014) Job Satisfaction among School Counsellors in Secondary Schools in Mid-Western Nigeria for mutual group support should be available that the government has embarked on the on the particular needs, wishes and wants of training and re-training of school counsellors the staff of the organization. through seminars, conferences, workshop DeMato and Curcio (2004) revealed that and in-service courses. School counsellors supervision is linked to job satisfaction. In serve dual purpose by engaging in other other words, the supervision by a district ancillary functions, including teaching superior and peers positively predicted of different subjects in addition to their school counsellors’ career satisfaction primary functions of counselling students (DeMato & Curcio, 2004). Evans and (Aluede & Imonikhe, 2002). At times, there Hohenshil (1997, as cited in DeMato, 2001) are cases of counsellors being assigned investigated 231 substance abuse counsellors as full-time teachers in the classroom and concluded that job satisfaction could be thereby relegating to the background their predicted by a combination of four clinical professional responsibilities (Aluede, Afen- supervision variables. The supervision Akpaida & Adomeh, 2004). The implication variables were the numbers of hours per is that the educational structure creates week, length of time the supervisor had been strain and stress, which have given rise to in clinical supervision, degree level of the the question as to whether secondary school supervisor, and whether the supervisor was counsellors experience job satisfaction. the clinical or administrative supervisor. A number of problems face Nigeria’s educational system, which tend to Rationale for the Study have negative effects on the degree Today, the world is in dire need of of counsellors’ job satisfaction. These development in science and technology include current pressure from working through education. Nigeria cannot afford with more challenging students, increased to be left behind in the scheme of things in administrative and managerial tasks, which secondary education will play a key shortage of funds, increased counsellor- role. The counsellors in the school system student ratios, and inadequate facilities( need to be satisfied with their jobs if they are Aluede, Afen- Akpaida & Adomeh, 2004; to play their expected role. The implication Aluede, McEachern & Kenny 2005). is that without improving the working The study of job satisfaction among conditions of counsellors and making them teachers in Nigeria has been widely satisfied, the probable result is that very researched (e.g. Arubayi, 1981; Nwagwu, few of the educational aims can be properly 1981; Clark, 2005). These studies have achieved. indicated that majority of teachers are The role of school counsellors in the satisfied with their job. Similarly, the study educational process has been a matter of of job satisfaction among school counsellors public interest. It is in recognition of this has also been widely researched especially vital service in the educational enterprise in developed countries (cf Morgan, 1977;
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 181 - 193 (2014) 185 Friday Osamwonyi Eduwen, Oyaziwo Aluede and Austine Itohan Ojugo
Kirk, 1988; Murray, 1995; DeMato, 2001; secondary schools in Midwestern- Nigeria DeMato, 2004; DeMato & Curcio, 2004; were targeted for use in the study. At the Bryant & Constantine, 2006). However, time of data collection, only 121 secondary little is known about job satisfaction of school counsellors duly responded. Their counsellors in Nigerian schools (Eduwen, demographic characteristics were as follows: 2008). Hence, it became imperative to 53 males with an age average of 35.6 years. survey job satisfaction among counsellors in The number of females was 68 with age secondary schools and to determine which average of 33.2 years. of the following dimensions: promotion, job tenure, salary, social support and supervision Measurement significantly contribute to job satisfaction of A questionnaire entitled “School school counsellors. Thus, the problem of the Counsellors’ Job Satisfaction Questionnaire study is how satisfied are secondary school (SCJSQ)” was the instrument used in counsellors on their jobs? To resolve this this study. It was adapted from the Job problem, the following research questions Descriptive Index (JDI) developed by Smith, were raised being, Kendall, and Hulin (1969) and adapted by 1. How do secondary school counsellors DeMato (2001). In the original JDI, five in Midwestern – Nigeria express their facets of job satisfaction (pay, promotion job satisfaction? and promotion opportunities, workers’ 2. Which of the job dimensions (promotion, social support, supervision and the work job tenure, salary, social support itself) were measured. Respondents were and supervision) most significantly required to answer yes, no, or can’t decide contribute to job satisfaction of in response to whether given statements secondary school counsellors in accurately describes their job. Midwestern- Nigeria? The current version was also made up of five facets of job satisfaction. Pay was METHODOLOGY modified as salary; work itself was replaced by job tenure; promotion and promotion Participants opportunities; workers’ social support; and The study adopted the survey design supervision were retained. Each facet has approach. The population of the study six items. In the current instrument, the comprised of all the 128 secondary school following work itself items: Repeated; Hot counsellors drawn from the existing 57 (Temperature); Pleasant; Useful; Tiresome; public secondary schools in Midwestern and Helpful were completely deleted Nigeria with practicing school counsellors. and replaced with the following items on In view of the fact that the population Supervision: The way my job provided of the study was relatively small, all the 128 for a secure future; the level of my job secondary schools counsellors practicing in security; the way lay- off and transfers
186 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 181 - 193 (2014) Job Satisfaction among School Counsellors in Secondary Schools in Mid-Western Nigeria are carried out in my job; the opportunity counsellors respond to the questionnaire. to be important in the eyes of fellow In each school, the questionnaire was colleagues; the opportunity provided for administered and retrieved from the staff development; and my present job respondents the same day. gives me a sense of accomplishment. In The data collected were collated and addition, the sentence structure of item 15 analyzed with descriptive and inferential on the original JDI which read “my pay and statistics. To answer research question as to the amount of work I do” was modified to whether school counsellors were satisfied or now read “my salary value in relation to the not on their jobs, their responses in all the amount of work I do” five facets of job satisfaction were collapsed Both the original version of JDI and from the four- point response format and the modified version used in this study had classified into two—satisfied and not thirty (30) items. In the modified version, satisfied. The second research question used the response format was modified from its the four- point response format. original nominal scale format of yes, no and can’t decide to a four point Likert- type RESULTS format of very satisfied (4 points), satisfied The data generated, when analysed, yielded (3 points), dissatisfied (2 points) and very the following results that are presented in dissatisfied (1 point). The modification of this section: JDI became necessary to suit the Nigerian school system and the aims of the current Research Question One study. How do secondary school counsellors in The instrument was content validated Midwestern – Nigeria express their job by three professors of counselling, and satisfaction? Job satisfaction as expressed by educational management in the Faculty secondary school counsellors in Midwestern of Education, Ambrose Alli University, Nigeria is presented in Table 1. Ekpoma-Nigeria and the reliability of the Based on the survey, the majority instrument was determined using split–half of the respondents (total of 88. 3 %) method. The reliability yielded a correlation indicated satisfaction in all the facets of co-efficient of 0.94, which was considered job satisfaction. Also, the survey further adequate for this study indicated that an insignificant percentage (11. 7%) of school counsellors expressed Procedure dissatisfaction with their job. Copies of the questionnaire were personally distributed by the principal author with Research Question Two the assistance of research assistants. The Which of the job dimensions (promotion, principal author sought the permission job tenure, salary, social support and of school principals to have their school supervision) most significantly contribute
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 181 - 193 (2014) 187 Friday Osamwonyi Eduwen, Oyaziwo Aluede and Austine Itohan Ojugo
TABLE 1 Secondary School Counsellors’ Job Satisfaction (N=121)
Response Categories Satisfied Not-satisfied S/N Job Satisfaction items F % f % 1 The opportunity for advancement on the job 100 82.64 21 17.36 2 The opportunity of getting ahead on the job 110 90.90 11 9.10 3 The way promotions are carried out in the organization 102 84.3 19 15.7 4 The way I get promotion for the work I do 105 86.78 16 13.22 5 Am satisfied with the promotion criteria 107 88.43 14 11.57 6 The feelings of accomplishment I derive from the promotion 106 87.6 15 12.4 7 The way my job provides for a secured future 105 86.78 16 13.22 8 The level of my job security 102 84.30 19 15.70 9 The way layoff and transfer are carried out in my job 109 90.10 12 9.90 10 The opportunity to be important in the eyes of fellow colleagues 108 89.26 13 10.74 11 The opportunity provided for staff development 107 88.43 14 11.57 12 My present job gives me a sense of accomplishment 104 85.95 17 14.05 13 The opportunity to make as much money as my friends in other 102 84.30 19 15.70 jobs 14 How my pay compares with that of similar positions in the 100 82.64 21 17.36 school system 15 My salary value in relation to the amount of work I do 104 85.95 17 14.05 16 The level of my salary with reference to my experience 108 89.26 13 10.74 17 The way regular salaries and allowances are paid 112 92.56 09 7.43 18 The opportunity for salary advancement 109 90.10 12 9..90 19 The spirit of cooperation among my co-workers 109 90.10 12 9.90 20 The friendliness of my co-workers 112 92.56 09 7.43 21 The way my co-workers get along with each other in the 113 93.40 08 6.60 organization 22 Inter-personal relationship among co-workers 101 83.47 20 16.53 23 The way I get praised from my co-workers for a job well done 110 90.90 11 9.10 24 The level of support I get from my co-workers 115 95.04 06 4.96 25 The technical know-how of my supervisor 111 91.74 10 8.26 26 The opportunity to do new things on my own 107 88.43 14 11.57 27 The way school system policies are administered 108 89.26 13 10.74 28 The opportunity to supervise other people 106 87.60 15 12.40 29 The opportunity to work alone on the job 107 88.43 14 11.57 30 The nature of supervision 107 88.43 14 11.57 Total 3206 88.3 424 11.7
188 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 181 - 193 (2014) Job Satisfaction among School Counsellors in Secondary Schools in Mid-Western Nigeria to job satisfaction of secondary school Salary accounted for an increment (27.9%) counsellors in Midwestern- Nigeria? of variance. Social support accounted for an Job dimensions (promotion, job tenure, increment (13.45) of variance. Job tenure salary, social support and supervision) that accounted for an (10.5%) of variance, while significantly contribute to job satisfaction supervision accounted for a significant of school counsellors was determined increment (7.7%) of variance. Based on the using Regression analysis to analyze the analysis, it can be concluded that promotion respondents’ score on each of the dependent is the most significant predictor of job variables as significant predictors of job satisfaction. satisfaction. The results of the analysis are presented in Tables 2 and 3. DISCUSSION OF RESULTS Tables 2 and 3 reveal that in separate This study found that the majority of stepwise regression equation, hygiene school counsellors in Midwestern Nigeria variables were presented as independent expressed satisfaction with their job (potential predictors) variables with job as school counsellors. In addition, job satisfaction as the dependent measure. satisfaction was significantly correlated with These variables which were significant promotion, job tenure, social support, salary predictors in the hygiene group were used and supervision of school counsellors. in a stepwise regression to identify the best Promotion was the best single predictor predictors of job satisfaction. Promotion was of job satisfaction. This is an indication that the best single factor, which accounted for a promotion is a morale booster to counsellors significant increment (40.6%) of variance. and perhaps other employers in the school
TABLE 2 Regression Analysis of the Dimensions of Job Satisfaction
Mode Sum of Squares Df Mean Square F Sig. 1 Regression 2007.179 1 2007.179 81.258 .000a Residual 2939.449 119 24.701 Total 4946.628 120 2 Regression 3384.883 2 1692.442 127.875 .000b Residual 1561.745 118 13.235 Total 4946.628 120 3 Regression 4046.206 3 1348.735 175.254 .000c Residual 900.422 117 7.696 Total 4946.628 120 4 Regression 4567.828 4 1141.957 349.701 .000d Residual 378.800 116 3.266 Total 4946.628 120 5 Regression 4946.628 5 989.326 1.099 .000e Residual .000 115 .000 Total 4946.628 120
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 181 - 193 (2014) 189 Friday Osamwonyi Eduwen, Oyaziwo Aluede and Austine Itohan Ojugo system. This is in line with the work of individuals with longer tenure were more Kosteas (2009) that stressed the importance likely to experience dissonance and leave of promotion in an organization because the job if they become dissatisfied. of its social prestige. Promotion boosts In the present study, salary was staff morale and motivates them to work significantly correlated with job satisfaction. harder thereby increasing productivity and This is indicative of the fact that salary is a efficiency (Clark, 2005). positive motivator that a worker values and Job tenure was found to be significantly which guarantees his/ her commitment to an related to job satisfaction. This is an organization. This finding is buttressed by indication that once a worker has the the postulations of Okpara (2004) and Tella assurance that his/ her job is guaranteed, et al. (2007) that workers value pay, and the more likely for/ her to experience higher once they are well paid they will be satisfied level of job satisfaction and organizational and committed to their organization. commitment. Also, the tendency to regard Social support was also found to be the present job as a stepping stone to other significantly correlated with job satisfaction. jobs is erased and there is the assurance of This is an indication that school counsellors looking forward to retirement and pension. individuals are indeed influenced by their The finding is supported by the study of perceptions of others’ assistance and Kosteas (2009), which stated that workers recognition. The social nature of man is also initially have high morale when starting a exhibited by the school counsellor as he/ job but morale decreases during the first she consciously or unconsciously evaluates few years of service and then increase as his/her input and how this is perceived by the number of years of service increases. others. This finding agrees with that of However, this finding differs from the studies Mausner, Peterson and Capwell (1957, cited of Duffy et al. (1998) which concluded that in Eduwen, 2008) that workers who identify
TABLE 3 Model Summary of Regression Analysis of Dimensions to Job Satisfaction of School Counsellors
Mode R R Square Adjusted R Std. Error of Change Statistics Square the estimate R F. Df1 df2 Sig. F Square Change Change 1 .637a .406 .401 4.97004 .406 81.258 1 119 .000 2 .827b .684 .679 3.63801 .279 104.095 1 118 .000 3 .904c .818 .813 2.77415 .134 85.932 1 117 .000 4 .961d .923 .921 1.80708 .105 159.736 1 116 .000 5 1.000e 1.000 1.000 .00000 .077 4.175 1 115 .000 a. Predictors: (Constant), Promotion b. Predictors: (Constant), Promotion, Salary c. Predictors: (Constant), Promotion, Salary, Social Support d. Predictors: (Constant), Promotion, Salary, Social Support, Job Tenure. e. Predictors: (Constant), Promotion, Salary, Social Support, Job tenure, Supervision.
190 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 181 - 193 (2014) Job Satisfaction among School Counsellors in Secondary Schools in Mid-Western Nigeria with the group are more satisfied and are IMPLICATIONS FOR BEST more likely to have their interpersonal COUNSELLING PRACTICES and friendship needs met. This is further In guidance and counselling literature, there buttressed by the findings of Collins (2008) is obvious evidence suggesting that job that individuals who had a variety of support satisfaction among school counsellors has networks such as work, family, friends, and been widely researched in few developed community were better adjusted at work economies. But little is known about job while those individuals with deficient social satisfaction among school counsellors in networks experience more stress and are less developing countries, which this study and able to cope. future ones hope to fill. Constant research This study found a positive relationship on job satisfaction will obviously help the between supervision and job satisfaction of profession to appreciate the level of job school counsellors. This suggests adequate satisfaction among counsellors, which is level of supervision by school principals fundamental to quality counselling service over counsellors in the performance of their delivery. Therefore, continuous research on responsibilities. Also, it is an indication job satisfaction among school counsellors that government officials are effective in must be periodically conducted if the their monitoring and supervision of school profession is to guarantee best practices counsellor. This finding buttressed those of across the globe. DeMato and Curcio (2004) and Evans and It is the expectation of this study that Hohenshil (1997) that supervision is vital greater job performance/ productivity to job satisfaction and should be based on among school counsellors can be further the following supervision variables: number sustained across the globe, if governments of hours per week; length of time the and school boards pay greater attention supervisor had been a clinical supervisor; to the welfare of school counsellors educational level of the supervisor; and especially through enhanced remunerations, whether the supervisor is a clinical or guaranteed job security, adequate social administrative supervisor. support and provision of well equipped counselling centres CONCLUSION Since promotion is the major predictor of Based on the findings, this study concludes job satisfaction, it is therefore recommended that the majority of secondary school that promotion decisions should be based on counsellors in Midwestern Nigeria are merit and performance. Managers of schools satisfied with their jobs; and that promotion should ensure that performance evaluations is the most significant predictor of job are fair and bias –free. Promotion based satisfaction among them on merit and performance will encourage better performance, and lead to greater level of job satisfaction and ultimately
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 181 - 193 (2014) 191 Friday Osamwonyi Eduwen, Oyaziwo Aluede and Austine Itohan Ojugo higher productivity. In addition, further Blau, F. O., & De Varo, J. (2007). New evidence research should be conducted across the on gender differences in promotion rates: An globe to determine the effectiveness of empirical analysis of a sample of New Hires. Industrial Relations, 46(3), 511-550 promotion as a mechanism for eliciting efforts and reducing turn over relative to Bryant, R. M., & Constantine, M. G. (2006). Multiple other mechanisms such as pay increase and role balance, job satisfaction and lfe satisfaction of women counselors. Professional School job tenure. Counseling, 9, 265- 271
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SOCIAL SCIENCES & HUMANITIES
Journal homepage: http://www.pertanika.upm.edu.my/
Acquisition of the Verb Movement Parameter in English by Adult Arabic Speakers
Muneera Yahya Ali Muftah and Wong Bee Eng* Department of English, Faculty of Modern Languages and Communication, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
ABSTRACT This study investigates the acquisition of the verb movement parameter in English by adult Arabic-speaking learners of English as a Second Language (ESL)1. English and Arabic differ in the settings they adopt for the verb movement parameter. English is [-strong], while Arabic is [+strong]. Accordingly, the placement of the verb with respect to negation, adverbs and floating quantifiers (FQs) in English are considered difficult to acquire for adult Arabic ESL learners. In order to examine the nature of adult Arabic ESL learners’ interlanguage (IL) grammar at the L2 ultimate attainment level as well as the extent to which the adult Arabic ESL learners can reset the verb movement parameter and correctly place the verb with respect to negation, adverbs and FQs in finite and non-finite contexts with lexical and auxiliary verbs, an oral production task was conducted with 77 adult Arabic ESL learners who were subdivided into three proficiency levels (lower-intermediate, upper-intermediate and advanced). The results reveal that the Arabic ESL learners, even at ultimate attainment level, have great difficulty in resetting the parameterized property associated with the verb movement. These results support the Failed Functional Features Hypothesis (FFFH) (Hawkins and Chan, 1997) which proposes that post-childhood adult L2 learners are unable to reset parameters from their L1 values to the L2 settings where these differ from the L1 settings.
Keywords: Second Language Acquisition, verb movement parameter, Failed Functional Features Hypothesis, Adult L1 Arabic speakers, Negation, Adverbs, Floating Quantifiers
ARTICLE INFO INTRODUCTION Article history: Received: 8 February 2012 Universal Grammar theory (UG), the Accepted: 19 March 2013 theoretical framework adopted for the E-mail addresses: [email protected] (Muneera Yahya Ali Muftah), present study, was postulated by Chomsky [email protected] (Wong Bee Eng) in the 1950s as an attempt to describe the * Corresponding author
ISSN: 0128-7702 © Universiti Putra Malaysia Press Muneera Yahya Ali Muftah and Wong Bee Eng constitution of language knowledge, and period L2 learners. Functional categories to explain the language acquisition and are grammatical categories which play a production interactions that take place formal role in a sentence and the learning in the language faculty. Accordingly, of these categories is essential to the language acquisition, native or non- native, acquisition of L2. Hawkins and Chan (1997) means setting all the parameters of UG provide evidence from the acquisition appropriately (Cook & Newson, 2007, of wh-movement by intermediate and p. 59). This Chomskyan approach to advanced speakers of Chinese, and argue language acquisition has inspired hundreds that Chinese speakers did not acquire of scholars to investigate the nature of these the strong value of the [+wh] feature of assumed grammatical categories and the English complementizers. They attribute research is still ongoing. the difficulties in achieving native- like Among current views on the acquisition attainment to the critical period that affects of functional categories in post-critical functional features in the syntax that host period L2 (second language) acquisition, inflectional morphology. a major distinction can be made among The Failed Functional Feature views that contend that there is no access Hypothesis (FFFH) espoused by Hawkins to UG, those that claim that access to UG is and Chan (1997) is one of the partial access partial and those that maintain that there is models that addresses the role of the L1, full access to UG. According to the partial the nature of linguistic representations access hypothesis, principles of UG remain in interlanguage (IL) grammars and the accessible in L2 acquisition but parameter issue of the critical period. It provides an values cannot be reset (Hawkins & Chan, explanation for the apparent failure of most 1997). This entails that L2 learners only adult L2 learners to achieve native-like have access to the functional categories attainment. Based on Chomsky’s (1986) and feature values available from their first Principles and Parameters framework, language (L1) (see e.g. Muneera & Wong, Tsimpli and Roussou (1991) argue that 2011). learners are unable to reset parameters, Advocates of the partial accessibility to and as a result, the L2 will be unattainable UG position (e.g. Hawkins & Chan, 1997; if the L1 and the L2 parameter values are Tsimpli & Dimitrakopoulou, 2007; Hawkins different. This is known as the No Parameter & Casillas, 2008) have further argued that Resetting Hypothesis. This position was adult L2 acquisition of functional categories further developed by Smith and Tsimpli such as tense and agreement, functional (1995), who highlight the parameterization features and parameter setting are subject of functional categories, assuming that in to a critical period, in which categories and post-critical period, which is generally said formal features not instantiated in the L1 to be after the age of seven (see e.g. Johnson grammar are not available to post-critical & Newport, 1989, pp. 60-99), L2 learners
196 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 195 - 215 (2014) Acquisition of the Verb Movement Parameter in English by Adult Arabic Speakers cannot acquire new functional categories operator movement in restrictive relative (e.g. tense and agreement), functional clauses which is assumed to be lacking in features (e.g. [±past]) or feature strength Chinese. Chinese, unlike English, lacks a (e.g. feature strength of T [±strong]). [wh] feature; therefore, L1 Chinese learners Hawkins and Chan (1997) extend this will be unable to acquire the [wh] feature in claim and propose the FFFH, developing English, the L2. In contrast, French has the the view that L2 learners have different [wh] feature; hence, L2 learners should have mental representations from those of native no problem as French and English share speakers. Therefore, new parametric values this property. Hawkins and Chan’s results as instantiated in functional categories and show that Chinese learners are significantly their associated features are inaccessible different from the French learners, even in post-critical period L2 acquisition. As a at the advanced levels. In other words, in result, the post-critical period acquisition the case of learners whose L1 functional of those functional features by L2 learners feature specifications are different from will tend to diverge from those of native the L2, fossilization will occur, such that speakers due to the differences between grammatical development stabilizes short of L2 learners’ L1 parameter settings and the the target grammar (see e.g., Lardiere 1998a, target L2 parameter settings (Hawkins & 1998b, Franceschina 2001, White 2003). Chan, 1997, p. 189). In other words, L2 Hawkins and Chan have further asserted learners may be able to map features from that in cases where L2 learners’ performance functional categories in their L1 onto new approximates that of the native speakers L2 morphology, but will not have access to of the target language, this cannot be the the functional features of the L2 (Hawkins result of changes in the specification of & Chan, 1997, pp. 188-199). They may use functional categories. Instead, some other the morphology of the target language but operation that does not involve parameter with the feature specifications of their L1. resetting, might be involved, producing This means that the L2 learners’ underlying the observed restructuring of the learners’ competence of the target L2 grammar in grammar away from the L1 and towards relation to the parameterized functional the L2 (1997, pp. 199-200). In short, UG features is different from those of the native is said to be accessible in L2 acquisition speakers’ underlying competence (Hawkins in “some attenuated form” (Bley-Vroman, & Chan, 1997, p. 189). This explains the 1989) because a systematic divergence of observation that L2 learners despite their the near-native grammars from those of the best effort could only arrive at near native- L2 target grammars has occurred. like attainment in the acquisition of an L22. On the other hand, L2 grammars are Hawkins and Chan’s (1997) study also considered to be attainable grammars investigate the extent to which L1 Chinese due to the full availability of UG principles learners of L2 English could acquire English that constrain the construction of mental
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 195 - 215 (2014) 197 Muneera Yahya Ali Muftah and Wong Bee Eng grammars in adult L2 learners. However, studies (e.g. Hawkins et al. 2002; Hawkins divergence occurs due to deficit relating to & Liszka 2003; Hawkins & Franceschina L1 influence, that is the different parameter 2004; Hawkins & Hattori 2006; Hawkins et settings of the parameterized features al., 2008) have suggested that L2 learners’ associated with functional categories IL grammars lack uninterpretable features; between learners’ L1 and the target L2 thus supporting the view that L2 learners (Hawkins & Chan, 1997, p. 189). Thus, have partial access to UG. L2 learners are constantly developing IL Hawkins (2004) proposes that L2 grammars that are different from the target learners’ syntax is selectively impaired grammars but are nevertheless constrained and marked by ‘a representational deficit’ by UG (White, 1996, in Mitchell & Myles, due to the lack of parameterized formal 2004, p. 65). features and functional categories. Those not The idea of a syntactic deficit in the IL present in the L1 are no longer accessible grammars of learners whose L1s lack the for acquisition following the critical period. corresponding functional categories and However, accounts of the partial UG features was further developed by other availability stand consider uninterpretable researchers. In this context, advocates of features (such as φ-features on verbs) the Representational Deficit Hypothesis to be maturationally constrained and a (RDH) (e.g. Hawkins, 2005; Hawkins permanent locus of L2 divergence. In & Hattori, 2006) and the Interpretability contrast, interpretable features (such as Hypothesis (IH) (e.g. Tsimpli, 2003; Tsimpli [definiteness], φ-features on nouns) are UG- & Dimitrakopoulou, 2007; Tsimpli & accessible at all times (Hawkins & Hattori, Mastropavlou, 2008) have proposed that it 2006; Tsimpli & Dimitrakopoulou, 2007). is only the uninterpretable syntactic features Further, Tsimpli and Dimitrakopoulou which are inaccessible in post-critical L2 (2007) and Hawkins and Casillas (2008) acquisition, and as a consequence, these argue that representational deficits in the L2 features remain problematic for L2 learners. grammar are restricted to the uninterpretable According to this view, the uninterpretible syntactic features (e.g. agreement features features, except for those already activated of verbs) and do not apply to interpretable in the L1 grammar, will pose a learning features (e.g. tense features of verbs). problem for adult L2 learners because they Similarly, Hawkins and Liszka (2003) claim are inaccessible for modification beyond that the L1 Chinese learners of L2 English the critical period. On the other hand, the in their study are unable to acquire the tense properties associated with the interpretable feature due to the fact that such feature is features are acquirable in L2 acquisition even lacking in Chinese; hence, the L2 learners if they are not available in the L2 learners’ have problems acquiring tense morphology L1 grammar because they remain accessible on verbs in English. The inability to acquire throughout life. Findings from a number of L2 uninterpretable features leads to omission
198 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 195 - 215 (2014) Acquisition of the Verb Movement Parameter in English by Adult Arabic Speakers of morphology in the case of tense or before Spell-out to have their strong, and inappropriate substitution of one form for therefore visible, morphological features another in the case of gender. checked and erased to avoid a violation of In summary, the claim made by the the Full Interpretation Principle (FIP). This FFFH asserts the influence of the L1 in movement, or raising, of the verb occurs in a the L2 learners’ IL grammar through the variety of structures including negation and transfer of features and parameters, and in adverb placement and placement of floating cases where the L1 grammar lacks certain quantifiers among others. The parameter functional features that need to be checked in in question is alternatively referred to as syntactic representations, L2 morphological the verb movement parameter (Pollock, errors result (see e.g. Muneera & Wong, 1997), the V-Raising parameter (Culicover, 2011, pp. 129-130). At times when adult 1997), the V-to-I parameter (Déprez, 1994) L2 learners’ production approximates the or (the strength of) Agr parameter, for it target surface structure this is because they depends on the strength of morphological actually rely on other cognitive learning verbal features. The parametric effects of skills3 (Hawkins & Chan, 1997, p. 200). strong versus weak morphological features The revised version of the FFFH refines the have been studied mostly with French claim that it is the uninterpretable functional (Déprez, 1994; Emonds, 1978; Pollock, features that are inaccessible to L2 learners 1989, 1997) and English (e.g., Chomsky, especially adults L2 learners (e.g Hawkins et 1995; Culicover, 1997; Pollock, 1989, 1997; al., 2002; Hawkins & Liszka 2003; Hawkins Roberts, 1998). However, Arabic and other & Hattori, 2006; Hawkins et al., 2008). This languages with asymmetric agreement word study investigates the acquisition of the verb order have also been studied (Bolotin, 1995; movement parameter in English by adult Ouhalla, 1994). Arabic-speaking learners of English as a Previous research on V-movement has Second Language (ESL), where English and led to the conclusion that this process does Arabic differ as to the settings they adopt for not apply in the same manner in all natural the parameter. languages (Rahhali & Souâli, 1997, p. 320). In other words, in languages where the THE VERB MOVEMENT V-features in Infl are strong, there is overt PARAMETER movement of the [+finite] verb, which raises The verb movement parameter or V–to–I from the VP to Infl for feature checking. movement (Pollock, 1989, 1997) involves On the other hand, languages in which the movement of the [+finite] verb from its V-features are weak, overt movement does VP–position to a functional head linked to not take place. Instead, features are checked infle(ctional) features. Within the Minimalist at LF; this movement is not ‘visible’ in the Program (MP) framework (Chomsky, 1995), syntax and is said to be covert (White, 2003, [+finite] thematic verbs may move to Infl p. 11). If we suppose further that French
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 195 - 215 (2014) 199 Muneera Yahya Ali Muftah and Wong Bee Eng and English share the D-Structure form in that neither French nor English allows for (1), where (Adv) is an optional adverbial Adverb Movement (to the right), the only position that can be occupied by VP adverbs way for often in (4a) to end up between the like often/souvent and seldom/rare-ment, verb and its object would be for the verb to then we can account for the minimal pairs in move to Infl, which it cannot do. The only (2)-(4) as the surface reflex of one abstract acceptable English sentence is therefore syntactic difference, the respective scope of (4c). Since embrasser can, on the contrary, Verb Movement in the two languages. move to Infl, (4b) is accounted for. As for the ungrammaticality of (4d), it can also be
1. [IP NP I ([Neg not/pas]) [VP (Adv) V . ..]] dealt with if we assume, as Emonds (1978) did, that French Verb Movement to Infl is 2. a.*John likes not Mary. obligatory. b. Jean (n’) aime pas Marie. Due to its rich verbal agreement features, 3. a.*Likes he Mary? Arabic is analyzed with the functional b. Aime-t-il Marie? feature strength set to [+strong], while the functional feature strength in English 4. a.*John kisses often Mary. is set to [-strong]. Weak (i.e. [-strong]) b. Jean embrasse souvent Marie. features are invisible at PF and thus the c. John often kisses Mary. relevant categories are not able to move d.*Jean souvent embrasse Marie. overtly. Take the following English sentence (Examples are taken from Pollock, 1989, p. 367) for example—Fatima always cooks fish. English agreement is weak/[-strong]; Clearly, (2a) is excluded because for the therefore, the main verb does not have verb to end up in pre-negative position, it to raise overtly in English. Conversely, would have to move to Infl, which it cannot [+strong] features are visible at PF so that since English Verb Movement is restricted to the features of the relevant categories have have and be. (2b) is fine because all lexical to be checked overtly. Consider the Arabic verbs undergo Verb Movement in French. sentence taTbuXu fatimatu daa?iman (3a) is straightforwardly excluded if we ssamaka/Fatima always cooks fish. Arabic analyze Aux-NP Inversion as movement agreement is [+strong]; consequently, the to the left of Infl (say, (head) movement main verb has to raise overtly. of Infl to Comp, as in Chomsky (1986)), Generally, the term verb movement or i.e. for a lexical verb like kiss to occur in verb raising (Pollock, 1989, 1997) refers to presubject position, it would first have to the displacement of the verb from its base move to Infl, which it cannot. Therefore, position as a head of the VP to some higher (3b) is fine for exactly the same reasons as functional head in the functional layer. (2b): lexical verbs move to Infl in French. Within minimalism, it is assumed that all Given the structure in (1), the facts in (4) verbs enter the syntactic derivation already also follow straightforwardly. Assuming
200 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 195 - 215 (2014) Acquisition of the Verb Movement Parameter in English by Adult Arabic Speakers inflected for both tense and agreement movement parameter in both English and features and that these only need to be Arabic can be determined by observing checked against appropriate functional the placement of the verb in relation to the heads above VP. These functional heads left-adjoined elements, such as the negation contain abstract morphosyntactic features marker, adverbs and floating quantifiers (see which serve to check the corresponding examples 5, 6, 7, & 8). inflectional features of the lexical heads. English [+finite] thematic verbs cannot In order for feature checking to take place, move to Agr via T due to the weak nature the verb has to move from its base position of agreement; hence, it appears to the right to the relevant functional heads in the of negation (5a), adverbs (5b) and floating functional layer above the lexical layer. quantifiers (FQ) (5c). However, auxiliaries Hence, all types of movement according to (see 6a-6c) and the copula be (see 7a-7c) the MP is triggered by the feature-checking can do so. requirement. In Arabic, on the other hand, verb Arabic exhibits verb movement for all movement is not blocked by negation. The [+finite] thematic verbs whereas in English thematic verbs in [+finite] contexts must verb movement is limited (see e.g. Muneera move across the subject and any other XP & Wong, 2011). The setting of the verb
5 a. The boy does not eat grapes Negation placement S Neg V O Thematic verb b. The boy always eats grapes Adverb placement S Adv V O Thematic verb c. All the boys ate grapes FQ placement FQ S V O Thematic verb
6 a. The boy is not eating grapes Negation placement S aux Neg V O Auxiliary Be b. The boy is always eating grapes Adverb placement S aux Adv V O Auxiliary Be c. The boys were all eating grapes FQ placement S aux FQ V O Auxiliary Be
7 a. The lady is not at the hotel Negation placement S Cop Neg Comp Copula Be b. They are always ready for exams Adverb placement S Cop Adv Comp Copula Be c. My parents are both doctors FQ placement S Cop FQ Comp Copula Be
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 195 - 215 (2014) 201 Muneera Yahya Ali Muftah and Wong Bee Eng immediately following the negative marker, before or after negation, adverbs and FQs. so that neither the subject nor any other Finally, as opposed to English, there XP will be allowed to intervene between are no infinitives in Arabic. However, either the negative marker and the verb (8a). nominalization (see 10a) or finite clauses Moreover, lexical verbs may also precede (see 10b and 10c) can be used to express the VP adverbs (8b) and FQs (8c), in contrast notion of non-finiteness. to English4. Thus, whether or not a finite verb In English, [-finite] thematic verbs do raises overtly is determined by strength of not raise at all, as it is the case for [+finite] features (i.e. [±strong]) in higher functional thematic verbs. Therefore, they cannot categories. Arabic has strong Infl (Bolotin, appear immediately before the negative 1995) while the English Infl feature is weak marker not (9a), a frequency adverb (9b), or (Chomsky, 1995), i.e., the feature strength an FQ (9c) whereas [-finite] auxiliaries and is set to [+strong] in Arabic and to [-strong] the copula be may raise past negation and in English. Accordingly, in Arabic, the main adverbs. They are free to move to Agr and verb overtly moves out of its base-generated may optionally appear either immediately position, while in English, it does not
8 a. maa ?akala ?al-waladu 3inaban Negation placement not ate the-boy grapes Thematic verb Neg V S O ‘The boy does not eat grapes’ b. ya?kulu ?al-waladu daa? iman 3inaban Adverb placement eat the-boy always grapes Thematic verb V S Adv O ‘The boy always eats grapes’ c. ?akala ?al-?awaladu kulla-hum 3inaban FQ placement ate the-boys all-clit(them) grapes Thematic verb V S FQ O ‘All the boys ate grapes’
9 a. Not to sleep enough makes you tired Negation placement Non-finite thematic verb b. To often sleep late is unhealthy Adverb placement Non-finite thematic verb c. To all own cars is the boy's ambition FQ placement Non-finite thematic verb
202 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 195 - 215 (2014) Acquisition of the Verb Movement Parameter in English by Adult Arabic Speakers
(Chomsky, 1995; Pollock, 1989). In other the issues concerning the FFFH in SLA words, Arabic exhibits verb movement for (Second Language Acquisition) within all finite lexical verbs whereas in English the minimalist program (MP). The paper verb movement is limited to auxiliary and will look at data gathered from an oral copula raising. production task (ORPT) with the aim of Differences between the behavior of testing learners’ underlying knowledge of finite and non-finite verbs in English and English verb movement parameter. The Arabic have been accounted for in terms verb movement parameter is selected in this of verb movement. Under this account the study due to the fact that this property does setting of the verb movement parameter can not apply in the same fashion in all natural be determined by observing the placement languages. Languages such as English have of the verb in relation to certain other been shown to involve only covert verb elements that occur left adjoined to the VP, movement. With regard to verb movement such as the negation marker, adverbs and in Arabic, there is clear evidence that it takes FQs (what have been called left-adjoined place overtly. This study aims to examine elements). In languages that have a positive the consistency of the FFFH in explaining value of the parameter [+strong], such as the acquisition of English verb placement Arabic, the verb precedes the left-adjoined with respect to negation, adverbs and elements; in languages that have a negative floating quantifiers by adult Arabic speakers. value of the parameter [-strong], such as In particular, this study tests the hypothesis English, the verb follows the left-adjoined of the inaccessibility of functional features elements. which is not instantiated in adult learners’ L1 inventory due to the critical period. Towards THE STUDY this end, the study sets out to answer two This study investigates the acquisition research questions: of English verb movement parameter by 1. Given exposure to the English language, adult Arabic ESL learners in relation to to what extent can the adult Arabic
10 a. mo3amalata ?al-waledayni bighayri iHtiraam amrun moXjil-un treatment the-parents without respect thing shameful ‘To treat one’s parents with no respect is a shame.’
b. ?al-laði laa-yu-3amilu waleday-hi b-iHtiraam-in 3aaq who Neg-3sgm.treats parents-his with-respect shame ‘He who does not treat his parents respectfully is a shame.’
c. 3aqun man-laa-yu-3amilu waleday-hi b-iHtiraam shame who- Neg-3sgm.treats parents-his with-respect ‘It’s a shame not to treat one’s parents respectfully.’
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ESL learners reset the verb movement schools. Their average age at first exposure parameter and correctly place the verb to English was 12.44 years. They studied with respect to: English for three years before they began a.) negation in finite contexts? secondary school and they continued to learn English at secondary schools. In b.) negation in non-finite contexts? addition, first year undergraduate students c.) adverbs (frequency and manner had to learn English as a requirement course adverbs) in finite contexts? in Yemani Universities. This means that d.) floating quantifiers (FQs) in finite the learners have had at least seven to eight contexts? years of tutored exposure to the English language when they begin university level 2. Given exposure to the English language, education. However, most learners had what is the nature of adult Arabic ESL very little contact with English outside the learners’ verb movement parameter in classroom before they joined the university. their IL grammar at the L2 ultimate attainment level? Is there evidence TEST INSTRUMENT to indicate that the adult L1 Arabic The test instrument was an oral production speakers of L2 English have a different task (ORPT) (see similar tasks used by Wen, underlying representation from English 2006; McCarthy, 2006; Epstein et al. 1998; native speakers? Polio, 1994). This was a story telling task based on a set of pictures given. First, the PARTICIPANTS Arabic ESL learners were asked to take a In total 77 adult Arabic native speakers few minutes to look over the pictures. Then, participated in this study. The Arabic they were asked to orally narrate the story ESL learners were subdivided into three as they look through the pictures one by one proficiency groups (the lower-intermediate starting with “One day…” and using the group (LIG), the upper-intermediate group verbs and phrases given under each picture. (UIG) and the advanced group (AG)) There were no right or wrong answers in on the basis of their performance on an this story telling task. The important thing independent measure of proficiency, the was that they say as much as they can. If Oxford Placement Test (OPT) (Allan, the learners do not know a particular word 1992). The participants were undergraduate in English, they were allowed to ask the university students in Yemen from the instructor. The verbs provided with the science and social science disciplines. pictures were in the infinitive form and the Their average age was 22.67 years. All of L2 learners had to conjugate them where the participants started learning English necessary. at the age of 12 and a few of them at 13 The learners’ oral production was years of age at preparatory/pre-secondary taped and transcribed. The instances of
204 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 195 - 215 (2014) Acquisition of the Verb Movement Parameter in English by Adult Arabic Speakers grammatical and ungrammatical placement placed negation items with finite clauses of verbs with respect to negation, adverb (e.g. *The girl not drinks milk from the and floating quantifiers in finite and non- fridge). finite contexts with thematic as well as be •• Type 2 (T2): ungrammatical negation auxiliary and copula be verb forms were in non-finite contexts (UNIFC), that counted. is wrongly placed negation items with The possible grammatical sentences in non-finite/infinitive clauses (e.g.To * English can be classified into the following sleep not enough makes you tired.). types: •• Type 3 (T3): ungrammatical adverb •• Type 1 (Tl): grammatical negation in placement in finite contexts (UAdvFC), finite contexts (GNFC), that is correctly that is wrongly placed adverbs with placed negation items with finite clauses finite clauses (e.g.*John lost completely (e.g. They do not watch movies in the his mind). cinema). •• Type 4 (T4): ungrammatical floating •• Type 2 (T2): grammatical negation in quantifier (FQ) placement in finite non-finite contexts (GNIFC), that is contexts (UFQFC), that is wrongly correctly placed negation items with placed floating quantifiers with finite non-finite/infinitive clauses (e.g. Not clauses (e.g. *Jane and Sarah built both to succeed at the university causes a house; *The fans all are gathering anxiety). beside the entrance to the theatre). •• Type 3 (T3): grammatical adverb The mean percentages of correct placement in finite contexts (GAdvFC), production for grammatical items and that is correctly placed adverbs with incorrect production for ungrammatical finite clauses (e.g.John completely lost items for each item type were tallied and his mind). analyzed. Then, statistical tests were also •• Type 4 (T4): grammatical floating run on the learners’ production for each of quantifier (FQ) placement in finite these typess. contexts (GFQFC), that is correctly placed floating quantifiers with finite RESULTS AND INTERPRETATION clauses (e.g. My teachers both agree on This section presents the findings of the this subject; The guests are all sleeping grammatical and the ungrammatical oral in this room). production data which are aimed at testing the learners’ underlying knowledge of the The possible ungrammatical sentences are feature strength of T [±strong] that accounts the following: for the placement of the verb with respect •• Type 1 (Tl): ungrammatical negation in to negation, adverbs and floating quantifiers finite contexts (UNFC), that is wrongly
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(FQs) in finite and non-finite contexts with was not a single instance where the L2 thematic as well as be auxiliary and copula learners used negation in non-finite contexts. be verb forms. Both of the grammatical This can be attributed to the fact that unlike and the ungrammatical sets contain the English, Arabic (the learners’ L1) has no following: type 1 (Tl): negation in finite infinitives. The notion of non-finiteness, contexts, type 2 (T2): negation in non- however, can be expressed through finite contexts, type 3 (T3): adverbs in nominalization or by tensed/finite clauses. finite contexts, and type 4 (T4): floating Therefore, the L2 learners did not tend to quantifiers (FQs) in finite contexts. use negation in finite contexts in their oral production, presumably due to the absence Production of Grammatical Item Types of the said category in the their L1 inventory. Table 1 presents the data obtained from Adverbs in (T3) GAdvFC constructions the three proficiency groups’ production of proved to be problematic for the less grammatical item types on verb movement. proficient learners whose scores were rather Figure 1 shows the same results visually. low (45.45% for the lower-intermediate and As shown in Table 1 and Fig.1, the 25.00 % for the upper-intermediate learners performance of the advanced learners was respectively). Although their performance the highest on (T1) GNFC constructions. increased with proficiency (73.91%), the However, the results showed that the advanced learners at ultimate attainment advanced learners scored below 80% for level did not achieve native like level. this construction (76.00%) indicating that Again, the learners’ production of placement they have not achieved native like level (the of adverbs with thematic verbs was better cut-off point is 80%, following e.g. Wong, than that with be auxiliary or copula for 2002). The performance of the upper- most of the L2 learners, particularly for the intermediate and the lower-intermediate advanced learners (77.82% for the thematic learners was much lower on (T1) GNFC verbs and 70.82% for the be auxiliary or (57.14% and 29.03% respectively). In copula respectively). general, the advanced learners had better As far as (T4) GFQFC constructions performance on negation with thematic were concerned, results indicated that verbs (79.15%) than on negation with be the accuracy levels for all learners were verb forms (be auxiliary/copula) (72.85%). also low (below 80%) across all groups Similarly, the upper-intermediate learners (68.75%for the advanced group, 57.58% were more accurate on items with thematic for the upper-intermediate and 44.12% verbs (61.86%) than on be verb items for the Lower-intermediate group). These (52.42%). The lower-intermediate learners results suggest that placement of floating hardly used negation with be verb forms5. quantifiers in finite clauses had not been With regard to (T2) GNIFC acquired to a native like level by the Arabic constructions, the data showed that there ESL learners although accuracy did increase with proficiency.
206 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 195 - 215 (2014) Acquisition of the Verb Movement Parameter in English by Adult Arabic Speakers
TABLE 1 Production of Grammatical Item Types by the 3 Groups
Proficiency Group Item type Advanced Upper-Intermediate Lower-Intermediate (%) N=20 N=25 N=32 19/25 16/28 9/31 44/84 T1 (GNFC) 76.00% 57.14% 29.03% 52.38% 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 T2 (GNIFC) 00.00% 00.00% 00.00% 00.00% 17/23 10/22 9/36 36/81 T3 (GAdvFC) 73.91% 45.45% 25.00% 44.44% 22/32 19/33 15/34 56/99 T4 (GFQFC) 68.75% 57.58% 44.12% 56.57% 58/80 45/83 33/101 136/264 Average 72.5% 54.22% 32.67% 51.52% GNFC= grammatical negation in finite contexts; GNIFC= grammatical negation in non-finite contexts; GAdvFC= grammatical adverb placement in finite contexts; GFQFC= grammatical floating quantifier placement in finite contexts
100 T1 (GNFC) T2 (GNIFC) 80 T3 (GAdvFC) T4 (GFQFC)
60
40
20
0 Advanced1 Upper-Intermediate2 Lower3 -Intermediate
Fig.1: Comparison of Production of Grammatical Item Types for the 3 Groups
Performance on Ungrammatical Item the highest number of errors for (T1) Types UNFC (70.97%). Out of the 31 instances Table 2 and Fig.2 display the data obtained in which negation was used, 22 instances from the participants’ performance on were of inappropriate use involving either ungrammatical items. wrongly placed thematic verbs or be verb The data indicate that the lower- forms (be auxiliary and copula) preceded by intermediate learners seemed to produce negation. Similarly, out of the 28 instances
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 195 - 215 (2014) 207 Muneera Yahya Ali Muftah and Wong Bee Eng in which negation was used, the upper- use of negation in finite contexts are given intermediate group showed 12 instances of below: inappropriate use. However, the higher the i. *They not get the ball (from advanced 16) proficiency level, the better the performance. back. Only six of the 25 instances of negation ii. *They not are happy (from upper- placement produced by the advanced group because, the ball fall in the intermediate 13) backyard. were inappropriate placement of negation (24.00%). Some examples of inappropriate
TABLE 2 Production of Ungrammatical Item Types by the 3 Groups
Proficiency Group Item type Advanced Upper-Intermediate Lower-Intermediate % N=20 N=25 N=32 T1 (UNFC) 6/25 12/28 22/31 40/84 24.00% 42.86% 70.97% 47.62% T2 (UNIFC) 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 00.00% 00.00% 00.00% 00.00% T3 (UAdvFC) 6/23 12/22 27/36 45/81 26.09% 54.55% 75.00% 55.56% T4 (UFQFC) 10/32 14/33 19/34 43/99 31.25% 42.42% 55.88% 43.43% Average 22/80 38/83 68/101 128/264 27.5% 45.78% 67.33% 48.48% UNFC= ungrammatical negation in finite contexts; UNIFC= ungrammatical negation in non-finite contexts; UAdvFC= ungrammatical adverb placement in finite contexts; UFQFC= ungrammatical floating quantifier placement in finite contexts
100 T1 (UNFC) T2 (UNIFC) 80 T3 (UAdvFC) T4 (UFQFC)
60
40
20
0 Advanced1 Upper-Intermediate2 Lower3-Intermediate
Fig.2: Comparison of Production of Ungrammatical Item Types for the 3 Groups
208 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 195 - 215 (2014) Acquisition of the Verb Movement Parameter in English by Adult Arabic Speakers iii. *They not played in the (from upper- production, there were 43 instances of yard. intermediate 10) misplaced floating quantifiers across the iv. *The woman not invited (from lower- three groups. Yet again the performance a lot of children for a intermediate 9) birthday for her two boys. of the lower-intermediate learners was less v. *Therefore, he is very shy, (from lower- favourable (55.88%) compared to that of he not is laughing and intermediate 23) the upper-intermediate learners (42.42%) playing while the other and the advanced learners (31.25%). Some laughing and playing. examples of misplaced floating quantifiers which include either thematic verbs followed Adverb placement as shown in UAdvFC by floating quantifiers orbe verb forms (be constructions seemed to be also problematic auxiliary and copula) preceded by floating for the L2 learners. Out of a total of 81 quantifiers are given below: instances of adverb placement, there were 45 instances of misplaced adverbs across i. *The children all are (from advanced 19) the three groups. Again the performance playing and so they are very happy. of the lower-intermediate learners was ii. *Then the two boys (from advanced 3) the least favourable on (T2) UAdvFC explain both what (75.00%) compared to that of the upper- happened. intermediate (54.55%) and the advanced iii. *The boys run all away (from upper- learners (26.09%). Further, it was observed to get the ball with two intermediate 4) children. that adverb misplacement was higher with iv. *The boys both were (from lower- be auxiliary verb forms than with thematic running in the yard of the intermediate 10) verbs. An interesting finding is the L2 house to play. learners hardly used adverbs with copula be In sum, the placement of the verb with at all. Some examples of the ungrammatical respect to negation, adverbs and floating placement of adverbs found in the oral quantifiers in finite and non-finite contexts production data are given below: with thematic, be auxiliary and copula be i. *But one boy slowly is (from upper- verb forms proved to be problematic for the knocking the door and his intermediate 13) adult Arabic ESL learners who seemed to friends are worried. have stabilized at below 80%, an accepted ii. *The boys kick (from lower- accidentally the ball over intermediate 17) cut off point for native/near native-like level the wall. of acquisition. The results for sentences involving floating quantifiers (i.e. (T4) UFQFC) also DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION indicate that the learners displayed poor The acquisition of the verb movement performance. The data presented above parameter can be determined by looking show that out of a total of 99 instances at the syntactic behaviour of the verb in of floating quantifiers in the learners’ oral relation to certain other elements that occur
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 195 - 215 (2014) 209 Muneera Yahya Ali Muftah and Wong Bee Eng left adjoined to the VP, such as negation have produced ungrammatical constructions element, adverbs and floating quantifiers such as *the boys kick accidentally the ball (FQs). Arabic is a [+strong] language while over the wall. The same holds true for T4 English is [-strong] where verb movement (placement of FQs in finite contexts) where is restricted to only auxiliary and copula the L2 learners misplaced the FQs after the raising. Therefore, to say that the adult verbs (e.g. *Then the two boys explain both Arabic ESL learners have acquired the what happened). These findings suggest that English verb movement parameter, they the L2 learners, even at ultimate attainment should set the features values from [+strong] level, did not recognize the impossibility to [-strong], thus placing the thematic verbs of verb movement in English. Therefore, after negation (NegV), adverbs (SAdvV), they have difficulty producing the NegV, and FQs (SFQV). The findings of the oral SAdvV and SFQV orders, indicating production task showed that resetting the failure to reset the parameters of [±strong] English verb movement parameter seemed to to their target values in English. Their be problematic for the adult Arabic learners. performance seemed to show that the L2 They have stabilized below 80% in terms of learners were still indeterminate in their accuracy of their production of associated production and that their IL representations construction types. The adult Arabic ESL with respect to the placement of the verbs learners seemed to have difficulty with T1 with negation, adverbs and FQs were (negation in finite contexts); therefore they inconsistent with those of native speakers. have erroneously placed thematic verbs In other words, adult Arabic ESL learners’ before negation (SVNeg) (e.g. *they played IL representations in post–critical period not in the yard). Further, the results of T2 L2 acquisition diverge from that of the (negation in non-finite contexts) showed that native speakers where L1 and L2 parameter there was not a single instance where the L2 settings differ (Hawkins & Chan, 1997). learners used negation in non-finite contexts. Similar findings were also found by Wong This can be attributed to the fact that unlike and Hawkins (2000), Wong (2002), and English, Arabic has no infinitives. The Muneera and Wong (2011). notion of non-finiteness, however, can be In conclusion, this study has set expressed through nominalization or by out to contribute to the on-going debate tensed/finite clauses. Therefore, the L2 concerning persistent difficulties posed learners did not tend to use negation in by certain morphosyntactic properties in non-finite contexts in their oral production. post-critical L2 acquisition. The findings For T3 (placement of adverbs in finite presented in this study have shown that contexts), the production data showed that L1 Arabic speakers learning English as the L2 learners were generally less than L2 exhibited the following behaviours: accurate in their placement of verbs in difficulty with negation in finite contexts, relation to adverbs. On the contrary, they S-Adv-V constructions, and S-FQ-V orders.
210 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 195 - 215 (2014) Acquisition of the Verb Movement Parameter in English by Adult Arabic Speakers
Based on the findings, the main to be features that are associated with generalisation that can be made is that functional categories found in the UG L1 V-movement persists in L2 English. lexicon, which however, do not exist in the This generalization is the most significant L2 learners’ L1 inventory. It is said to be contribution in the study. It provides solid attributed to the disappearance of a layer of evidence that verb movement persists in L2 options in the UG lexicon which happens English. The results shows the validity of the to provide options for parameter setting generalization that the L1 Arabic learners and to determine parametric differences or had not acquired the English setting of variations between languages. As a result, the parameter and this generalization does the L2 learners are no longer able to reset the work better within the FFFH (or perhaps a L1 parameter setting into L2 settings nor are very highly flexible version of the FTFAH) they able to transfer the features from their compared to the other hypotheses. L1 into their L2 inventory. Such features are Supporters of the FFFH assumption more appropriately known as parameterized (see e.g. Smith & Tsimpli, 1995; Hawkins functional features as such features are not & Chan, 1997; Hawkins, 2000; Wong & necessarily present in all languages; rather Hawkins, 2000; Wong, 2002; Hawkins they are selected by only certain languages. & Liszka, 2003; Hawkins & Hattori, Hawkins (2004) proposes that L2 learners’ 2006; Tsimpli & Dimitrakopoulou, 2007; syntax is selectively impaired and marked Tsimpli & Mastropavlou, 2008) contend by ‘a representational deficit’ due to the that access to UG is partially available but lack of parameterized formal features and only through the L1. Features and functional functional categories. If these are not present categories that are not instantiated in the in the L1, they are no longer accessible L1 but available in the L2 are impossible to following the critical period for acquisition acquire. Most importantly, the data indicate of language. that the FFFH is the logical theoretical The inaccessibility of the parameterized explanation of the findings discussed in the functional features in post critical period L2 oral production task (ORPT). acquisition causes L2 learners, particularly The FFFH claims that in the process adults, to have persistent difficulty in the of L2 acquisition, a certain subpart of acquisition of the full significant functions the Universal Grammar (UG) becomes of the features. The L2 learners are thus said inaccessible to L2 learners if that certain to have a different underlying representation subpart is acquired beyond a critical period. from the native speakers. Despite the Based on Johnson and Newport’s (1989) difficulty, the L2 learners are said to be study, the critical period can be as early able to map new morphophonological as the age of seven. According to Smith material on the surface level by mapping and Tsimpli’s (1995) assumption, the L2 lexical items onto L1 syntax. Therefore, particular subpart has been identified the learners are unable to achieve native
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 195 - 215 (2014) 211 Muneera Yahya Ali Muftah and Wong Bee Eng like performance and there appears to be associated with uninterpretable features. variation in their linguistic ability due to However, as experience would tell us, it L1 transfer that occurs in the L2 learners’ may be possible for L2 learners to learn production of IL grammars. the surface structure associated with them The results of this study seem to support by deploying other cognitive skills in an the above hypothesis. The results show that immersion context. adult Arabic ESL learners have failed to acquire the feature strength of English tense REFERENCES suggesting failure to reset the parameter Allan, D. (1992). The Oxford Placement Test. Oxford: form [+strong] to [-strong] so that they Oxford University Press. end up with the wrong setting for English. Benmamoun, E. (2000). The feature structure of These features have become inaccessible functional categories: A comparative study to the learners due to the disappearance of of Arabic dialects. New York/Oxford: Oxford the layer of options as well as the absence University Press. of the features in the learners’ L1 inventory. Bley-Vroman, R. (1989). What is the logical problem Therefore, no parameter resetting happens of foreign language learning? In S. Gass & J. here and the underlying representations of Schachter (Eds.), Linguistic perspectives on the learners’ IL indeed diverge from those Second Language Acquisition. (pp.41-68). New York: Cambridge University Press. of the native speakers’. In some cases, the L2 learner might be able to produce the Bolotin, N. (1995). Arabic and parametric VSO surface structures, however, this does not agreement. In M. Eid (Ed.), Perspectives on Arabic Linguistics VII (pp. 7-27). Amsterdam: mean that they have acquired the underlying John Benjamins. representations but rather they have resorted to other means. The data indicate that in the Chomsky, N. (1995). The minimalist program. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press. acquisition of an L2, learners are influenced by the absence of particular (parameterized) Chomsky, N. (1986). Barriers. Cambridge, MA: functional features in their L1 which are MIT Press. present in the target L2 and which are not Cook, V., & Newson, M. (2007). Chomsky’s Universal subject to modification after the critical Grammar: An introduction (3rd ed.). Oxford: period. Blackwell. The findings from the study have further Culicover, P. (1997). Principles and Parameters. contributed to the body of literature in the An introduction to syntactic theory. New York: field of SLA. The implication from the Oxford University Press. findings indicate that learners may not be Deprez, V. (1994). Under-specification, functional able to reset particular parameters already projections, and parameter setting. In B. Lust, instantiated in their L1 (in this case the verb M. Suñer, & J. Whitman (Eds.), Syntactic theory and first language acquisition: Cross- movement parameter), particularly those linguistic perspectives. Heads, projections and
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ENDNOTES functional categories are not intact in L2 learner 1 The Arabic learners are studying English as grammars. In other words, according to this non-native speakers. Depending on where the account, representations for verbal inflectional learners are from, the term ESL may be more morphology may be fully specified in the L2 inclusive and includes English as a Foreign grammar, but L2 learners may fail to produce the Language (EFL). For some people the reverse corresponding overt forms, due to performance seems to be true. limitations resulting from communication pressure (Prévost & White 2000, p. 129). 2 Supporters of the Mapping problem (Lardiere, 3 1998, 2000) and the Missing Surface Inflection These are skills such as problem solving, Hypothesis (MSIH) (Prévost & White, 2000) hypothesis testing, decision making and have claimed that L2 learners have full evaluating. and appropriate abstract knowledge of the 4 The Arabic examples in this paper were functional categories and associated functional adapted mostly from Benmamoun (2000) and features, but sometimes fail to realize them Rahhali and Souâli (1997). in overt morphology. In fact, the proponents 5 of the MSIH have argued that the presence or To substantiate these results, a further study absence of morphology on the surface does would be to investigate L2 learners whose L1 not necessarily reflect that the underlying is similar to English in their acquisition of the same property.
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Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 217 - 231 (2014)
SOCIAL SCIENCES & HUMANITIES
Journal homepage: http://www.pertanika.upm.edu.my/
Restorative Justice In Relation to Collectivism/Individualism, Shyness, and Conflict Resolution Method Preference
Taufik Mohammad* and Azlinda Azman School of Social Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 USM, Penang, Malaysia
ABSTRACT Restorative justice has been widely practiced across countries, but it is still a relatively new concept in Malaysia. Its implementation in the nation is desired, however, there are issues of culture, shyness, and the people’s preference of conflict resolution methods that can interfere with its effectiveness. This paper seeks to explore the individual degree of collectivism/individualism and shyness of the Malaysian people and the kinds of conflict resolution practice that they prefer. The findings showed that the sample is collectivistic and individualistic in general, but they are more collectivistic when it comes to decision making relating to criminal cases. Although the sample appears to be shyer, they seem to be less shy in criminal context. Restorative justice programs also seem to be a good fit in Malaysia since authority is a preferred way of resolving conflict, although they also prefer negotiation and mediation; and both are important elements in programs such as victim-offender mediation.
Keywords: Restorative justice, collectivism, individualism, shyness, conflict
INTRODUCTION to the person who commits the crime, this Restorative justice is an evolution of practice lets the victims to come forward criminal justice system in many countries in in the decision making process, and have the world. Rather than letting the court and a face-to-face session with the offenders the distant authorities decide what happens (Wolhuter, Olley, & Denham, 2009). Hence, the offenders will be directly accountable to the victims. The movements of victims’ ARTICLE INFO rights that became the basis of restorative Article history: Received: 13 February 2012 justice were initiated in the United States Accepted: 2 August 2012 (Shapland, Willmore, & Duff, 1985; Austin/ E-mail addresses: [email protected] (Mohamad Taufik Mohamad), Travis County Victims’ Services Task Force, [email protected] (Azlinda Azman) 2005; Karmen, 2007). * Corresponding author
ISSN: 0128-7702 © Universiti Putra Malaysia Press Taufik Mohammad and Azlinda Azman
Restorative justice is generally a has been practiced in countries that value practice that usually handles cases of assertiveness and explicit expression minor offences such as mischief, assaults, of opinions; a characteristic of some and theft (Ministry of Public Safety and individualist cultures (Triandis, 1991). Solicitor General, 2009). However, lately Several research on this will be discussed it has been considered for more serious which indicate varied findings. crimes such as rapes, and violent crimes. An early research on conflict resolution Being documented as effective in preventing was conducted to see if different cultures had recidivism (e.g. Umbreit, Coates, & different preference for conflict resolution Roberts, 2000; Umbreit, Coates, &Vos, (Leung, 1987). Leung presented a conflict 2004; Bradshaw, Roseborough, &Umbreit, scene to a group of Chinese and American 2006), the practice has gained acceptance respondents and asked them if they preferred worldwide and being utilized in many the method of resolution to be “bargaining,” countries such as New Zealand (Galaway, “mediation,” “inquisitorial adjudication,” 1995; Maxwell & Liu, 2006), South Africa or “adversary adjudication”. The Chinese (Venter & Rankin, 2006), and in the Europe respondents showed a high preference (Hydle, 2008). In fact, restorative justice on mediation and bargaining, while the was, part of it, inspired by a long-standing American respondents preferred the conflict tradition in Maori tribe in New Zealand to be settled adjudicatorily. that used to do conferencing between the In response to Leung’s research, Gire offenders and the community (Marshall, (1997) conducted a research to see if 1999; Van Ness & Strong, 2010). there was any difference in the preference of conflict resolution methods between ISSUES TO CONSIDER BEFORE Nigerian and Canadian respondents who IMPLEMENTATION OF are of collectivist and individualist culture RESTORATIVE JUSTICE respectively. The researcher presented a Realizing its effectiveness in handling conflict scene and asked the respondents offenders and victims, Malaysia has begun to choose a preferred resolution method to get acquainted with this concept although between “threats,” “acceptance of the it has not been introduced in the country’s situation,” “negotiation,” “mediation,” criminal justice system (Prison Fellowship and “arbitration”. The conflicts were either International, n.d.; Koshy, 2008). This between individuals or between groups. is a great initiative since this might be a Nigerian respondents indicated that they stepping stone for Malaysia to recognize preferred threats for interpersonal conflicts the importance of victims’ voice in the rather than for the intergroup ones, while process of criminal justice. However, one Canadian respondents preferred willingness important issue has to be raised. Restorative to accept the conflict in interpersonal justice as a form of conflict resolution, over intergroup conflicts. However, in
218 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 217 - 231 (2014) Restorative Justice In Relation to Collectivism/Individualism, Shyness, and Conflict Resolution Method Preference the case of preference for arbitration, The members of collectivistic cultures Nigerian respondents preferred the method believe that a society or group is the basic to be applied on conflicts between groups unit of survival (Triandis, Brislin, &Hui, rather than between individuals, while the 1988; Hui&Villareal, 1989). They believe Canadian counterparts did not differ in in living in societies; protecting and being their answer. While Leung (1987) found a loyal to their society (Hofstede, 1991). support for collectivist-individualist cultural These promote maintaining harmony influence per se, Gire has found that the and concern about others. Malaysia, pattern is inconclusive. according to Hofstede (n.d.), is a collectivist This led to the discussion of a more country. Therefore, Malaysians are more specific classification of types of cultures characterized in ways that are difficult for which are broken down to horizontal them to voice their opinions or feelings as and vertical type of collectivism and it might not be healthy for the relationship individualism. In relation to this, Aizawa with their groups. Consequently, most and Whatley (2006) hypothesized that there of the people will more likely hold their was a difference in shyness degree between opinions back. It may also be attributed to cultures, and their level of collectivism and the influence of religion as each religion is individualism, in relation to the horizontal concerned with the values of its adherence, and vertical types. Respondents from Japan, especially in sensitive matters that could Chile, and the United States were involved lead to clashes. to test this hypothesis. The respondents Thus, Malaysians become more were given two sets of scales, being shyness confined, especially in cases where scales and individualism-collectivism expressiveness is concerned. According scales. While Japanese and Chileans were to Triandis (1991), people in collectivist generally collectivist cultures, Japanese cultures spend much of their time building people were found to report a lesser level relationships because the members of the of horizontal, and vertical collectivism and groups they belong to matter to them. They horizontal individualism. It was also found believe in life long relationships (Triandis, that despite the cultural difference, Japanese Bontempo, Villareal, Asai, & Lucca, 1988). respondents were the shyest among the As a result, they are concerned more about three groups of participants, with their others’ needs, views, and goals rather American counterparts being the least shy. thanexpressing their own opinion. They are This finding showed that being a collectivist afraid to voice out their feelings because group of people (as shown by the Japanese they do not want to be excluded from the and Chilean respondents in this research) society. might be an indication of the people’s level Therefore, it is expected that Malaysians of shyness. in this paper will exhibit behaviors that
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 217 - 231 (2014) 219 Taufik Mohammad and Azlinda Azman are consistent to the characteristics of the victim, the offender and the community. people in collectivist culture, such as Communication (or another important depending on groups and seeking for group component, the dialogue) is the key to a harmony. If Malaysian people are similar successful implementation of restorative in terms of their level of shyness with that justice program. of other people of the same type of culture (Aizawa & Whatley, 2006), then this PURPOSE AND OBJECTIVES characteristic can have huge impacts on the This paper seeks to understand and practice of restorative justice in this country. investigate Malaysians’ level of shyness Restorative justice requires the participants and collectivism-individualism, and their to be expressive and participative in the general perception of restorative justice sessions. Thus, one would ask, “Will and its possible implementation in this Malaysians be able to be as assertive as country. It is hypothesized that shyness people in the individualist countries? level and collectivist culture of Malaysia Furthermore there are various aspects will positively correlate with the perception of restorative justice programs that are of Malaysians on the implementation of relevant to the culture and shyness of the restorative justice. Perception of the practice victims (O’Brien, Buttcane, & Seward, of restorative justice will be analyzed 2008). Although the author did not mention from the respondents’opinion of certain the applicability of these components procedures of restorative justice programs. in terms of the issue of culture and The importance of this research shyness of the victims, the implication is includes providing conceptual support overwhelmingly alerting. Alongside with for the restorative justice practice to be the need to involvethe community, the implemented in this country. Although process is expected to involve issues like the effectiveness of this practice has been 1) encounter, 2) amends, 3) reintegration, supported in literature, we still need to be and 4) inclusion. The emotions involved in cautious of blind implementation which the encounter should help the process of the could lead to complications. This research program, rather than impede it. Therefore, aims to examine whether certain aspects of a victim’s willingness and confidence level restorative justice programs can be adjusted should be something that the program to fit the culture of a collectivist country handler should be aware of beforehand. like Malaysia. Thus, the objectives of this Other than that, an issue that the program paper are to, handler needs to understand is how the 1. Examine the levels of shyness and victim sees the offender: Is he someone who collectivism-individualism, the general lacks integration, or someone who needs perception of a sample of Malaysians on help? In a restorative justice program, all restoratice justice and if they think that parties are expected to participate and do it will be a good practice in this country their share of roles in the process, including
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2. Explore if Malaysians will prefer given before survey and they were free to restorative justice as a way of refuse the survey if they decided so.The dealingwith crimes and offenders in demographic data of the sample was as this country, and shown in Table 1. 3. Provide the basis of further research if any amendments of restorative justice Materials and Measurements programs need to be made in order to be The research employed survey as the applicable to the people in this country. design, where only basic stationery and a tape recorder was utilized in the session. METHODOLOGY However, there were four measurements Sample used for the purpose of measuring the variables which included, This research targeted Malaysians in general, and any Malaysian is a potential 1. Shyness scale was adapted from Cheek respondent. However, the researchers and Buss (1981). This scale has been specified that the respondents should at reported to have an internal consistency least be ofthe age of 18 to qualify as a of .82 (Aizawa & Whatley, 2006). respondent. In total, 85 respondents who 2. The individualism-collectivism scale consisted of Malaysians ranging from 18 was adapted from Singelis, Triandis, to 62 years old successfully completed the Bhawuk, and Gelfand (1995). In questionnaires. The researchers employed the original research, the questions convenience sampling method; where consist of four main divisions namely Malaysians in various places (e.g. café, horizontal collectivism, horizontal restaurant, hospital, university classrooms, individualism, vertical collectivism, etc.) were approached and asked if they were and vertical individualism. The internal willing to participate. The consent form was consistency of each division was .74, .67, .68, and .74 respectively (Aizawa & Whatley, 2006). TABLE 1 3. A questionnaire on the preference Demographic characteristics of respondents of conflict resolution method was Demographic characteristic n employed from Gire (1997). The male = 32 questionnaire featured a story of two Gender female = 52 neighbors having a conflict about missing = 1 their lawn. The respondents would be Malay = 64 presented with five possible kinds of Chinese = 11 Race Indians = 8 conflict resolution methods: Threat, Others = 1 negotiation, acceptance, mediation, and missing = 1 authority.
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4. A set of questions pertaining to individualism/collectivism, shyness, and the respondents’ perception on the conflict resolution method preference – applicability of restoratice justice with a total of 15 questions. The points practice in this country was developed assigned were the same as the rest of the by the researchers themselves. questionnaires to avoid confusion, with 1 representing “mostly disagree,” 2 for The questions were built upon the basis “disagree,” 3 for “neutral,” 4 for “agree,” of the three previous concepts, namely ans 5 for “mostly agree.” Therefore, the collectivism-individualism, shyness, and highest score a respondent could yield for a conflict resolution method. These concepts certain component would be 25 points, and were made into similar questions, in the lowest would be 5 points. The higher the addition to a crime situation presented. score, the higher the respondent possessed Only some items were adapted and some the measured characteristic. were changed significantly. Four most Before the administration of the common offences (as stated in Umbreit, sets of questionnaires, the participants Coates, & Roberts, 2000) were used, which were first asked to provide their consent are vandalism, assault, theft, and burglary. in participating in this research. After Table 2 shows some of the items developed obtaining their informed consent, in order for the perception scale while Table 3 shows to ensure that the participants answer the the result of Pearson correlation analysis questions correctly, the researchers handed between Shyness Scale, Collectivism/ out the first three questionnaires, which Individualism Scale, and their respective were the collectivism-individualism scale, adaptations in the perception scale. the shyness scale, and the preference of The questions asked the respondents the conflict resolution method. Next, the the various aspects of restorative justice researchers described and explained what programs – especially victim-offender restorative justice was. The description mediation – in relation to the components was offered in Malay or English language from O’Brien, Buttcane, and Seward’s as follows: account (2008). These various aspects include the involvement of community “Restorative Justice is a practice and others in the decision making process of criminal justice system where within the criminal justice system, the the crime victims are given a victims’ willingness and confidence issues in chance to participate in the justice actively participating, the preferred method process. The victims of crime will of mediation in resolving conflict, and if be given an opportunity to talk Malaysians prefer to act alone in making about it and express their feelings a decision. or dissatisfactions, and the power to Five questions were made for each contribute to the decision that can of the three components – namely be sanctionedonto the offenders.
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The offenders will be given a chance the fourth questionnaire was administered. to apologize and make amends. Once completed, the participants were Usually this practice is done with debriefed with necessary information about offenders who committed minor the research should there be any. offences such as theft, bullying, and snatching. This second set RESULTS of questionnaire will evaluate The scales of shyness and individualism/ your perception on the practice of collectivism were analyzed using Restorative Justice in Malaysia”. means whereas the conflict resolution survey was analyzed using descriptive After this explanation, the respondents frequencies. Meanwhile, the restorative were given an opportunity to voice out justice applicability perception scale any concerns should there be any. Then, was analyzed item-by-item and also by
TABLE 2 Adapted items in the self-built questionnaires
Scale Items Their respective adapted items from perception scale Individualism item from I rather depend on myself than I can decide the fate of the person Collectivism/Individualism Scale on others who does wrong to me without anyone’s help Collectivism item from It is important to consult close If there’s someone who breaks Collectivism/Individualism Scale friends and get their ideas before into my house, the community making a decision should also participate with me to decide what to do to the person Shyness Scale I feel tense when I’m with people I do not feel comfortable if I have I don’t know well to confront the person who steals my money Conflict resolution survey Arbitration by authority The person who damages my valuables should be judged by an authority
TABLE 3 Correlation coefficients for the original questionnaires and the perception scale
Scales Correlation coefficient Scales Shyness scale/shyness items in r = .688, n = 83 (missing = 2), Shyness scale/shyness items in perception scale p = .001 perception scale Individualism items/ Individualism items/ r = .401, n = 84 (missing = 1), Individualism items in perception Individualism items in perception p = .001 scale scale Collectivism items/collectivism r = .009, n = 84 (missing = 1), Collectivism items/collectivism items in perception scale p = .936 items in perception scale
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 217 - 231 (2014) 223 Taufik Mohammad and Azlinda Azman descriptive frequencies. The individualism Male respondents only scored slightly and collectivism were analyzed according to lesser than female respondents for vertical individual basis. Although Triandis (personal collectivism, with a mean of 24.4, while the communication, November 23, 2010) female respondents had an average of 24.6 insisted that the scale should yield a mean of for the division. score that should explain whether a culture is individualistic or collectivistic in nature, Conflict resolution method preference this current research is concerned with the The Malaysian sample showed the highest assumption that the score belongs to some preference for negotiation as a conflict of the respondents, which could result in the resolution method, with a mean of 4.3 high – or low – score of both individualism scores, while the lowest score with a and collectivism. Since the ratios between mean of 1.8 for the use of threat. For other races werealso imbalanced, the analysis was methods, which are acceptance, mediation, only performed on Malaysians in general and the use of authority, the sample scored and between genders. a mean of 2.1, 3.6, and 3.5 respectively. It is interesting to note that male and female Average Scores respondents scored similarly for threat (1.8), Shyness scale negotiation (4.35 and 4.36), and acceptance (2.1). Male respondents preferred mediation In general, the Malaysian sample yielded (3.78) and the use of authority (3.78) more a mean of 53.6 scores in the shyness scale. than their female counterparts (3.67 and 3.48 Although not significant, this is higher respectively). than the mean of scores from the scale developer’s sample, which was 51.8 (Cheek, Perception of Restorative Justice n.d.). Female respondents appeared to be Programs Implementation shyer than male respondents, with means of For the perception scale, each component 55.2 and 50 scores respectively. is analyzed separately. Generally, the Malaysian sample yielded a mean of Collectivism/Individualism scale 12.2 scores for possible shyness in the The means of scores for vertical and practice. The means for collectivism and horizontal individualism and collectivism individualism in the perception scale were showed that male respondents scored considerably low, with a score mean of higher, except for vertical collectivism. 5.98 and 8.8 respectively. For the conflict Male respondents scored a mean of 23.2, resolution method component, the item 28.2, and 30.9 on vertical individualism, is analyzed separately. Acceptance was horizontal individualism, and horizontal preferred the least (2.8) and threat slightly individualism respectively, with the female higher (2.4), and the use of authority counterparts scoring 21.1, 25.5, and 28.7. was preferred the most (3.7). There were
224 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 217 - 231 (2014) Restorative Justice In Relation to Collectivism/Individualism, Shyness, and Conflict Resolution Method Preference preferences for negotiation (3.5) and a restorative justice program as shown in mediation (3.2). Table 5. For items on shyness component On the comparison between genders, (item 1, 4, 7, 10, and 12), it was found that male respondents appeared to be more the respondents feel bold (42.4%) and less individualistic (10.0) than their female shy (67.1%) if meeting with the offender counterparts (8.2). On the other hand, female face-to-face. They are also less nervous respondents scored higher in collectivism (a (42.4%) and 49.4% agreed that they feel mean of 6.1) than their male counterparts (a confident meeting the offender. However, mean of 5.9). Female respondents appeared there are mixed responses when it comes to to be shyer with a mean of 12.6 and male feeling comfortable, with 29.4% disagreed respondents scored a mean of 11.5. On the and 31.8% agreed that they would feel conflict resolution method, male respondents comfortable meeting. preferred the use of authority, acceptance, All in all, 54.1% agreed that community and the use of threat (3.8, 2.0, and 2.8 should be involved in decision making respectively) than female respondents (3.6, process involving criminal justice system, 1.9, and 2.3). On the other hands, female and a considerable cluster of the respondents respondents preferred to use negotiation showed that they would not let race be (3.63) and mediation (3.4) than their male an influencing factor (28.2%). On the counterparts (3.46 and 3.0). component of individualism, although Some of the correlational analyses 31.8% agreed that they would feel annoyed that show the relationships between some if others try to get involved in deciding what of the measures are worth mentioning. to do to the offender, but they agreed that The correlational coefficients can be they could not decide without anyone’s help seen in Table 4. From this Table, we can (29.4%) and that they disagree that they do see that each of the components in the not need others’ opinions (42.4%). perception scale is significantly related to For the component of conflict resolution their respective original scales, except for method, the use of authority was rated the collectivism and negotiation component as the most preferred method when it in the perception scale. Each of the items comes to dealing with a crime (mean in the conflict resolution method is also of 3.7). Acceptance was deemed as the significantly related to their corresponding least preferred method (mean of 2.0), items in the perception scale, except for followed by the use of threat (mean of 2.4). negotiation. Additionally, negotiation and mediation were also reported as preference (with a Component-by-component analysis mean of 3.5 and 3.2 respectively). For the perception scale, each component was analyzed individually since they represent various issue that can occur in
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 217 - 231 (2014) 225 Taufik Mohammad and Azlinda Azman Authority item r=0.231, p<0.33 Mediation item r=0.327, p<.042 Acceptance item r=0.373, p<.001 Negotiation item r=0.041, p>.406 Threat item Threat R=0.313, p<.004 Collectivism component R=0.009, p>.936 Individualism component R=0.401, p<.001 Shyness component R=0.688, p<.001
4 Scale/Item Shyness scale Individualism Collectivism Threat Negotiation Acceptance Mediation The use of authority TABLE Correlation coefficients between the original scales and components in perception scale
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TABLE 5 Scores obtained by the respondents in the perception scale
1 = 2 = 3 = 4 = 5 = No. Item Strongly Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly disagree agree 1 I feel shy to see face-to-face with the 27.1 40.0 17.6 12.9 2.4 person who wrongs me 2 I believe if we talk to the person who 2.4 10.6 24.7 50.6 11.8 wrongs us face-to-face, we can achieve a peaceful agreement. 3 If there’s someone who breaks into 5.9 7.1 18.8 54.1 14.1 my house, the community should also participate with me to decide what to do to the person. 4 I feel bold when it comes to confronting 0.0 17.6 21.2 42.4 18.8 the person who bullies me. 5 If there’s a person who steals my vehicle, 9.4 18.8 15.3 47.1 9.4 there should be a third-party to decide what the best action between me and the person is. 6 If the person who does wrong to me is the 18.8 28.2 29.4 17.6 5.9 same race as me, I can be quick to forgive him. 7 I do not feel comfortable if I have to 18.8 29.4 15.3 31.8 4.7 confront the person who steals my money. 8 The person who damages my valuables 2.4 10.6 20.0 47.1 20.0 should be judged by an authority. 9 I feel annoyed if others get involved in 3.5 28.2 29.4 31.8 7.1 my way deciding the fate of the person who wrongs me. 10 I feel nervous when I have to face with 17.6 42.4 22.4 17.6 0.0 the person who bullies me. 11 I should just accept it if someone steals 36.5 37.6 17.6 3.5 4.7 my things. 12 I am confident to confront the person who 3.5 12.9 17.6 49.4 16.5 breaks into my house. 13 I feel that threat is the best way to deal 17.6 37.6 25.9 16.5 2.4 with the person who tries to inflict injury on me. 14 I can decide the fate of the person who 7.1 29.4 27.1 23.5 12.9 does wrong to me without anyone’s help. 15 I don’t need others’ opinions to decide 8.2 42.4 24.7 17.6 7.1 what should happen to the person who wrongs me.
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DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS others get in their way of making decision. OF THE STUDY This might account to different definition The findings indicate the exploration of of “collectivism” in Triandis’ scale and the Malaysians’ perception on the various one that was implied in the perception scale. aspects of the implementation of restorative Collectivism as purported in the literature is justice programs in this country. On a characteristic of a culture whose members the overall, the sample shows that they value the relationships with the community can individually be collectivistic and and the influence the community has in individualistic perceptions. Although it has their life. However, in face value, “to get been stated in the literature that Malaysia in their way of decision making” might consists of collectivistic cultures, (and it not be inclusive with the definition offered has been shown so in the results), they can by the literature (e.g. Triandis 1991). In also be individualistic in nature, depending face value, the item suggested that while on the context where it requires them to members of collectivistic culture value the be so (Triandis, personal communication, opinions of other members, but the fact that November 23, 2010). According to the victimization is a very personal experience, findings, in a context where they have to to be stripped off of their decision making make a decision in regards to a criminal ability might challenge their personal situation (e.g. whether or not to report, individualism. whether or not to tell the family), the It is similar with the negotiation item in Malaysian sample shows that they are the original scale that does not really correlate collectivistic. They need to seek other with then negotiation component in the people’s opinions, and they need to ask perception scale. This might show us that the their significant others, such as their family setting of the original scale is different than or friends, when making a decision. Since the setting intended in the perception scale. restorative justice programs have a strong The original scale deals with two neighbors element of the community, this characteristic who are in conflict, while the perception of collectivism can be a helpful aspect in the scale asks the respondents if they would implementation. negotiate if they are victimized. Although However, it is interesting to note the average scores and the sum of score do that although Malaysians appeared to be not really tell this, Looking at the response collectivistic, the results for collectivism individually can give us a perspective. For in the perception scale were mixed. They example, two respondents gave a “5” for tended to be more collectivistic when the negotiation in the original scale, but “1” for question item asked “if they needed an negotiation in the perception scale, and three opinion” (item 15), but they appeared to be respondents who gave a “5” negotiation in more individualistic in item 9, when they the original scale, but “2” for negotiation in were asked if they would “be annoyed” if the perception scale.
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The purpose of comparing the involve their participation. Fortunately, average scores between male and female since one of the programs of restorative respondents was conducted because it can justice involves mediation (i.e. Victim- give us additional perspective of Malaysian Offender Mediation), the sample shows that population in terms of their collectivism- they also prefer mediation and negotiation as individualism, shyness, and preference a way to resolve a conflict. By highlighting of conflict resolution methods. Different the benefits of mediation in the program genders are known to have their own as an educational effort, Malaysians can psychological ways of dealing with the understand on how this program can satisfy events around their life – and this includes the victims through their participation; and victimization. The findings that show male help the offender lessens the likelihood that respondents to be more individualistic and he or she repeats the offence. female respondents were more collectivistic On the issue of shyness, generally give insight about their openness towards Malaysian respondents, although not other’s involvement in their decision statistically significant, scored a higher making. Female respondents’ higher average mean of shyness than the original sample in score of shyness is an early indication of the research of the scale developer. Female what to do and not to do should restorative respondents showed even a higher mean. justice be really implemented in this country. This might affect how restorative justice, However, this paper only provides the basic which will need more of their participation, picture and it is suggested that in future is implemented in the country. A future studies, higher cohort of sample can be research can be conducted to further identify obtained to give more accurate description the level of shyness Malaysians would have of collectivism-individualism and shyness when it comes to standing up for their right between genders. and how some adjustments to the programs However, since restorative justice can be done so Malaysians can fully benefit programs rely very scarcely on the from it. involvement of the local authority, education Another issue worth mentioning in is important to inform on the processes and the aspect of shyness is although the structures of the programs. This is because respondents were generally shyer than their the findings show that they still have a western counterpart, they seemed to have a strong dependence on the authority when/ different shyness-related personality in the if they are victimized and that there are perception scale. People in collectivistic no agencies or institutions that specialize culture tend to be concerned about the in and are concerned about the victims’ feelings of the members of their same welfare where they can go to (Aziz, 2010). group, but in criminal cases, there may be The victims in the current system are very another explanation; one that is particularly passive, and very few decisions actually related to the concept of ingroups and
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 217 - 231 (2014) 229 Taufik Mohammad and Azlinda Azman outgroups (Tajfel, 1974). In criminal cases, Aziz, S. A. (2010, November 2 ).Usaha memastikan the offenders are considered as the victims’ hak mangsa jenayah terbela. BeritaHarian. outgroup, which explains their attitudes Bradshaw, W., Roseborough, D., & Umbreit, M. S. and behaviors toward the former. There are (2006). The effect of victim offender mediation various stakes involved when a crime is on juvenile offender recidivism: A meta-analysis. committed, and the shyness of the victims Conflict Resolution Quarterly, 24 (1), 87-98. as individuals in general might be outranked Cheek, J. M. (n.d.). 20-Item Shyness Scale. Retrieved by the victims’ feeling about the need to from Wellesley College. Retrieved from http:// restitute the society’s norms, and also uphold www.wellesley.edu/Psychology/Cheek/ howshy20_text.html justice for themselves. By restituting the norms, the discussion of conflict resolution Cheek, J. M., & Buss, A. H. (1981). Shyness and method comes to place. sociability. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 41, 330-339. Many victims choose to involve the authority, but it is undeniable that it is Galaway, B. (1995). Victim-offender mediation by possible for them to channel their feeling New Zealand probation officers: The possibilities and the reality. Mediation Quarterly, 12(3), about what is right by meeting the offender 249-262. and having a dialogue. And this can be achieved only if there is proper education Gire, J. T. (1997). The varying effect of individualism- collectivism on preference for methods of conflict that addresses the possibilities and benefits resolution. Canadian Journal of Behavioural of restorative justice programs in this Science, 29, 38-43. country. An agency that handles victims’ Hofstede, G. (n.d.). Geert Hofstede Cultural welfare needs to be established in order to be Dimensions: Malaysia. Retrieved from Geert the platform for restorative justice programs Hofstede Cultural Dimensions: http://www. to exist. This might take a while, but the first geert-hofstede.com/hofstede_malaysia.shtml steps need to be taken. The Government of Hofstede, G. (1991). Organizations and cultures: Malaysia needs to realize the potentials that Software of the mind. New York: McGraw Hills. these programs have on the advancement Hui, C. H., & Villareal, M. J. (1989). Individualism- of the criminal justice system in the nation. collectivism and psychological need: Their relationships in two cultures. Journal of Cross- REFERENCES Cultural Psychology, 20, 310-323.
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Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 233 - 256 (2014)
SOCIAL SCIENCES & HUMANITIES
Journal homepage: http://www.pertanika.upm.edu.my/
Language and Identity: The Impact of a Multilingual Environment on the Personal Identity among German Mother Tongue Speakers Living in Malaysia
Miroslava Majtanova* and Mohd. Azidan Abdul Jabar Department of Foreign Languages, Faculty of Modern Languages and Communication, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
ABSTRACT Through 18 interviews with German mother tongue speakers living in Malaysia, we investigate the impact of a foreign language on the individual’s identity. In this context, the study relies on the Social Identity Theory and Social Categorization Theory which focus on identity. We suggest that the use of a foreign language serves as a substitute for the mother tongue in the construal of identity only to a certain extent. This phenomenon becomes most apparent in situations where the competency of the language is crucial for the respondent involved in communication. Depending on the importance of the situation the respondents experience a different level of achievement/failure in expressing their identity. At the same time, the respondents evaluate identity of their communication partner by rating their language skills. Our findings further indicate that language makes a linkage between personal and social identities which is reflected in the feelings and behaviour of respondents in situations, when they cannot understand the language others use around them. Additionally the individual’s identity perception does not seem to be influenced by the length of stay in Malaysia, nor by a long/short term relationship with a non-German speaking partner. The mother tongue however becomes replaceable, provided the respondent gained the knowledge in a certain area in a foreign language. In this case, the individual will have difficulty to communicate about that particular area in his mother tongue except with practice.
Keywords: Identity, foreign language, German native speakers, language and identity, multilingualism
ARTICLE INFO Article history: INTRODUCTION Received: 14 February 2012 Accepted: 2 August 2012 Edwards (2009, p.20) states that “since
E-mail addresses: language is central to the human condition, [email protected] (Miroslava Majtanova), [email protected] (Mohd. Azidan Abdul Jabar) and since many have argued that it is the * Corresponding author
ISSN: 0128-7702 © Universiti Putra Malaysia Press Miroslava Majtanova and Mohd. Azidan Abdul Jabar most salient distinguishing characteristic We also used the Twenty Statement Test of our species, it seems likely that any (TST) developed by Kuhn and McPartland study of identity must surely include (1954) to expand the angle of evaluation in some consideration on its use”. We our study. The SIT and SCT were derived share Edwards’s opinion and explore the from studies by Henri Tajfel, John C. Turner individual’s identity perception in terms of and others. Both theories have a long term language within the scope of a multilingual tradition in the social psychology (see Brown environment which mirrors other studies 2000, p.746) and deal with the identity (Pavlenko & Blackledge, 2004; Anchimbe, through group memberships. They argue 2007). However, this study is investigated that individual perceives oneself and others from the perspective of a Malaysian through categories. Categories, according to context and that from the German mother Tajfel and Turner relate to the “psychological tongue speakers living in this country. The representations in the mind; where there is objective of our investigation was to find presence of cognitive structures which out, how the use of a foreign language people use to define themselves and to affects the individual’s personal identity change their behavior” (Turner, 1982, in a multilingual environment. We were p.21; Turner & Reynolds, 2003, p.137). further interested to learn if our respondents Individuals thus categorize others and perceived a foreign language as an equal themselves, i. e. self-categorize, into various substitute for their mother tongue, in relation sociological groups either/or cognitively to their personal identity and feelings about and/or evaluative and/or emotionally. The their identity in case they do not speak a range of one to three of these factors also language where their conversation partners builds the main components of social communicate in. We hypothesized that the identity as defined by Tajfel (1974, p.69, level of proficiency in the target foreign 1978b, p.63). In the said study by Tajfel, he language plays a significant role in the developed a definition which we also follow. construal of the individual’s identity and For the purpose of our current paper: “social thus influences the individual’s perception identity will be understood as that part of of the importance of his mother tongue. We an individual’s self-concept which derives further hypothesized that the longer period of from his knowledge of his membership of time the individual spends in a multilingual a social group (or groups) together with the environment, the less importance will he put value and emotional significance attached on his mother tongue. to that membership” (Tajfel, 1978b, p.63). To analyze this matter, we outlined The self-concept, as defined by Turner, is our interview questions based on previous in simplified words a cognitive system that studies conducted on language and identity allows individuals to perceive themselves based on the Social Identity Theory (SIT) as coherent entities over time (Turner, and the Social Categorization Theory (SCT). 1982, pp.18-19). Turner himself build the
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SCT based on the principals of the SIT LANGUAGE SITUATION IN and targeted his research on explanations MALAYSIA of how a sociological group becomes a Malaysia embraces a number of variations psychological group (Turner & Reynolds, of the local official language Bahasa 2003, p.137). The TST from Kuhn and Melayu (for the term ‘language variation’ McPartland (Turner & Reynolds, 2003) cf. Ammon, 1995, 1997). In addition, other addresses the identity through the question languages were introduced during the ‘Who am I?’ that respondents usually have colonization of the country. In 1957, when to answer with twenty different statements Malaysia gained its independence, people (comp. e. g. Dana, 2005, p.109; Carpenter of Chinese and Indian origin had formed & Meade-Pruitt, 2008). The TST provides already a significant part of the Malaysian to some extent an access to the way an population. The presence of Chinese, Indian individual self-categorizes himself into and other foreign inhabitants in Malaysia different sociological and psychological started according to Omar (2007) in the groups for which we perceive it to be a 14th century and then increased especially at valuable complement of our analysis and the end of 19th century. Many Indians were that is why we included it into our study. brought to Malaysia by the British to fill Personal identity will be for the purpose job vacancies, Chinese chose this country of this paper understood as the individual’s for entrepreneurial purposes. This is why perception of himself as an individual Malaysian policy distinguishes between person and as a member of diverse groups people who are said to be the original that are meaningful to him. The expression population of the geographical area of ‘self’ refers in our text to an individual Malaysia and between those who originate person and the expression ‘other(s)’ refers from other states. The indigenous population, to other individuals. also called Bumiputera (i.e. the sons and In the following sections, we will daughters of the soil) is further differentiated first illuminate the language situation in into Malays and Other Bumiputera. The Malaysia and address the factors that led former group comprises people who are to a multilingualism of this country. In the Muslims, lead a Malay way of life and speak next section, we will discuss the views the Malay language. Other Bumiputera and theories of researchers with regard refer to aborigine ethnic groups who are to language and identity and we will also not Muslims, but are “closely related to the outline the theories concerning identity Malays in terms of language and primordial that we build our investigation upon. culture” (Omar, 2007, p.337). At the present Subsequently, the results of our research will time, Malays and the Other Bumiputera be presented and summarized in a separate groups represent 60,6%, Chinese 22,8% and section. Indians 6,8% of the Malaysian population (Population census, 2011). The Other
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 233 - 256 (2014) 235 Miroslava Majtanova and Mohd. Azidan Abdul Jabar
Bumiputera nevertheless embrace more They set up their own businesses and also than fifty different indigenous ethno- their own schools that followed the Chinese linguistic groups, including the descendants education system. Thus the language of Portuguese and Thais, who came into this of instruction in Chinese schools was country in the early 16th century (Population Mandarin. Later on primary and secondary census, 2011). Malaysian Chinese as well government schools were established by as Indian citizens likewise do not fall into the British and replaced the indigenous homogenous ethno-linguistic groups, but education system. The instruction in these have many different ones in accordance to schools was in English and they were their background. Hence there are Malaysian however parallel institutions to the Indian Chinese communicating among each other and Chinese schools. These English medium in Hokkien, Cantonese, Khek, Hakka, schools were not financially accessible to Teochew, Hokchiu, Hainanese, Kwongsai everyone, hence only people with a strong or Mandarin. Malaysian Indian citizens financial background could afford going to are usually proficient in Tamil, yet the use these English medium schools (Omar, 2007; of other Indian languages is also common David & Govindasamy, 2006). (comp. also Omar, 1982, p.52, 2007, p.346). Naturally there were some sectors of There are several reasons for the neighbourhoods that embraced various Chinese and Indian Malaysians to preserve ethnicities. Yet the majority lived within the languages of their ancestors. One reason their own ethnic group and thus had no is the relatively separate lifestyle they led reason to interact with their ethnic outgroups up to the 1960’s. Indians usually worked (comp. Zaman, 2008, p.234; Omar, 2007). on rubber plantations or the railways and The first foundation that allowed ethnic thus lived in areas that were near to their mingling via education was through the work. Schools as well as other facilities were establishment of a tertiary institution named established and financed by the government ‘The King Edward VII Medical School’ in those areas for them. The language chosen in 1905. After the Second World War as the medium of instruction in the schools this college was merged with the Raffles was Tamil. Bumiputeras usually lived in College, Singapore in 1928. Together, they rural areas in kampungs (villages) and made formed a university called University of their living through agricultural work or Malaya (Moris, 2007, p.7 & 14). In 1959, the fishing. The language of communication university was developed in Kuala Lumpur was a local variation and literacy was first as well as in Singapore. Considerable established in Arabic with instruction in expansion took place in a short time and by Islam in the houses of chieftains, in mosques 1962 the university became an autonomous and privately founded village religious national university in Kuala Lumpur. Its schools (Omar, 2007). The Chinese mainly campus in Singapore was subsequently settled down in tin mining or urban areas. renamed into University of Singapore after
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Singapore became an independent state in a period of three months. This program is 1965 (Moris, 2007, p.16, see also Universiti called ‘national service’. Malaya Calender 1970-71, pp.5-7). Even Notwithstanding the efforts mentioned though it was open to all, only families of above, multiethnicity and multilingualism higher status could consider this institution continue to grow in Malaysia. David and as the right choice for their children. In view Govindasamy (2006, p.56) state that there of its expenses and location, the majority or were “at least a hundred languages” in 85% of the students were Chinese (Omar, use at the time of writing. One factor in 2007, p.343). this diversity may be that professionals At the present time (the ethnic and along and companies from all around the world with it the language interaction) still depend contribute to Malaysia’s development, to a large extent on the education system through their expertise or their own (David & Govindasamy, 2006; David, 2004; investments. Immigration of laborers Kim, 2008, pp.56-57; Syed Husin Ali, 2008, and domestic workers in search of job p.92). The primary and secondary education opportunities - mainly from Asian countries, takes place in the national and vernacular and especially Indonesia, the Philippines schools which distinguishes them in the and Bangladesh - may be another factor. language of instruction and in the ethnic Moreover, being depicted as an opportune population of their pupils. Thus, the medium educational hub, Malaysia saw an increase of instruction is Malay, English, Mandarin, in the influx of foreign students from African Tamil or a combination of them. The and Middle East countries, who flock to pupils’ ethnicity reflects the main language Malaysian universities. of instruction. Among the other factors Malaysia could thus appear to contributing to the state of the language be a modern Babylon. However, the use in Malaysia is the degree of ethnic country certainly does not suffer lack diversity in the place of the individual’s of communication among its people. A residence and the cultural heritage of the common language has in fact been one of ethnic groups. An attempt to bridge the the main concerns of the government since gaps among the various Malaysian groups independence. The discussion about the is the establishment of the ‘vision schools’. Malaysian national language started in 1948, These schools, usually a pair consisting of at the time of the formation of the Federation a government and a vernacular one, share of Malaysia (Omar, 2007). Malays suggested some of their facilities such as playgrounds the Malay language, but the rest of the or canteens. Currently there are five schools population did not agree. Non-Malays were of this type in the country. Apart from that, slightly dominant in number then (David & a new program was introduced in Malaysia Govindasamy, 2006, p.56) and suggested to create opportunities for youth to interact to have either two languages, Malay and with their peers of other ethnic groups over English or four national languages by adding
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Mandarin and Tamil as well. Finally it was certain patterns of linguistic behaviour. S/ decided to recognize Malay and English as he will then modify his linguistic behaviour national languages for a period of 10 years. into ‘focussed’ and ‘non-focussed’ language After that a ‘language nation’ was supposed acts according to his intention to identify to arise (cf. Ammon, 1995, pp.18-34 for himself with a certain group or to distinguish the term ‘language nation’) and according himself from others. There are however, to Omar (1998, p.202) eventually it did four main criteria that need to be fulfilled indeed succeed: “For the last three and in terms to use the ‘focussed’ linguistic a half decades, the Malay language has systems. Firstly, the individual has to be faced the challenge of building itself to able to identify groups. Secondly, s/he has give an identity to the people who use it to have access to the groups and to be able as a vehicle of communication within its to analyse the behaviour of these groups. national boundary. It has achieved its goal Thirdly, the individual has to be motivated in this aspect. Malaysians have an identity to join these groups and finally s/he has to in having a national language that is native be able to modify his/her behaviour. The to the soil”. Although English stopped motivation seems to be according to Le Page being an official language of the country in and Tabouret-Keller the most important 1967 in Peninsular Malaysia and in 1985 in criteria. The motivation to learn a certain Sabah and Sarawak, it still remained in use language for instance can lead to neglecting within the court rooms, because of the fact of or even to an aversion towards the mother that many Malaysian lawyers had pursued tongue. Language is in their opinion not the their studies in England. Similarly on many only factor that defines identity, but it serves occasions communication among Chinese as a tool to decode and to express identities. and Indian citizens were and still are held We can find a similar point of view in their respective languages, whereas on language in the work of Giles and functions with multiethnic participants his ‘Accommodation Theory’ (comp. often involve English along with other local also Coupland, 2007, p.109; Tabouret- languages. Keller, 1998, pp.322-333). Giles Theory is based on the work of social psychologists LANGUAGE AND IDENTITY related to similarity attraction. This theory Le Page and Tabouret-Keller (1985) explain says that individuals are evaluated by linguistic acts as acts of identity. They say others better, when they manage to reduce that the prior function of words is to first dissimilarity between each other (Giles & of all express the identity of oneself and Powesland, 1975, p.157). In addition to this others and not to name ‘things’. Le Page and theory, Giles assumes that individuals will Tabouret-Keller believe that each individual reduce linguistic dissimilarities between knows the linguistic patterns of his ingroup themselves and the individual/group by and thus is able to develop for himself whom they wish to be judged positively.
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Giles calls this kind of linguistic behaviour, and legalisation of a language. Once a which includes also non-verbal features language is given a legitimacy linked to such as smile, eye contact etc., convergence. power over a territory for instance or over The opposite of this linguistic behaviour key institutions in a country, it can be Giles calls ‘divergence’ (Giles, Bourhis & materialised and totemised. Materialisation, Taylor, 1977, p.322; Giles, 1978, p.384). or ‘reification’ as Tabouret-Keller puts it, is According to the Accommodation Theory, usually related to the use of the particular individuals always adjust their speech language in written texts, in dictionaries, acts depending on the fact if they wish to in the courts etc. ‘Totemization’ is related identify themselves with others. This theory to the social features of the language, has been studied by many researchers and especially its representation of a certain throughout the years became an “integrated, social group. interdisciplinary statement of relational Riley (2008) argues that language and processes in communicative interaction” social identity are connected in at least (Giles,Coupland & Coupland, 1991, p.2). three ways. The connection to language Convergence and divergence can further is in his opinion first of all to be seen in emerge in different grades and combinations. the fact that the social identity is coded It means that the speaker can adjust his in language. Secondly, the social identity linguistic behaviour completely or just influences the vocabulary and the speech partially to the style of his communication style of the individuals, and thirdly it allows partner. It is also possible that within a multilingual individuals to express their conversation one of the partners might apply membership in diverse social groups. Based convergence, whereas the other divergence. on Riley’s examples, individuals apply In his later work Tabouret-Keller (1998, their repertoires consciously according p.317) states that language does not just help to the given situation. To him language to express or decode identity, but it also is actually the basis of the individuals’ combines personal1 and social identities: identity: “identity is made of knowledge and “Language features are the link which binds language is both what we know and how we individual and social identities together. know it” (Riley, 2008, p.91). Language offers both the means of creating Also the contributors in Pavlenko and this link and that of expressing it.” He sees Blackledge (2004, p.19) understand identity the foundation of this phenomenon on the to be interlinked with language, since they one hand in the conscious or unconscious explain it as ‘social, discursive, and narrative adoption of a feature or a set of features options offered by a particular society in a of behaviour of another individual. On the specific time and place’. Individuals as well other hand this relationship is supported as groups use these options in their social according to him by the institutionalisation life to name themselves, to characterize themselves or to win their social privileges. 1Tabouret-Keller uses the term ‘individual identity’. They further state, that identity choices
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 233 - 256 (2014) 239 Miroslava Majtanova and Mohd. Azidan Abdul Jabar are however not possible in all situations. instance2. Groups also choose and get3 They further argue that individuals cannot names in order to achieve to some extent express their identities to their liking once an expression of their identity. The indirect certain common identity interpretations linkage between language and identity is exist that are supported by a higher power. again seen in the importance of language These kinds of identities should be then when it comes to religion or to unconscious understood as conditioned ones through perceptions of identity based on language. socio-political and economic circumstances In the first case one can think of the fact that for instance. Identities should be therefore language was frequently spread together investigated rather in situations where the with religion. Nowadays, there are still cases individuals experience concurrence or a where the holy scripts of some religions certain crisis in their life, because their are introduced in the original language and identities become most apparent at that cannot be translated into another. point of time. Language and identity shape Joseph (2004, p.13) holds like Tabouret- each other, since language provides certain Keller (see above 1998, p.315) the opinion linguistic tools that construct and negotiate that language and identity are inseparable. identities and identity ideologies steer the He argues that each individual decodes linguistic tools, which individuals use to and categorises others also based on their express their identities as well as to reckon linguistic features (what they say and how identities of others. they say it, e. g. accents, voices etc.) and at The way Edwards (2009) describes the same time ascribes them certain identity the ties between language and identity features (Joseph, 2004, pp.2-3; see also can be in our opinion understood as direct Spolsky, 1999, p.181). This applies not just and indirect. The direct relation is in the to individuals one meets in person, but also use of language by individuals. They to people one speaks on the phone with, adjust their speech style according to hears on radio or sees on the television etc. their gender and to the given situation Joseph suggests that in order to investigate to represent their identities. Thus certain somebody’s identity the individual himself linguistic features will become apparent must become a part of the interpretation only in the communication with members instead of just being a subject of observation: of distinct groups. Edwards points also out 2 e.g. the female Slavic name ‘Miroslava’ carries that language carries identity features when the meaning of ‘the one, who celebrates peace’ it comes to names of individuals as well or the male name ‘Daniel’ originates in the Hebrew culture and means ‘God is my judge’ as of groups (Edwards, 2009, pp.34-39). (examples added by the authors of this paper). Names are of a great importance especially 3 For instance while “the Welsh call themselves if they are supposed to highlight a certain Cymry (meaning something like ‘fellow feature of its carrier or if they are linked countrymen’), the English name for them derives from the Anglo-Saxon w(e)alh, via the with religious or protective meanings for Germanic Wälsche (‘stranger’, ‘foreigner’, or even ‘barbarian’)” (Edwards, 2009, p.37).
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“A full account of linguistic communication partner in terms of the personality of the would have to start with, not a message, but communication partner. again the speakers themselves, and their From the discussion in the literature interpretation of each other that determines, review it becomes apparent that Malaysia interactively, their interpretation of what is offers an ideal situation to investigate said” (Joseph, 2004, p.226). He suggests the links between language and identity. further that identity should be recognized However, the research in Malaysia has as another function of language along with focused mainly on matters pertaining to representation and communication: “identity national identity: “Identity at the lower level, is itself at the very heart of what language is for example the community or the group, has about, how it operates, why and how it came not really been given much attention to by into existence and evolved as it did, how it researchers. Among the few who have made is learned and how it is used, every day, by this topic their area of research interest every user, every time it is used” (Joseph, are Maya Khemlani David (1996) in her 2004, p.224). research on the Sindhis (a minority group) All of the researchers mentioned above in Malaysia, and Asmah Haji Omar with her perceive language as a tool to identify others research on a group of bilingual academics” as well as oneself. We also hold the view that (Asmah Haji Omar, 2003). Apart from language helps individuals to understand these two linguists, the work of Nur Atiqah and to express their own identity as well as Tang Abdullah (2001) can be mentioned, to understand and to describe the identity of who deals with the connection between others. We further argue that this position is the identity and citizenship education in in line with the SIT and SCT. As stated in the Malaysia. Othman Mohamed Aris (1978), introductory part of this paper the perception who looked at the ethnic identity in a Malay of identity requires categorization. And we community in Malaysia, similar to Sharin see the connection between the language Selva Raj (2005), whereas her investigations and categorization in the fact that “when were among Malaysian Chinese and Indian we hear someone speak, we immediately respondents. Lyngkaran and Kunaletschumy make guesses about gender, educational (2002) researched the Malaysian Indian level, age, profession, and place of origin” community, Colin Nicholas (2005) focused Spolsky (1999, p.181). Hence we categorize his paper on Malaysia’s Orang Asli, i. e. the others and ourselves, i. e. self-categorize, aboriginal population and John R. Clammer into certain sociological groups. We believe (1980) discussed the ambiguity of identity that in certain situations individuals make in the Baba communities of Malaysia and even more guesses and judgments based on Singapore. An attentive eye will not miss language than as cited earlier. We assume that even though these studies involve that individuals may additionally distinguish different groups, they still remain in the some identity facets of their communication scope of ‘Malaysian identity’, since they all
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 233 - 256 (2014) 241 Miroslava Majtanova and Mohd. Azidan Abdul Jabar elaborate on Malaysians. We decided on the instance as a quiet person by the others? contrary to explore our research questions Will he feel disadvantaged and experience among foreigners and chose for this purpose lack of expression of his personal identity? German mother tongue speakers. Our Yet, what does a person who masters the decision was driven by the notion that our language to the highest proficiency level subjects will be on the one hand less likely experience in the very same situation? affected by the stereotypes spread among What does the very same person feel, when Malaysians towards each other in terms of he cannot find the ‘proper’ word he would various group memberships and that the have used in his mother tongue? Last but German mother tongue speakers might on not least, does it come to an identity change, the other hand find themselves more often if an individual uses a foreign language as confronted by the language variety used in a lingua franca for a long period of time? Malaysia than the locals would. The main questions we set to investigate in terms of the effects the use of a foreign RESEARCH QUESTION language has on the individual’s personal Language plays a big role in the expression identity in a multilingual environment are: of the individual’s identity. It allows him to 1. Do our respondents perceive a foreign some extent to comprehend and to describe language as an equal substitute for their himself through language. Furthermore the mother tongue, when it comes to their language gives the individual the possibility personal identity? to compete with identities that would be 2. How do they feel about their identity in otherwise ascribed to him by the society. case they don’t speak a language their In our view, the language the individual is conversation partners communicate in? most fluent in is the language(s) he grew up with, in other words his mother tongue(s). 3. Does the length of stay in Malaysia So what happens with the expression of the affects the respondents’ personal personal identity if one is not or not always identity? able to use his mother tongue? How does 4. How important is the mother tongue vs. the individual feel in such situations? Is the foreign language for the respondents in use of a foreign language an equal substitute terms of relationships? for his mother tongue when it comes to his personal identity? And what if his language PARTICIPANTS skills in the target language he ought to Overall 19 participants took part in our use reach less than an intermediate level investigation during October and November or if he does not speak nor understand that 2011: 10 females and 9 males. As mentioned particular language at all? Will it matter above, all respondents were German mother to him not being able to take a part on the tongue speakers, the majority (17) were of conversation and thus being perceived for German origin. The length of stay of the
242 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 233 - 256 (2014) The Impact of a Multilingual Environment on the Personal Identity among German Mother Tongue Speakers Living in Malaysia participants in Malaysia varied between few only used the descriptive tools of the SPSS, weeks (six weeks the shortest) to 37 years. i. e. frequencies and cross tabulation, for data evaluation. The choice to partially evaluate METHODOLOGY and to present the data in percentage serves The data were collected from 18 interviews at the same time as a guideline for setting with German mother tongue speakers working hypothesis for further research in currently living in Malaysia. We decided to regard to this topic. exclude the data collected from one male We started the data evaluation with the participant, because he chose not to answer insertion of data from transcripts into the most of our questions with an explanation SPSS. We followed the usual procedure for such as “I can’t give you the answer now” nominal and ordinal data such as gender, and hence no valid feedback was obtained. length of stay, country of origin, proficiency We placed emphasis on the fact that they and fluency in languages etc. Questions that grew up in Europe and only came to are related to emotions and behaviour such Malaysia as adults. The other important as ‘What do you do and how do you feel in factor to us was their length of stay in case you are excluded from a conversation Malaysia in order to check, whether it has because of the language?’ were turned into any influence on their identity perception. variables the following way: ‘bad feeling, We set no other criteria in terms of being can’t understand language’ - 1=yes, 2=no; able to look for tendencies that could be in ‘behaviour, can’t understand language’ – the future studies investigated quantitatively. string (i. e. we typed in the keywords from Some of the respondents were known to us, the statements). Questions related to self- whereas some were added to the project via categorization were turned into variables the snowball sampling method (see e. g. also in a standard way, e. g. ‘identification Babbie, 2013, pp.191-192; Babbie, 2011, with Malaysians’: 1=yes, 2=no, 3=partially p.208; Bailey, 1994, p.96). All interviews both. Based on the SPSS-frequencies we were conducted in the German language. turned back to our transcripts and checked The respondents were further informed that for similarities among ‘yes’ and ‘no’ answers their answers would remain anonymous. etc. After that we distinguished ‘factors’ and The interviews were later transcribed ‘categories’ among similar statements, to and coded so that the data could be entered highlight the respective finding (e. g. “strong into the Statistical Package for the Social family orientation” or “subconscious code Sciences (SPSS). The transcriptions helped switching”). us to maintain a qualitative insight into the responses, while the coding of the INTERVIEW QUESTIONS responses into variables helped us to gain We started our interviews with the Twenty a faster and clearer overview over the data. Statements Test (TST) from Kuhn and In accordance to the nature of our study we McPartland (1954), which is a frequently
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 233 - 256 (2014) 243 Miroslava Majtanova and Mohd. Azidan Abdul Jabar used technique for assessment of an involving foreign language, nor do you individual’s sense of identity (comp. e. g. have to deal with correspondence in a Dana, 2005, p.109). Our respondents were foreign language.) thus asked to give us 20 different answers 6. What do you do and how do you to the question ‘Who am I?’ We used this feel in case you are excluded from a method to observe whether our respondents conversation because of the language? would include a mention of their mother (e.g. People at your table communicate tongue. in a language in which you are not The second part of the interview proficient.) consisted from 20 open-ended questions we 7. Is it/would it be important for you developed in line with the SIT and SCT. The that your partner and children speak/ questions are focused on self-categorization understand your mother tongue? Why? through group memberships and on the use of language and its personal value for the 8. Is it/would it be important for you to participant. The participants were however learn the mother tongue of your partner? given the opportunity to report freely on Why? additional matters that were of importance 9. With whom do you spend your free to them. Our main questions were the time? Does your mother tongue play following: any role in it? 1. Do you identify with Malaysians/with 10. a) Do your good friends tell you that your fellow countrymen that live in you changed as a person since you live Malaysia in some way? If yes, in what in Malaysia? If yes, in what way? ways? b) Do you think you have changed 2. Do you perceive your identity to be because of living in Malaysia? If yes, different in comparison to Malaysians/ in what way? to your fellow countrymen that live in 11. To what extent does your mother tongue Malaysia? If yes, in what ways? and other languages you use play a role 3. What languages do you speak and in expressing your identity? at what level (fluent, good, just few 12. Do you judge others by their language words...)? skills? When? How? (e. g. You receive 4. What languages do you use in Malaysia? an e-mail/phone call. You meet a new When? Which one is your favourite and person at a party…). why? 5. Does it happen that you sometimes RESULTS AND DISCUSSION think in a foreign language even though The number of answers related to mentioning you don’t necessarily have to? (e. g. German as part of the self in the scope of You are not engaged in a conversation the Twenty Statements Test reached 33%.
244 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 233 - 256 (2014) The Impact of a Multilingual Environment on the Personal Identity among German Mother Tongue Speakers Living in Malaysia
28% mentioned connection to the language The statements about dissimilarities indirectly by mentioning the use of German in identity perception when compared to in their profession and/or by stating their Malaysians indicate three main points: ethnicity. The rest, i. e. 39%, did not mention time management and efficiency, values the mother tongue at all. It could be argued (especially in prioritizing form over content) that the respondents did not see the necessity and the concept of hygiene. What follows to stress their mother tongue as part of their are extracts taken from the interviews identity, since the interview was held in their illustrating the above findings. All three mother tongue. However, we can report that participants are married to Malaysians. The when the respondents were asked directly first example is from a respondent, who has about the role of the mother tongue and lived in this country for the past six years: other languages they speak in expressing ‘They have this listlessness, I would their identity (question (11)), 83% of them love to have it, but I don’t have stated that they perceive it to be important. it. ... And they are old fashioned. We will come to this point again and discuss They love these endlessly long it in more detail. names and titles and hierarchy, Our data concerning identity perception all of it is totally foreign to me. based on self-categorization in comparison And sometimes they would come with Malaysians and fellow countrymen of up with something very funny like the respondents show that the time spent – the pregnant ladies are expected in Malaysia by the respondents has no to dress less sexy, because it might significant influence in this matter. In total, disturb the students!’ only 39% of the respondents identify in some way with Malaysians, despite the fact that 61% of them live in a relationship with This person spent in Malaysia 27 years: a Malaysian. They identify with Malaysians ‘I always believe to be completely as follows: in the concept of simplicity of different, completely otherwise. the self, strong family orientation, taking Since I find it to be important to religion as a part of the everyday life and come on time, or at least to let the placing less value on materialism and other know that I’m running late as individualism. One of the respondents well as I find it to be important to added: treat others nicely despite having ‘... Apart from that I can identify bad mood myself. ... My friends very well with the ‘lepak’-custom. are actually only Europeans, even Thus just sit around, eat, drink and though I work with Malaysians I talk.’ don’t like to meet them in my free time. ... And I find it difficult to work with them.’
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The third utterance is from a respondent identification. For those who have a similar living in Malaysia since 31 years: perception with other GMS we were able to conclude that the bonds are: similar values, ‘There is no such thing as German similar interests and similar fate. The same perfectionism here. I am still not lingua franca and country of origin was used to it and I am inwardly much mentioned only by one respondent when more German in this regard. ... Or including answers solely to question No. ok, I live in a high building and (1) and (2) (see the list of our interview 200 meters from another 30-stock questions). Those that do not have a similar office tower, yet I have to walk to perception with other GMS regarded as due LRT4 through a pile of dirt. I guess to social status. These respondents are not I will never get used to things like inclined to meet other GMS, unless they that. ... I have the impression that match their own social status. Expatriates Malaysians don’t take their work are further perceived as people living in an seriously. At least not as seriously unnatural world missing the true picture of as Germans do. They lack the the host country. One respondent expressed ambition to improve or show that her dislike in GMS, who are too critical they are worthy of their position. towards Malaysians. Another said that she That is not good on the one hand, does not like to mingle with GMS, who are because then many things don’t ‘too German in a negative way’. work as they should. On the other All of the respondents are fluent hand I like that the locals don’t put in English except one, who ranked her themselves under such a huge self- proficiency to be moderate. 13 respondents pressure like the Germans do.’ speak other non-Asian language(s) of who two rated the level of their proficiency as The comparison with other country fluent, three as moderate and eight as basic. members living in Malaysia brought us The knowledge of Asian languages was to the following piece of finding: our slightly higher, since three respondents do respondents strongly differentiate between not master any, while five do not master any German mother tongue speakers (GMS) other non-Asian ones. Three respondents are living ‘locally’ in a financially equal way fluent in an Asian language, two moderate to that of the Malaysians and those living as and ten have basic skills mostly in Bahasa 5 expatriates . The frequency of identification Melayu. Most of the respondents also use regarding this point equaled the non- English at work and in their everyday life, 4 LRT (Light Rapid Transit) is a town train. when dealing with locals and foreigners with 5 The word expatriate carries within Malaysia other language background. 10 respondents generally the connotation of foreigners who also use German at their work place and five were send to Malaysia by a foreign company, which covers all their expenses above the local within their family. Respondents living in average standards.
246 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 233 - 256 (2014) The Impact of a Multilingual Environment on the Personal Identity among German Mother Tongue Speakers Living in Malaysia a mixed relationship with a Malaysian use course. But German is completely English for communication, one respondent different from Swabian. It’s as uses also Tamil and two speak Malay different as German from English, occasionally with their partners. Two for instance. It is the language of respondents admitted using an appropriate my home, I grew up with it. I can language to ease certain situations. One of express completely different things them swears in German when she wants with it and feel other emotions when to express anger, but does not want others using it.’ to understand the exact words. The other (Respondent No. 13, he is fluent respondent speaks Malay with officers and in English and Malay) policeman in order to achieve the goal with ease. Respondent No. 2, 4 and 13 feel that ‘The language of eye contact, since Malaysians like it when foreigners use their I’m no friend of many words.’ mother tongue(s) but they also learn and use (Respondent No. 1, he is fluent in Bahasa Melayu to be perceived better by English, Portuguese and has basic the Malaysians. These last five mentioned language skills in Spanish) respondents thus use language as a tool for self-categorization into local groups when The most frequently given reason for they consider it to be appropriate. perceiving German as the favourite language The question ‘What is your favourite was ‘because it is my mother tongue’. The language?’ yielded the answer ‘German’ second most frequently given reason was from 72% of respondents. 5.5% answered ‘because I have the best vocabulary in English and a local Asian language each and German so I can express myself best in it’. 17%, i. e. three replies, were ascribed to the Some other reasons are stated below, all variable ‘other’. The answers we marked as cited subjects are fluent in English: “other” are the following: ‘I feel safer when speaking German.’ ‘I speak German at work, English (Rrespondent No. 17) in life and Tamil with friends and volunteers in the society I’m active in. I like all three languages each in ‘Sometimes it’s really demanding its own setting.’ to speak a foreign language, (Rrespondent No. 2, he is fluent in especially when I’m tired. Words all three languages) simply don’t come as easy as in the mother tongue in a foreign ‘Swabian (Schwäbisch) is the closest language and when I’m tired, it’s one to me. I can’t say German, even even worse. That’s sometimes though I speak perfect German of also frustrating ... because I like
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to express myself through rich ‘sometimes English words pop up in my vocabulary ... sometimes I just don’t mind, even though I’m thinking in German’. feel like talking in English at all, The other frequent answer we added to when I’m tired.’ this category was e. g. ‘when I think of (Respondent No. 18) somebody, with whom I usually speak English, then I also talk to him in my mind in ‘I like to speak English, I’m an English’. Therefore it appears to us useful to English teacher, I studied in orientate questions in future studies in more England, I speak English already detail on this phenomenon and to explore it longer than for a half of my life. I can in regard to whom the respondents thinks express myself very well in English, about. One respondent realized during our throughout the years sometimes session that the language he used last stays even better than in German. But in his mind because he can speak and think when I can talk German, fluently well in three languages: and freely like with you now, that’s wonderful! Then I can be me. I can ‘Very often, but it is usually be myself.’ influenced by the time of day. The (Respondent No. 14) language I use as the first one ... and I usually switch to the language ‘German – because it is the of my communication partner. All language in which I think most of that happens subconsciously. ... often.’ Then I keep thinking in the language (Respondent No. 9) I talked with to that person. ... Yes, even though the conversation is ‘In what language(s) do you think and over and I am by myself again. ... if it happens that you think in a foreign Yes, I stay in that language until language, even though it is not necessary I deal with somebody in another at that moment (5)’, was our next question. language again.’ 39% of the answers indicated thinking in (Respondent No. 2) German and 61% in various languages. One respondent stated to use English Why is the topic the respondents think proverbs with the explanation that some of about important for their choice of language? them do not exist in German and that s/he The medium for thinking was described in finds them fitting in certain circumstances. all cases with statements such as ‘I learned S/he feels the need to apply those utterances it in that language, I can’t think of it in to express hers/his attitude and thoughts. The any other language’ (Respondent No. 14). explanations we interpreted as ‘subconscious Respondent No. 13 stated: code switching’ were described usually as
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‘Praying and things like that I never to read them and they make it real translate. I grew up with it, yet when hard to read them even in your you ask me about computers, I will mother tongue. Or when I need to rather explain you all about it in follow such texts as instructions to English than in German, because do something.’ I learned it that way. I started to (Respondent No. 7) work with computers as an adult here in Malaysia and whatever I ‘When I want to express myself know about it is in English. Then precisely, when I want to go deeper it’s really difficult for me to speak in conversation. ... it’s hard for me about it in German.’ to read in English when I’m tired ...’ (Respondent No. 12) Are there situations when the respondents would prefer to use their The 17% who don’t feel the need to use mother tongue? This was confirmed with their mother tongue in any situations gave a ‘yes’ by 83% of the respondents. In what us these answers: situations would that be, was answered with replies that we understand as belonging ‘I like to learn new languages.’ to two categories: when lacking language (Respondent No. 5) proficiency in the foreign language and when lacking physical energy. The lack ‘No, I’d rather use more English, of language skills causes uncertainty and especially at work, so that I could negative feelings about oneself and the explain things better ...’ whole situation. The lack of physical power (Respondent No. 10) is interlinked with the lack of mental power, hence causes difficulty using a foreign ‘No, because I like to keep distance.’ language. Here some examples in the words (Respondent No. 1) of our respondents:
‘At the doctor, offices, car workshops How do the respondents feel and what ... I feel like a fool there just because do they do in situations, when they do I don’t know the words.’ not understand the language others use (Respondent No. 8) around them? 39% stated they do not feel troubled by being a part of conversation they do not comprehend, whereas the other ‘When I have to understand small 61% do feel troubled. The former finds printed texts! They are usually that in Malaysia it is completely normal tricky, companies don’t want you
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 233 - 256 (2014) 249 Miroslava Majtanova and Mohd. Azidan Abdul Jabar to be excluded through language from a conversation companion doesn’t get conversation, so they just observe the others the impression from me he would – the mimicking and gestures of others or have, if I used my mother tongue.’ they just ‘switch off’. Therefore this group (Respondent No. 8) could be characterized as a passive one. The second group is on the contrary an active However, when it comes to one, since all the respondents do not hesitate relationships, the minority, i. e. 44%, think to interfere by asking questions, such as their companion should also speak German. ‘What did s/he say?’ or by saying something The majority thinks it sufficient, when their to call attention to themselves. Most of the companions speak English or any other respondents stated that when that does not tongue they can both understand. Yet 83% work, they stop trying and either endure the hold the opinion that it is important to learn situation with a negative feeling or leave. the mother tongue of their partner and 72% Some of the respondents from the latter want or would want to their children speak group emphasized that they view using any German. It might be noted that 61% of our language the conversation partner cannot respondents live in a relationship with a understand for an unnecessary long time as non-German speaking partner. The reasons highly impolite. given for the importance of the children to Our next question was, whether the master German were most frequently due to respondents experience lack of expression its advantages, such as the children can later of their personal identity in those kind of on have better chances on the job market situations or in any kind of situation, where or have a conversation with their German they lack certain language proficiency. speaking grandparents. Respondents who Again the percentage of ‘yes’ was higher consider it important that their partner either than those ‘no’, and the percentage remained speaks or learns also their mother tongue the same as in the previous data set. The were predominantly female. Among their 39% who gave ‘no’ as an answer were not reasons was the believe that the language able to explain their reasons. Among the might: decrease the misunderstandings 61% experiencing lack of expression of in the relationship, demonstrate respect their personal identity the answers were and understanding for the other, enhance dominated by the fear from misinterpretation closeness (also due to similar social of their identity, see example below: background) and enable a relationship that is not based only on physical attraction. ‘Of course I feel like passing out, As discussed above, 56% don’t find when I’m not able to express myself it important for their partner to learn their in a foreign language the way I can mother tongue, but 83% believe it to be in my mother tongue. And of course important for them to learn the mother I feel and realize then that my tongue of their partner so that they could
250 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 233 - 256 (2014) The Impact of a Multilingual Environment on the Personal Identity among German Mother Tongue Speakers Living in Malaysia learn something about their companion’s In the second example our respondent culture. Here two of the replies we received No. 2 talks about being ‘accepted by the to question (8): culture’, but what it means in reality is of course to be accepted by the people, who ‘Yes, absolutely, that is the only way speak the language. Thus in this case we to truly understand the mentality come across once again - the awareness and culture of a person!’ language can play in social identity and (Respondent No. 3) self-categorization. The majority, i. e. 78%, of the ‘Yes, but only to learn something respondents do not prioritise meeting people about the culture behind it. I think who speak German and choose to spend their the culture can only be learned free time with people with similar interests through the language. Everything and/or problems. Among the remaining else is just a try, but one will never 22% were respondents, who often came to be accepted by the culture as a part Malaysia with poor proficiency in English, of it. Tamils talk with me about therefore sought people, who shared their ‘these white ones...’, because they mother tongue. Most of them remained see me as a Tamil.’ good friends, while they also gained local (Respondent No. 2) or international friends throughout the years. While 39% of the respondents heard The first example shows that the that they changed their personality from awareness of the role the language(s) one their friends, question (10) a), 56% of speaks only becomes apparent when talking them think of themselves to have changed, about other individuals. The comparison question (10) b). Looking at the data based between the self and other is a crucial factor on crosstabulation, 11 cases out of 18 match in investigations of identity. However it their identity perception with the perception seems insufficient to enhance the subject’s of their identity by others. Another 5 cases awareness of the role the language(s) he are perceived by their friends as unchanged, master play for himself. A double check although they themselves believe it to on this phenomenon was made by question be otherwise and two cases thought the (11), which we asked as the penultimate opposite. We take into account that the data question during our interviews (‘To what set for this question is very subjective, since extent does your mother tongue and other we have not the statements from the actual languages you use play a role in expressing friends, but from the respondents responding your identity?’), when the majority of on behalf of their friends. However most of respondents still believed that their language the replies in terms of identity changes that skills have no influence on their identity or we received can be interpreted as adaptation the way they are perceived by others. to Malaysian circumstances and expansion
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 233 - 256 (2014) 251 Miroslava Majtanova and Mohd. Azidan Abdul Jabar of knowledge. Another feature we detected way possible and surprise people during the data analysis is perception in the with them.’ change of personality. 5 subjects feel to have (Respondent No. 5) become more laid back and patient. On the contrary, respondents, who do not perceive Viewing the mother tongue as a feature changes in their personality expressed the in common in terms of group memberships opinion that their personality and identity is can be noted in the response of our interview to a large extent conditioned by their inborn partner No. 17. attributes. ‘To what extent does your mother ‘One notices, how easy it goes, when tongue and other languages you use play a one speaks a common language. role in expressing your identity?’ was the What kind of appurtenance there penultimate question we asked, question No. can be thanks to language alone. (11) in this paper. As mentioned in the first How strong it can be, how much paragraph of the data analysis, 83% of the it can bring us together. One respondents consider the language(s) they can survive with English well, speak an important feature of their identity. pragmatically and rationally, but Accordingly we were able to distinguish some things one can express only, two main factors in the construal of their one has to use his mother tongue identity: as an expression of their personal and then other connections are identity and as a tool for the expression of made. I believe, it is simply like that. their social identity. The latter expression And then there are situations, when varies with the level of their motivation to it becomes clearly apparent.’ express their self-categorization as an in- or out- group member. Respondent No. 5 for The remaining 17% feel that their example holds the opinion that the level mother tongue doesn’t play any significant of his language proficiency conditions the role in expressing their identity. They level of expression of his identity. He further reasoned their opinions with the following believes that ‘the language skills are the statements: ‘The country of origin influences keys to the world: the better the language the way one is perceived by others. Germans skills, the more doors stand open.’ Similar are regarded as reliable. But that has nothing views are held by some other respondents, to do with the language’ (respondent No. one of them states: 6). Respondent No. 10 believes that his mother tongue influences his identity in ‘My mother tongue is important for a very limited way, because he believes my identity, because only in that to express his identity and to perceive language I can search for various other’s identity via other features, such formulations in the most detailed as ‘sex appeal’ and respondent No. 1 is
252 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 233 - 256 (2014) The Impact of a Multilingual Environment on the Personal Identity among German Mother Tongue Speakers Living in Malaysia convinced that languages play no role in gained through a series of interviews we somebody’s identity whatsoever: ‘Words came to the conclusion that the use of a are not important at all. (Wort ist Schall und foreign language serves as a substitute for Rauch.)’. the mother tongue in the construal of identity The final point we addressed in our only to a certain extent. This phenomenon interviews was question No. (12) - Do you becomes most apparent in situations where judge others by their language skills? When? the competency of the language is crucial for How? In terms of frequency, we detected the respondent involved in communication. 83% of answers as ‘yes’ and the remaining Depending on the importance of the situation 17% as ‘no’. The replies to ‘When?’ were the respondents experience a different level usually related to interaction with new of achievement/failure in expressing their people. The answers we gained to ‘How?’ identity. At the same time the respondents can be basically divided into two categories: evaluate identity of their communication the level of interest for the communication partner by rating their language skills. It partner and judgments about the intelligence means that our results support Joseph’s of the communication partner. In the first (2004, p.13) and Spolsky’s (1999, p.181) case the respondents gain or lose interest suggestion that individuals decode and for their communication partners based on evaluate the identity of others also based the language skills their partners possess. on language and thus perceive linguistic In the latter case they evaluate the other on acts as acts of identity, what was suggested her/his mental ability based on the language in the work by Le Page and Tabouret- proficiency. One respondent stated that Keller (1985). The perception of one’s she takes language very seriously most of own achieved/failed identity expression all in the professional life: ‘I won’t start supports at the same time Pavlenko’s and any business partnership with somebody Blackledge’s (2004, p.19) argument that unable to demonstrate good language identity choices are not possible in all skills, because I take that kind of person as situations. Our findings further show that the incompetent’. majority of our respondents don’t feel well in situations when they can’t understand the language others use around them. In this CONCLUSION regard our results further indicate that the With our case studies we aimed to investigate identity perception and expression is at the the relationship between the language and same time most apparent when accompanied identity among German mother tongue by strong feelings (positive or negative). speakers living in Malaysia. We fall back This is however an observation based on the on the Social Identity Theory and the Social overall evaluation of our data and since we Categorization Theory in regard to research did not explicitly ask about the intensity of on language and identity. Based on data the feelings our respondents experienced in
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SOCIAL SCIENCES & HUMANITIES
Journal homepage: http://www.pertanika.upm.edu.my/
The Level of Satisfaction towards Flood Management System in Kelantan, Malaysia
Tuan Pah Rokiah Syed Hussain1*, Abd Rahim Md Nor2 and Hamidi Ismail1 1Department of Development, School of Government, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 Sintok, Kedah, Malaysia 2Faculty of Social Science and Humanities, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 Bangi, Malaysia
ABSTRACT The community in the Kelantan River Basin is still confronted by the problem of ineffectiveness of flood management system despite the government’s efforts to come up with various approacheson flood management systems to assist flood victims. The main objective of this study is to evaluate the level of residents’ satisfaction towards the implementation of flood management system. This study is quantitatively designed which utilized a questionnaire distributed to 160 respondents selected by stratified cluster simple one-stage sampling technique. The statistical technique used is mean comparison and one-way ANOVA to explain the residents’ perceptions among the districts involved with regards to the efficiency of the implemented flood management system. Based on the outcome of the study, the mean value related to the level of satisfaction of flood victims showed a decreasing pattern from before, during and after flood occurrences. For example, the mean comparative study reveals that the residents of Tanah Merah district recorded the highest dissatisfaction level for the three periods (before 3.04, current 2.95 and after 2.02) in comparision to other districts. The results illustrate a low efficiency level in flood management before flood occurrence. For instance, the community is still not quite satisfied with the effectiveness of warning system, action time intervals and current announcement time intervals regarding latest developments in flood situation with all these variables not achieving significant level of 0.05. The same applies to the situation on after flood effects such as in terms of dispensing flood assistance, controlling of infectious diseases and actions toward each resident’s complaints. ARTICLE INFO Article history: Thus, government have to reconsider about Received: 20 February 2012 the level of residents’ satisfaction to current Accepted: 2 August 2012 flood management systems namely before, E-mail addresses: [email protected] (Tuan Pah Rokiah Syed Hussain), during and after floods occurrence and [email protected] (Abd Rahim Md Nor), [email protected] (Hamidi Ismail) systematic planning in flood management * Corresponding author
ISSN: 0128-7702 © Universiti Putra Malaysia Press Tuan Pah Rokiah Syed Hussain, Abd Rahim Md Nor and Hamidi Ismail system reflects proactive cooperation among method. Normally, the structured method relevant parties in preparation for flood of controlling flood is more objective in disaster. nature since the level of risks is measurable and convincing (Cvetkovich et al. 1992). Keywords: Satisfaction level, flood management However, due to the escalation of cost, the system, river basins non-structured method is also important to be introduced as an alternative method INTRODUCTION to flood management. In addition, the Flood occurs when water over flows from involvement of government, community, the river banks and inundates the closest private sector and NGO’s is vital to plain where water was not prevalent earlier.. maximize the effectiveness of any forms Normally, this overflow happens when of implemented flood management. For heavy rain takes place non-stop for a the Kelantan River Basins, although the duration of several days at certain locations. government has already implemented Flood is also defined as a situation where various steps and actions to assist flood water flows exceed the carrying capacity of victims at the before, current or after flood a river resulting in overflows over the river stage, the residents are still being engulfed banks (Erickson 1971, Goh 1981, Griffiths with the issue of poor effectiveness of the 1985, Hoyt & Langbein 1966, Jamaluddin flood management system. & Ismail 1990, Smith 1993). The main question however is Massive floods in Malaysia occurred as to understand the level of satisfaction early as 1886, 1926, 1967, 1971 and 1986 among residents involved toward the and lately this situation has continuously implementation of the flood management worsened.. One of the areas in Malaysia system. This study assumes that this level which experienced frequent flooding is in of satisfaction among residents towards the Kelantan River Basin (DID, 2005). This government flood management system is is because the flood that inundated the basin significantly varied among the districts is categorised as a major flood area (?) and involved at each stage; before, during the frequency of occurrence is high (Sham, and after the flood occurrence. Therefore, 1973). For example, the major flood episode the objective of this study is to evaluate in 1967 caused the area to be declared as this level of satisfaction towards flood Emergency Area as 84 percent of residents management system in Kelantan River of Kelantan State were affected and a lot Basins at the three stages. destruction of basic facilities such as roads Evaluation of residents’ satisfaction and hospitals (Low, 1983; Sham, 1973). includes items such as response on the To control flood, there are two warning system, efficiency in warning approaches used by the government system delivery, response time, reminders namely the structured and non-structured and cooperation of relevant authorities. As
258 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 257 - 269 (2014) The Level of Satisfaction towards Flood Management System in Kelantan, Malaysia for the during flood stage, the following level and 23 times at dangerous level (Tuan aspects are taken into consideration namely Pah Rokiah, 2010). The same situation also rescue equipment such as boat and safety/life exists for other sub-basin regions such as jackets, safety during transfer or evacuation Lebir, Galas, and Pergau which recorded process, cooperation of rescue team, increasing flood frequency and magnitude. cleanliness of evacuation centers temporary This scenario also illustrates higher flood shelter, foodstuff supply, evacuation centers risk tendency if relevant parties do not temporary shelter surroundings, service take prudent mitigation measures including and assistance distribution. For the after flood management system especially for flood stage, among the questions raised the three stages of before, during, and after are distribution of flood assistance, health flood occurrence. If proper measures are control, public amenities repairs and public implemented, unwarranted events such as complaints. loss of properties, lives, and spreading of The occurrence of flood is synonymous infectious diseases can certainly be avoided. to the state of Kelantan due its significant In Malaysia, flood management frequency in that state. The flood occurrence normally employs structural engineering also cause losses and damages to properties approach. However, this approach is found and many lives. One of the main reasons for to be less effective in tackling human the high incident of flood in the state is due related flood issues or problems (Chan, to large-scale land clearing activities for 1995). According to Chan (2009), since commercial agricultural purposes such as flood problem is closely related to human for rubber and oil palm estates (Tuan Pah factor, therefore, the best approaches to Rokiah, 2010). The total area of land use solving flood problem should also be such as forest, rubber and oil palm indicates non-structural (humanity-based). The that there is a big annual change as most importance of this non-structural approach lands are utilsed for commercial agricultural must be reemphasized through the concept activities (Table 1). of environmental humanities (Chan, 2010). For instance, during the year 1961 Also, according to Levy et al. (2005) the to 2006, Kelantan River Basins has proposal for Disaster Support Systems (DSS) experienced flooding for a total of 275 times is a non-structural approach introduced to at early warning level, 92 times at warning improve the planning and effectiveness
TABLE 1 Landuse Changes by Year 1984, 1997 and 2004
Landuse Types 1984 Area (ha) 1997 Area (ha) 2004 Area (ha) Average Forest 10454677597.83 801154.92 710073.92 3485396276 Rubber 116835.97 163510.79 142170.10 140839 Oil Palm 20656.6 65835.01 87974.12 58155.2 Source: Kementerian Pertanian Malaysia 2004
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 267 - 269 (2014) 259 Tuan Pah Rokiah Syed Hussain, Abd Rahim Md Nor and Hamidi Ismail of flood management. Among the vital Kelantan state area consisting eight districts elements of DSS are communication, namely Kota Bharu, Pasir Mas, Tumpat, knowledge transfer, skill improvement in Tanah Merah, Machang, Kuala Krai, Jeli forecasting ability and the transparency of and Gua Musang. strategic flood decision management. In The selection of the respondents is addition, the study by Vari (2002) at Lower based on the worst flood-hit area and the Tisza found that the forms of flood control most frequent occurrence of flood for each is not necessarily needed to be informed but of the districts involved. For example, Kuala it is vital that the public be informed of the Krai district in the Manek Urai area, has level of risks associated with flood so as not been chosen to represent the district because to create a panic situation in the community. the area was worse-hit by flood for each and Study in Vietnam found that the effects every year. Based on the same principle, the of doi moi policy really provide much of districts that were involved in the selection awareness to the community in order to of respondents are Kota Bharu, Pasir Mas, face the flood disaster by building more Tumpat, Tanah Merah, Machang, Kuala durable housing, building home in stages Krai, Jeli and Gua Musang with a total using better resistant building materials. Up respondent of 160 people. to the year 2005, there was 17 percent of The design of this study is quantitative houses built using more durable materials, in nature where questionnaires were 65 percent using semi durable materials distributed to 160 respondents. There are and 18 percent still using less durable 4 sections in the questionnaire namely materials (Tran et al. 2009). According to demographic, flood management system Warner (2008), efficient flood management at before, current and after flood stage. system requires a close cooperation by each To measure the respondents’ level of level of the community, private sector and satisfaction toward the flood management local leaders. These groups should not be system by the government, Likert’s Scale left out in facing major flood disaster but is used ranging from 1 (not satisfied) to they should act an “army” to help the flood 4 (strongly satisfied). Respondents were victims. selected from flood victims relocated to each district relocation centers. This study uses STUDY AREAS AND RESEARCH stratified cluster simple one-stage sampling METHODS technique as used by Xie et al. (2008). A The study coveredKelantan River Basins total of 20 respondents were selected using which is divided into several sub-basins the said technique for each district which namely Sungai Kelantan, Sungai Galas, cumulatively totaled to 160 respondents. Sungai Lebir and Sungai Pergau (Fig.1). The According to Carver and Nash (2005) and total area of this Kelantan River Basins is Mohd. Majid (1990), sample size of 30 about 13,100 square km or 85 percent of the is adequate for the purpose of inferential
260 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 257 - 269 (2014) The Level of Satisfaction towards Flood Management System in Kelantan, Malaysia statistics. However Mohd. Majid (1990), were analyzed using the inferential statistics added that sample size of 100 is better to such as mean comparison, one-way ANOVA provide more representation of respondents and correlation. The selection of these of various background. statistical techniques is deemed appropriate In this study, respondents are required considering the types of data collected and to fill out questionnaire forms after the flood hypotheses formulated, for instance, the and the respondents are the same persons application of mean comparison and one- for the 3 situation of before, current and way ANOVA techniques to demonstrate after the flood occurrence. However, for the the level of resident’s satisfaction amongst district of Pasir Mas, the responses are only the districts towards the current flood for the before and after flood occurrence as management system as frequently used by there were no flood victims being relocated Abd. Rahim (1999, 2009). Mean comparison to relocation center. Therefore, this study analysis is applied to obtain the overall views validates that the sample size is adequate, of a particular phenomena and standard suitable and acceptable for statistical deviation statistic is used to detect variation analysis purposes. in perception among all the respondents. On Since the study is quantitative in nature, the other hand, one-way ANOVA method all the data collected from the questionnaires is utilized to detect the level of significant
Legend N Sg.Lebir Sg.Galas Sg.Pergau Sg.Kelantan
Sg.Pergau
146004.77 km.sq.
Sg.Lebir Sg. Kelantan
358952.25 740688.74 km.sq. km.sq. 161221.75 km.sq. Sg.Galas
Fig.1: Sub-basins of the Kelantan River Basin (Source: Tuan Pah Rokiah, 2010)
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 267 - 269 (2014) 261 Tuan Pah Rokiah Syed Hussain, Abd Rahim Md Nor and Hamidi Ismail in perception differentiation among the comparison method is used. Evaluation respondents consisting of three or more of residents’ satisfaction at before flood groups (among the districts). occurrence stage includes warning system, efficiency in warning system delivery, RESULTS AND DISCUSSION response time, reminders and cooperation of The efficiency of flood management system relevant authorities to the residents involved. is essentially important because it influences Based on mean value for the before flood two vital components; the safety of human stage, the study found that Gua Musang and lives and property damages and losses. If Tumpat District recorded the highest mean the government is practicing proper and value of 3.46 each and standard deviations efficient flood management system (before, of 0.3697 for Gua Musang District and during, and after flood occurrence), the 0.3346 for Tumpat District respectively. extent of loss or damages of human lives and This scenario illustrates that the level properties can certainly be incrementally of satisfaction is high among the residents reduced (Vari, 2002). in these two districts towards the flood The efficiency of flood management management system at the before flood system can be evaluated through various occurrence stage as compared to other approaches, one of which is through districts. For Tanah Merah and Kuala Krai measuring the level of satisfaction among District, the results show the lowest mean the residents who live within the study area. scores of 3.04 and 3.30 respectively with This level of satisfaction can be evaluated corresponding standard deviations of 0.3700 from several aspects, for instance, efficiency and 0.3898. This clearly demonstrates and effectiveness level, or cooperation and that residents in these two districts have assistance provided by the government. a rather low level of satisfaction towards Hence, two types of analysis are carried out the efficiency in flood management system namely the mean comparison and one-way in their districts. The difference in higher ANOVA to rationalize the study hypothesis or lower mean value is dependable on the that there exist significant differences or level of cooperation among the government discrimination of residents’ perceptions agencies of corresponding districts in among the districts towards the efficiency delivering flood information before the of flood management system delivery. occurrence of flood. For the other districts, mean recordings are almost similar with Mean Comparison readings ranging from 3.33 to 3.39. This also indicates that the residents in these districts To detail out the study hypothesis that there within the Kelantan River Basins are exists significant differences of residents’ generally satisfied with flood management perceptions among the districts towards system at the before flood occurrence. the efficiency of flood management system Furthermore, to illustrate the level delivery (before, during, and after), mean
262 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 257 - 269 (2014) The Level of Satisfaction towards Flood Management System in Kelantan, Malaysia of satisfaction among the flood victims that for the during flood stage, there is a during the flood occurrence, a number slight variation in the mean value where of questions need to be addressed. These the scores for each districts decreased. This include rescue equipment such as boat is an indication that the level of satisfaction and safety jacket, safety during transfer among the residents involved for these or evacuation process, and cooperation districts are generally low especially for of rescue team, cleanliness of evacuation Tanah Merah District with mean score of center/temporary shelter, foodstuff supply, 2.95 and for Jeli District is 3.07. Standard evacuation center/temporary shelter deviations for these two districts are 0.3201 surroundings, and service and assistance and 0.1753 respectively (Table 2). The distribution. The study outcomes show difference in standard deviations for each
TABLE 2 Mean value for the level of residents’ satisfaction towards flood management system by districts
Stage Districts (Jajahan) Overall Mean SD Level of Satisfaction Towards Flood Management Gua Musang 3.46 .36970 System BEFORE Flood Occurrence Jeli 3.35 .28756 Kota Bharu 3.33 .35145 Kuala Krai 3.30 .38984 Machang 3.33 .41413 Pasir Mas 3.39 .36109 Tanah Merah 3.04 .37009 Tumpat 3.46 .33467 Level of Satisfaction Towards Flood Management Gua Musang 3.11 .21437 System DURING Flood Occurrence Jeli 3.07 .17531 Kota Bharu 3.11 .19759 Kuala Krai 3.21 .19051 Machang 3.16 .17548 Pasir Mas* - - Tanah Merah 2.95 .32013 Tumpat 3.21 .13650 Level of Satisfaction Towards Flood Management Gua Musang 2.27 .08156 System AFTER Flood Occurrence Jeli 2.27 .11180 Kota Bharu 2.30 .08156 Kuala Krai 2.26 .08377 Machang 2.11 .24839 Pasir Mas 2.30 .08719 Tanah Merah 2.02 .21134 Tumpat 2.28 .10949 Includes All Districts except Pasir Mas- No data DURING flood (N= 140) (Source: Tuan Pah Rokiah, 2010)
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 267 - 269 (2014) 263 Tuan Pah Rokiah Syed Hussain, Abd Rahim Md Nor and Hamidi Ismail of the districts demonstrates that there are more frequent and severe flooding due to significant variations with regards to the the overflows from Golok River (i.e. Pekan level of residents’ satisfaction towards the Rantau Panjang). services being provided to them during the The trend in mean value also shows flood occurrence. that the level of residents’ satisfaction is This situation reveals that flood declining for the after flood occurrence victims from both districts are rather stage. Among the questions that need to be less satisfied with the flood management addressed include the distribution of flood system implemented by the government. assistance, health control, public amenities The districts that recorded highest mean repairs, and public/residents complaints. value (3.21) are Kuala Krai and Tumpat. Tanah Merah district recorded the lowest However, this highest mean value is for mean value of 2.02 with standard deviation the during flood occurrence stage. When of 0.2113 and this is followed by Machang compared with the mean value at the before district with mean value of 2.11 (standard flood occurrence stage, the value is actually deviation of 0.2483). On the other hand, lower (i.e. for Tumpat, the mean value of Kota Bahru and Pasir Mas districts recorded before flood occurrence stage is 3.46). This the highest mean value of 2.30. The mean situation indicates a reduction in mean value for other districts ranges from 2.26 to value of the during flood occurrence stage 2.28. This situation may be caused by urgent as compared to the mean value at the before needs by the residents of Pasir Mas dan Kota flood occurrence stage. Besides, there is one Bharu districts as compared to Tanah Merah district (Pasir Mas) with no data during flood and Machang districts after the flood such stage due to possibly the non-existence of as complaints on road or bridge damages flood victims being relocated or relocating by the flood. to relatives’ house. Based on this study, mean value for the This district was actually one of the worst level of flood victims’ satisfaction toward flood hit districts around the year 1970’s to the efficiency of flood management is 1980’s (Tuan Pah Rokiah, 2010). However, declining from the time before, during, and after a number of flood mitigation measures after flood occurrence. Furthermore, the were built along Kelantan River including level of flood victims’ satisfaction in Tanah the construction of higher concrete levees Merah district is generally unacceptable. and pump houses, the intensity of flooding This is because in the three stages of flood, in this area was reduced to about 0.5 meter. the mean value recorded for this district is This has resulted in a lesser number of flood the lowest (before 3.04, during 2.95 and victims needing relocation to temporary after 2.02). This scenario exhibits that the shelter. The opposite is happening to the flood management in Tanah Merah district residents who live in the district of Pasir Mas needs to be given priority for improvement on the Thailand border which experiences as compared to the other districts such
264 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 257 - 269 (2014) The Level of Satisfaction towards Flood Management System in Kelantan, Malaysia as Kota Bharu and Pasir Mas districts. In safety and flood danger has resulted in addition, Tanah Merah district is one of the the existence of differences of opinions districts in Kelantan that experiences higher among them with regards to the safety frequency of flooding during the rainy reminders/warnings issued by the authority. monsoon season. Hence, prudent monitoring In addition, the “lassie faire” attitude among on the part of government must definitely the residents also contributed to the wrong be undertaken in order to improve the level and loose interpretation on safety issues. of flood victims’ level of satisfaction in that On the question of patrol/surveillance area. Overall, there exist differences in the undertaken by the authority of respective level of satisfaction among the communities districts, the mean value recorded is towards the efficiency of flood management 3.36 and the significant level is at 0.05 system in the Kelantan River Basins. with P=0.011. Differences in residents’ perception regarding patrol and surveillance One-Way ANOVA by authority of respective districts are based Meanwhile, to detail out the study that there on frequency of patrol, competency and exist significant differences in perceptions other factors. For the question on general among residents from the various districts, views of the overall flood management discussion can be divided into before, during system before flood occurrence, the mean and after flood occurrences. value is 3.21 and the significant level is at 0.10 with P=0.061. Before Flood Occurrence In addition, there are four questions that do not show significant differences To examine the level of residents’ satisfaction in residents’ perceptions in satisfaction toward the efficiency of flood management towards before flood stage management system for each district, a total of eight system. These include questions related questions were presented. However, based to the efficiency of warning system, time on study outcomes, only four out of eight intervals given to residents to act after questions achieved significant level. For the warnings have been issued, time intervals of question on the delivery method of flood flood reports disseminated to residents, and warning system, the mean value is 3.34 cooperation given by the authority. and the significant level is at 0.05 where P=0.014. This demonstrates that there are During Flood Occurrence variations in residents’ perceptions in each district within the study area. One-way ANOVA analysis for during On the question regarding the advise/ flood occurrence indicates an increase in reminders on safety and flood danger, the the number of questions with significant mean value is 3.43 and the significant level level at 0.05. This shows an increase of the is at 0.05 with P=0.009. The residents’ number of residents with different opinions norms of not giving much attention to the regarding the level of satisfaction towards
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 267 - 269 (2014) 265 Tuan Pah Rokiah Syed Hussain, Abd Rahim Md Nor and Hamidi Ismail the efficiency of flood management system makes the total number of respondents to be during the flood. To evaluate the level 140 for all the seven districts. of satisfaction during flood, a total of 19 As a whole, the residents of Kelantan questions were presented. Based the study River Basins hold different views among results, a total of 17 questions indicates the districts in relation to the management differences in opinions among the districts system during flood. On the level of at the significant level of 0.05 (Table 3). For satisfaction, a total of eight questions an evaluation of satisfaction level among the recorded mean value from 2.21 to 2.89 and respondents within various districts, there is this certainly indicates a low satisfaction one district with no data for the during flood level, thus it can be concluded that the stage. The district is Pasir Mas where there efficiency of management system is weak. were no flood victims being evacuated. This This means that in general, the residents in
TABLE 3 One-way ANOVA for the level of respondents’ satisfaction during flood occurrence for all districts
Level of Satisfaction for Flood Management DURING Flood Mean F Sig. Competency in terms time taken in rendering rescue assistance 2.21 5.626 .000 Safety emphasis during victims’ evacuation activities 3.46 4.277 .001 Safety surveillance of victims’ houses and properties left behind 3.53 4.407 .000 Cooperation & consideration of rescue team. 3.53 3.783 .002 Cleanliness of evacuation center/ shelter, toilet, sleeping space, 2.34 4.419 .000 and food preparation place Adequate food preparation and healthy diet 2.84 6.225 .000 Cleanliness of evacuation center/ shelter surroundings from 2.40 7.041 .000 garbage, food wastages, or liquid wastes Maintenance of cleanliness during food and beverage 2.57 2.847 .012 preparation Provision of clothing, blankets, and diapers to flood victims 3.02 9.352 .000 Spare-time activities for adults at evacuation center/ shelter 2.89 7.379 .000 Spare-time activities for children at evacuation center/ shelter 2.77 3.682 .002 Health monitoring at evacuation center especially for senior 3.64 3.576 .003 citizens and children Monitoring of safety by the authority 3.78 3.010 .009 Assistance distribution at evacuation center/ shelter 3.72 4.081 .001 Service of workers/staff at evacuation center/ shelter to flood 3.75 2.860 .012 victims Existing flood conditions report for flood victims at evacuation 3.73 1.995 .071 center/ shelter Cooperation from authority to solve problems during stay at 3.73 3.619 .002 evacuation center/ shelter All districts except Pasir Mas - No data (N= 140) Source: Tuan Pah Rokiah, 2010
266 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 257 - 269 (2014) The Level of Satisfaction towards Flood Management System in Kelantan, Malaysia the study area possess somewhat identical questions related to assistance to flood views towards the flood management victims, control of infectious diseases, and system during flood in their areas. There complaints where each questions recorded were however, significant differences of the mean value of 2.76, 2.63 and 1.98 views among residents of different districts respectively at significance level of 0.05 within the study area toward the efficiency with corresponding P=0.000, 0.000 and of management during flood as implemented 0.022 (Table 4). However, if these mean by the government. values are further examined, there seems to be a tendency of respondents to have a low After Flood Occurrence satisfaction level for management system To examine the level of residents’ after flood. For instance, the mean values satisfaction towards management system just recorded low scores ranging from after flood, there were six questions 2.01 to 2.76 which show situation of less presented. These include those related satisfactory. Furthermore, there were values to assistance, controlling of infectious recorded lower than 2.0 such as 1.98 which diseases, public amenities repairs, public clearly indicates total dissatisfaction of the complaints and others. The study results management system. show that three out of six questions achieved As a whole, these situations illustrate significant level at 0.05. On the other hand, the level of efficiency of management after the rest of the questions indicate that there flood is considered low. An example is from are no differences in views among the the point of views of rendering assistance, respondents of all the districts. This includes controlling of infectious diseases after questions on public amenities repairs, safety flood (cholera, dengue) and actions for surveillance of authority and general views each resident compliant. Hence this study of respondents after flood occurrence. found that there were significant differences The questions that recorded significant with regards to the residents’ satisfaction differences in opinions amongst the on government management system for respondents of various districts are situations of before, during and after flood among the districts in Kelantan.
TABLE 4 one-way anova for satisfaction level after flood for all districts
Question No. Satisfaction level AFTER flood Mean F Sig. 1. Assistance to flood victims 2.76 35.038 .000 2. Control of infectious diseases AFTER flood 2.63 7.419 .000 5. Immediate actions taken for any public 1.98 3.353 .022 complaints or problems All Districts (N= 160) Source: Tuan Pah Rokiah, 2010
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 267 - 269 (2014) 267 Tuan Pah Rokiah Syed Hussain, Abd Rahim Md Nor and Hamidi Ismail
CONCLUSION disater announcement and time interval for Systematic planning in flood management actions. And for the period after flood, the system reflects proactive cooperation government should be sensitive to the timely among relevant parties in preparation repairs public faclilities and improvement for flood disaster. Thus, government has on safety and security monitoring. to consider about the level of settlers’ satisfaction to current flood management REFERENCES systems namely before, during and after Abd Rahim Md Nor. (1999). Kaedah menganalisis floods materialization. With such prudent data berkomputer. Shah Alam: Penerbit Fajar actions, it can certainly assist flood victims Bakti Sdn. Bhd. in the preparation of any flood disaster Abd Rahim Md Nor. (2009). Statistical methods in especially to those who resides in more research. Kuala Lumpur: Prentice Hall. vulnerable flood-prone remote/interior Chan Ngai Weng. (1995). A contextual analysis lowlands. This study proposes improvement of flood hazard management in Peninsular to the information delivery techniques Malaysia. (Unpublished PhD Thesis). London: such as the effectiveness of early system Middlesex University. (P=0.07), action time interval (P=0.18) and Chan Ngai Weng. (2009). Environmental humanities announcement time interval (P=0.23). initiative: concept and actualisation in Based on this study, the residents or the Universiti Sains Malaysia as a niche area. Paper presented at the Workshop on Establishing community are still not satisfied with the an Environmental Humanities, Cluster at the flood management system as the analyis Social Transformation Research Platform, found that all the valeus are not significant USM 2 March 2009, USAINS, Universiti Sains at 0.05. Furthermore, for the period of after Malaysia. flood, there are two aspects that the residents Chan Ngai Weng. (2010). Addressing flood hazards were not satisfied at the insignificant level via environmental humanities in Malaysia. In of 0.05 that is repairs of damaged public Md. Jahi, J. (Ed.), Ecology, Human Habitat and facilities (P=0.12) and monitoring of safety Environmental Change (pp. 46-57). Pekan Baru, and security after flood (P=0.11). However, Indonesia: Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia Press. for the period of during flood, the residents show some satisfaction towrds the flood Cvetkovich, G., & Earle, T.C. (1992). Environmental management system implimented by the hazards and the public. Journal of Social Issues, 48(4), 1-20. government. Therfore, the government should DID Kelantan. (2005). Floods report 2005/2006. Kota improve several aspects of the flood Bharu: Department of Irrigation and Drainage. management system especially before Erikson, N. J. (1971). Human adjustment to flood in the flood such as infomation delivery New Zealand. Applied Geography, 27(2), 21-32. techniques in terms of the effectiveness of Goh Kim Chuan. (1981). Geografi fizikal. Kuala earling warning system, time interval for Lumpur: Longman.
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Hoyt, W. G., &. Langbein, W. B. (1966). Floods. Tran, P., Shaw, R., & Chantry, G. (2009). GIS and Second Edition. New Jersey: Princeton local knowledge in disaster management: a University Press. case study of flood risk mapping in Viet Nam. Disasters, 33(1), 152-169. DOI: 10.1111/j.1467- Jamaluddin Md. Jahi., & Ismail Ahmad. (1990). Flood 7717.2008.01067.x hazard in Kelantan, Malaysia. Siri Mimeograf (3). Bangi: Department of Geography, Universiti Tuan Pah Rokiah Syed Hussain. (2010). Pengaruh Kebangsaan Malaysia. aspek fizikal dan gangguan manusia terhadap kejadian banjir di Lembangan Saliran Kelantan. Kementerian Pertanian Malaysia. (2004). Data (Doctoral Thesis dissertation). Fakulti Sains statistik perubahan gunatanah Negeri Kelantan Sosial dan Kemanusiaan, Universiti Kebangsaan 2004. Putrajaya. (Unpublished). Malaysia. (Unpublished). Levy, J. K., Gopalakrishnan, C., & Lin, Z. (2005). Vari, A. (2002). Public involvement in flood Advances in decision support systems for risk management in Hungary. Journal of flood disaster management: Challenges and Risk Research, 5(3), 211–224. DOI: opportunities. International Journal of Water 10.1080/136698701100426. Resources Development, 21(4), 593-612. DOI: 10.1080/07900620500258117. Warner, J. (2008). Emergency river storage in the ooij polder-a bridge too far? Forms of participation in Low Kwai Sim. (1983). Flood hazard in Peninsular flood preparedness policy. International Journal Malaysia. Seminar Paper of Institute for Higher of Water Resources Development, 24(4), 567- Studies, 3-4 Oktober 1983, Kuala Lumpur: 582. DOI: 10.1080/07900620801923153. University Malaya. Xie, Z. H., Bo, S. Y., Zhang, X. T., Liu, M., Zhang, Mohd. Majid Konting. (1990). Kaedah penyelidikan Z. X., Yang, X. L., Ji, S.R., Yan, H., Sui, X. L., pendidikan. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Na, S., Guo, S. H., & Wu, Z. L. (2008). Sampling Pustaka. survvey on intelectual disability in 0-6- year- Sham Sani. (1973). The 1967 flood in Kelantan, West old children in China. Journal of Intelectual Malaysia. Akademika, 3, 1-14. Disability Research, 52(12), 1029-1038. Smith, K. (1993). Riverine flood hazard. Journal of the Geographical Association, 78: 182-185.
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Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 271 - 284 (2014)
SOCIAL SCIENCES & HUMANITIES
Journal homepage: http://www.pertanika.upm.edu.my/
Psychometric Evaluation of the Australian Inventory of Family Strengths (AIFS) on Rural Malay Families in Malaysia
Zarinah Arshat* and Rozumah Baharudin Department of Human Development and Family Studies, Faculty of Human Ecology, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
ABSTRACT This study examines the psychometric properties of Australian Inventory of Family Strengths (AIFS) in a sample of 200 rural Malay families in Malaysia. The exploratory factor analysis of AIFS revealed 3-factor solution and were labelled as Shared Values, Togetherness and Respectful Communication. The overall scale had a high degree of internal consistency (α = 0.96). Results indicate that the three factors were moderately correlated. The validity of AIFS was also satisfying in terms of the actual data matching the expected correlation between family strengths measure and the variables of children’s social competence and self-esteem. The results of this study imply that the construct of family strength and its measurement from the West can be helpful and applicable in understanding the characteristics of family strength of rural Malay families in Malaysia.
Keywords: Family strengths, factor structure, psychometric properties, respectful communication, shared values, commitment
INTRODUCTION and capabilities of families from their Family strengths have been a key of own perspectives using a standardized interest among helping professionals who assessment tool of family strengths. Family provide family interventions, programs, and strengths are conceptualized as “those forces support services. Thus, it is important to and dynamic factors…which encourage the gather information about the competencies development of the personal resources and potentials of members of the family and
ARTICLE INFO which make family life deeply satisfying Article history: and fulfilling to family members” (Otto, Received: 20 February 2012 Accepted: 6 March 2013 1975, p.16). Comprehensively, family E-mail addresses: strengths are defined as the relationship [email protected] (Zarinah Arshat), [email protected] (Rozumah Baharudin) patterns, intrapersonal and interpersonal * Corresponding author
ISSN: 0128-7702 © Universiti Putra Malaysia Press Zarinah Arshat and Rozumah Baharudin skills and competencies, and social and It has been noted that a more reliable psychological characteristics which create measurement in any assessment is to use a sense of positive family identity, promote multiple dimensions so that the measurement satisfying and fulfilling interaction among will produce consistent outcomes. The six family members, encourage development dimensions in AIFS are sharing life together, of the potential of the family group and caring for each other, communicating individual family members, contribute effectively with each other, valuing each to the family’s ability to deal effectively other, connecting spirituality for well-being with stress and crisis (Stinnett, Chesser, & and growing together through challenges. DeFrain, 1979; Williams, Lingren, Rowe, Factor analysis of the 85 items of AIFS Van Zandt & Stinnett, 1985; Schlesinger, resulted in the emergence of four factors, 1998; Moore, Chalk, Scarpa, & Vandivere, namely, Togetherness (Factor 1), Respectful 2002). Along the lines of these conceptual Communication (Factor 2), Shared Values frameworks, several self-report instruments (Factor 3), and A Sense of Belonging (Factor have been developed to assess family 4). However, the reliability and validity of strengths, for example Family Strengths the AIFS were not reported (source). Inventory (Stinnett & DeFrain, 1985), In the present study, the variables of Family Strengths Scale (Olson, Larsen, social competence and self-esteem are to & McCubbin, 1983), Family Functioning be used as the predictive validity indicators Style Scale (Deal, Trivette, & Dunst, 1988). of AIFS in order to further understand its These instruments have been proven to be potential for cross-cultural application in reliable and valid in the West, and in turn the Malaysian culture. Children’ social have helped researchers further clarify the competence and self-esteem are chosen construct of family strengths on the one as predictive validity because these two hand, and on the other hand, have provided variables have been consistently related to practical tools for practitioners to find various psychological outcomes (source, ways of intervention to enhance the family based on study). For example, children with strengths in the real-life environment. higher levels of social competence tend to The Australian Inventory of Family elicit positive responses from others and Strengths (AIFS) (Geggie, DeFarin, are skillful in forming close and supportive Hitchcock, & Silberberg, 2000) was chosen relationship (Mendez, McDermott, & to assess Malaysian’s family strengths in Fantuzzo, 2002). On the other hand, children this study because it has broad conceptual who have high level of self-esteem tend to base which covers a multiple dimensions of be emotionally stable (Judge, Erez, Bono, family strengths where this measurement & Thoresen, 2002), attain higher academic has six dimensions that strong families achievement (Trautwein, Lüdtke, Köller, across the world have in common (Stinnett & Baumert, 2006), and possess low level & DeFrain, 1985; Stern, Yuen & He, 2004). of depression (Watson, Suls, & Haig,
272 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 271 - 284 (2014) Psychometric Evaluation of the Australian Inventory of Family Strengths (AIFS) on Rural Malay Families in Malaysia
2002). The aims of the present study were had completed an average of 10.2 years to explore the factor structure of the AIFS education and had duration of marriage and to examine its reliability and validity between 7 to 27 years. The average monthly among Malaysian people, in order to further household incomes of the respondents were understand its potential for cross-cultural RM932.40. application in the Malaysian culture. The average number of children was 3.7. There were slightly more males (58%) METHOD than females of the focal child. Sample Measures The respondents were 200 Malay families and selected from ten Federal Land Australian Inventory of Family Development Authority (Felda) schemes in Strengths (AIFS) Negeri Sembilan (Felda Bukit Jalor, Felda The original AIFS instrument contained 85 Bukit Rokan, Felda Pasir Besar and Felda items (Geggie et al., 2000). The scale items Sg. Kelamah) and Pahang (Felda Bukit preceded by the phrase “In our family…”. Kepayang, Felda Bukit Mendi, Felda Lurah Respondents were asked to rate the items Bilut, Felda Bukit Puchong, Felda Mayam on 6-point scales that ranged from definitely and Felda Cemomoi). The selection of study agree to definitely disagree. In this study respondents was based on married second only 79 items were used. Six items were generation had to have (and live with) at deleted from the original scale due to what least one child between the ages of 7 and 12. the researcher and the faculty members of Negeri Sembilan and Pahang are purposively Department of Human Development and selected as the location of the study based Family Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia on the following considerations: (1) the thought were issues of contextual and availability of second generation Felda cultural relevance. The six items that were families that would facilitate the selection deleted are : 1) We like to hug each other, of respondents based on the discussion 2) We allow each other to be ourselves, 3) with Felda’s Director of Community We wait for each other without complaining, Development in Kuala Lumpur (2) the 4) We feel connected with nature and the availability of study resources (finance, world around us, 5) We often says, “She’ll manpower), and (3) the accessibility of be alright, mate”, and 6) We give each the respondents. Respondents that fit the other enough time to complete necessary criteria of the study were selected using task. This study also made some selected simple random sampling from a sampling wording edits on three items to make it frame. The age of the respondents involved more appropriate for the sample study. Item in this study range between 24 to 66 years 7 on the original AIFS was reworded from old with an average of 36.6 years. Most ‘We feel a strong connection with our land’ of the respondents were male (51.5%), to ‘We feel a strong connection with our
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 271 - 284 (2014) 273 Zarinah Arshat and Rozumah Baharudin land development’. Item 9 on the original Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES). AIFS was changed from ‘We enjoy hearing he 10-item RSES (Rosenberg, 1965) is one our grandparents stories about the past’ to of the most widely used scales for measuring ‘We enjoy hearing past family experience’. global self-esteem with responses ranged The new statement of the item 9 is more from 1 (strongly disagree) to 4 (strongly universal for the sample study because agree). The negative items were reversed some of the respondents might not have scored in order to obtained a higher scale grandparents any more due to death. Item indicated a higher level of self-esteem. The 80 on the original AIFS scale was reworded respondents were asked how they perceive from “Our personal religious and moral their children’s self-esteem. The coefficient beliefs are compatible with each other” to alpha values were 0.79 and above for the “Our personal religious practice is strong”. English version (Mayhew & Lempers, 1998; This item was reworded based on the fact Thomas & Gadbois, 2007), and 0.63 for the that religious and moral beliefs among Malay version (Anjli Panalal, 2004). The Malay families tend to highly homogeneous concurrent, predictive and construct validity but in terms of religious practice may differ of the scale also was well established for family members. (Fischer & Corcoran, 1994; Lightsey, Burke, Ervin, Henderson, & Yee, 2006). Social Competence Scale (SCS). The 12-item SCS (Corrigan, 2002) was used Procedures to measure children’s social competence. Each respondent was interviewed face-to- The SCS assesses a child’s prosocial and face using the adapted questionnaire at their emotional skills. Each item on the scale homes. This method permits the collection states a behavior that a child may display of the most extensive data on each person in a social setting. Responses are coded questioned (Tan, 2004; Brenner, Brown, on a five-point Likert scale ranging from 0 & Canter, 1985). Prior to the interview, a (Not at all) to 4 (Very Well). A higher scale briefing on the objectives of the study was showed a higher perception of child’s social given. The willingness of the respondents competence. Dennis, Brotman, Huang and to participate in the study were asked. After Gouley (2007) report that the SCS had a the respondents agreed to participate in the good internal consistency (alpha coefficient study the interviews were proceed by using = 0.87) and test-retest reliability showed survey questionnaire. On completion of the correlations of .52 and .69. The concurrent questionnaire, the respondents were given a and construct validity of the scale also well token in appreciation of their participation established (Dennis et al., 2007). in the survey.
274 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 271 - 284 (2014) Psychometric Evaluation of the Australian Inventory of Family Strengths (AIFS) on Rural Malay Families in Malaysia
RESULTS factor loading ranged from .69 to .42. Shared Exploratory Factor Analysis of the Values describing that family members have Malaysian Version of AIFS a sense of greater good or power in life, A similar method used by Geggie et al. a spirituality or set of values and beliefs (2002) i.e., principle component analysis that gives strength, perspective, purpose, with a varimax rotation was performed and guidelines for living, which gives the on the data to explore the possible factor family a sense of belonging or togetherness structure of the AIFS with Malaysian (Stern, Yuen, & He, 2004; Geggie et al., families. Criteria for identifying the factors 2000). Family members express their shared were as follows: (1) each factors had to values and beliefs by practicing religious have an eigenvalues greater than one and and cultural rituals, extending themselves noticeable change in the slopes and (2) items to others, and volunteering and caring for were retained when the loading was equal their community. and greater than 0.30 (Lewis-Beck, 1994; The second factor of 27 items was Kline, 1994; Hair, Anderson, Tantham, & labeled as Togetherness, explaining 11.68% Black, 1998; Geggie et al., 2002). of total item variance and the factor loading The results show eighteen factors ranged from .69 to .33. Togetherness is had eigen values greater than one, which the ‘invisible glue’ that bonds the family accounted for 73.13% of the variance. and gives the family members a sense of However, based on the inspection of scree belonging (Geggie et al., 2000). Family plot the solution with three factors was members express togetherness in many examined for interpretability. According ways, such as by rearranging schedules to to Zwick and Velicer (1982), on the whole, spend time with family, keeping promises scree plots tend to be the most accurate and being dependable, setting goals together, for determining the number of factors to building family memories, as well as used retain in factor analysis. Through a varimax togetherness as a coping strategy when faced rotation, four items that had factor loading with adversity and crisis. less than .30 were eliminated. Therefore The last factor was primarily loaded only 75 items were retained for further by 21 items was named as Respectful analysis. Communication which was accounted As shown in Table 1, the three-factor for 11.38% of the variance and the factor solution accounted for 38.34% of the loading ranged from .69 to .34. Respectful variance of the data seems to be more communication represents that family meaningful to Malaysian families. Upon members are open and honest with one scrutinizing each item that was loaded in a another, and they are willing to listen to factor, the first factor was labeled as Shared other member’s view (Geggie et al., 2000). Values, contained 27 items which was Families with communication patterns accounted for 15.28% of the variance and its that convey support and caring often find
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 271 - 284 (2014) 275 Zarinah Arshat and Rozumah Baharudin
TABLE 1 Exploratory Factor Analysis Results for the Australian Inventory of Family Strengths – Autralian Sample
Item Item Statement Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 Factor 4 24 We feel close to each other .74 .32 .15 .11 21 We feel strongly connected to each other .71 .22 .18 .13 10 We love one another .69 .10 .17 - 8 We feel comfortable with each other .68 .29 - - 20 We like to show affection to each other .66 .27 .17 .13 3 We like to have fun together .66 - .15 .29 23 We have lots of good times together .65 .21 .26 .22 40 We enjoy the times we share together .64 .34 .31 - 32 We like to hug each other .62 .21 .18 .16 28 We often laugh with each other .59 .30 .25 - 22 Hanging out together builds strong relationships .59 .21 .17 .22 45 We have a strong sense of belonging .59 .30 .37 - 50 We really care for each other .58 .33 .31 - 4 We like to share our feelings with each other .57 .33 - .36 48 We share jokes together .56 .21 .39 - 15 We like talking openly with each other .55 .38 - .27 73 We grow stronger because we love each other .51 .29 .50 - 11 We are able to forgive each other .51 .37 .12 - 57 We value each other .49 .46 .28 - 14 We enjoy simple, inexpensive family activities .46 .23 .19 .30 33 Our home feels like a sanctuary for all of us .45 .21 .27 .16 62 There is a feeling of safety and security .41 .35 .40 - 83 We enjoy having unplanned, spontaneous activities .36 .16 .30 .11 together 16 We like having a place we call ‘home’ .32 - .17 .12 37 We give each other a chance to explain ourselves .36 .67 .11 .13 31 Everyone gets their say in making decisions .15 .64 - .20 55 We respect the roles each of us play in the family .26 .63 .23 - 51 Putdowns are rare .18 .62 - - 53 We have reasonable expectations of each other .24 .59 .17 .12 42 We wait for each other without complaining .14 .59 - .20 25 We wait for each other without complaining .38 .59 - .21 44 We can work together to solve very difficult family .31 .57 .23 .11 problems 85 We accept that each of us has different ways of doing .11 .56 .31 - things 19 We like keeping our promises to each other .33 .56 .10 .14 43 We enjoy our family discussions .33 .54 .15 .22 38 Our communication is effective .42 .54 - .13 69 We like to support each other .47 .53 .32 -
276 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 271 - 284 (2014) Psychometric Evaluation of the Australian Inventory of Family Strengths (AIFS) on Rural Malay Families in Malaysia
TABLE 1 (continued)
Item Item Statement Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 Factor 4 34 Individuals are allowed to make their own choices .13 .53 - .14 17 We listen to each other .47 .53 - - 39 We allow each other to be ourselves .37 .53 .18 - 36 We enjoy being thoughtful of each other .46 .53 .23 .13 56 We are honest with each other .37 .53 .17 - 82 We give each other enough time to complete .13 .52 .33 - necessary tasks 18 We find solutions to our problems when we talk about .34 .52 - .15 them 64 It is easy to share our values and ideas with each other .48 .51 .28 .15 12 We enjoy helping each other .42 .51 - .17 65 There is a sense of peace .35 .50 .37 .11 47 We find it easy to trust each other .47 .50 .15 - 27 Talking through issues is important to us .43 .50 - .18 60 We find it easy to make plans and then carry them out .15 .47 .25 .23 58 Sarcasm is not generally used - .47 .15 .18 75 We can make changes in our plans to meet changing .22 .47 .45 - circumstances 13 It is easy to cue into each other’s feelings .40 .45 - .27 68 We are able to face daily issues confidently .24 .44 .31 .16 30 We have a hopeful attitude towards life .20 .39 .29 .17 52 We like to do things for each other than make us feel .32 .38 .32 - good about ourselves 79 We feel it is important to accept the things we cannot - .38 .36 .13 change 29 We try to change the things we can .32 .33 .18 .19 84 We have strong spiritual connections that enhance our .20 - .62 .16 well-being 72 We always find something good comes from a crisis - .28 .61 .19 76 We benefit in many ways from our belief in a higher .13 - .56 - being 71 A crisis makes us stick closer together .17 .35 .52 - 78 We look at challenges as opportunities for growth - .34 .51 .20 74 We believe love is a powerful force that keeps us .43 .14 .50 .12 together 49 A crisis helps make our relationships strong .21 .26 .47 .19 77 We have the courage to take risks that will improve .14 .28 .46 .12 things for our family 35 Observing family rituals and customs is important to .15 - .44 .22 us 67 We enjoy sharing our memories with each other .29 .22 .40 .29 80 Our personal religious and moral beliefs are .24 - .36 .11 compatible with each other
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 271 - 284 (2014) 277 Zarinah Arshat and Rozumah Baharudin
TABLE 1 (continued)
Item Item Statement Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 Factor 4 70 Our friends are there when we need them - .23 .34 .20 2 We have a number of common interests .23 .15 .34 .29 7 We feel a strong connection with the land - - .14 .64 61 We feel strong connections with our ancestors - - .35 .56 2 We have a number of common interests .38 .17 - .51 63 We feel connected with nature and the world around - .10 .35 .49 us 9 We enjoy hearing our grandparents’ stories about the - .17 .11 .48 past 59 We enjoy looking at our family history .15 .12 .33 .46 66 We often say, “She’ll be right, Mate” - .15 .20 .38 6 Responsibilities are shared fairly .14 .31 - .36 1 We like to give each other a chance to do new things .25 .28 - .34 Note:- indicate loading less than .10 solutions to meet everyday challenges Inter-dimensional Relationships and prevent or recover from adversity, The correlations between the scores on the building their resiliency along the way three dimensions and the total score of AIFS (McCubin, McCubin, Thompson, Young are shown in Table 2. Results indicate that Han, & Allen, 1997). By listening carefully there were moderate a significant relationship and not criticizing each other, family between the different dimensions: members express respect, increasing their Shared Values and Togetherness (r = .57, understanding of each other, and strengthen p < .01), Togetherness and Respectful their relationships (Stern, Yuen, & He, Communication (r = .55, p < .01), and Shared 2004). Values and Respectful Communication (r = .68, p < .01). The findings also indicate Internal Consistency that all three dimensions had correlation of The coefficient alpha of the Malaysian at least 0.84 with the total score of AIFS. version of the AIFS was 0.96. The internal These set of findings demonstrates that consistency alpha values of the 3 factors the different dimensions of family strength were 0.94 for Factor 1, 0.90 for Factor 2, are interrelated providing support for the and 0.89 for Factor 3. Collectively, these contention that each dimension represents statistics may be taken as evidence that the a unique set of family strength. AIFS version for Malaysian families sample is an internally consistent instrument. Predictive Validity The results of the study found that the total score of AIFS was positively correlated with children’s social competence (r = .24,
278 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 271 - 284 (2014) Psychometric Evaluation of the Australian Inventory of Family Strengths (AIFS) on Rural Malay Families in Malaysia
TABLE 2 Exploratory Factor Analysis Results for the Australian Inventory of Family Strengths – Malaysian Sample
Item Item Statement Shared Values Togetherness Respectful In our family…… Communication 59 There is a feeling of safety and security. .69 .17 - 76 All things considered we are strong family. .68 - .11 68 We grow stronger because we love each other. .68 .15 .26 54 We value each other. .68 .14 .27 35 We enjoy being thoughtful of each other. .64 .12 .18 78 We have strong spiritual connections that enhance .64 - - our well-being. 69 We believe love is powerful force that keeps us .63 - .27 together. 73 We look at challenges as opportunities for .63 .11 - growth. 60 It is easy to share our values and ideas with each .62 .29 - other. 75 Our religious practice is strong. .62 - .18 49 We like to do things for each other that makes us .60 .37 .12 feel good about ourselves. 47 We really care for each other. .60 .22 .12 53 We are honest with each other. .60 .14 .19 39 Life in our family is satisfying to us. .57 .21 - 52 We respect the roles each of us play in the family. .56 .26 .35 21 We feel strongly connected to each other. .54 .12 .26 43 We are happy as a family. .54 - .30 24 We feel close to each other. .53 .23 .35 48 Put downs are rare. .51 .19 .23 63 We are able to face daily issues confidently. .47 .37 - 61 There is a sense of peace. .46 .22 .34 36 We give each other a chance to explain ourselves. .46 .23 .39 32 Our homes feels like a sanctuary for all of us. .44 - .44 30 We have a hopeful attitude towards life. .42 - .41 71 We benefit in many ways from our belief in a .42 - .26 higher being. 25 We respect each other’s point of view. .47 - .36 46 A crisis helps make our relationships strong. - .69 .14 67 We always find something good comes from a .24 .66 -.27 crisis. 66 A crisis make us stick closer together. .16 .64 -.17 5 A crisis has helped us to grow closer together. - .62 - 74 We feel it is important to accept the things we -.20 .60 - cannot change. 50 We have reasonable expectations of each other. .41 .57 -
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 271 - 284 (2014) 279 Zarinah Arshat and Rozumah Baharudin
TABLE 2 (continued)
Item Item Statement Shared Values Togetherness Respectful In our family…… Communication 51 We have a high regard for each other. - .56 .28 44 We find it easy to trust each other. .34 .55 .14 57 We find it easy to make plans and then to carry .14 .55 .10 them out. 19 We like keeping our promises to each other. .14 .52 .35 62 We enjoy sharing our memories with each other. - .51 .33 23 We have lots of good times together. - .51 .44 58 We feel strong connections with our ancestors. .19 .51 - 28 We often laugh with each other. - .50 .26 70 We can make changes in our plans to meet .43 .46 -.15 changing circumstances. 56 We enjoy looking at our family history. .11 .46 .29 18 We find solutions to our problems when we talk .26 .45 .24 about them. 27 Talking through issues is important to us. .38 .44 -.17 2 We have a number of commomn interests.. - .43 .19 9 We enjoy hearing our past family experiences .21 .40 .32 42 We have a strong sense of belonging. - .40 .38 72 We have the courage to take risks that will .32 .39 - improve things for our family. 41 We can work together to solve very difficult .29 .39 .32 family problems. 65 Our friend are there when we need them. - .38 .19 34 Observing family rituals and customs is important .28 .35 - to us. 22 Hanging out together builds strong relationships. .26 .33 .33 55 Sarcasm is not generally used. .17 .33 - 7 We feel a strong connection with this land. - - .69 16 We like having a place we call `home’. .19 -.13 .69 8 We feel comfortable with each other. .23 .15 .67 6 Responsibilities are shared fairly. .22 .14 .62 14 We enjoy simple, inexpensive family activities. .18 .14 .59 12 We enjoy helping each other. .30 - .58 11 We are able to forgive each other. .51 - .53 15 We like talking openly with each other. .14 .29 .50 20 We like to show affection to each other. -.14 - .48 45 We share jokes together. .15 .39 .47 37 Our communication is effective. .32 .14 .45 3 We like to have fun together. .15 .22 .45 1 We like to give each other a chance to do new .26 .11 .45 things.
280 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 271 - 284 (2014) Psychometric Evaluation of the Australian Inventory of Family Strengths (AIFS) on Rural Malay Families in Malaysia
TABLE 2 (continued)
Item Item Statement Shared Values Togetherness Respectful In our family…… Communication 26 We like to be kind to each other. .40 - .44 13 It is easy to cue into each other’s feeling. - .41 .42 33 Individuals are allowed to make their own .13 .25 .42 choices. 31 Everyone gets their say in making decisions. .33 - .41 38 We enjoy the times we share together. .31 .29 .41 64 We like to support each other. .27 .36 .39 40 We enjoy our family discussions. .36 .32 .39 4 We like to share our feelings with each other. .16 .34 .34 Note: - indicates loading less than .10
TABLE 3 Inter-correlations Dimensions and Total Score of AIFS
Variables Shared Values Togetherness Respectful Total Score of Communication AIFS 1. Shared Values 1.00 .57** .68** .86** 2. Togetherness .55** .86** 3. Respectful Communication .84** **p < .01 p < .01) and self-esteem (r = .24, p <.01). study provided an evidence of the need for The correlation pattern provides convincing cross-cultural comparison of an imported evidence for the validity of the Malaysian construct and its measurement from the version of the AIFS among Malaysian West to the East, by showing that the family families. strength construct may have somewhat different implications in Australian and DISCUSSION Malaysian cultures. The exploratory factor Cross-cultural family scientists are analysis on the data failed to replicate the particularly concerned with such issues Australian 4-factor structure of family as whether family strength dimension is strength. Results in this study disclosed universal or cultural-specific (Stinnet & 3-factor solution which seems to be more DeFrain, 1985; DeFrain, 1999; Olson & meaningful to Malaysian families. The items DeFrain, 2000). Structure equivalence loading in factor 1 (Shared Values), factor thus becomes one of the most important 2 (Togetherness and factor 3 (Respectful psychometric indicators to examine cross- Communication) in this study do not come culturally the adaptability of family strength from any single factor of the original construct and its measurement. The present structure, rather they are quite mixture. The
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 271 - 284 (2014) 281 Zarinah Arshat and Rozumah Baharudin differences in terms of number of factor AIFS using sample of Malaysian families, structure and items loading occurred could including its factor structure, reliability be due to idiosyncrasies of some trivial and validity. The sound psychometric characteristics of population (Gorsuch, properties of the AIFS suggest that the 1997). The respondents who involved in scale could be used as a quick screening this study comprised entirely of Malay, tool of family strengths in family practice rural based, had ‘moderate’ education, lower especially in Malaysian families’ context. income families that were not pre-screened Family members can be invited to complete as being self-identified ‘strong families’. the measure individually and this can While in Australian, the sample group who enable family counsellors to review the completed the inventory generally come differences in perception of family strengths from white Australian, middle class, well among family members. The findings educated, varied family structures (e.g., also have implications for parents, policy blended family, nuclear family, and sole makers, service providers, practitioners parent family) and all respondents perceived and community leaders seeking to increase their family unit as strong (Geggie et al., the level of family strengths. It is necessary 2000) for family members to understand that Results of the current of study provide the competencies and the capabilities in previously unavailable information the family influence the child’s social regarding the reliability and validity of the competence and self-esteem. Therefore AIFS in a sample of Malaysian families. In family professionals should communicate the current sample, the internal consistencies to families that the strengths exist in the of three factors as well as the total score of family are an extremely important context AIFS were all acceptable (>.77) suggesting for fostering social competence and self- that participants responded consistently esteem of children. across items. Intercorrelations between While the present study adds each factor and the total score of the AIFS further evidence to the literature on the were also high (>.74) demonstrate that each psychometric properties of the AIFS, dimension represents a unique set of family there are several limitations. First, the strengths. The correlations between the three demographic characteristics (e.g., rural area factors were modest (.55 to .68), suggesting in Negeri Sembilan and Pahang) of this that, although related, they represent three sample may limit the generalizability of distinct constructs of the AIFS. In addition, these findings to families from other regions predictive validity was demonstrated by the and communities. Second the study assessed positive correlation between AIFS with SCS only perceived family strength of parents, and RSES. but not those of their children. Third since The results of this study adds further the assessment of family strength was based support to the psychometric properties of the on self-report measures, there are might
282 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 271 - 284 (2014) Psychometric Evaluation of the Australian Inventory of Family Strengths (AIFS) on Rural Malay Families in Malaysia be bias among ‘insiders’. Therefore, the fac/conferences/Family%20Strengths%20 inclusion of observational data in real life Research%20Report.pdf setting based on the ‘outsiders’ is desirable. Gorsuch, R. L. (1997). Exploratory factor analysis: Its role in item analysis. Journal of Personality REFERENCES Assessment, 68, 532-560. Anjli Panalal, K. D. (2004). Family functioning Hair, J. F., Anderson, R. E., Tantham, R. L., & Black and child well-being in single mother families: W. C. (1998). Multivariate data analysis (5th Influence of risk and protective factors. ed.). New Jersey: Prentice Hall. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Universiti Judge, T. A., Erez, A., Bono, J. E., & Thoresen, Putra Malaysia, Malaysia. C. J. (2002). Are measures of self-esteem, Brenner, M., Brown, J., & Canter, D. (1985). The neuroticism, locus of control, and generalized research interview uses and approaches. United self-efficacy indicators of a common core States: Academic Press Inc. (London) Ltd. construct?. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 693–710. Corrigan, A. (2002). Social competence scale – parent version, grade 1/year 2. Retrieved Kline, P. (1994). An easy guide to factor analysis. from Fast Track Project Web site: http://www. London: Routledge. fasttrackproject.org. Lewis-Beck, M. S. (1994). Factor analysis and related Deal, A. G., Trivette, C. M., & Dunst, C. J. (1988). techniques. London: SAGE Publications Ltd. Family Functioning Style Scale. In C.J. Dunst, Lightsey, O. R., Burke, M., Ervin, A., Henderson, D., C.M. Trivette, & A.G. Deal (Eds.), Enabling and & Yee, C. (2006). Generalized self-efficacy, self- empowering families: Principles and guidelines esteem, and negative affect. Canadian Journal for practice (pp. 179-184). Cambridge, MA: of Behavioural Science, 38, 72–80. Brookline Books. Mayhew, K. P., & Lempers, J. D. (1998). The relation DeFrain, J. (1999). Strong families around the world. among financial strain, parenting, parent self- Family Matters, 53, 6-13. esteem, and adolescent self-esteem. Journal of Dennis, T. A., Brotman L. M., Huang, K. Y., & Early Adolescence, 18, 145-173. Gouley, K. K. (2007). Effortful control, social McCubin, H. I., McCubin, M. A., Thompson, A. I., competence, and adjustment problems in Young Han, S., & Allen, C. T. (1997, June). children at risk for psychopathology. Journal Families under stress: What makes them of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, resilient. Retrieved August 2, 2005, from http:// 36(3), 442–454. www.cyfernet.org/research/resilient.html Fischer, J., & Corcoran, K. (1994). Measures for Mendez J., McDermott P., & Fantuzzo J. (2002). clinical practice: A sourcebook (2nd ed.). New Identifying and promoting social competence York: The Free Press. with African American preschool children: Geggie, J., DeFarin, J., Hitchcock, S., & Silberberg, Developmental and contextual considerations. S. (2000). Family strengths research project. Psychology in the Schools, 39, 111–123. Retrieved from University of Newcastle, Moore, K. A., Chalk, R., Scarpa, J., & Vandivere, Australia, The Family Action Centre Web S. (2002, August). Family strengths: often site: http://www.newcastle.edu.au/centre/ overlooked, but real. Retrieved from http://www. childtrends.org/Files/FamilyStrengths.pdf
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SOCIAL SCIENCES & HUMANITIES
Journal homepage: http://www.pertanika.upm.edu.my/
Psychometric Properties of the Malay Version of the Job Satisfaction Survey among Malaysian Military Personnel
Ang Chin-Siang1*, Mansor Abu Talib1, Rumaya Juhari2 and Zainal Madon1 1Department of Human Development and Family Studies, Faculty of Human Ecology, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia 2Family, Adolescent and Child Research Centre (FACE), Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
ABSTRACT Job satisfaction is directly related to a number of positive outcomes at work and in certain other aspects of life. In the past few years, job satisfaction among the armed forces has received much attention, but the results of research have been contradictory, in view of the lack of psychometrically robust instrument. Due to its multidimensional orientation, Job Satisfaction Survey has been widely used to assess job satisfaction across different types of job. Although JSS is a promising measure, it has never been validated in the armed forces context. Thus, the aim of this study was to examine the psychometric properties of the Malay version of the Job Satisfaction Survey (Spector, 1965) using data from Malaysian military personnel . With this is mind, a group of male navy personnel from selected navy bases were recruited to be respondents. Through exploratory factor analyses (EFA), results yielded a five-subscale model with 28 items, namely: recognition, affection, fairness, expectation, and workload. In addition, the validity and stability of the five-dimensional structure of the scale were evident in this study using confirmatory factor analyses (CFA). In summary, this study confirmed the psychometric properties of the scale and can further be used to measure job satisfaction in the armed force setting.
Keywords: Confirmatory Factor Analysis, Exploratory Factor Analysis, Internal Consistency, Job Satisfaction Survey, Military Personnel
ARTICLE INFO INTRODUCTION Article history: Received: 1 March 2012 Career development is one of the imperative Accepted: 2 August 2012 tasks that all individuals need to go through E-mail addresses: [email protected] (Ang Chin-Siang), when they step into adulthood (Landy & [email protected] (Mansor Abu Talib), [email protected] (Rumaya Juhari), Conte, 2004). Throughout an adult’s career [email protected] (Zainal Madon) * Corresponding author
ISSN: 0128-7702 © Universiti Putra Malaysia Press Ang Chin-Siang, Mansor Abu Talib, Rumaya Juhari and Zainal Madon development, job satisfaction is an important lead to a decrease in productive behavior, indicator to determine the levels of career which in turn increased absenteeism and success and accomplishment (Sidek, 2002). turnover intentions (Griffeth et al., 2000; Spector (2008) in his review, pointed that Dupré & Day, 2007; Podsakoff et al., 2007; job satisfaction is a construct which was Spector, 1985). Clearly, job satisfaction frequently studied across different types has a meaningful impact on employees’ of jobs. As a result, job satisfaction is well-being and organizational functioning. conceptualized in different ways by different For that reason, most organizations today researchers. For the last few decades, Locke prefer to take account of employees’ job (1976, p.1304) has defined job satisfaction satisfaction as a yardstick for them to as “a pleasurable or positive emotional state manage, train, and retain valuable employees resulting from the appraisal of one’s job or (Liu et al., 2004). Some organizations even job experiences”. In similar vein, Spector use it to gauge work morale and diagnose (1997) considered job satisfaction as the potential problems among workers. extent of individuals’ ‘likes’ (satisfaction) In fact, studies have shown that positive and ‘dislikes’ (dissatisfaction) towards and negative feelings about jobs can be their job facets as well as general work traceable to many potential factors relating atmosphere. to jobs (Spector, 1997). A literature search In reviewing the literature, a great deal in organization psychology postulated of attention has been given to a variety of that factors such as pay, promotion, job outcomes resulting from job satisfaction. conditions, relationship with supervisor Majority of the research has consistently and/ or colleagues, and employees’ welfare found numerous positive outcomes as a are critical for evaluation leading to the result of positive appraisal toward overall response of job satisfaction (Spector, 1997, and/ or facets of job satisfaction such as high 2008). For some employees, a positive organizational commitment (Rayton, 2006), reinforcement including higher wages less occupational stress (Fairbrother & and promotion prospects can lead to a Warn, 2003), internal work locus of control high level of job satisfaction. Some other (Tillman et al., 2010), high motivation, factors encompassing work obligation, mental health and life satisfaction (Sanchez operating procedure, workload, and et al., 2004). Additionally, previous research additional responsibilities that are associated literature also found that job satisfaction with given roles within the job could correlates positively to overall individual influence employees’ satisfaction levels. well-being (Nassab, 2008), as well as Not surprisingly, job satisfaction can be employees retention (Gazioglu & Tansel, seen as a multidimensional concept, in 2002). which multiple items are needed to express In contrary, researchers have shown the different aspects of job satisfaction in a that low levels of job satisfaction can questionnaire (Spector, 1997).
286 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 285 - 306 (2014) Malay Version of the Job Satisfaction Survey
In this study, job satisfaction among personnel reported majority of respondents military personnel is of particular interest as (62.5%) were moderately satisfied with this population has rarely been researched. their jobs. According to the research, only Thus, empirical research to date about job 7.5% of respondents experienced job satisfaction of military personnel is still dissatisfaction due to the issues of wages, lacking. More importantly, there is no fringe benefits, recognition, and policies, measure specifically designed for measuring and recent statistics indicated that 17.5% (n= military-related job satisfaction either in 120) of these navy personnel reported poor local or western contexts. Ironically, the job satisfaction (Liyana & Mansor, 2010). study of military job satisfaction is essential Liyana and Mansor (2010) suggested that because military workforce is seen as a the results of previous empirical research severely challenging occupation. The milieu have been inconsistent because of the of military setting has been regarded as one administration of different instruments for that upholds discipline and obedience in measuring job satisfaction. the extreme. The nature of this type of job Evidently, there are numerous demands a great deal of time and energy assessment tools that are available in of managing multiple responsibilities and Western countries to gather information duties, whereby all armed forces staff about global job satisfaction and/ or specific must unremittingly maintain physical and job satisfaction dimensions such as Index of psychological fitness through rigid training Job Satisfaction (Brayfield & Rothe, 1951), in order to perform their job duties well Quality of Employment Survey (Quinn (Sanchez et al., 2004). Moreover, being & Staines, 1978), The Job Descriptive military personnel can make one overly- Index (Smith et al., 1969), Job Diagnostic sensitive because one feels pressured to Survey (Hackman & Oldham, 1974), Job perform all tasks correctly at all times. in General Scale (Ironson et al., 1989), Sometimes, the introduction of new army and Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire policy, reassignment to a new department, (Weiss et al., 1967). Of the existing scales, and limited job scope may lead them to the Job Satisfaction Survey (JSS) has in fact experience poor job satisfaction. Evidently, been described as the most extensively used this explained why military personnel were inventory for measuring job satisfaction (Liu more likely to have lower job satisfaction et al., 2004). This scale focused primarily on compared to their civilian counterparts identifying various facets of satisfaction (Alpass et al., 1997; Sanchez et al., 2004). that are either satisfying or dissatisfying for In contrast, other investigations found individuals in their workplace. Development that the British military documented a of the JSS began in early 1985 and was first neutral job satisfaction (Limbert, 2004). noted in the publication of Spector (1985). In relation to the local context, Liyana and Although the scale was originally designed Mansor (2009) in a research on 40 male navy to be used in human service organizations, it
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 285 - 306 (2014) 287 Ang Chin-Siang, Mansor Abu Talib, Rumaya Juhari and Zainal Madon is also applicable to different organizational the Navy bases. Study 2 was to provide sectors from different cultures (Giri & an initial psychometric assessment of the Kumar, 2010; Liu et al., 2004). Thus, the Malay version JSS. instrument has been translated into eleven different languages and validated with data Study 1 collected in a few countries such as United The purpose of this first study was to adapt States, United Kingdom, Taiwan, Turkish, JSS to Malay language so that it can be and Pakistan. All these studies showed used in Malaysia especially on military that it was remarkably reliable and valid personnel. In this study, we aimed to confirm in detecting satisfaction of employees in its factor structure, analyze its construct different job contexts. However, we have validity, and internal consistency. not been able to locate any study that has validated the scale in the armed forces METHOD setting. This prevents the practicality of the instrument to identify these personnel’s job Sample satisfaction. A total of 800 navy personnel were Therefore, this study has the following targeted as respondents from six regions goals: (a) to translate the original scale and that subsumed South, Klang Valley, East, adapt it to the armed forces population, North, Sabah/ Sarawak, and Lumut areas (b) to examine the factor structure of the that were approved by the Malaysian JSS in a sample of male Navy personnel Ministry of Defense. Unlike other types by means of confirmatory factor analysis of occupation, the composition of males in and exploratory factor analysis (c) to military workforce still remains dominant. evaluate scale reliability. This study aimed Thus, only male Navy personnel were to provide evidence on the validity of the involved in filling in the questionnaires in JSS on identifying the nature of military the study. At the same time, the study sample personnel and thus help researchers to better was randomly selected from different understand the nature of job satisfaction branches (engineering, seaman and supply) among armed organizations. and different job categorization (warrant officer, petty officer, and rate) according to Overview of the present study definition of Royal Malaysian Navy (RMN). The present study reports on two studies designed to adapt the Job Satisfaction Measurement Survey (JSS) which includes nine job- The questionnaire consisted of measures of related satisfaction subscales in the context job satisfaction and personal information. of military. The purpose of Study 1 was The 36-item JSS (Spector, 1985) was to adapt JSS to Malay and its validity was used to measure employee attitudes about examined using participants enrolled at the job and aspects of the job using nine
288 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 285 - 306 (2014) Malay Version of the Job Satisfaction Survey separate facets including pay, promotion, stated willingness to participate in the supervision, fringe benefits, contingent study. Participants received a survey packet rewards, operating procedures, co-workers, containing informed consent sheet and nature of work, and communication. Each questionnaire. Upon agreement, participants facet contains four items. Responses were completed the Malay version of the JSS, rated on Six- points Likert-scale ranging along with a measure of demographic from 1= “Strongly disagree” to 6= “Strongly variables. All questionnaires were collected agree” according to their feeling on various in anonymous and confidential manner aspects of their job. Items are written in both right after they had completed them. All directions, so about half need to be reverse- participants and relevant authorities were scored. The reversed items that include items then verbally thanked for their time and 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 19, 21, 23, 24, cooperation. 26, 29, 31, 32, 34, and 36 were transformed to positive items before analysis. Next, Translation process we computed a total score from all items To facilitate answering and to accurately (after reverse-coding was done) with a capture the construct of job satisfaction continuum from low (dissatisfied) to high by respondents, the scale was translated (satisfied) score. An example item is Saya“ to Malay language using Brislin’s method berasa kerja yang saya lakukan tidak (Willgerodt et al., 2005). Malay language dihargai”. Personal information was also is Malaysia’s official language and is obtained through items on the participant’s widely used in the military workplace in age, marital status, race, years of service, the country. In translation process, five monthly income, and education level. steps, that encompassed forward translation, assessment of forward translation, backward Procedure translation, assessment of backward The recruitment of sample was accorded translation, and local meeting with with the standard protocols of Ministry professionals, were performed. Experts of of Defense as well as ethical procedures. both languages (English and Malay) were After obtaining permission from relevant invited to participate in the translation authorities, the participants were approached process. With the help of these professionals, in a meeting room with the help of the the adapted version was constructed officer in-charge, and then they were briefed with correct grammar and content. Upon about the purpose of the present research completion, the survey instrument was pre- and were assured that data will purely be tested on 30 military personnel in Lumut. used for research purpose and their identities The face validity was then conducted with would not be revealed. Informed consent all the respondents for items revision in was taken from the respondents through terms of readability, ambiguity, precision consent forms after each respondent had and content. Every suggestion with respect
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 285 - 306 (2014) 289 Ang Chin-Siang, Mansor Abu Talib, Rumaya Juhari and Zainal Madon to wording and concept of the scale had been ranged from RM650-RM6750 (M = 2224.7, taken into account. SD = 860.1). Of the total sample, the ethnic composition of the sample was as follows: Data Analysis 95.2% Malay, 3.8% other ethnic groups, In this study, Confirmatory Factor Analysis .7% Indian, and .3% Chinese. Regarding (CFA) was applied using Analysis of education level, most respondents were Moment Structures (AMOS) software to SPM/ SPM (V) (78.1%) holders, followed determine if the Bahasa Malaysia version by Diploma (10.1%), Bachelor’s degree of JSS possessed a goodness-of-fit while (6.0%), STPM (5.4%), Masters degree replicated on a sample of Malaysian navy (.4), and remaining .40% not reported. personnel. To assess the degree of model As for marital status, most respondents fit, Bryne (2001) suggested the use of chi- were married (70.7%), followed by single square test statistics (χ²), Comparative Fit (28.6%), and divorced (.7%). Table 1 Index (CFI), Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI), and presents demographic characteristics of Root Mean Square Error of Approximation respondents. (RMSEA). Insignificant (set at .05) chi- square test statistics signified model fit. Reliability Analysis The value of above .90 would indicate In the second section of our findings, model fit for GFI, CFI, and TLI, while Cronbach’s alpha was calculated to assess a value of less than .08 would signify the estimates of internal consistency of reasonable model fit for RMSEA (Hu & the scale and its nine sub-scales. Table Bentler, 1998). Exploratory Factor Analysis 2 shows the internal consistency of the (EFA), on the other hand, was performed nine sub-scales and the overall scale. to examine the valid factor structure of the A value of .86 was obtained for overall scale according to the data obtained from the scale that is above the satisfactory value Malaysian participants in order to test the of .70 (Nunnaly, 1978), indicating a high construct validity. Reliability of this scale degree of internal consistency of the scale. was determined using internal consistency Assessments of the internal consistency by looking at Cronbach’s alpha values. of nine separated sub-scales, however, indicated that a relatively lower Cronbach’s RESULTS alpha reading as compared with previous Demographic Characteristics studies (Spector, 1997). As shown in Table 2, reliability of each dimension and total In total, data was collected from 703 scale was then presented. male Navy personnel who volunteered to participate in the study (age range = 20-50, Confirmatory Factor Analysis M = 29.3 years, SD = 5.6). Years of service ranged from One to 30 years (M = 9.5, SD Thereafter, a confirmatory factor analysis = 5.4). The gross income of participants was conducted to determine the goodness-
290 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 285 - 306 (2014) Malay Version of the Job Satisfaction Survey
TABLE 1 Respondents’ demographic characteristics (N= 703)
Variable n (%) M (SD) Min-Max Age 29.3 (5.6) 20-50 Years of service 9.5 (5.4) 1-30 Gross Income 2224.7 (860.1) 650-6750
Race Malay 669 (95.2) Chinese 2 (.3) Indian 5 (.7) Others 27 (3.8) Education Level SPM/ SPM (V) 549 (78.1) STPM 38 (5.4) Diploma 71 (10.1) Bachelor’s degree 42 (6.0) Master's degree 3 (.4) Missing Data 3 (.4) Marital Status Single 201 (28.6) Married 496 (70.7) Divorced 5 (.7) Missing Data 1 (.1) Job Classification Warrant officer 86 (12.2) Petty officer 207 (29.4) Rate 404 (57.5) Missing Data 6 (.9) Branch Engineering 198 (28.2) Seaman 228 (32.4) Supply 269 (38.3) Missing Data 8 (1.1) Note: SPM/ SPM (V) = Completed high school; STPM = Completed high school + 2 years of pre-university n = frequency, M = Mean, SD = Standard Deviation, Min = Minimum, Max = Maximum of-fit between priori model and the sample each of the four observed indicators was data. Data were analyzed by applying anticipated to load onto respective latent maximum likelihood to check how well factors as suggested by Spector (1985). The the sample data fit with hypothesized goodness-of-fit results indicated nine-factor nine-factor structure model consisting model was a poor fit to the data (χ2 (558) = of pay, promotion, supervision, fringe 2746.434, p< .001, χ2/df = 4.922, CFI= .671, benefits, contingent rewards, operating TLI= .628, RMSEA= .075 [.072, .078]) procedures, co-workers, nature of work, (see Table 3). Both CFI and TLI were less and communication. With regards to this, from the threshold of .90 (Hu & Bentler,
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TABLE 2 Internal consistency of the instrument
Total Cronbach’s Cronbach’s Scale in JSS Description items alpha a alpha b Pay 4 .59 .75 Pay and remuneration Promotion 4 .50 .73 Promotion opportunities Supervision 4 .69 .82 Immediate supervisor Fringe benefits 4 .51 .73 Monetary and non-monetary fringe benefits Contingent Rewards 4 .71 .76 Appreciation, recognition, and rewards for good work Operating procedures 4 .22 .62 Operating policies and procedures Co-workers 4 .35 .60 People you work with Nature of work 4 .60 .78 Job tasks themselves Communication 4 .58 .71 Communication within the organization Total scale 36 .86 .91 Total of all facets a Based on a sample of 703 (present study) b Based on a sample of 2870 (Spector, 1997)
1998). Meanwhile, the large value of χ2 on modification indices and standardized with significant p-value implied mismatch residuals. Nevertheless, we still failed to between observed and expected metrics. obtain an acceptable model. Consequently, The value of χ2/df also showed greater we decided to further explore the underlying general convention of 3.0 which indicated factor structures of Malay JSS using inadequate model fit (Hu & Bentler, 1998). exploratory factor analysis (Suhr, 2003). We next examined the factor loadings The overall fit of the nine-factor model for JSS items and the results showed is summarized in Table 3 and graphical that the items were unevenly distributed, representation is displayed in Fig.1. ranging from -.20 to .74. In addition, after associations with squared multiple Exploratory Factor Analysis correlations, each observed variable’s We further analyzed factorability of data yielded value ranged from 0.04 to .55 in by using exploratory factor analysis. A explaining the variance. Obviously, some principal component factor (PCA) analysis items were poorly loaded onto latent factors. was adopted on the 36 items of the JSS As such, we concluded that the original without specifying number of factors in nine-factor model with 36 items did not the first run. Analysis of Kaiser-Meyer- correspond to Malaysian military’s job Olkin measure of sampling adequacy and satisfaction dimension as it did not meet Barlett’s test of sphericity were used to the acceptable standard of validity and explore the correlation pattern and test the reliability analysis. It is worthwhile to note null hypothesis of identity matrix on the that we tried to re-specify the model based correlation between variables respectively
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TABLE 3 Measure of goodness-of-fit for the nine-factor model of Malay version job satisfaction survey
CFA fit indices: χ2 2746.434 CFI .671 df 558 TLI .628 χ2/df (p) 4.922 (.000) RMSEA .075
Factor/ Item Factor loadings Squared multiple correlation Pay 1 .57 .33 10 .31 .09 19 .58 .34 28 .61 .38 Promotion 2 .26 .07 11 .50 .25 20 .39 .15 33 .64 .41 Supervision 3 .52 .27 12 .70 .48 21 .65 .42 30 .52 .26 Fringe benefits 4 .33 .11 13 .42 .18 22 .65 .42 29 .44 .20 Contingent rewards 5 .44 .20 14 .70 .50 23 .66 .44 32 .73 .53 Operating procedure 6 .47 .21 15 -.20 .04 24 .66 .43 31 .37 .14 Co-worker 7 .25 .06 16 .31 .09 25 .30 .09 34 .56 .31
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TABLE 3 (continued)
Factor/ Item Factor loadings Squared multiple correlation Nature of work 8 .25 .06 17 .63 .39 27 .74 .55 35 .70 .49 Communication 9 .41 .17 18 .58 .33 26 .55 .30 36 .52 .27 Note: CFA= confirmatory factor analysis; 2χ = chi square; df= degree of freedom; CFI= comparative-fit index; TLI= Tucker Lewis index; CFI= comparative fit index; RMSEA= root mean square error of approximation.
(Hair et al., 2010). Results yielded KMO at scree plot (Cattell, 1978). A diagnose statistics value of .90 which is above Scree Plot (refer Fig.2) demonstrated the acceptable value and falls in the group of inflexion at first four or five factors solution being superb (Hutcheson & Sofroniou, before it begins to straighten out, suggesting 1999). Also, the significant value of Barlett’s it is able to generate four or five factors. test measure produced a chi-square of 12990 Hence, the second time, we tried several (χ2 (630) = 7144; p< .001) that connoted the different models (three, four, five, and six items shared common factors. In light of factor solutions) before deciding on the this, it was considered as suitable to factor final model using varimax rotation or direct analysis with all 36 items. oblimin rotations. With PCA extraction method, Direct oblimin rotation supports that components with Eigenvalue over 1.0 were the final model was a five-factor solution retained (Hair et al., 2010). The output because it provides the best interpretability. successfully extracted nine components that A total of eight items were removed from accounted for 55.408% of total variance original measure on the basis of primary (Table 4). Nevertheless, the Eigenvalue’s factor loading of at least .40 or cross- rule in this study was challenged as this scale factor loading greater than .30 (Bryant, consists of 36 variables, and communalities & Yarnold, 1995; Wang et al., 2009). after extraction were less than .70. Based on Specifically, the items “Terdapat imbuhan Field (2005), Eigenvalue’s rule is proper to yang sepatutnya kami terima tidak diberikan apply when there are less than 30 variables oleh organisasi ini”, “Kehendak birokrasi and communalities are more than .70 after dalam organisasi jarang menghalang usaha extraction. In regard to this, we then looked saya untuk melakukan kerja dengan baik”,
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Note: Pro= promotion, Sup= supervision, Fri= fringe benefits, Con= contingent reward, Ope= operating procedure, Cow= Co-worker, Nat= nature of work, Com = communication Item 1- Item 36 represent observed variables, e1-e36 represent error variances, double headed arrows depict correlations among factors, and single headed arrows from factors depict factor loadings.
Fig.1: Measurement model for original nine-factor model
“Saya suka bekerja dengan pihak atasan After elimination, data showed that 11 saya”, “Pihak atasan saya agak cekap items loaded on first factor, five items for dalam mengendalikan kerja mereka”, second factor, five items for third factor, “Saya berpuas hati dengan peluang four items for fourth factor, and finally kenaikan pangkat saya”, “Perhubungan three items for fifth factor. Then, each (interpersonal) dalam organisasi ini agak factor was interpreted through assessment bagus”, “Peluang kenaikan pangkat di sini of item content. Items loading on first factor adalah sama seperti di pasukan keselamatan were ‘assessing need for appreciation’ and lain”, and “Imbuhan yang diterima ‘recognition in workplace’. Therefore we adalah sepertimana yang ditawarkan oleh labeled this factor as ‘recognition’. Items kebanyakan pasukan keselamatan lain” loading on second factor were relating to were dropped from the scale. aspects of fondness to work, which was
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TABLE 4 PCA extraction method on Malay version job satisfaction survey
Item/ Component I II III IV V VI VII VIII VIIII b_32 : Saya berasa usaha saya tidak .713 dihargai seperti yang sepatutnya. b_14 : Saya berasa kerja yang saya .697 lakukan tidak dihargai. b_12 : Pihak pengurusan atasan tidak .679 berlaku adil terhadap saya. b_23 : Kurang penghargaan kepada .653 anggota di sini. b_21 : Pihak pengurusan atasan kurang memberikan perhatian terhadap anggota .637 bawahan mereka. b_19 : Saya berasa kurang dihargai oleh .609 -.331 organisasi berdasarkan skala gaji saya. b_3 : Pihak atasan saya agak cekap dalam .534 .318 -.425 mengendalikan kerja mereka. b_30 : Saya suka bekerja dengan pihak .534 .341 atasan saya. b_8 : Kadangkala berasa kerja saya tidak .526 bermakna. b_34 : Terlalu perselisihan faham di .525 -.304 tempat kerja saya. b_18 : Saya masih kurang faham .513 mengenai matlamat organisasi. b_5 : Saya mendapat penghargaan yang sewajarnya apabila melakukan kerja .492 .338 dengan baik. b_36 : Tugasan yang diamanahkan kepada .482 saya tidak diterangkan dengan sempurna. b_28 : Saya berpuas hati dengan kenaikan .469 .347 .309 gaji. b_26 : Saya sering tidak tahu mengenai .462 -.392 perkembangan organisasi. b_1 : Skim emolumen yang diberikan adalah setimpal dengan tanggungjawab/ peranan (pengalaman/kepakaran, .460 .363 kelayakan akademik, tempoh perkhidmatan) sebagai seorang tentera. b_9 : Perhubungan (interpersonal) dalam .439 .349 -.331 organisasi ini agak bagus. b_29 : Terdapat imbuhan yang sepatutnya kami terima tidak diberikan oleh .437 -.333 organisasi ini. b_35 : Saya berpuas hati dengan kerja .417 .364 -.397 .334 saya.
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TABLE 4 (continued)
Item/ Component I II III IV V VI VII VIII VIIII b_4 : Saya tidak berpuas hati dengan .386 faedah/ kemudahan disedia. b_7 : Saya suka bekerja dengan orang .429 -.318 yang bekerja bersama saya. b_24 : Terlalu banyak kerja yang perlu -.386 .358 .349 .374 dilakukan di tempat kerja. b_17 : Saya suka kepakaran saya. .381 -.375 .360 b_11 : Peluang kenaikan pangkat diberi kepada mereka yang melakukan kerja .333 .352 -.321 dengan baik. b_13 : Imbuhan yang diterima adalah sepertimana yang ditawarkan oleh .368 .512 kebanyakan pasukan keselamatan lain. organisasi lain b_22 : Pakej imbuhan yang diterima .402 .318 .506 adalah adil. b_27 : Saya berasa bangga dengan kerja .345 .455 -.481 yang saya lakukan. b_25 : Saya selesa dengan rakan .382 -.403 sepasukan saya. b_2 : Terdapat ruang dan peluang yang .320 .451 terhad untuk peningkatan kerjaya. b_31 : Saya mempunyai terlalu banyak -.354 .584 kerja-kerja dokumentasi. b_15 : Kehendak birokrasi dalam organisasi jarang menghalang usaha saya .612 untuk melakukan kerja dengan baik. b_16 : Saya perlu bekerja lebih keras -.356 -.373 kerana ketidakcekapan rakan. b_33 : Saya berpuas hati dengan peluang .382 .311 .352 -.417 kenaikan pangkat saya. b_6 : Saya sukar untuk melakukan kerja dengan baik kerana terlalu banyak .389 -.359 .393 .308 peraturan dan prosedur organisasi. b_20 : Peluang kenaikan pangkat di sini adalah sama seperti di pasukan -.542 keselamatan lain. b_10 : Perbezaan gaji adalah terlalu ketara .316 -.337 .309 -.344 dengan organisasi kerajaan yang lain. Note: only factor loadings greater than .30 are shown.
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Fig.2: Screen Plot for Malay Version Job Satisfaction Survey labeled as ‘affection’. In addition, the third METHOD factor was labeled ‘fairness’ as the items Three hundred and twenty-nine male navy loading were assessing even-handedness personnel aged from 20 to 50 (M = 29.9 and competent ability within workforce. The years, SD = 6.1), completed the 28-item labeling of fourth factor (‘expectation’) is JSS for study 2. Majority of the respondents attributed to the content of anticipation for were Malay (93.8%), married (71.3%), and pay, promotion, and belief. The final factor SPM/ SPM (V) (74.5%) holders. In terms contained items that reflected the amount of years of service, respondents ranged of work at the workplace, was labeled as from 1 to 30 years (M = 10.3, SD = 5.8). ‘workload’. Cumulatively, the EFA was The gross income of participants ranged drawn from 28 items to form a five-factor from RM1000-RM6300 (M = 2354.8, SD model comprising recognition, attachment, = 901.9). fairness, expectation, and workload which accounted for 42.91% of the share variance RESULTS in the administrative group. The final Reliability Analyses solution is presented in Table 5. As seen in Table 6, the total coefficient value for final version was .86, maintaining the Study 2 high internal consistency. The reliability In the second study, we further examined estimates of the five sub-scales also reported the validity of the five-factor model of JSS values which ranged from .50 to .86. The scores. Participants were recruited from the values did not increase if deletion of any Lumut naval base which is the biggest naval item was performed. base in Malaysia.
298 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 285 - 306 (2014) Malay Version of the Job Satisfaction Survey
TABLE 5 Direct oblimin rotation on Malay version job satisfaction survey
Item/ Component I II III IV V b_21 : Pihak pengurusan atasan kurang memberikan perhatian .680 terhadap anggota bawahan mereka. b_18 : Saya masih kurang faham mengenai matlamat organisasi. .667 b_12 : Pihak pengurusan atasan tidak berlaku adil terhadap saya. .621 b_14 : Saya berasa kerja yang saya lakukan tidak dihargai. .610 b_26 : Saya sering tidak tahu mengenai perkembangan .586 organisasi. b_19 : Saya berasa kurang dihargai oleh organisasi berdasarkan .581 skala gaji saya. b_32 : Saya berasa usaha saya tidak dihargai seperti yang .559 sepatutnya. b_23 : Kurang penghargaan kepada anggota di sini. .550 b_3 : Pihak atasan saya agak cekap dalam mengendalikan kerja .487 .421 -.337 mereka. b_34 : Terlalu perselisihan faham di tempat kerja saya. .481 b_36 : Tugasan yang diamanahkan kepada saya tidak .480 diterangkan dengan sempurna. b_8 : Kadangkala berasa kerja saya tidak bermakna. .467 b_30 : Saya suka bekerja dengan pihak atasan saya. .392 b_9 : Perhubungan (interpersonal) dalam organisasi ini agak .366 bagus. b_27 : Saya berasa bangga dengan kerja yang saya lakukan. .745 b_17 : Saya suka kepakaran saya. .742 b_35 : Saya berpuas hati dengan kerja saya. .667 b_25 : Saya selesa dengan rakan sepasukan saya. .614 b_7 : Saya suka bekerja dengan orang yang bekerja bersama .420 saya. b_22 : Pakej imbuhan yang diterima adalah adil. .707 b_13 : Imbuhan yang diterima adalah sepertimana yang .402 .672 ditawarkan oleh kebanyakan pasukan keselamatan lain. b_1: Skim emolumen yang diberikan adalah setimpal dengan tanggungjawab/peranan (pengalaman/kepakaran, kelayakan .589 akademik, tempoh perkhidmatan) sebagai seorang tentera. b_28 : Saya berpuas hati dengan kenaikan gaji. .578 b_5 : Saya mendapat penghargaan yang sewajarnya apabila .564 melakukan kerja dengan baik. b_11 : Peluang kenaikan pangkat diberi kepada mereka yang .535 melakukan kerja dengan baik. b_20 : Peluang kenaikan pangkat di sini adalah sama seperti di .389 pasukan keselamatan lain. b_29 : Terdapat imbuhan yang sepatutnya kami terima tidak .309 diberikan oleh organisasi ini.
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TABLE 5 (continued)
Item/ Component I II III IV V b_2 : Terdapat ruang dan peluang yang terhad untuk .646 peningkatan kerjaya. b_4 : Saya tidak berpuas hati dengan faedah/ kemudahan .523 disedia. b_33 : Saya berpuas hati dengan peluang kenaikan pangkat saya. .406 .433 b_10 : Perbezaan gaji adalah terlalu ketara dengan organisasi .431 kerajaan yang lain. b_6 : Saya sukar untuk melakukan kerja dengan baik kerana .423 terlalu banyak peraturan dan prosedur organisasi. b_31 : Saya mempunyai terlalu banyak kerja-kerja dokumentasi. .802 b_24 : Terlalu banyak kerja yang perlu dilakukan di tempat .597 kerja. b_16 : Saya perlu bekerja lebih keras kerana ketidakcekapan .501 rakan. b_15 : Kehendak birokrasi dalam organisasi jarang menghalang usaha saya untuk melakukan kerja dengan baik. Eigenvalue 5.887 3.247 4.090 2.471 2.375 Percentage of variance explained 19.438 9.786 6.135 3.991 3.56 Cumulative percentage of variance explained 19.438 29.224 35.359 39.35 42.910 Note: I - Recognition, II- Affection, III- Fairness, IV- Expectation, and V- Workload
TABLE 6 Reliability analyses for the five-factor model (N=321)
Factor No of item α Recognition 11 .86 Affection 5 .75 Fairness 5 .73 Expectation 4 .58 Workload 3 .50 Total 28 .86 α = composite reliability
Confirmatory factor Analyses workload was represented by items 31, 24, The five-factor model with 28 items and 16) was analyzed. Fit indices for the (recognition was represented by items 21, five-factor model exhibited significantly 2 18, 12, 14, 26, 19, 32, 23, 34, 36, and 8; better fit than nine-factor model (χ (336) 2 affection was represented by items 27, 17, = 632.852, p< .001, χ /df = 1.861, CFI= 35, 25, and 7; fairness was represented by .877, TLI= .864, RMSEA= .52 [CI= .046, items 22, 1, 28, 5, and 11; expectation was .058]). The modification indices indicated represented by items 2, 4, 10, and 6; and re-specification might still be possible
300 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 285 - 306 (2014) Malay Version of the Job Satisfaction Survey
Note: F1= Recognition, F2= Affection, F3= Fairness, F4= Expectation, F5= Workload. Rectangles represent observed variables, Circles represent error variances, double headed arrows depict correlations among factors, and single headed arrows from factors depict factor loadings.
Fig.3: Measurement model for five-factor model by allowing some residual error terms which indicated adequate model fit (Hu & that co-varied each other. The goodness Bentler, 1998). of fit of revised model showed adequate and much better fit (χ2 (336) = 554.184, DISCUSSION 2 p< .001, χ /df = 1.649, CFI= .909, TLI= Up to now, available documented studies .897, RMSEA= .45 [CI= .038, .052]) (see concerning issue of military job satisfaction Fig.3). CFI was successfully met while in Malaysian context is still scarce (Liyana & TLI marginally reached the threshold of Mansor, 2009; 2010). Thus, the current study .90 (Hu & Bentler, 1998). Although the was undertaken on account of researchers’ result yielded significant p-value, this could interest to provide evidence of initial be attributed to the large sample size. The reliability and validity of Job Satisfaction 2 value of χ /df was also less than value of 3.0 Survey on assessing job satisfaction among
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 285 - 306 (2014) 301 Ang Chin-Siang, Mansor Abu Talib, Rumaya Juhari and Zainal Madon
Malaysian military members. Initially, Analysis and followed by direct oblimin the study used the comprehensive Job rotation to elucidate dimensionality for Satisfaction Survey (Spector, 1985) which military job satisfaction. Based on factor was translated to Malay language to loadings, the best model in the present study determine its psychometric appropriateness was a five-factor solution for assessing in evaluating military job satisfaction in military job satisfaction. Inspection of Malaysia. In our empirical analysis, the the Scree Plot also revealed a five-factor original nine-factor solutions on the basis of solution to be appropriate for military facets: pay, promotion, supervision, fringe personnel, particularly Malaysian Navy. benefits, contingent rewards, operating As a result, a five-subscale model with 28 procedures, co-workers, nature of work, items was produced. The subscales were and communication (Spector, 1985) were renamed as recognition, affection, fairness, tested. Statistically, the results of the expectation, and workload. All the sub- confirmatory factor analysis for nine- scales accumulative denoted variation was factor solution showed a poor model fit. at 42.91%. Additionally, results regarding the internal In our solution, the first factor, consistency for the model demonstrated recognition is characterized by the perception poor to moderate levels as Cronbach alpha of being acknowledged by others on effort values were of .22 to .71. In the light of our devoted by the personnel. The sample item findings, we contended that military jobs and includes “Pihak pengurusan atasan kurang workplace are significantly different from memberikan perhatian terhadap anggota that of other types of organizations due to bawahan mereka”. Recalling Sanchez and its work nature in hardship and challenging his colleagues’ (2004) study, both physical environments (Sanchez et al., 2004). Not and mental training among armed forces surprisingly, the findings indicated that the staff are not easy to endure, thus they really nine-factor first-order model is not suitable need to retain a certain degree of adulation to assess Malaysian military personnel and recognition. Like any normal human job satisfaction. Seemingly most previous being, they too, hope for appreciation by studies administered this instrument in others for the efforts they make and the English (Spector, 1985; 1997, 2008). pride they hold in their jobs. Consequently, However the current study which made use appreciation given to those who perform of the same instrument in Malay language well in their jobs could lead to enhanced yielded conflicting findings. self-confidence in military duties (Liyana Evidently, the poor statistical fit of & Mansor, 2009). Hence, recognition previous theoretical model illustrated that should be placed as top priority to retain the testing of underlying factor structure was the soldiers to continually serve the nation. required. Therefore, items were reexamined The second factor, affection highlights the using the Principal Components factor degree to which an individual feels loved,
302 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 285 - 306 (2014) Malay Version of the Job Satisfaction Survey meaningful, and enjoyable with the nature Item “Terdapat ruang dan peluang yang of the job itself. Previous research suggests terhad untuk peningkatan kerjaya” was that higher levels of supportive work included in the fourth factor, expectation environment are associated with greater because it assesses belief of personal levels of happiness and satisfaction (Spector, expectations from the job in gaining extrinsic 1997). As aforementioned, the military objects. The fifth factor, workload subsumes places strong emphasis on teamwork item “Saya mempunyai terlalu banyak and commitment. Employees who have kerja-kerja dokumentasi” that assesses strong desires towards work are effectively amount and quantity of work or tasks to be connected to organization and display completed. Usually, heavy workload could willing to perform job responsibilities. be a part of job satisfaction determinants as An example of this item is “Saya berasa some military personnel reported that too bangga dengan kerja yang saya lakukan”. much paperwork jeopardized their levels The third factor, fairness is characterized of satisfaction (Liyana & Mansor, 2009). as the emotional reactions to jobs regarding Nevertheless, high workload tends to occur the levels of justice in workforce. Hence, among military personnel as personnel need the item that related to this situation was to handle a great amount of military-related for example, “Pakej imbuhan yang diterima tasks arising from factors such as to be on adalah adil”. Logically, employees want call 24 hours, the need for outstation work to experience that they receive reasonable and frequent changing of department or treatment in the workplace. The same squads, besides undergoing heavy army condition applied to military personnel training. Hence, it reflected some job facets who have a right to focus on adequate that had significant roles in explaining job justifications and concern whether they satisfaction among military personnel. were being fairly treated by the organization We then tested the revised scale on such as on matters pertaining to pay, a new sample. Using data from the new promotion opportunity, and incentives. collected sample, the statistical analysis Understandably, military organizations was able to produce a model which was a are big institutions which can encompass good fit to the data. The confirmatory factor millions of employees. Without question, analysis revealed that the final model with military personnel highly emphasized the 28 items had a good fit as all the goodness- importance of fairness and equity to ensure of-fit indices support the model fit (Byrne, their levels of job satisfaction (Liyana 2001). The internal consistency analysis & Mansor, 2009).When organizations also suggested that the final revised model make decisions about staffs’ welfare and of the Malay version JSS exhibited a reliable remuneration, it is tremendously vital that measure that could be used in the future to the decisions taken are seen to be fair and identify level of job satisfaction and facets equally commensurate with each staff’s associated to it among military personnel. In expertise and skills. short, analyses of internal consistency and
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 285 - 306 (2014) 303 Ang Chin-Siang, Mansor Abu Talib, Rumaya Juhari and Zainal Madon validity on our proposed factors indicated of JSS to five-factor model while assessing that the five factors JSS is more reliable military job satisfaction. Concerning this, to be used by researchers in determining it is recommended that multinational or job satisfaction of military personnel in intercultural validation studies should be Malaysia. undertaken to assess its practicality and investigate measurement properties of the IMPLICATION AND FUTURE scale as well. Second, this scale is specified DIRECTION to military personnel, thus further studies As its objectives, this research has translated need to be cautioned of this fact so as not to and validated Malay JSS. Using a large generalize the current findings to different sample of subjects whose service in armed job contexts. We strongly encourage future forces organizations, this paper provides efforts to consider longitudinal design to preliminary reliability and validity evidence identify ongoing assessment job satisfaction for the Malay JSS that captures job of navy personnel at different times. We also satisfaction among military personnel. As encourage more studies that can expand discussed earlier, armed forces are specific upon the present findings. In summary, service areas as compared to other types this study was beneficial as it helped of occupation. These distinctions result identify varying degrees to which military in a more parsimonious five-factor model personnel are experiencing job satisfaction was produced that more relevant and or otherwise. applicable to armed forces personnel. With a greater understanding of the construct REFERENCES of job satisfaction in this understudied Ahmadi, K., & Alireza, K. (2007). Stress and job population, this research assists managerial satisfaction among air force military pilots. body, for instance RMN to gauge the Journal of Social Sciences, 3(3), 159-163. extent to which personnel satisfy towards Alpass, F., Long, N., Chamberlain, K., & MacDonald, their job; and the information may be of C. (1997). Job Satisfaction Differences Between assistance in improving personnel’s job Military and Ex-Military Personnel: The Role satisfaction. Furthermore, current findings of Demographic and Organizational Variables. Military Psychology, 9(3), 227 - 249. are potentially useful to further the research on job satisfaction. Through our findings, Brayfield, A. & Rothe, H., (1951). An index of job this scale appears to have certain advantages satisfaction, Journal of Applied Psychology, 35, 307-311. for researchers who wish to collect data related to job satisfaction among armed Bryant, F. B., & Yarnold, P. R. (1995). Principal- forces personnel. components analysis and exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis. In L. G. Grimm, & However, some limitations of present P. R. Yarnold (Eds.), Reading and understanding study were noted. First, this paper was multivariate statistics (pp. 99-136). Washington, pioneered to revise original nine-factor model DC: American Psychological Association.
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SOCIAL SCIENCES & HUMANITIES
Journal homepage: http://www.pertanika.upm.edu.my/
Improving Engineering Performance through Leadership, CE and Teamwork in a Malaysian Semiconductor Firm
Poh Kiat Ng1*, Kian Siong Jee1, Jian Ai Yeow2 and Masyitah Mahadi3 1Faculty of Engineering and Technology, Multimedia University, Jalan Ayer Keroh Lama, Bukit Beruang, 75450 Melaka, Malaysia 2Faculty of Business and Law, Multimedia University, Jalan Ayer Keroh Lama, Bukit Beruang, 75450 Melaka, Malaysia 3Social Science and Communication Department, Centre for Foundation Studies and Extension Education, Multimedia University, Jalan Ayer Keroh Lama, Bukit Beruang, 75450 Melaka, Malaysia
ABSTRACT The rapid change in technology among organizations motivates the need for researchers and practitioners to form new practices by understanding, re-examining and integrating the key determinants of obsolete practices. In the same way, this study aims to compositely examine the role of leadership, concurrent engineering (CE) and teamwork in a Malaysian semiconductor manufacturing firm. A total of 226 survey responses were collected back from the 2100 surveys distributed and analysed using correlation and multiple linear regression analyses. The results showed that the relationship between leadership-CE- teamwork and engineering performance was stronger than that of the other individually- tested relationships. Though best practices in leadership are important for achieving a team’s goal, a more flexible and cooperative leadership may be formed with the integration of CE, teamwork and leadership. Top management should consider exploring more opportunities in all these components for improved engineering performance and synergy among engineering teams. Tactical strategies based on various leadership styles, team member competencies and CE approaches should also be formulated to strengthen the flexibility of current leadership styles. The results can be potentially used as general guidelines for the engineering management practice and research in engineering firms.
ARTICLE INFO Keywords: Leadership, Concurrent engineering, Article history: Teamwork, Engineering performance Received: 28 March 2012 Accepted: 23 July 2012 E-mail addresses: INTRODUCTION [email protected] (Poh Kiat Ng), [email protected] (Kian Siong Jee), There are many different definitions of [email protected] (Jian Ai Yeow), [email protected] (Masyitah Mahadi) leadership. However, the three major * Corresponding author components of leadership applied in firms
ISSN: 0128-7702 © Universiti Putra Malaysia Press Poh Kiat Ng, Kian Siong Jee, Jian Ai Yeow and Masyitah Mahadi are perhaps team leadership, influential selected for study here are important basis leadership and goal-based leadership. for organizational and technological success Leadership is the process in which an (Abrunhosa & Sa, 2008; Chang, 2009; Ebert individual influences team members towards & Man, 2008; Valle & Avella, 2003; Valle the attainment of team or organizational & Vazquez-Bustelo, 2009). Thus, the aim goals (Sethi, Smith & Park, 2001). of this study is to determine the effects of The success of a team can depend on the leadership, concurrent engineering (CE) and leadership style that suits the team. Different teamwork on engineering performance in a teams may consist of members with different Malaysian engineering firm. capabilities working on various tasks under multiple circumstances. From a theoretical LEADERSHIP viewpoint, Fiedler’s contingency model Leadership is the behaviour associated with shows that in high and low favourable the activity of leading and represents one of situations, task-oriented leadership is the great problem areas both for the student linked with high performance and team of management and for the practising success (Chong, 2006; Sethi, 2000). Besides manager (Kanji, 2008). It is not only a key that, in moderately favourable situations, enabler for research, but also a practical relationship-oriented leadership styles are skill used by managers to adapt in various most effective for teams to succeed (Chong, functions (Lo & Osman, 2008). 2006; Sethi, 2000; Valle & Avella, 2003). In management theory, there generally Despite the aforementioned evidence a few classifications of leadership theories on the capabilities of various leadership which include theories on classic leadership styles, many engineering firms today fall (autocratic, democratic and laissez-faire) short in the management and leadership and theories on leadership for change of their engineering project resources (transformational leadership) (Lakshman, (Cleland, 1995; Cleland & Ireland, 2007; 2006). The responsibility of a leader can Qureshi, Warraich & Hijazi, 2009). be segregated in various ways throughout a More often than not, engineering firms firm (Galbraith, 1973). disregard the importance in evaluating Leadership often appears to be the key engineering performance and merely focus component for a firm’s success as their roles on meeting the cost and time requirements influence, motivate and direct employees to of manufacturing projects (Qureshi et al., achieve company performance. According to 2009). Obholzer (1997), a good leadership practice The preceding assertion points out in a firm allows work to be completed that there is an evident and dire need for effectively and efficiently through positive firms to continuously evaluate engineering teamwork. performance and the factors that are linked to In addition, capable leaders can generate it. Literature has shown that the components a strong shared mission and vision for a
308 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 307 - 319 (2014) Improving Engineering Performance through Leadership, CE and Teamwork company that relates to its workers overall emotions, red tapes and heated debates effectiveness (Ancona & Caldwell, 1992; (Wang, Chou & Jiang, 2005). Boyle, Kumar and Kumar, 2006; Mohrman, Greaves (2000) suggests that teamwork Cohen and Mohrman, 1995). Also, leaders requires an appropriate organizational who are practicing various traits, principles, environment and full cooperation from attitudes and behaviours may give rise both the leader and members to meet or to successful long-term organizational exceed team objectives. One of the key performance (Lakshman, 2006). determinants in teamwork is the power to In addition, Kolb (1995) believes that synergize, where if applied appropriately, leadership is significantly related with may result in positive outcomes that exceeds organizational performance and also plays the input to the teamwork (Keller, 2001; a main role in enhancing engineering Larson & Gobeli, 1989). performance. However, serious commitment Team leadership which is critical on the part of engineering leaders to quality in all team environments appears to be can be sometimes inconsistent, weak highly collaborative and peer-like (Drath, or in worst cases, missing. Complaints McCauley, Palus, Velsor, O’Connor & about engineering management’s lack of McGuire, 2008; Wang et al., 2005). It support and refusal to change appear to be appears that in engineering companies, increasingly common among employees the project managers delegate tasks to (Kaynak, 2003). The aforementioned team leaders who will then motivate and predicaments make it difficult to nurture the coach the performance of their respective hidden talents or potentials of younger and members. This action allows leaders to aspiring engineering leaders. Therefore, the build strong trusts among employees and first hypothesis is proposed as: promotes their impetus to perform (Shea & Howell, 1999). H1: Leadership correlates with Teamwork, however, does not engineering performance in a always bring forth positive effects to a Malaysian manufacturing firm firm. According to Nurmi et al. (1989), although teamwork sounds simple, but TEAMWORK it requires high acknowledgment among Teamwork is defined as the collaboration peers, active leadership, active listening, of co-located individuals from various acceptance of different views and effective knowledge and skill areas grouped in one or communication. Lack of assertiveness and more problem-solving projects (Jassawalla action from team players and conflicting & Sashittal, 2000). Effective teamwork performance may bring about negative requires team members to possess not only outcomes as far as teamwork performance people management skills, but also skills is concerned (Jassawalla & Sashittal, 2000). such as the ability to manage pressure, Hence, the second hypothesis is proposed as:
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 307 - 319 (2014) 309 Poh Kiat Ng, Kian Siong Jee, Jian Ai Yeow and Masyitah Mahadi
H2: Teamwork correlates with H3: CE correlates with engineering engineering performance in a performance in a Malaysian Malaysian manufacturing firm manufacturing firm
CONCURRENT ENGINEERING (CE) ENGINEERING PERFORMANCE CE is a systematic approach to the integrated, Engineering Performance is the overall simultaneous design of products and their achievement of preset targets of engineering related processes, including manufacture projects/tasks. The exceptionality that and support (Jassawalla & Sashittal, impinges on engineering performance is of 2000). It also refers to interdisciplinary a simple form, whereby the epigrammatic collaborations and corresponding efforts link between engineering performance to achieve universal targets in NPD, and some characteristics that influences production, marketing and sales (Kusar, it is often demonstrated in a research Duhovnik, Grum & Starbek, 2004). (Cho, Hong & Hyun, 2009). Engineering A major initiative in putting CE into performance includes the monitoring and practice is the effective concurrent teams, management of components such as time, which implement development through cost, superiority, creativity and product organizational and information management development performance. processes (Abdalla, 1999). Concurrent Time. Once a decision on a project is teams are teams that deal with hi-tech made, the execution time should be kept processes and sustain teamwork throughout as brief as it could, as time is an aspect development phases (Ma, Chen & Thimm, of success in engineering performance 2008). that provides additional timelines for the On the other hand, Chen and Li (2002) dealings leading to the decision (Thiry, argue that problems arising from CE 2002). approaches are very complex due to the Cost. Projects that are delayed will uncertainties from design to process stages. cost more money and dissatisfy customers, This finding shows that it is sometimes causing difficulties in financial support and difficult to adopt CE in processes that have further slippages in project timelines to previously been treated separately. transpire (Kaliba, Muya & Mumba, 2009; Zheng, Wang and Yan (2005) also Kamrul Ahsan & Gunawan, 2009). stress that if downstream design workflow Superiority. In manufacturing, launches prematurely, it is doubtful to product superiority signifies distributing obtain absolute design outcomes from the distinguished products that provides upstream design workflow. Consequently, exceptional benefits and quality features to they hypothesize that there is a likelihood customers (Cooper, 1996). of higher design mistake rates and more Creativity. Creativity is an essential design rework. Thus, the third hypothesis aspect of engineering performance as is proposed as: it involves creative idea generation and
310 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 307 - 319 (2014) Improving Engineering Performance through Leadership, CE and Teamwork innovation that is exceptionally useful for RESEARCH METHOD the conceptual stages in manufacturing The firm chosen for this study was founded projects (Garcia & Calantone, 2002; in 1999 in Malacca, Malaysia. There are Leenders, Engelen & Kratzer, 2002). approximately 5600 workers employed in Product development performance. this firm. This firm also has about 43,000 Many firms also need to effectively employees worldwide, with 6000 of them understand and manage risks associated involved in research and development. with developing new products since there Other than in Malaysia, this firm also is a persistently high probability of new operates in Germany, Austria, France, product failure and large financial loss Taiwan, Singapore and China. (Schmidt, Sarangee & Montoya, 2009). Eight out of the world top 20 In this study, engineering performance semiconductor manufacturers are known is considered on the whole as a dependant to operate in Malaysia and the company variable. From the combination of the discussed in this study is one of them previous sections, the fourth and final (Ford, 2011). The others are Intel, Texas hypothesis is proposed as: Instruments (TI), Toshiba, Renesas Electronics, STMicroelectronics (STM), H4: Leadership, CE and teamwork Advanced Micro Devices (AMD) and influence engineering performance Freescale Semiconductor. The particular in a Malaysian manufacturing firm company chosen for this study reflects the Fig.1 presents the research framework leadership, CE and teamwork practices of this study. In this framework, the roles in the other seven, namely through their of leadership, CE and teamwork in the TQM practices. By extension then this firm will act as the independent variables study could be seen as a study on the eight tested against engineering performance in semiconductor manufacturers in Malaysia. a quantitative manner. Based on figures provided by this firm on projects in the last 2 years (since
H1 LEADERSHIP
H2 H4 ENGINEERING CONCURRENT ENGINEERING PERFORMANCE
H3 TEAMWORK
Fig.1: The Research Framework
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 307 - 319 (2014) 311 Poh Kiat Ng, Kian Siong Jee, Jian Ai Yeow and Masyitah Mahadi
2009), the firm had 3000 projects in total. leadership and engineering performance is Due to high turnover rates, transfers and 0.632 with a p value of 0.000. Therefore, resignation of managers, some projects the relationship between leadership and were discontinued. The survey items of engineering performance is positive and the questionnaire are tabulated in Table A significant. Hence,H1 is not rejected. of the Appendix in this paper. The items were adopted from the research of Jung and TABLE 1 Leadership – Engineering Performance Correlation Wang (2006), Prajogo and Sohal (2006), Valle and Vazquez-Bustelo (2009), Tan and Test Output Interpretation Vonderembse (2006) and (Fuentes-Fuentes, Pearson’s Correlation 0.632*** Positive Albacete-Saez, & Llorens-Montes, 2004). Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) 0.000 Significant A total of 2100 survey forms were handed *significant atp < 0.05 level, out to all the engineering managers and **significant atp < 0.01 level, engineers in the Malaysian firm. ***significant atp < 0.001 level As such, the unit of analysis for this study was the respective projects of these Table 2 presents the correlation managers and engineers in the firm. Within analysis used to evaluate ‘H2: Teamwork 6 weeks, the data were gathered. A total of correlates with engineering performance 226 survey responses were collected back in a Malaysian manufacturing firm’. The out of the 2100 surveys that were handed Pearson’s correlation between teamwork out, which produced a response rate of and engineering performance is 0.632 with a 11%. The data was analyzed using SPSS p value of 0.000. Therefore, the relationship 18, a statistical software application used between teamwork and engineering for multivariate analyses, data reduction and performance is positive and significant. data management. The statistical methods Hence, H2 is not rejected. employed were Pearson’s correlations analysis and multiple linear regression. TABLE 2 Teamwork – Engineering Performance Correlation
RESULTS Test Output Interpretation Pearson’s Correlation 0.632*** Positive Pearson’s correlation analysis is used to Correlation evaluate H1, H2 and H3. The following Sig. (2-tailed) 0.000 Significant tables present the results on the relationships *significant atp < 0.05 level, among leadership, CE, teamwork and **significant atp < 0.01 level, engineering performance. Table 1 presents ***significant atp < 0.001 level the correlation analysis used to evaluate ‘H1: Table 3 presents the correlation analysis Leadership correlates with engineering used to evaluate ‘H3: CE correlates with performance in a Malaysian manufacturing engineering performance in a Malaysian firm’. The Pearson’s correlation between
312 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 307 - 319 (2014) Improving Engineering Performance through Leadership, CE and Teamwork manufacturing firm’. The Pearson’s was three (Leadership, CE and teamwork) correlation between CE and engineering for H4. Using the formula provided by performance is 0.662 with a p value of Tabachnick and Fidell (2001), the minimum 0.000. Therefore, the relationship between sample size required in this study was 50 CE and engineering performance is positive + (8 × 3) or 74 respondents. As such, the and significant. Hence,H3 is not rejected. sample size criterion was met for this study. Regression formulae are based on the TABLE 3 assumption that residuals are normally CE – Engineering Performance Correlation distributed around the predicted dependent Test Output Interpretation variable scores. For this study, normal Pearson’s Correlation 0.662*** Positive probability plots were generated to test this. Correlation In the normal probability plots in Fig.2, Sig. (2-tailed) 0.000 Significant since the points were in a reasonably straight *significant atp < 0.05 level, **significant atp < 0.01 level, ***significant atp < 0.001 level diagonal line from bottom left to top right, it can be confirmed that there were no major A multiple linear regression using the deviations from normality (Pallant, 2005; stepwise method was conducted to evaluate Tabachnick & Fidell, 1996). ‘H4: Leadership, CE and teamwork For the normality test, the measure influence engineering performance in a of kurtosis and skewness values for the Malaysian manufacturing firm’. The total variables tested was within the prescribed amount of independent variables tested |1.0| range (Tabachnick & Fidell,
Fig.2: Normal Probability Plots of Regression Standardized Residual
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 307 - 319 (2014) 313 Poh Kiat Ng, Kian Siong Jee, Jian Ai Yeow and Masyitah Mahadi
1996). Having satisfied the assumptions leadership and teamwork initiatives often go for regression analysis, all of the four hand-in-hand in engineering projects. independent variables were regressed Leaders have to be actively involved against creative product development and in the management of engineering the results are summarized in Table 4. processes and members are also required to The results in Table 4 indicate that up demonstrate a certain degree of leadership to 49.6% of the variance in engineering and coordination skills in their team. performance is explained by leadership, Furthermore, leaders with high levels of CE and teamwork. A correlation coefficient self-esteem and enthusiasm can often gain (R=0.704) was also obtained for this their team members’ respect, thus enabling relationship. In addition to that, the model better cooperation in the team (Chong, 2006; is significant as indicated by the ANOVA Sethi, 2000; Sethi et al., 2001). results of F (3, 222) = 72.775, p<0.001. Both components of leadership and Thus, the fourth and final hypothesis, H4, teamwork are of equal importance in a team. is supported. Teams strive on cohesiveness and synergy to tap on its member’s abilities. A leader will DISCUSSION normally be nominated to delegate tasks, From the results of H1, H2, H3 and H4, it monitor work performance and provide is evident that leadership, CE and teamwork the right direction to the team members. positively and significantly influence Therefore, both teamwork and leadership can engineering performance. When H4 was result in improved engineering performance. evaluated, an even stronger relationship Moreover, according to Kolb (1995), both (R=0.704) was obtained as compared to that leaders and members should actively play of H1, H2 and H3’s relationships. the role of a leader and be open to new ideas For the individual tests on H1, H2 in their team. and H3, it was found that leadership Furthermore, the leadership component correlates with engineering performance in this study is not only referring to the at the same strength with that of teamwork leadership ability of the team leader, but and engineering performance (R=0.632). also each team member’s leadership ability. These relationships occur possibly because Since the leader is mostly a working
TABLE 4 Multiple Linear Regression for the Effects of Leadership, CE and Teamwork on Engineering Performance
Predictor β Std. Error t Kurtosis Skewness F R R2 (Constant) 1.472 0.193 7.633*** Leadership 0.121 0.059 2.040* 0.172 0.855 72.775*** 0.704 0.496 CE 0.261 0.063 3.344*** 0.035 0.797 Teamwork 0.245 0.073 5.287** 0.020 0.644 (Notes: *p<0.05; **p<0.01; ***p<0.001; N=226; Durbin Watson = 1.493)
314 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 307 - 319 (2014) Improving Engineering Performance through Leadership, CE and Teamwork member of the team as well, his/her role is principles may have the extra competitive to generally initiate and sustain the team’s edge that elevates the team’s performance momentum. After the major tasks have been to a whole new level. allocated, the team leader may take on a In the analysis of H4 which involved more dormant role as a team member. all three variables (Leadership, Teamwork, The team members would also perform CE) and engineering performance, the their assigned tasks individually but more correlation coefficient was found to be often through discussions and knowledge even higher compared to that of all the sharing with other team members. Basically, individually tested relationships (R=0.704). in almost any discussion that involves a Principally, each of the 3 variables will exist minimum number of 2 individuals, there at some degree in each team. For example, would surely be a dominator that leads the CE and knowledge sharing exists in a small discussion. Hence the leadership component role, which is through group discussions still co-exists within team discussions and or brain storming sessions during the brainstorming sessions. team meetings. However, the combined CE on the other hand, has the highest effect of all 3 variables would relatively correlation with engineering performance be more significant than their individual (R=0.662). This is because CE involves evaluations. initiatives to shorten lead time to According to Galbraith (1973), there is manufacture and market, which eventually no best, near-to-best or uniformly effective affects the overall cost, duration and product way to manage an organization. From the development performance of the project. It regression model developed, it is therefore also involves cross-functional teamwork and proven that engineering performance can the use of computer-aided design tools for be improved when not just one, but all better designing and information sharing. the key determinants (Leadership, CE and These aspects in CE enhance product teamwork) interact as a whole in developing superiority and team creativity in projects. engineering performance. Through this form Therefore, it directly affects engineering of transformational leadership, leaders can performance as a whole. be less or more directive in their leadership CE also involves regular knowledge style depending on the competency of their sharing activities among cross-functional teams (Chong, 2006; Sethi, 2000). teams. Compared to the leadership and teamwork components, knowledge sharing CONCLUSION practices would give an added advantage to In summary, although good leadership is a team over traditional methods. Although important for coaching and achieving a a team may produce good results with team’s goal, a more flexible and cooperative effective leadership and teamwork, a leadership may be formed with the team that practices the knowledge sharing integration of CE, teamwork and leadership.
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Although this study supports the theories method of conducting the study within a discussed in the previous section, this study single firm. It is proposed that this study can does contain some limitations. be further extended to other manufacturing The main limitation is the sampling firms in Malaysia to evaluate the practice of method employed which limits the leadership, CE and teamwork. This would generalisability of this study beyond allow for greater generalisability of the the context of this firm. Due to time as findings. well as budgetary constraints, this study Another suggestion is to conduct in- was conducted in only one Malaysian depth qualitative studies in every technology semiconductor manufacturing firm. cluster or business unit of this studied firm Apart from that, a concurrent modelling to further understand its organizational analysis in this study may not possible context to explain in more depth the role since the framework was developed in of leadership, CE and teamwork in various a way where the variables cannot be firms. Also, observational techniques simultaneously tested against each other. could be employed to shed more light on This limits the possibility of discovering this phenomenon. In addition, instead of more relationships and effects among the using respondent-reported leadership, CE, dependent and independent variables. teamwork and engineering performance Despite the main sampling limitation, scales, it would be better if researchers are this study stresses on the applied mechanism able to use empirical data from the firm’s of leadership, CE and teamwork in a records e.g. sales performance, customer semiconductor manufacturing firm with satisfaction, development cost etc. an emphasis on engineering performance. Also, a structural equation modelling This study would still be useful for other (SEM) approach using a combination semiconductor firms since the findings of statistical data and qualitative causal can be generally used as guidelines in assumptions can be used in order to test their efforts to recognize the integration of and estimate causal relationships. One of leadership, CE and teamwork as a new and the available software that can be utilized enhanced practice in the marketplace. In a for this analysis is called AMOS. Using practical viewpoint, for example, this study this approach, the variables for this study can guide effective leadership on deciding are capable of being tested simultaneously when to coach team members and when to altogether instead of the conventional be directive. This decision may depend on method where they are linearly tested with the team’s ability or competency and the only one variable against another. At the task structure level. same time, an addition of several leadership A few suggestions are proposed to styles such as transformational leadership further improve the study and findings. and charismatic leadership can also be The first suggestion is related to the survey included as part of the study in order to
316 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 307 - 319 (2014) Improving Engineering Performance through Leadership, CE and Teamwork discover more relationships in the model Chen, L., & Li, S. (2002). A computerized team that can possibly induce team productivity approach for concurrent product and process and engineering performance. design optimization. Computer-Aided Design, 34(1), 57-69. Due to the support of theories and research together with possible practical Cho, K., Hong, T., & Hyun, C. (2009). Effect of implications, it is evident that leadership, CE project characteristics on project performance in construction projects based on structural equation and teamwork are indeed not only important model. Expert Systems with Applications, 36(7), for team functioning, but also as drivers for 10461-10470. improved engineering performance. Though Chong, A. Y. L. (2006). Case study on the leadership may fundamentally be about implementation of RosettaNet standards in doing the right things, it is still important for Infineon Technologies Malaysia. Proceedings engineering leaders to take into account the of the International Conference on Network and various functions, situations and members in Mobile Technologies, August 2006. their team. With different competencies and Cleland, D. I. (1995). Leadership and the project personalities among team members, there management body of knowledge. International is a necessity to have leaders who have a Journal of Project Management, 13(2), 83-88. variety of skills and styles so that they can Cleland, D. I., & Ireland, L. R. (2007). Project choose the best leadership style to a variety Management: Strategic Design and of situational factors. Implementation (5th ed.). Boston: McGraw- Hill Publication.
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Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 307 - 319 (2014) 319 APPENDIX Table A Survey Items of Questionnaire
Component Survey Items Sources Leadership Lead_1. Our top management is committed to quality. (Jung & Wang, 2006) Lead_2. There is a clear existence of vision and strategy. Lead_3. Organization-wide quality culture is practiced. Lead_4. We have objectives for quality performance. Lead_5. Seniors share same beliefs on firm’s future direction. (Prajogo & Sohal, 2006) Lead_6. Managers encourage change and implement a culture of improvement, learning and innovation towards ‘excellence’. Lead_7. Employees have the opportunity to share in. Lead_8. Employees encouraged to help implement changes. Lead_9.There is unity of purpose in our company. Lead_10.Barriers among people and sections are eliminated. Concurrent CE_1. Product designs and production process are developed (Valle & Vazquez- Engineering simultaneously by a group of employees. Bustelo, 2009; Tan & CE_2. Product development employees work as a team. Vonderembse, 2006) CE_3. Product development group members represent a variety of disciplines. CE_4. Product development group members share information. CE_5. Much of process designs are done concurrently with product designs. CE_6. Product and process development designs are developed concurrently by a group of employees from various disciplines. CE_7. Manufacturing is involved in the early stages of product development. CE_8. Process engineers are involved from the early stages of product development. CE_9. Various disciplines are involved from the early stages of product development. Teamwork Teamwork_1. Managers emphasize activities that lead to lack (Fuentes-Fuentes, of cooperation between the firm and suppliers. Albacete-Saez & Teamwork_2. Management encourage use of few suppliers Llorens-Montes, 2004) based on quality rather than price. Teamwork_3. Managers and employees from different departments work independently to achieve own goals. Teamwork_4. Teamwork is a commonplace. Teamwork_5. Everyone participates in improvement. Teamwork_6. Staff see ‘whole picture’ in decisions. Teamwork_7. Employees are hesitant to voice their opinions, make suggestions or inquire about firm activities. Teamwork_8. Senior executives insist on accuracy and reliability of all information and communications in firm. Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 321 - 334 (2014)
SOCIAL SCIENCES & HUMANITIES
Journal homepage: http://www.pertanika.upm.edu.my/
Turnover Intention among Academics: A Case Study of Private Higher Learning Education in Klang Valley
Afdzal Aizat Ramli1*, Shahrul Nizam Salahudin1, Zaifudin Zainol1 and Turiman Suandi2 1College of Business and Accounting, Universiti Tenaga Nasional, Sultan Haji Ahmad Shah Campus, 26700 Bandar Muadzam Shah, Pahang, Malaysia 2Youth Social Health and Wellbeing Laboratory, Institute for Social Science Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
ABSTRACT Academics are seen as guardians of knowledge, disseminators of knowledge and creators of new knowledge. However, due to the expectation of Malaysia to be a regional hub for international higher education, it consequently burdens the academics especially in private higher learning education. Stress occurs among academics and stimulates them to leave. This situation is dangerous as it impacts on the institution and the student itself directly and indirectly. Therefore, this study attempts to investigate turnover intention from the perspective of job demand, job control and social support. 201 academics from private HLE were participated in this research and the empirical tests revealed that job control determine the level of turnover intention as well as social support on turnover intention. The regression estimation shows that social support was significantly reflected in turnover intention among academics.
Keywords: Turnover intention, private HLE, academics, job demand, job control, social support
INTRODUCTION In today’s context, knowledge-based economy is viewed as a crucial contributor to the nation’s economic growth and ARTICLE INFO Article history: wealth creation. To succeed in this rapid Received: 19 March 2012 development environment, it is vital for the Accepted: 7 May 2012
E-mail addresses: nation to discover knowledge, generate new [email protected] (Afdzal Aizat Ramli), ideas and encourage innovation especially [email protected] (Shahrul Nizam Salahudin), [email protected] (Zaifudin Zainol), among the undergraduates who are potential [email protected] (Turiman Suandi) * Corresponding author leaders for the future. However, the growth
ISSN: 0128-7702 © Universiti Putra Malaysia Press Afdzal Aizat Ramli, Shahrul Nizam Salahudin, Zaifudin Zainol and Turiman Suandi and wealth is dependent on the capability compared to public HLE, it is prone to get and capacity of the nation in developing caught in serious crisis of enrollment and and applying new technologies. Therefore, financial. Therefore, to get off from the to achieve it, starting in the middle of stress, academics are willing to leave their 1990’s, the government of Malaysia urged current job and looking forward for a new the higher learning education (HLE) to job (Karasek, 1997; Mohd Kamel, 2009). generate a pool of well-educated and skilled In addition, besides focusing on professionals as a preparation for economic teaching, academics are also responsible growth and sustain (Sohail & Saeed, 2002). to participate actively in research work and There are two types of entities of HLE innovation as well as community services. in Malaysia, which are public and private. With such demands placed on the shoulder, Public HLE is partly subsidized by the academics need to deliver their core duties government while private HLE typically plus being responsible for non-academic owned by private organization and most work such as marketing and administrative are profit oriented. However, the mission work (Azman et al., 2010). Thus, these of both HLE is still the same, ultimately to stimulate stress among academics and produce a good quality of graduates which the consequences of stress then lead to beneficial the nation. Moreover, derived cynicism towards work, poor organizational from the theory of resource, the process of commitment, low job satisfaction (Taris et learning and personal development of the al., 2001) and finally induce the sense of graduates is depending to the amount of turnover. ratio of student-academics (Astin, 1984). This study attempts to investigate The person who becomes the backbone of whether job demand, job control and the mission is pointed to the academics, social support determine turnover intention who are responsible as guardians of current among academics especially in private knowledge, disseminators of knowledge and HLE. It is viewed that turnover intention creators of new knowledge (Maimunah & among academics could result in negative Lawrence, 2007). consequences to the institution and student Due to the liberalization, deregulation itself (Ehrenberg et al., 1990). Researches and privatization of HLE, have resulted a in private HLE particularly on turnover very dynamic and rapid expansion, such intention are very limited. Thus, the needs as innovative educational programs and of understanding the factors that lead changing educational policies. The sudden to turnover intention among academics changes plus the target to be regional hub are crucial and necessary in improving for international higher education tend to institution performance and producing stimulate stress to the HLE’s employee competent human capital for the nation. especially the academics. Suffered with the limitation of capacity and capability
322 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 321 - 334 (2014) Turnover Intention among Academics: A Case Study of Private Higher Learning Education in Klang Valley
Turnover Intention investment on faculty member’s promotion, Intent to stay or to leave the organization training and sabbatical leave and it also ruins can be classified as a final stage in the the aim in gaining and sustaining a quality of psychological decision-making process of human capital and workforce. Aligned with a person before leaving (Mobley, 1977). It Bowen and Schuster (1986), which stated describes as forerunner to actual turnover that “The excellence of higher education behavior in many turnover models. In is a function of the kind of people it is able addition according to few theorists, they to enlist and retain on its faculty”. The portrayed that turnover intention as the problem of academic staff turnover or is also most substantial predictor of actual turnover termed, “Brain Drain”, still continues in our (Mobley, 1982; Mowday et al., 1982; Smart, Malaysian local universities (Khoo, 1981). 1990; Steers & Mowday, 1981; Vandenberg However, turnover can also be seen as & Scarpello, 1990). movements of labor in and out and able to Employee turnover can be an generate income for economy growth for unfortunate and costly aspect of human both organization and individual. Indeed, resource management in most organizations. it provides new opportunity in vacancy, In classic studies, it showed that most of knowledge and skills transferred from one turnovers typically will results negative organization to another by both parties. consequences (Mobley et al., 1979). In facts, as suggested by Mobley (1982), Therefore, the consequences faced by turnover phenomenon is able to stimulate organizations in employee turnover can be positive changes through creation the divided into two aspects which comprise promotion opportunities, reorganization direct cost and indirect cost. According to and restructuring. While in individual Wood and Macaulay (1989), direct cost perspective, the decision to quit is positively is the organizations consumption of time associated with individual’s career and money in finding, hiring and training objectives, or with the movement away new employees. While for indirect cost, it from a stressful situation. It is supported by occurred during the process of finding new the studies done in Japan (Yadori & Kato, employees that the organizations experience 2007) and United States (Kacmar et al., declining productivity especially in service 2006; Shaw et al., 2005) which stated that caused by understaffing and also by the the voluntary turnover ratio has negatively inexperience of new employees. related to labor productivity. In the context of HLE, the investment on In the academic context, turnover searching and hiring process by universities among academics can be considered as a can be considered as high, however, the natural part of professional advancement. In return is rather poor compared with earlier Brown’s (1967) study, the author suggested investment. It depicts that the institution is that the mobility of academics is accepted not capable to get a positive return from the and approved by the profession “because
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 321 - 334 (2014) 323 Afdzal Aizat Ramli, Shahrul Nizam Salahudin, Zaifudin Zainol and Turiman Suandi loyalty to discipline transcends loyalty to Job Control school and because teaching and research Job control is defined as the ability of skills are readily transferable among employees to set organizational goals and schools”. Moreover, human capital theorists to structure the organization to maximize also believed that personal endowment such professional concerns (Price, 1997). In as ability and education could translate into details, it is a freedom of academics in returns in the marketplace. choosing and pursuing one’s own agenda and being trusted to manage the pattern Job Demand one’s own working life and priorities Job demands is defined as job that associates (Henkel, 2005). Moreover, freedom is with physical, psychological, social, or a function of academic control of the organizational features that require an effort professional arena of teaching and research from the physical and/or psychological and is viewed as a necessary condition for from an employee (Bakker et al., 2003; work and identity. Turner and Lawrence Bakker et al., 2005). To meet the expectation (1965) found that autonomous in work may of the organization, the employee must satisfy higher-order needs for achievement perform accordingly to the objective and and accomplishment, which in turn goal as well as pursue the needs of the job. generate positive regard for the employing However, pursuing career in an established organization and higher levels of intent to organization correlates negatively to stay. turnover intention (Latif & Grillo, 2001). Meanwhile, skill discretion is the In other words, job demand is not harmful degree of creative and skill that employee in itself. could implement it in performing well in Heavy workloads, large number students job. Florida and Goodnight highlighted to teach, may generate hostility towards that the creative person as “… an arsenal of the organization and diminish levels of creative thinkers whose ideas can be turned academics commitment to the organization. into valuable products and services” (2005 Xu (2008) found that those academics ). Therefore, freedom in implementing who spent too much time in research and the academic task such as teaching, committee work, tend to leave. Winefield administrative and research with creative (2000) proved in his meta-analysis that those execution will lead to the satisfaction and academics with high level of stress were subsequently decrease turnover intention. associated with high level of workloads and It leads to the feeling of appreciation from low level of rewards. In empirical study on organization regarding the skills which workload, past researches indicated that cultivate an eager and interesting attitude workload is one of the most stressful aspects in acquiring new skills and experiences in of academics careers (Barnes et al., 1998; order to take new and more challenging Witt & Lovrich, 1998). position (Moore, 1983; Moore & Twombly
324 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 321 - 334 (2014) Turnover Intention among Academics: A Case Study of Private Higher Learning Education in Klang Valley
1990; Sagaria & Hohnsrud, 1992; Scott, METHODOLOGY 1978). Conceptual Framework A conceptual framework for this study were Social Support derived from the previous literature review Social support is viewed as stress and strain on occupational contents which were named aid. Thoits (1983) stated that the availability as job demand, job control and social support of support from colleagues provides towards turnover intention as proposed by individuals with positive feelings, such as Durrishah et al. (2009). The model for this a sense of self-worth and confidence that study, which is a conceptual framework help them to avoid negative experiences. In of linking job demand, job control, social academia, Neumann and Finaly-Neumann support and turnover intention, will be (1990) found that support from colleagues presented (see Fig.1) and 3 hypotheses were and supervisors able to make research developed in order to test the conceptual work easier among faculty, which increase framework as stated below: research performance. Moreover, it is Hypothesis 1: There is a relationship importance to create a supportive thinking between job demand and environment with colleagues concerning turnover intention. other academics issues (Van Staden et al., 2001). For examples, research assistants, Hypothesis 2: There is a relationship co-authors and students were considered as between job control and significant sources of motivation to remain turnover intention. firm during difficult times. Hypothesis 3: There is a relationship However, although social support between social support and has proved its roles in handling stress, turnover intention. past literature has shown that academics report not receiving enough support from Procedures their colleagues. For instance, in a recent This study mainly employed the quantitative study on satisfaction among academics and method in order to probe and understand administrative staff in Turkish universities, the turnover intention among academics in Kusku (2003) disclosed that most of the the private HLE. Generally, in quantitative academics were not content with their research, the common type approaches colleagues with respect to cooperation is self-report survey (Shaughnessy & and interest in their academic activities. Zechmeister, 1997). The primary data This situation portrayed that each of the collection was through the distribution academics were experiencing perceived of a survey questionnaire to the sample competition from each of their colleagues particularly from private HLEs in Klang instead of cooperation. Valley.
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 321 - 334 (2014) 325 Afdzal Aizat Ramli, Shahrul Nizam Salahudin, Zaifudin Zainol and Turiman Suandi
Fig.1: Research Framework: Job Demand, Job Control, Social Support and Turnover Intention
Population and Sampling 400 questionnaires were distributed A list of private HLEs was obtained from to the respective respondent via email. A the Ministry of Higher Education (MOHE). total of 215 academics responded to the Based on the year of 2011, there are 242 of questionnaire. The overall response rate private HLE in the Klang Valley (Selangor was 53.75% and it is more than minimum and Kuala Lumpur). The targetted population rate which are 30% and is considered as for this present study were academics who acceptable (Sekaran, 2003). However, work in private institution of higher learning only 196 questionnaires were valid to use in Selangor and Kuala Lumpur. after deleting 19 set of questionnaires with A simple random sampling procedure missing data. was adopted to determine an appropriate sample for the study. Sekaran (2000) The Instrument and Measurement suggested simple random sampling offers For independent variables, all 31 questions great generalizability and has the least bias. for job demand, job control and social Based on MOHE, there are 14,199 numbers support were adopted from Job Content of academics which been employed in Questionnaire (JCQ) developed by Karasek private university and college university (1985) while for dependent variable, the and according to Krejcie and Morgan (1970) instrument was adopted from O’Driscoll and Cohen (1969), when the population of and Beehr’s, (1994) and it consists of three sample more 10,000 and capped at 15,000, questions. the appropriate number of sample size are In Part 1, seven sections covered 375. However, to minimize the sample error, 34 questions which are skill discretion the sample number was up to 400. and decision authority (9 questions),
326 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 321 - 334 (2014) Turnover Intention among Academics: A Case Study of Private Higher Learning Education in Klang Valley psychological workload and physical the dependent variable was represented the exertion (14 questions) supervisor and co- value of reliability at 0.915. worker support (8 questions) and turnover An exploratory factor analysis (EFA) intention (3 questions). Meanwhile, in with Varimax rotation was conducted on Part 2, seven questions on demographic the items from independent and dependent information of participants. These variable. This study adopted the convention demographic variables were treated as advocated by Nunnally (1978) which stated control variables in this study. Six-point that factors are generally named based on Likert scale will be use for each variable loading greater than or equal to 0.4. Hence, in the questionnaire which anchors being by using this criterion, only items with factor (1) strongly disagree to (6) strongly agree. loadings of at least 0.4 were retained. Therefore, for the variables, the higher score Two items with factor loadings below for variables indicating higher job demand, 0.4 were identified in job control and social higher job control, higher social support and support. However, previously in reliability higher turnover intention. test, two items which from job demand and job control were already removed in order Reliability and Validity Analysis to achieve higher internal consistency and Cronbach’s Alpha test was employed in this removal of any additional questions from study and according to Sekaran (2003), it the tool would result in loss of valuable is a reliability coefficient test that points information that are significant to this out how well the items in a set which study. A Varimax rotated analysis suggested are positively correlated to one another. that existence of three significant factors To consider the variables as reliable, the with Eigenvalues greater than one which Cronbach’s Alpha value was set to 0.7 and explained 58.637% of the total variance. above (Pallant, 2001). The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure In job demand, for overall 14 questions, of sampling adequacy was at 0.766, which the reliability analysis is 0.691. To imply a greater than a minimum acceptance value relatively high internal consistency, item of 0.5. The Bartlett Test of Sphericity number four in psychological workload showed at Chi Square value of 3056.566 was deleted and the reliability have slightly with the significant level lesser than 0.001. improved to 0.716. While in job control, Therefore, these three factors were named nine items showed internal consistency at Job Demand (thirteen items), Job Control 0.645. Therefore, the researcher decided to (eight items) and Social Support (eight exclude item number eight and reliability items) are seemed tolerable to represent the slightly improved to 0.737. For social independent variables. support, it showed at 0.869 and all eight While for turnover intention, a single items in social support exhibits internal factor solution with Eigenvalues of 2.575 consistency and reliability. Meanwhile, which is explaining 85.833% of the variance
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 321 - 334 (2014) 327 Afdzal Aizat Ramli, Shahrul Nizam Salahudin, Zaifudin Zainol and Turiman Suandi has emerged. The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Hypotheses Testing (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy was Hypotheses were tested using the Pearson 0.723 whereby Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity Product-Moment Correlation. In line with was significant with Chi Square value of conservative approach, two-tailed test of 457.429 with the significant value stands significance set at 0.05 level was used lesser than 0.01. Therefore, this single factor although if the hypothesized relationship is named as turnover intention. is directional (Polit & Beck, 2004). Table 2 showed the summary of correlations RESULTS AND DISCUSSION between independent variables and Descriptive Analysis dependent variable. According to Table 1, there were moderate job demand which were represented by Hypothesis 1 calculated mean at 3.33 and standard The results indicated that p = 0.242 and r deviation at 0.67. While for job control, = 0.083. Since p-value is bigger than 0.05, the calculated mean and standard deviation it is showed that the results was fail to showed at 4.91 and 0.65. These showed reject the null hypothesis. Therefore, there that academics experienced high level of is no significant relationship between job job control. For social support, the level demand and turnover intention. The findings was high which was represented by mean is align with research done by Latif and and standard deviation at 4.49 and 0.87. As Grillo (2001) which stated that job demand for turnover intention, the level is moderate is not harmful especially when pursuing which mean and standard deviation at 2.64 in established organization particularly and 1.56. in HLEs in Malaysia. On the other hand,
TABLE 1 Mean and standard deviations for each independent and dependent variable
Variable Mean Standard Deviation Independent Job Demand 3.33 0.67 Job Control 4.91 0.65 Social Support 4.49 0.87 Dependent Turnover Intention 2.64 1.56
TABLE 2 Summary of correlation between independent and dependent variable
Variable 1 2 3 4 1. Turnover Intention -- 2. Job Demand 0.083 -- 3. Job Control -0.175 0.217** -- 4. Social Support -0.275** 0.065 0.443** -- Note: **Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed)
328 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 321 - 334 (2014) Turnover Intention among Academics: A Case Study of Private Higher Learning Education in Klang Valley the results is contrary with past researches Hypothesis 3 which stated job demand will lead to stress The results was showed that p < 0.05 and which eventually lead them to stimulate r = -0.275. Since the p-value is lesser than turnover intention (Barnes et al., 1998; Witt 0.05, and the null hypothesis were rejected. & Lovrich, 1998; Winefield, 2000; Taris et Therefore, there is a significant relationship al., 2001; Xu, 2008; Azman et al., 2010). between job control and turnover intention. Meanwhile, for the magnitude of correlation, Hypothesis 2 it depicted a low correlation (Guilford, The results was stated that p < 0.05 and 1956) and the direction was negative. It r = -0.175. Since p-value was lesser than showed that the level of social support is 0.05, the null hypothesis were rejected. high and able to eliminate the turnover Therefore, there is a significant relationship intention among academics (Thoits, 1983; between job control and turnover intention. Neumann & Finaly-Neumann, 1990) and it Meanwhile, the magnitude of the correlation is contrary with previous research done by is almost negligible relationship (Guilford, Kusku (2003). 1956) and the directional is negative which is when academics perceived high job Explanation of Variance control, it lead to eliminate the turnover In order to understand the explanation intention. This result depicted that job of variance between these variables, job control experienced by academics in private control and social support were entered HLEs towards turnover intention are align simultaneously as predictors in a multiple with previous researches done by Turner and regression analysis. Table 3 depicted the Lawrence (1965). results of explained variance and Table 4 showed the analysis of variance derived
TABLE 3 Explained variance (job control and social support towards turnover intention)
Model R R Square Adjusted R Square Std. Error of the Estimate 1 0.281(a) 0.079 0.07 1.5081 Predictors: (Constant), Job Control, Social Support
TABLE 4 Analysis of variance
Model Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig. Regression 38.697 2 19.348 8.507 0.000 (a) Residual 450.326 198 2.274 Total 489.023 200
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 321 - 334 (2014) 329 Afdzal Aizat Ramli, Shahrul Nizam Salahudin, Zaifudin Zainol and Turiman Suandi from the test of regression while Table 5 and vice versa. Therefore, the equation of revealed the predictor of turnover intention. the model above can be written as follows: According to the result, it is showed Turnover Intention that job control and social support explained = 5.396 – 0.159(Job Control) only 8 percents in turnover intention among – 0.441(Social Support) + e academics in private HLEs and the strength Where the ‘e’ is error. of the relationship is considered as low relationship (R = 0.281). However, the estimated coefficient The results revealed that both for job control (as the other independent independent variables (job control and predictor) was not significant statistically. social support) have significant relationships This indicated by its computed t-statistic with turnover intention among academics and p-value more than 0.05. Thus, the best in private HLEs. The p-value obtained was predictor for the turnover intention is social 0.000 which was lesser than 0.05 with the support. corresponding F-value of 8.507. This means that the regression model which consists of CONCLUSION job control and social support and turnover The overall mean for turnover intention intention was significant. among academics in private HLEs can be The results showed that social support considered as moderate with the mean’s was a significant predictor for turnover value of 2.64 and generally the issue of intention. The β value of -0.441 and p-value turnover intention can be summarized of 0.001 indicates that it is a moderate as not a serious problem. This finding significant predictor of turnover intention. It aligns with public HLE (Morris et al., is viewed that social support has a negative 2004) although the contexts (private effect on turnover intention as the estimated versus public) are different due to several coefficient were negative. In other words, factors such as accountability to different an increase in social support would reduce stakeholders, sources of funding, profit turnover intention. For instance, if social orientation, bureaucratic, regulatory costs support increases by one unit, then turnover and obligations to the public (Triantafillou, intention would decrease by 0.441 units 2004).
TABLE 5 Regression Coefficients among job control and social support
Unstandardized Coefficients Standardized Coefficients Model t Sig. B Std. Error Beta (Constant) 5.396 0.844 6.395 0.000 Job Control -0.159 0.184 -0.066 -0.862 0.390 Social Support -0.441 0.136 -0.246 -3.234 0.001 Dependent variable: Turnover Intention
330 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 321 - 334 (2014) Turnover Intention among Academics: A Case Study of Private Higher Learning Education in Klang Valley
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SOCIAL SCIENCES & HUMANITIES
Journal homepage: http://www.pertanika.upm.edu.my/
Science Teaching Styles and Student Intrinsic Motivation: Validating a Structural Model
Sharifah Sariah Syed Hassan* and Mohamed Rajab Institute of Education (INSTED), International Islamic University of Malaysia. Jalan Gombak, 53300 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
ABSTRACT This present study seeked to investigate the teaching styles adopted by the science teachers and their student intrinsic motivation in order to be persistence in learning the subject. Using the response from student experiences, the 5Es instructional model by Bybee (1996) has been adopted for the theoretical framework in the study. The purpose of the study was to validate the 5Es model and intrinsic motivation. 452 samples from selected secondary school students in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia have been collected to provide the responses for self constructed questionnaires in the structural equation modeling analysis. The findings provide the implications toward empirical evidence of theory, teaching practice and appropriate interventions that can be addressed for future research.
Keywords: Science teaching, instructional technology, constructivist learning, instructional design model
INTRODUCTION year of secondary school and even in the Direct instruction has been dominating university. Powell (2003) asserts on the science teaching for many years. Teachers overused of the direct teaching pedagogical put the emphasis on content knowledge approach which drives only selected students which requires students to remember and to sustain and succeed in learning. Further, recall facts. The lack of diversities in the teachers may find difficulties to implement teaching styles has led many students to constructivist approach where students withdraw from taking the subject in final active participation, discovery learning, project based learning are integrated in the
ARTICLE INFO teaching process. Despite constructivist Article history: approach contributes to effective teaching Received: 28 March 2012 Accepted: 14 August 2012 and learning and high motivation (Piaget, E-mail addresses: 1972), there is lack of evidence on the extent [email protected] (Sharifah Sariah Syed Hassan), [email protected] (Mohamed Rajab) of this approach is materialized in schools. * Corresponding author
ISSN: 0128-7702 © Universiti Putra Malaysia Press Sharifah Sariah Syed Hassan and Mohamed Rajab
Previous researches have addressed Osman, Lilia Halim & Mohd Meerah, teaching strategies of Engagement 2006); investigating teachers’ experience theory in ICT learning environment in teaching mathematics and science in (Kearsley & Schneiderman, 1998) and English (Lan & Tan, 2008) and inventory learning styles accommodating multiple of science teachers needs (Zurub & Rubba, intelligence (Gardner, 1993). Kearsley 1983); and in-service needs assessment of and Schneiderman (1998) have focused science teachers (Lilia Halim, Kamisah on project based, problem based and Osman & Mohd Meerah, 2006). However, collaboration approach in science teaching. these previous researches were lacking to However, it is difficult to distinctly assess promote models of teaching or empirically both problem and project based learning show the evidence of student intrinsic as they relate to group and collaboration motivation and teacher style of teaching. work. On the other hand, Gardner (1993) Thus, this research utilized a self constructed has used the sensory modality to look into instrument to measure 5E’s model in the visual-spatial intelligence which draws context of science teaching. The research the attention of images and graphics and has been designed quantitatively with a bodily kinesthetic intelligence facilitating purpose to reveal the extent of 5Es’ model physical manipulations and interactions. is presently practiced in science teaching This leads to the integration of Information in Malaysian schools. Specifically, the Communication Technology (ICT) in findings were focused on the validation of science teaching which can promote student the structural model and the estimation of learning through stimulations, graphics the relationships of 5Es and student intrinsic and multimedia presentation. Two other motivation. This research has been guided related intelligences are intrapersonal with a theoretical framework from the and interpersonal which the prior relates instructional design model namely 5Es by to interaction with others while the later Bybee (1997), intrinsic motivation and other emphasizes on self concept or meta- related literatures of pedagogical approach cognition. Thus, teaching strategies must in learning. address different learning styles which are dominated by different types of multiple THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK intelligences. As a result, when students are Bybee (1997) has introduced the 5Es model provided with individualized learning, they in a structured sequence and designed in are able to think critically and aware of their practical manner that can be considered easy mental capabilities. to implement the constructivist theory. This Other related researches of science model is rooted from constructivist views education in the context of Malaysian forwarded by Piaget in 1960. The model also have focused on the need to improve promotes experiential learning by engaging science teaching instruction (Kamisah students in higher-order thinking learning
336 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 335 - 344 (2014) Science Teaching Styles and Student Intrinsic Motivation: Validating a Structural Model activities. Despite Ergin, Kanli and Unsal test hypotheses and explore their own ideas (2008) have shown the evidence that 5Es to relate with the topics. However, teachers model can directly promote curiosity and are more inclined towards teaching for active learning, they have raised the issue exams that laboratory work may not be of which event or attitude that can promote an important learning activity at present. motivation is still remain unclear. However, Exploration can also be referred to inquiry Ritchie (2001); and McRobbie and Tobin based learning activities. Inquiry based (1995) indicate on the interaction involves learning leads to critical thinking skills, will contribute students to think in critical, positive attitudes and curiosity toward reflective and analytical way. science and high achievement in science The 5Es model relates to 5 phases (Hall & McCudy, 1990) which is cyclic in nature namely; Explanation is crucial in teaching Engagement, Exploration, Explanation, which can be from the teacher or students Elaboration and Evaluation. Engagement participation to present their ideas, has become the main phase of any learning explanation of concepts or summarizing the theories and instructional design which topic they have learnt. However, Swanage include Gagne nine events of instruction, and Lane (1999) further emphasize that the intrinsic motivation by Brophy (1997) explanation must be clearly linked to earlier and Engagement theory (Kearsley and activities of engagement and exploration. Sheneiderman, 1998). The most important Teachers must provide supportive phase namely engagement involves teachers environment by allowing students to explain to grab student attention and interest (Bybee, and take part in teaching and learning. 1997) and capture children’s imagination However, this activity may not be allowed (Swanage & Lane, 1999). Engagement can when teachers are more inclined towards lead to inquire and learn (Bybee, 1997), traditional teaching style. motivation (Gagne, 1995) as well as to be Elaboration involves students to persistent in learning (Skinner & Belmont, extend their knowledge of concepts to 1998). other contexts. Piaget (1972) refers one as Bybee (1997) further includes intelligent when he or she is able to extend Exploration or Expansion as to ensure knowledge and apply to other context. Thus, students to develop concepts and skills by students can elaborate by finding similarities having common, practical experiences, in different context (Swanage & Lane, It can be achieved through introducing 1999) but with a condition that teachers scientific concepts in preceding steps that is provide problem solving environment easy for students to digest and comprehend (Boddy, Watson and Aubusson, (2003). the scientific theories. In the context of These activities will promote students to be science teaching in schools, students are intrinsically motivated. allowed to carry out experiments in groups,
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 335 - 344 (2014) 337 Sharifah Sariah Syed Hassan and Mohamed Rajab
The last component namely evaluation Hypotheses involves formal assessment namely Based on the 5Es instructional model formative and summative. However, and intrinsic motivation, the following reflections can also be part of evaluation hypotheses have been postulated. Fig.1 as constructivist theory includes evaluation provides the hypothesized model. as part of the learning component. H1: engagement influences student Learning activities can include comparing, intrinsic motivation contrasting, provide values and carry out experiments on their own. H2: exploration influences student intrinsic motivation RESEARCH METHODOLOGY H3: explanation influences student This research has been designed intrinsic motivation quantitatively with a targeted population H4: elaboration influences student of secondary schools in Kuala Lumpur, intrinsic motivation Malaysia. 500 samples have been selected H5: evaluation influences intrinsic randomly from the science class (general motivation science, biology, chemistry and physics) in five schools comprising students from H6: 5Es are five- factor model all Forms (one, two, three, four and five). However, only 452 samples responded. ANALYSIS PROCEDURE The Statistical Package for Social Science Instrument (SPSS) was used to compute the descriptive A total of 46 questions with demographic statistics and to perform reliability. Analysis information has been designed and of moment structures (AMOS) with constructed based on the 5E definitions by Maximum likelihood estimation (MLE) was Bybee (1997) and other literatures related used to perform confirmatory factor analyses to intrinsic motivation. The reliability (CFA) and covariance structure analyses or of the instrument has been tested for the structural equation model (SEM). A selection Cronbach’s alpha. The instrument was of variables were based on the CFA where further validated through confirmatory only loadings of 0.5 and above were taken factor analysis. A 5-Likert scale of strongly for final analysis of SEM. All violations disagree to strongly agree have been used to have been addressed (error variances >0.8) identify students’ experience on their science with model fit indices were in the threshold teaching styles and intrinsic motivation. point (RMSEA<0.08,CFI-comparative fit The structural model has been tested to index>0.9,Tucker Lewis fit index- TLI>0.9, provide information of the model fitness GFI-goodness fit index>0.9). However, p that explains the relationships of 5Es and was ignored due to chi-square statistic is intrinsic motivation . sensitive with the big sample size (>250) as guided by Kline (2001).
338 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 335 - 344 (2014) Science Teaching Styles and Student Intrinsic Motivation: Validating a Structural Model
engage
expand
intrinsic motivation explain
elaborate
evaluate
Fig.1: hypothesized model of teaching style and student intrinsic motivation
RESULTS The paths which were not significant were There were 452 (274 males and 178 females) deleted from the model. The item loadings respondents from the five selected schools. of greater than 0.5 were selected. However, The breakdown of age group is revealed in the researcher firstly addressed the model Table 1. Majority of the respondents came fit by finding the estimate model of fit from the age group of 14-16. indices values as outlined by Kline (1998) and Byrne (2001). The results show that TABLE 1 the hypothesized model was to be rejected Number of students based on age where two paths have contributed to non
Age Frequency Percentage significant values (CR<1.96) and the model 8-10 41 9.1 did not fit the data. Thus, the researcher 11-13 161 35.6 further re-specified the model by deleting 14-16 229 50.7 the non-significant paths. 17-19 21 4.6 The final findings have shown a fit model Total 452 100.0 (RMSEA=0.60; CFI=0.919; TLI=0.906; GFI=0.901). (see Table 2 and Table 3). The structural model was analyzed Only elaborate (β=0.403) and engage (β= by addressing all paths to be significant 0.3903) influenced significantly on intrinsic at Critical ratio (CR) of more than 1.96. motivation. The five- factor model of 5Es
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 335 - 344 (2014) 339 Sharifah Sariah Syed Hassan and Mohamed Rajab was significantly correlated to each other encourages students to ask many questions ranging from 0.338 to 0.738 indicating the and grabs their attention before starting the factors were distinct and fulfill the divergent lesson (engage) have affected the way they validity. Fig.2 provides the re-specified feel towards science (intrinsic motivation). structural model. These include their effort to refer to the Internet even when teacher does not ask, TABLE 2 work hard to get good results for this subject, Standardized Regression Weights for direct path happy with the teaching method used by Direct paths Factors Estimate teacher, enjoy learning science subject and intrinsic motivation ← elaborate .403 look forward for the next class. On the intrinsic motivation ← engage .393 other hand, when questions prompted after experiment are resolved through teacher Further investigation of the items reveals elaboration, connects other related concepts that when teachers formulate activities to the real world, teacher allows students to which stimulate student involvement, build their own understanding and expands
e1 e4 e5
TFASI1 .55 .67TESAQ4.60 TGAS5
engage e6 e8 e9 e10 .88 TQSC6 .67 TCRL8.74 TGPS9.60 .63TSIR10
expand .71
.39 .62 .57 .41 e16 TALTT19.64 explain .73 e15 TELBL20.72 .60 e35 IAOHIA42 e14 TELBL21 .72 e13 .59 TUEAP22 e34 IENLSCS43 .84 .75 .81 .83 intrinsic motivation e33 ISWTMU44.40 .77 .57 e32 IWHGRTS45
elaborate e37 ILTWTT47 .60 .73 .77 .63 e36 .70 TEEUC24TTABU25TCCRW26QIDRTE27 p=.000 .66 rmsea=.060 e26 e25 e24 e23 cfi=.919 tli=.906 gfi=.901
evaluation .54 .83 .79 .68 TASFFW35TPPWAL34TITQAEB33TDEQBT32
e30 e29 e28 e27 .34
Fig.2: Re-specified model
340 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 335 - 344 (2014) Science Teaching Styles and Student Intrinsic Motivation: Validating a Structural Model
TABLE 3 Standardized regression weight for items to factors
Factor loadings of items to factors formulate activities which stimulate our involvement ← engage .551 encourages students to ask many questions ← engage .671 grabs our attention before we start our lesson ← engage .601 involves us in defining and resolving the problem ← expand .671 relates the contents with the real life examples ← expand .744 gives problem to solve in groups ← expand .604 uses Internet resources to include in the teaching materials ← expand .634 add explanation after presentation of the student ← explain .719 explains further when we don’t understand the concept ← explain .727 grabs our attention before we start our lesson ← engage .601 involves us in defining and resolving the problem ← expand .671 relates the contents with the real life examples ← expand .744 gives problem to solve in groups ← expand .604 uses Internet resources to include in the teaching materials ← expand .634 add explanation after presentation of the student ← explain .719 explains further when we don’t understand the concept ← explain .727 explains on what to learn in the beginning of the lesson ← explain .643 uses appropriate language to teach ← explain .409 questions prompted after experiment are resolved through teacher elaboration ← elaborate .633 connects other related concepts to the real world ← elaborate .703 teaching allows me to build my own understanding ← elaborate .773 elaboration expands our understanding of the concept ← elaborate .729 designed exam questions based on teaching ← evaluation .788 includes test questions according to examination standard ← evaluation .833 provides practical work assessment in the laboratory ← evaluation .680 comes to students to check their work ← evaluation .542 refer to the Internet even when teacher does not ask ← intrinsic .830 motivation work hard to get good results for this subject ← intrinsic .808 motivation am happy with the teaching method used by teacher ← intrinsic .842 motivation enjoy learning science subject ← intrinsic .723 motivation look forward for the next class ← intrinsic .769 motivation
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 335 - 344 (2014) 341 Sharifah Sariah Syed Hassan and Mohamed Rajab their understanding of the concept, these is not strong enough to promote them to will further impact on intrinsic motivation. enjoy, be persistence in learning and to show It can be concluded that explore, explain interest in the science classroom. Further, and evaluation were not prevalent and evaluation was not a strong factor for strong enough to influence student intrinsic students to get interested in science learning. motivation. This could be due to teacher’s They are bonded with exams that diminish effort in making the class related to further their enjoyment in learning (Deci, Koestner application in different context (explore), & Ryan, 1999). Evaluation in problem and evaluate students, and explaining did not project based learning involves ill structured promote further on students’ effort to be problems where students can solve problems persistence in learning. These results have and teachers monitor their students’ thinking shown that science teaching at selected (Torp & Sage,2002). This kind of assessment secondary schools in in Kuala Lumpur are may not exist in the structured, centralized still lacking of constructivist approach. and exam oriented curriculum. In the explanation, only the teacher i nvolved in the DISCUSSION AND process which included, “add explanation RECOMMENDATIONS after presentation of the student, explains The findings of this study are parallel with further when we don’t understand the Boddy, Watson and Aubusson, (2003); concept, explains on what to learn in the and Swanage, and Lane (1999) where beginning of the lesson”. The items which engaging students and elaboration on the involved students to summarize, explain, science concepts will trigger students to be demonstrates were not detected in the intrinsically motivated in learning. Teachers analysis. This has proven that the selected were successful in engaging students to schools in Malaysia still adopt teacher learn, grab their attention and interest. centered rather than student centered The students were also able to be actively learning in science. involved in extending their knowledge to This research has shown the selected other context as well to have freedom to schools in Kuala Lumpur have adopted solve problems given. the 5Es instructional strategies. However, However, the other three strategies more effort is needed in inculcating further namely explain, explore and evaluation were on the effective exploration, explanation not prevalent. Students were more inclined and evaluation teaching strategies to the towards active participation where they can students. Teachers must involve students to carry out experiments, test hypotheses and be active in participating to explore scientific explore their own ideas to relate with the concepts further in real world context. Thus, topics in the exploration or expansion. This students must be able to plan, develop and is supported by the results of high loadings execute the laboratory work. Teacher must in the factor of exploration. However, it be able to play the role as a facilitator by
342 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 335 - 344 (2014) Science Teaching Styles and Student Intrinsic Motivation: Validating a Structural Model assisting students in the experiments. On 627–668 the hand, students must also involve in Ergin, I., Kanli, U., & Unsal,Y. (2008). An Example explaining rather than waiting for teachers for the Effect of 5E Model on the Academic to provide explanation. Teaching towards Success and Attitude Levels of Students’ Inclined exam has further rooted in Malaysian Projectile Motion. Journal of Turkish Science curriculum thus diminishes student interest Education, 5(3). Retrieved from www.gazi.edu. tr/~yunsal/MAKALELER/tusedv5i3s3.pdf in science teaching. Teachers must be able to address the issue by making classroom Gardner, H. (1993) Multiple Intelligences: The Theory more interesting enjoyable. In Practice. New York: Basic Books. Despite the findings have shown a Brophy, J. E. (1997). Motivating students to learn. model of 5Es influencing student intrinsic New York: McGraw Hill Higher Education. motivation, further investigation needs to Gagné, R. M. (1993). Computer-based instructional be carried out to other schools at different guidance. In J. M. Spector, M. C. Polson, & D. J. counterpart. The findings may be different Muraida (Eds.), Automating instructional design: when samples are from residential or Concepts and issues, pp. 133–146. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Smart schools. The instrument has been constructed based on the definitions by Gallagher, S. S., Sher, W. J., & Workman, D. (1995). Bybee (1996). Further bigger sampling Implementing problem-based learning in science classrooms. School Science and Mathematics, with modifications of the instrument is 95(3), 136-146. necessary in validating the instrument so other researchers can utilize and adopt. Hall, D. A., & McCurdy, D. W. (1990). A comparison of a biological science curriculum study (BSCS) laboratory and a traditional laboratory on student REFERENCES achievment at two private liberal arts colleges. Barrows, H. S. (1997). Problem-based learning is Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 27, more than just learning based around problems. 625-636. The Problem Log, 2(2), 4-5. Hmelo-Silver, C. E. (2004). Problem-based learning: Boddy, N., Watson, K., & Aubusson, P. (2003). What and how do students learn? Educational A Trial of the Five Es: A Referent Model for Psychology Review, 16(3), 235-266. Constructivist Teaching and Learning. Research Hung,W. Bailey, J. H., & Jonassen, D. H. (2003). in Science Education, 33, 27–42. Exploring the tensions of problem based learning: Bryne, B. M. (2001). Structural Equation Modeling Insights from research. New Directions Tecahing With AMOS: Basic Concepts, Applications, and & Learning, 95, 13-23 Programming, Routledge Academic: New York. Kamisah, O., Lilia, H., & Subahan, M. M. (2006). Bybee, R. W. (1997). Achieving Scientific Literacy. What Malaysia scienceteachers need to improve Portsmouth, N. H.: Heinemann. their science instruction: A comparison across gender, school location and area of specialization. Deci, E. L., Koestner, R., & Ryan, R. M. (1999). A Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science and meta-analytic review of experiments examining Technology Education. Retrieved from www. the effects of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic ejmste.com/022006/d4.pdf motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 125(6),
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SOCIAL SCIENCES & HUMANITIES
Journal homepage: http://www.pertanika.upm.edu.my/
Is Problem Solving and Systems Thinking Related? A Case Study in a Malaysian University
Liew Chin Ying*1, Foo Kien Kheng2, Kelvin Goh Tee Hiong1 and Elinda Lee Ai Lim1 1Faculty of Computer and Mathematical Sciences, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Kota Samarahan Campus, Jalan Meranek, 94300 Kota Samarahan, Sarawak, Malaysia. 2Faculty of Computer and Mathematical Sciences, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Negeri Sembilan Campus, 72000 Beting, Negeri Sembilan Darul Khusus, Malaysia.
ABSTRACT Do systems thinking facilitate the acquisition of important skills in solving ill-defined problems? This exploratory study seeks to investigate whether an association exists between problem-solving and informal systems-thinking skills. A survey methodology that included a paper and pencil test was used to gather data. Four performance tasks designed and adapted to local context were employed to measure both sets of skills. Following that, the performance of each respondent was scored based on an analytical scoring rubric. Both descriptive and inferential data analysis involving comparisons of the populations and checking for correlations were carried out. Findings indicated that the respondents performed poorly in all the tasks. The mean score for systems thinking was found to be lower than that of problem solving. These skills were analysed according to three pre- selected demographics. Interestingly, the data indicated that there was a positive but moderate association between problem-solving and systems-thinking skills. The limitations and some general recommendations for future research were also discussed.
Keywords: academic achievement, gender, higher education, problem solving, systems thinking
INTRODUCTION Education systems throughout the world
ARTICLE INFO in the last decade has come under intense Article history: scrutiny where its’ outcomes are doubted Received: 28 March 2012 Accepted: 2 August 2012 to commensurate with the billions of dollars E-mail addresses: expended (Reilly, 2000; Senge, 1998; [email protected] (Liew Chin Ying), [email protected] (Foo Kien Kheng), Finn & Ravitch, 1996; Forrester, 1994; [email protected] (Kelvin Goh Tee Hiong), [email protected] (Elinda Lee Ai Lim) Morrison, 1991). As pointed out by Johnson * Corresponding author
ISSN: 0128-7702 © Universiti Putra Malaysia Press Liew Chin Ying, Foo Kien Kheng, Kelvin Goh Tee Hiong and Elinda Lee Ai Lim
& Duffett (2003), “For five consecutive disciplines of study to form a better and years between 1998 and 2002, majorities more holistic understanding that can lead of employers and professors have been to effective and long lasting actions (Kay reporting profound dissatisfaction with the & Foster, 1999). skills of recent public school graduates” (p. In an effort to identify and promote the 20). The education systems is said to fall 21st century skills, the Partnership for 21st short of producing workforce that is capable Century Skills Organization, P21 (2011) of dealing with today’s society which is has put forward a Framework for 21st characterized as dynamic, uncertain and Century Learning where critical thinking complex. and problem solving are emphasized as Realizing this discrepancy, educators important learning and innovation skills have since been emphasizing the teaching every learner should master to succeed for problem solving as a major educational in work and life in today’s society. While objective (Mayer, 2002). Problem solving elaborating the elements that constitute is stipulated explicitly in the educational successful critical thinking and problem objectives, blueprints, planning, strategies solving, this framework explicitly suggests outlined by educational institutions the use of systems thinking as one of the worldwide in their endeavour to produce approaches in solving problems. It is clearly quality workforce for the society. The main stated by the framework that systems focus of our education curriculum has been thinking enable one to “analyze how parts of learning how to solve problems. However, a whole interact with each other to produce the traditional approach to problem solving overall outcomes in complex systems” (p. referred as reductionist approach fails 4). to perform well on complex, ill-defined Systems thinkers consider systems- problems and ‘when parts of a more complex thinking approach as highly relevant in problem are all independently optimized’ problem solving and decision making (Douglas, Middleton, Antony & Coleman, in a world that exhibits characteristics 2009). This dominant problem-solving of interconnectedness, uncertainties and approach is said to work better for simple complexities (Bellinger, 2004; Haines, and well-defined problems. Ultimately 2000; Senge, 1990; Kauffman, 1990). some systemic theories and models were Studies have also conclusively shown the developed in response to this issue. One advantages of using systems approach to approach that particularly stands out from enhance problem solving especially non- the rest is the systems-thinking approach routine and poorly defined problems which (Flood, 1999). Systems-thinking approach to many are especially difficult and require is not just about how to analyse a situation multi-skills to solve them (Resnick & from the disciplinary perspective but how to Wilensky, 1998; Resnick, 1996). Wilensky synthesize the ideas gained from different (1996) commented that one of the more
346 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 345 - 363 (2014) Is Problem Solving and Systems Thinking Related? A Case Study in a Malaysian University promising prospects is by integrating the skills in problem solving is scarce (Maani & system approach in all problem-solving Maharaj, 2004; Sweeney & Sterman, 2000; activities. Klieme & Maichle, 1991, 1994 as cited in Systemic approach that refers to Ossimitz, 1997; Ossimitz, 1997). systems thinking is regarded as one of Many claims have been made the main approaches to problem solving concerning the ability of systems (Douglas et al., 2009). They viewed thinking interventions to change the positively this approach as one that helps nature and quality of thought about to understand problems holistically and is complex systems. Yet, despite the able to address many weaknesses of the increasing number of interventions reductionist approach. Goh and Xie (2004) being conducted in both educational had suggested the incorporation of systemic and corporate settings, important approach in problem solving to enhance the questions about the relationship ability to tackle more complex and dynamic between systems thinking and situations. basic cognitive processes such Problems should be regarded as as problem solving, decision systems. Components that form these makes, remain unanswered. systems could be identified. The interrelated (Doyle, 1997, p. 253) of these components could then be analysed. Subsequently problems observed in the interrelatedness of these components A study was carried out to look at the are identified and tackled. In contrast relationship between problem solving and to traditional problem solving, systems systems thinking. For that purpose, two thinking as a systemic approach has the different scoring rubrics were constructed advantage over traditional problem solving to quantify problem-solving and systems- in terms of the effort spent in understanding thinking skills. This paper focuses on the the interrelatedness, complexity and findings related to the overall problem- wholeness (big picture) of components of solving and systems-thinking skills of systems and the specific relationships to one the population of interest as well as the another (Banathy & Jenlink (2004) as cited influences of three demographics factors in Johnson, 2008). – gender, program of study and academic Introducing systems-thinking skills performance. It also reports the association into the activities of problem solving is between problem-solving and systems- believed to have some effects on the task thinking skills. of solving problem (Resnick & Wilensky, 1998; Resnick, 1996; Wilensky, 1996). PROBLEM SOLVING Unfortunately, literature on the assessment The definition of problem solving owes of the effectiveness of systems-thinking its’ origin to the work of Dewey (1910).
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 345 - 363 (2014) 347 Liew Chin Ying, Foo Kien Kheng, Kelvin Goh Tee Hiong and Elinda Lee Ai Lim
He had presented the analysis of an act of and grade level, technology courses, thought that relates problem solving as a felt mathematics and science grades, gender, difficulty where the problem solver needs to personality preferences, and problem analyse the situation and makes suggestions solving styles affect their problem-solving of possible hypotheses of which the problem abilities (Custer, Valesey & Burke, 2001). solver then acts on them and carries out Gender-related differences in ability to an experiment to determine whether to solve mathematics problem, specifically, accept or reject the solution. The central and in problem solving generally, is an notion of problem solving is the goal, either actively researched topic and these studies explicitly or implicitly stated in the problem, produced mixed results. Some studies where not knowing how to reach this goal have found statistically significant gender- without generating new information is what related differences in mathematics ability, makes it a problem (Jonassen, 2002). One especially in solving general (routine) type interesting phenomenon one can observe of problem, in favour of female (Lau, Hwa, in the problem-solving models offered by Lau, & Limok, 2003; Mason, 2003; Zambo the experts of the field is that the activity & Follman, 1993). In his study, Mason of problem solving is never a top-down or (2003) found that females, more than males, bottom-up or linear kind of task. This view excel in problem solving because they is clearly put forth by Fernandez, Hadaway believe in the importance of understanding and Wilson (1994), in their interpretation of why a particular procedure or algorithm the problem-solving processes (see Fig.1). works and not only relying on memorization Many studies into problem solving have for problem solving. Therefore, the former focused on how different characteristics is not only less likely to fail but is also of learners from different socioeconomic able to attained better grades than the later. backgrounds, preferences, and ability levels, Custer et al. (2001) on the other hand found in particular their academic performance that generally gender does not influence
Fig.1: Problem-solving processes (Fernandez et al., 1994)
348 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 345 - 363 (2014) Is Problem Solving and Systems Thinking Related? A Case Study in a Malaysian University problem-solving skills. view the system of relationships that link Another factor of interest to problem- the component parts” (Richmond, 1997c, p. solving researchers concerns the question 6); 4) operational thinking that helps ones of the relationship between academic to identify how behaviour is generated and performance of the learner and problem- not merely in terms of ‘cause and affect’; 5) solving skills. Bay (2000) concluded that closed-loop thinking which enables one to teaching problem solving and teaching via be aware that an ‘effect’ usually feeds back problem solving improve students’ problem to change one or more of the ‘causes’, and solving, skills, and concepts. It is no doubt the ‘causes’ themselves will have effects on that when problem solving is emphasized, each other; 6) quantitative thinking that helps the learners show improvement in their one to quantify what is thought to be difficult achievement. However, he was doubtful to measure accurately but contribute a lot about the true nature of this relationship. to the success or failure of a system; and 7) Logically, the learner with good academic scientific thinking that is used to make sure performance is always assumed and that the model developed is able to play its perceived by others, to be good at problem expected role for the purpose of improving solving. However, research has shown that its performance (Richmond, 2000). These learners who perform well academically seven skills have, since then, served as the are not necessarily good problem solvers. ‘operational’ guide to systems thinking. Studies show that learners, who are reported Richmond (1997a) stressed emphatically as the best or bright students in mathematics, that the numbering and the sequencing of are unable to solve unfamiliar, be it the non- the seven thinking skills reflects the notion routine or routine, problems correctly and that each skill builds on the previous one. successfully (Lau et al., 2003; Davis, 1987; As hypothesized, performance in Schoenfeld, 1985). systems thinking can be influenced by the demographic characteristics of the SYSTEMS THINKING respondents. Research on gender-related Richmond (1993) had discussed seven issues in the study of systems thinking is basic systems-thinking skills. He (1997a) rather scarce. A study by Ossimitz (2002) later classified them as 1) dynamic thinking was carried out to determine gender-related which helps one to see behaviour that influence on the respondents’ ability to unfolds over time and deduce behaviour discern between stocks and flows, a crucial pattern rather than focus on events; 2) systems-thinking skill. He reported that system-as-cause thinking which helps one to females scored significantly poorer than view system’s behaviour pattern as the result the males in this respect. Another study by of interrelatedness of elements within the Sweeney and Sterman (2000) was carried system; 3) forest thinking that “ … gives us out on subjects where most of them were the ability to rise above functional silos and enrolled in post-graduate programs. They
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 345 - 363 (2014) 349 Liew Chin Ying, Foo Kien Kheng, Kelvin Goh Tee Hiong and Elinda Lee Ai Lim intended to assess particular systems- exhibit systems-thinking characteristics thinking concepts and the demographic (Gigerenzer, Todd, & ABC Research Group, variables on their performance scores. Their 1999; Frensch & Funke, 1995; Richmond, findings showed some marginal gender effect 1993). Many researchers are convinced that with the males performing slightly better instruction in the setting of problem solving than the females on all their performance with the integration of systems thinking tasks although they reiterated that the effect does facilitate the cultivations of important was only marginally significant. thinking skills (Microworlds Inc. Brochure, Sweeney and Sterman (2000) also 1997 as cited in Sweeney & Sterman, reported that when their subjects’ academic 2000). Systems thinking is said to be a more background on the performance tasks scientific problem-solving approach than were taken into account, some of the the rational thinking approach (Shibata, questions in those tasks showed significant 1998). Furthermore, he stressed that systems differences though no consistent pattern thinking is a very clear and useful method could be detected. The subjects’ academic to solve problems. background in terms of their prior academic Maani and Maharaj (2004) mentioned field and highest prior degree was significant that there exists one apparent characteristic and marginally significant for one of their amongst good and poor performers of the performance tasks. The subjects with respondents in their research. The good technical backgrounds were found to do performer reflects the characteristics of better than those in the Social Sciences systems thinking while those that do not and Humanities in this particular task. The perform well often exhibit the behaviour effect of the program of studies in which of linear thinking, the direct opposite of their subjects were presently enrolled systems thinking. Richmond (1997b) was not significant in any of the tasks. To referred to this counterpart of systems quote Sweeney and Sterman (2000), “The thinking as linear thinking or static thinking. results provide only limited support for the This is supported by Dörner (1980) whose hypothesis that prior training in the sciences study found out that most people would not helps performance. It is possible that there bother to seriously consider the existent simply is insufficient variation in the subject trends and developmental tendencies of pool to detect any effects” (p. 278). complex tasks in advance to solving them; in contrast, they are more interested in the RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ‘status quo’. This explains the scarcity of SYSTEMS THINKING AND systems-thinking trait in the traditional PROBLEM SOLVING thinking of people who subscribe to linear It is possible to integrate problem-solving thinking. Hence, it is not surprising that and systems-thinking skills as traditional any individual, who displays the attributes problem solving activities already of system thinking, even though they are
350 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 345 - 363 (2014) Is Problem Solving and Systems Thinking Related? A Case Study in a Malaysian University ignorant to systems thinking, do perform the category of Science and Technology better on complex decision-making task (Diploma in Science, Diploma in Computer (Maani & Maharaj, 2004). The behaviour Science, Diploma in Sports Science and of the more superior performers reflects the Recreation, Diploma in Civil Engineering, attributes of systems thinking. Maani and Diploma in Electrical Engineering and Maharaj (2004) concluded in their research Diploma in Estate Management), four that systems thinking when blended with programs from the category of Business the problem-solving strategies, “manifests and Management (Diploma in Banking, the characteristics of heuristics competence, Diploma in Business Studies, Diploma as it involves understanding of the system in Office Management and Diploma in structure, developing strategies, making Accounting) and one program from the decisions and carefully assessing the category of Social Sciences and Humanities outcomes” (p. 45). This result strongly (Diploma in Public Administration). For indicates that systems thinking is highly the academic performance, the respondents correlated with problem solving. were grouped, based on their cumulative grade point aggregate (CGPA), as Poor METHODOLOGY (CGPA 2.00 – 2.49), Average (CGPA 2.50 – The following section describes participants, 3.49) and Good (CGPA 3.50 – 4.00). instruments and procedures involved in this Proportionate stratified sampling design study. was employed to select a sample size of 233 out of a total of 524 students. From the total Participants number of respondents from each program, 20% was selected from the Good group, The population of this study consisted 60% from the Average group and 20% from of all undergraduates of eleven diploma the Poor group and where possible, equal programs of studies in one of the campuses numbers of male and female representatives of a Malaysian public university. The were selected from each group. Simple respondents were categorized according random sampling technique was then used to programs of studies, gender and their to select the respondents after the numbers academic performance. To strengthen the from each group based on gender and CGPA university academic programs among were determined. faculties and within the faculty, this public university has grouped the students into Instrument three main categories of programs of studies, namely, Science and Technology, The initial instrument had six performance Business and Management, and Social tasks, namely The Water Jug Problem Sciences and Humanities. The eleven (Task 1), Achilles’ Challenge (Task 2), The diploma programs of studies identified for Hilu Tribe (Task 3), Causal Loop Diagram this study consisted of six programs from (Task 4), The Alps Hotel Tourists (Task 5)
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 345 - 363 (2014) 351 Liew Chin Ying, Foo Kien Kheng, Kelvin Goh Tee Hiong and Elinda Lee Ai Lim and The Federal Budget of Fantasia (Task interesting and innovative and represented 6) to elicit eight systems-thinking skills: a good set of systems-thinking questions. wholistic thinking, continuum thinking, Ossimitz (communication through email, thinking in models, leverage point thinking, 2004) advised the researchers to take out structural thinking, closed-loop thinking, the Causal loop diagram task because this systems-as-cause thinking and dynamic performance task was based only on causal thinking. This initial instrument was first loop diagrams and did not take into account validated using student focus group and the difference between stocks and flows then lecturer focus group. Changes made and therefore would be subjected to more to the performance tasks based on the debate and argument. Ossimitz further feedback obtained from both of the focus suggested that some of the questions be groups include taking out Task 1 as this rephrased. These comments were taken into was more for categorizing problem-solving considerations and the instrument was then styles instead of systems-thinking skills, finalized and used in this study. taking out Task 2 as almost all of the focus This instrument consisted of one set group members were not able to solve it, of questions which was divided into two customizing Task 6 to Family Monthly parts. Part A consisted of six questions to Expenditure which was more applicable gather demographic information whereas to respondents from different categories of Part B consisted of five questions. The program of studies, reducing eight systems- first question in Part B was to test the thinking skills to five, namely dynamic respondents’ understanding in graphs as thinking skill, system-as-cause thinking the ability to understand graphs correctly skills, forest thinking skill, operational skill could suggest the proficiency of problem- and closed-loop thinking skill, as there were solving and systems-thinking skills of a too many sub-skills involved, re-adjusting respondent. The other four questions were time given to answer the performance tasks the performance tasks used to determine the and increasing clarity of instruction given problem-solving and systems-thinking skills to answer the performance tasks. of the respondents. The four performance The revised instrument was later tasks namely Graphs of Behaviour over sent to two external experts in the field Time, The Hilu Tribe, The Alps Hotel for validation. They were Professor Dr. Resort and Family Monthly Expenditure, Kambiz Maani from the University of adapted from the works of Ossimitz (2002) Auckland, New Zealand and Associate and Robertson (2001) were used to elicit Professor Dr. Guenther Ossimitz from the the problem-solving and systems-thinking University of Klangenfurt, Austria. Maani skills from the respondents. (Please refer to (communication through email, 2004) Appendix 1 for an example of performance commented that the instrument developed task.) was good at gauging systems-thinking skills and the performance tasks developed were
352 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 345 - 363 (2014) Is Problem Solving and Systems Thinking Related? A Case Study in a Malaysian University
PROCEDURES of Richmond (1997a, 1997b & 1997c), Scoring of problem-solving skills Ossimitz (2002) and Maani and Maharaj (2004). The focus here was on the first five Assessing cognitive processes is a of the seven essential systems-thinking complicated and difficult task. It is not skills. The last two skills are more relevant easily measured through tests, quizzes, or to system dynamics modelling efforts teacher observation. Assessing the outcomes (Maani & Maharaj, 2004). Each of these from well-designed performance tasks essential systems-thinking skills was then would be a simpler and more objective divided into sub-skills. Skills and sub- alternative. This approach has found support skills were carefully worded in the explicit with Mcguire (2001). Many versions of the form to reduce subjectivity on the part of problem-solving model are proposed to suit the evaluators. These were reviewed by an the different contexts and environments expert with extensive knowledge of systems where it is applied (Fernandez et al., 1994; thinking. With the guidance afforded by Holton, 1993; Artzt & Armour-Thomas, this framework, the construction of a 1992; Evans, 1992; D’Zurilla & Goldfried, scoring rubric or marking scheme was then 1971; Simon, 1960; Dewey, 1910). Thus, constructed. the approach to measuring problem-solving An analytic rubric was used here as skills can range from simple but less effective the categories of skills and sub-skills that method to highly complex techniques. were to be graded were clear-cut. The sub- This study chose to use a simple but skills of the five essential systems-thinking less comprehensive measurement of the skills were carefully worded for all the problem-solving skills. The rationale here four performance tasks. For each correct was that since systems-thinking skills at sub-skill, a certain point was given to it. this moment could only be assessed with This point-allocated sub-skill was found a simple point-allocated scoring rubric, to be very useful in determining whether then problem solving should be gauged specific criteria had been met for each of the using the same level of assessment so that systems-thinking skills in each performance the comparison between the two skills is task. (Please refer to Appendix 2 for the meaningful. Following this line of argument, systems-thinking skills and sub-skills a simple point-allocated scoring rubric was mentioned here.) created to measure the problem-solving skills of the respondents. Pilot survey
Scoring of systems-thinking skills Thirty students from eleven diploma programs were selected to answer the The framework for measuring systems performance tasks for the pilot survey. The thinking in this research was based mainly pilot survey was carried out to evaluate on the literature review of the works the suitability of the instrument and also
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 345 - 363 (2014) 353 Liew Chin Ying, Foo Kien Kheng, Kelvin Goh Tee Hiong and Elinda Lee Ai Lim the effectiveness of the procedures. The Data collection students were given one hour and 45 The data was collected through two paper- minutes to answer all questions in Part and-pencil test sessions. Respondents who A and Part B. From the result of the pilot could not make it for the first session came survey, some amendments were made to for the second session. The respondents the questionnaire which include taking were gathered in a lecture theatre to answer out CGPA score of 0.00 – 1.99 because both sets of questions. The respondents were there were too few students falling under given one hour 20 minutes to complete the this category. The time allowed to answer questions in Part A and Part B. A total of 237 the questions was then reduced to 1 hour students turned up for the actual survey. The 20 minutes as this duration was found first session was attended by 160 students sufficient for the students to answer all of whereas the second session was attended the questions.
TABLE 1 Comparing statistical significance between problem-solving scores and systems-thinking scores
95% Confidential Mean Score Standard Deviation Statistical test result Interval of Mean Problem- Systems- Problem- Systems- Problem- Systems- Problem- Systems- solving thinking solving thinking solving thinking solving thinking skills skills skills skills skills skills skills skills Gender Male 26.26 23.65 24.06- 21.74- 11.21 9.77 t = -0.684, t = 0.202, (n = 103) 28.45 25.56 p = 0.495 p = 0.840 Female 27.22 23.41 25.43- 22.02- 10.35 8.02 (n = 130) 29.02 24.80 Program of studies Science and 28.92 25.87 26.53- 23.98- 10.88 8.59 Technology 31.32 27.76 (n = 82) F = 4.500, Social 26.16 22.23 22.32- 19.13- 10.10 8.14 F = 2.543, p = sciences and 30.00 25.33 p = 0.081 humanities (n 0.012* = 29) Business 25.52 22.31 23.60- 20.71- 10.66 8.86 management 27.44 23.91 (n = 121) Academic achievements (CGPA) 2.00 – 2.49 23.43 21.24 20.36- 18.62- 10.22 8.72 (n = 45) 26.50 23.86 F = 6.096, F = 5.554, 2.50 – 3.49 26.72 23.29 25.10- 21.92- 10.25 8.65 p = 0.003* p = 0.004* (n = 156) 28.34 24.66 3.50 – 4.00 31.90 27.81 27.58- 24.74- 11.97 8.52 (n = 32) 36.21 30.89
354 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 345 - 363 (2014) Is Problem Solving and Systems Thinking Related? A Case Study in a Malaysian University by 77 students. Four sets of answers were Mean scores of problem-solving skills discarded due to missing values. between groups based on gender, program of studies and Cumulative Grade Points Aggregate (CGPA) (academic RESULTS AND DISCUSSION performance) scores The following section reports the findings As presented in Table 1, the performance of this study regarding the problem-solving of the female respondents in solving the skills and the systems-thinking skills performance tasks was slightly better than exhibited by the respondents and the the male respondents. Nevertheless, this relationship between these two skills. difference was not statistically significant (t = -0.684, p = 0.495). Problem-solving Skills and Systems- Among the various programs of studies, thinking Skills it was found that the respondents from Data collected was keyed-in by the Science and Technology programs had researchers. Exploratory data analysis was the highest mean score (28.9%) followed subsequently run to detect errors in the by respondents from Social Sciences keying-in process as well as observe for and Humanities program (26.2%) and outliers. The mean scores were calculated respondents from the Business and for the different categories of skills based Management programs (25.5%). After on the three selected demographic factors. considering all the assumptions, the The average score for each set of skills ANOVA analysis showed that there was was calculated using the arithmetic mean. In no statistically significant difference in the the analysis, each respondent was awarded mean score for problem-solving skills (F = two scores – one for problem solving and 2.543, p = 0.081). another one for systems thinking. Take When academic performance for example in deriving the mean score of background of the respondents was taken problem solving for the male cohort, an into account, the result showed that the average score of 26.20 was calculated based performance of the respondents with on a sample of 103 male respondents. The higher CGPA were better than those in the same calculation was carried out for the lower CGPA. The respondents with CGPA system thinking scores. The table below 3.50-4.00 reported the highest mean score contains the mean scores based on the three (31.9%) followed by those with CGPA 2.50- demographic factors. 3.49 (26.7%) and CGPA 2.00-2.49 (23.4%). Further analysis using ANOVA showed that there exist a statistically significant difference in their problem-solving skills mean score (F = 6.096, p = 0.003). Due to unequal sample sizes of these three CGPA groups, Scheffé post-hoc test was then
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 345 - 363 (2014) 355 Liew Chin Ying, Foo Kien Kheng, Kelvin Goh Tee Hiong and Elinda Lee Ai Lim carried out. It was found that there was no the mean scores of systems-thinking skills statistically significant difference in the for respondents from the Science and mean scores obtained by respondents with Technology programs and the respondents CGPA 2.00-2.49 and 2.50-3.49. However, from the Business Management programs. there exist statistically significant difference When the academic performance in in the mean scores obtained by respondents terms of CGPA of the respondents was with CGPA 2.00-2.49 and CGPA 3.50-4.00. used as the basis for comparisons, the result showed that respondents with higher Mean scores of systems-thinking skills CGPA were able to obtain better scores. The between groups based on gender, respondents with CGPA 3.50-4.00 obtained program of studies and Cumulative Grade mean scores of 27.8%, whereas the mean Points Aggregate (CGPA) (academic performance) scores scores for respondents with CGPA 2.50-3.49 and CGPA 2.00-2.49 were 23.3% and 21.2% As presented in Table 1, the mean scores respectively. for systems-thinking skills of the female After verifying the normality and respondents (23.6%) did not show much homogeneity of variance for the data set, difference with their counterpart (23.4%). analysis using one way ANOVA showed This was further proven by the t-test result that there was a statistically significant which showed that there was no statistically difference between the mean scores obtained significant difference between the means by respondents with different CGPA (F = scores obtained (t = 0.202, p = 0.840). 5.554, p = 0.004). Further analysis using When the program of studies of the Scheffé post-hoc test found that there was respondents was used as the basis for a statistically significant difference between comparison, the result showed that the the mean scores obtained by respondents respondents for the programs of Science with CGPA 2.00-2.50 and those with CGPA and Technology scored the highest (25.9%). 3.50-4.00. Similarly, the difference was The mean scores of systems-thinking skills also statistically significant for those with obtained by respondents for the programs CGPA 2.50-3.49 and CGPA 3.50-4.00. of Social Sciences and Humanities and However, the test showed no statistically programs of Business Management were significant difference between mean scores similar – 22.2% and 22.3% respectively. of respondents with CGPA 2.00-2.49 and After considering the normality of the CGPA 2.50-3.49. data set and the homogeneity of variances (p = 0.879), the ANOVA analysis showed RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN that there was a statistically significant PROBLEM-SOLVING SKILLS AND difference in the mean scores obtained (F SYSTEMS-THINKING SKILLS =4.500, p =0.012). Further analysis using EXHIBITED Scheffé post-hoc test found that there was The scatter plot in Fig.2 clearly depicts a statistically significant difference between a linear, positive and moderately strong
356 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 345 - 363 (2014) Is Problem Solving and Systems Thinking Related? A Case Study in a Malaysian University
Fig.2: Scatter plot of scores for problem-solving skills and systems-thinking skills correlation. The result was supported by the Findings from the study indicated that Pearson Product Moment Correlation, with r the targeted population of diploma students = 0.776 and p = 0.0001. This implies that if performed poorly for both problem solving the respondents have good problem-solving and systems thinking in the four performance skills, they also have good systems-thinking tasks. The mean score for systems-thinking skills and vice versa. skills was found to be lower than that of problem solving. The low mean scores were CONCLUSION expected as the four performance tasks were One major area of concern in our non-routine problems and the structure of present education system is the students’ the tasks were new to the respondents. problem-solving ability (Robertson, In addition, analyses were performed to 2001; Schoenfeld, 1999; Resnick, 1996; determine if the three selected demographic Duncker, 1945). Problem solving, a generic factors affected the skills studied. It was employability skill, is an indispensable skill found that problem solving was not affected one must possess to function effectively in by gender and program of studies whereas the workplace. To facilitate the acquisition CGPA did influence problem solving ability. of this skill, it is hypothesized that systems On the other hand, systems-thinking skills thinking can play a leading role in the showed no dependency with respect to attainment of this potentially invaluable gender but systems-thinking skills were ability. This study aimed to determine if affected by program of studies and CGPA. such an association exists between problem The influence of these factors on both solving and systems thinking. systems thinking and problem solving is
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 345 - 363 (2014) 357 Liew Chin Ying, Foo Kien Kheng, Kelvin Goh Tee Hiong and Elinda Lee Ai Lim inconclusive as similar results were reported This study has one clear limitation, in other studies attempting to determine that is, no causal relationship could be whether gender, academic achievement determined using the present research and program of studies influences the design. In other words, the exact nature of acquisition of these skills (Lau et al., 2003; the relationship between problem-solving Mason, 2003; Custer et al., 2001; Bay 2000; skills and systems-thinking skills was not Ossimitz, 1997; Zambo & Follman, 1993; determined. Once this fact is established, Davis, 1987; Schoenfeld, 1985). only then can we move on to look at a This study also identified an association paradigm shift by situating a meaningful between problem solving and systems- and successful problem-solving learning thinking skills with a Pearson Product environment within a systems-thinking Moment Correlation of 0.776. This index framework. Although this study had not implies that those who exhibited good addressed the objectives comprehensively, problem-solving skills, also possessed good it certainly is a good start in the right system-thinking skills. direction towards determining a causal This finding should be of major interest relationship between problem solving and to the education fraternity at large because systems thinking. There is much work to be this study actually found evidence to support done in exploring further the nature, impact the contention that systems thinking is and efficacy of systems thinking in solving associated with problem solving. This non-routine, knowledge-lean and complex link has been espoused by many systems problems. thinkers but no empirical evidence was given to support their claims (Maani & ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Maharaj, 2004; Kieff, 2000; Resnick & The research was funded by Universti Wilensky, 1998; Doyle, 1997; Resnick, Teknologi MARA. We thank Assoc. Prof. 1996; Wilensky, 1996). The significance of Dr. Paul Lau Ngee Kiong for valuable this finding lies in exploring new approaches comments on the draft of this paper. We to the teaching of problem solving in the are thankful to Associate Professor Dr. classroom. As Jonassen (2002) explained a Guenther Ossimitz and Professor Dr. problem solver faces obstacles when he/she Kambiz Maani for their constructive reviews fail to generate new information from the of the instrument used in this study. information at hand. A good systems thinker on the other hand has an array of skills that REFERENCES promotes the use of information in its varied Artzt, A., & Armour-Thomas, E. (1992). Development forms to generate new information that can of a cognitive - metacognitive framework for assist him/her to overcome the obstacles protocol analysis of mathematical problem mentioned above. solving in small groups. Cognition and Instruction, 9, 137-175.
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APPENDIX 1 EXAMPLES OF PERFORMANCE TASKS AND SYSTEMS-THINKING SKILLS Graphs of Behaviour over Time Direction: The graphs below illustrate the behaviour of a certain population over a period of time. These behaviours are described in the stories found in the answer booklet. Firstly, match the stories with the appropriate graphs. In addition, label the x-axis and the y-axis of the graphs in the space provided. For example the x-axis in the graph below stands for “time”, you could label the x-axis as “year” or “month” depending on the story. If you do not understand the graphs , write “don’t know”. Match the stories with the graphs given. 2.1 The Story :
The Giant Tortoises of the Galapagos Islands live for well over 100 years. A female can lay 4-5 batches per season, usually between June and December. The eggs hatch 4-5 months later. A group of botanists was studying the population growth for 2 years. Assuming there is no death for the whole duration of the study, which graph accurately shows the population growth of these tortoises? ANSWER: GRAPH ______x-axis : ______y-axis : ______
2.2 The Story:
THE ELEPHANTS OF AFRICA live in vastly varying environments of the continent, from the rain forests of the Congo Basin to the savannahs of Namibia. On one occasion, a viral infection spread rapidly among a group of African elephants. The virus caused a rapidly progressing and severe disease which finally results in death of the animal within weeks. Assuming there is no birth during the period of infection, which graph shows what happened to the population of this group of elephants? ANSWER: GRAPH ______x-axis : ______y-axis : ______
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APPENDIX 2 LIST OF SYSTEMS-THINKING SKILLS AND SUB-SKILLS Systems-thinking Skill Sub-skills a. Dynamic See changes over time as being non-linear. To be aware of stock and flow variables. To understand and be aware of time delays. Able to use the correct time units ( in min / hour / day / month / year). To see time continuities within the web of interdependencies. b. System-as-cause To identify the boundary of the system under study. To identify which variables are completely/partially under control. To determine the possible explanations for the behavior identified. c. Forest To see the links that connect the different elements of the system. To identify the causal links that may exist between its members. To determine the ‘breadth’ and ‘depth’ of the system’s boundary. To identify new properties emerging from the interactions of its components. To filter through all the variables and keeping only the most essentials. To identify what structures/ infrastructures that are causing the behavior. To seach for similarities in a ‘heap’ of elements that might be seemingly unrelated and distinct. d. Operational To determine how behavior is generated through interdependency. To identify causality and not only correlation/ influence. To identify the stock and flow infrastructures. To maintain units of measure integrity in a system. e. Closed-Loop To link the different variables of interest to form feedback loops. To be aware of both intended and unintended consequences.
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SOCIAL SCIENCES & HUMANITIES
Journal homepage: http://www.pertanika.upm.edu.my/
Stigma as Part of Identity Development of Gay Men in Penang – A Qualitative Study
Felix, M. S. AIDS Action & Research Group, Bangunan C09 Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Minden, Penang, Malaysia
ABSTRACT Background: The sexual identity of gay men is placed as the polar opposite of heterosexuality and as such is studied as a deviance from the norm. This study is focused on the experience of stigma by gay men in Penang as part of identity development. Method: A total of 33 gay men were identified using the snowballing method. Qualitative data via in-depth interviewing was the method of data collection. Respondents signed a consent form approved by the Ethics Committee of Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia. Each respondent was then given a pseudonym to ensure confidentiality of the respondents’ identity.. Each respondent was interviewed separately at a date, time and venue of their convenience and were asked identical open ended questions. Each interview was audio recorded, transcribed and analysed using content analysis matrix. Results: Stigma had positively or negatively affected the sexual identity of the respondents interviewed. At best stigma brought respondents’ strength and courage and at its worst, it has brought out fear and recrimination. The common types of stigma reported by respondents were name- calling, the creation of “in-group” and “out-group” situations, bullying (being ridiculed) and religious prejudice. The stigma faced by the respondents had not resulted in activism and to an extent forced some of the respondents to conform (at least when in public) to society’s expectations. Conclusion: Stigma had assisted in the development of sexual identity of the respondents. Sadly, it is stigma and not a more positive experience of socio-cultural interaction that had assisted in the development of sexual identity.
Keywords: Bullying, Gay Men, In-group, Out-group, Sexual Identity, Stigma.
INTRODUCTION ARTICLE INFO Gay men continuously face stigma Article history: Received: 9 April 2012 (D’Augelli, 2003; Duran et al. 2007; Accepted: 15 May 2012 Herek et al. 2010; Savin-Williams et E-mail address: [email protected] (Felix, M. S.) al., 2010; TreatAsia, 2006). Incidents
ISSN: 0128-7702 © Universiti Putra Malaysia Press Felix, M. S. of such stigmatization have been rarely cultures. With this, gay men may experience recorded in the Malaysian context although sexual identities that either confirms this homonegativity exists within the Malaysian polar opposite of heteronormativity or culture (Baba, 1995, 2001, 2002, 2006; construct sexual identities that display Scoville, 2004). This study is focused on the heteronormative behaviours verbally and experience of stigma by gay men in Penang non-verbally in order to avoid stigmatization as part of sexual identity development. (Sylva et al., 2010). Sexual identity is understood here as the Stigmatization comes from non- development of the individual gay men acceptance of feminine traits and/or based on the understanding that his same- behaviours in men, simply meaning that sex sexual attraction differentiates him from men who exhibit effeminate behaviour most of his peers (Dowsett, 1996). Sexual or caring and nurturing characteristics identity encapsulates eroticism, fantasy, will face stigmatization (Parrot, Adams & affection and attraction for members of Zeichner, 2002). With such expectations the same sex. Sexual identity also includes of heteronormativity comes homophobia, the development of a personal frame of the irrational fear of homosexuality. reference and how the self is viewed through Homophobia can also construct the sexual this personal frame of reference. This in turn identity of gay men via “in” and “out” leads to feelings of self-worth, confidence group positions based on social, cultural and and self-acceptance or the opposite of these religious expectations (Duran et al., 2007; qualities (Sylva et al., 2010). This narrative Savin-Williams et al., 2010). Homophobia, would add further understanding to the whether internal, interpersonal or socio-cultural experience of this part of the institutional can lead to isolation, bullying, Malaysian population. violence and lack of access to support lead to depression, lack of impulse control and LITERATURE REVIEW despair (Dyson et al., 2003). Dowsett (1993, 1996) states that the sexual TreatAsia (2006) notes that in almost all identity of gay men is placed as the polar countries in Asia and the Pacific, male-male opposite of heterosexuality and as such is sex and gay sexual identity is still heavily studied as a deviance from the norm. Glick stigmatized even in the countries where et al. (2007) saw effeminate gay identities as consensual sex between adult men in non- threats to heterosexuality (while masculine public places has been decriminalized as in gay identities were not viewed as much as a Australia, Hong Kong, and New Zealand. threat). Wilkerson, Ross and Brooks (2009) Many countries, particularly former British note that heteronormativity also constructs colonies, including Bangladesh, India, the sexual identity of gay men as it gives Malaysia, Pakistan and Singapore, still have a polar opposite to what is considered laws that criminalizing same sex sexual “acceptable” sexual identity in many activity. Other countries, including China
366 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 365 - 377 (2014) Stigma as Part of Identity Development of Gay Men in Penang – A Qualitative Study and Japan, never had laws criminalizing (in its entire spectrum) has roots in social homosexuality. norms and gender roles (as well as the Regardless of whether same sex sexual roles of women); and can have various relations are criminalized or not, socio- manifestations, e.g. physical, verbal or cultural and religious mores support the attitudinal. condemnation of, and the discrimination D’Augelli (1998) has found that antigay and prejudice against homosexuality. attacks include being called names, not For example the practice of Islam in having a person to open up to and being Bangladesh and Indonesia, Catholicism found out as being homosexual. Antigay in the Philippines, Christianity in New attacks can also happen within families and Zealand and cultural traditions and norms these take the form of ridicule, rejection, loss in China Hong Kong and India all appear of physical and monetary support, verbal to be contributing to the marginalized and physical violence. Antigay attacks also status of gay men (TreatAsia, 2006). The take the form of hate crimes (Franklin, gist of the information above is that gay 1998) such as being chased or followed, identities in Asia and the Pacific have a objects thrown at victims, physical assault, historic and cultural significance. These gay vandalism, being spat on and assault with identities have played out into the present a weapon. Jenkins (2004) makes the point day as gender, sexual identity and sexual that homophobic violence also has become preference are part of human sexuality. a kind of performative masculinity, almost a However, acceptance of this is not wide rite of passage, with most such acts carried in many societies and often stigma of and out by young men in groups. This frequently discrimination against gay sexual identity happens in nations where gay activism is takes shape in the form of homophobia. escalated and that Malaysia is one nation in Homophobia is defined as explicit which homophobic events have taken place hostility or prejudice toward gay men and (Jenkins, 2004). women (Herek, 1986), irrational fear or Sexual identities and behaviours attract intolerance of homosexuality or homosexual a great deal of attention in Malaysia, and persons (Herek, 1986), and a pathological sexually normative behaviour is expected fear of homosexuality and a fear of HIV in a conservative Asian society. As such gay which causes AIDS (Bouton et al., 1987). men face definite challenges in Malaysia According to Schwanberg (1993) the dread as gays exist in Malaysia even though at of being in close proximity to homosexuals present they are not socially and politically brings out highly aggressive feelings in accepted (Baba, 2001, 2002). Historically heterosexual men. Ryan (2003) as well as however, male-male sexual identity and Kessel and Knowlton (2005) concur with sexual behaviour have existed in Malayo- these findings and also note that many Polynesian culture. According to Dr Farish writers have affirmed that homophobia Noor of Nanyang Polytechnic University,
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Singapore, the ancient stories of Prince defined in derogatory terms, Malaysian Panji (circa 13th to 17th century AD) prove men who admit to a gay sexual identity that same-sex relationships existed in and engage in same-sex sexual activity in the region (Lee, 2008). Even as recent Malaysia face not only societal disapproval as the 1950s, transsexuals were accepted but also legal persecution. Legal persecution as Mak Andam (wedding organizers), can be pursued via use of Section 377A of “joget” dancers, cooks and artistes (Teh, the Penal Code which prohibits sodomy 2002). However, the return of Malaysia to (anal intercourse) and “gross indecency” the fundamentals of Islam have changed with punishments including up to twenty acceptance of Malaysians of alternative years in prison (The Commissioner of Law sexualities, forcing them into hiding and Revision Malaysia, 2006; Scoville, 2004). facing persecution. In general Malaysia has Clearly, gay sexual identity is not easily not been very positive to responding to gay accepted in Malaysia and gay men face and lesbian related issues. stigmatization by whom?. The present situation according to Baba (2001) is that a lack of positive role RESEARCH QUESTION models (socially, politically and in the Stigma is a social phenomenon that is media), anxiety in identity portrayals and experienced. Being “branded” as discrimination lead to discomfort with unacceptable often leaves gay men at sexual identity among Malaysian gay men. odds with their social experience (Jenkins, Stigmatization and rejection also lead to 2004, 2006). The question raised by this discomfort with sexuality in the Malaysian study is: “What has been the experience gay male population. Baba (2002) adds that of stigma by gay men in Penang as part “(N)egative portrayals of homosexuality of identity development”? As stigma is a do not help gay men feel comfortable social phenomenon a narrative approach is with their sexuality”. Add to this that necessary to understanding the experience non-representation and the banning of gay of stigma by gay men. As gay men fear sexual identities in the Malaysian media in stigma and are hidden, a qualitative as 1994 has obliterated all references to gay opposed to quantitative approach is taken sexuality (UNAIDS, 2004; West, 1997; to gaining data. Winder, 2006) the present situation is one where sexuality of gay men in Malaysia has METHODOLOGY no point of reference. A total of 33 self-identified gay men were Terms for referring to the sexual identity interviewed using the in-depth interviewing of gay men in Malay are usually derogatory method of data collection. By “self- and denote men who are effeminate identified gay men”, this research seeks (“bapok”, “kedi”, “pondan”, “darai”) (Baba, out men who only have sexual relations 2001). On top of having their sexual identity
368 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 365 - 377 (2014) Stigma as Part of Identity Development of Gay Men in Penang – A Qualitative Study with other men and who do not perceive reached as the information gained from themselves as heterosexual, bisexual or the interviews had reached the point of transsexual (Jenkins, 2004), whose sexual theoretical saturation. All respondents met attraction is only directed to other men the criteria of being gay men (Hewitt, 1988; (The Naz Foundation (India) Trust, 2001) Jenkins, 2004; The Naz Foundation (India) and who are categorized as Type 1 Open Trust, 2001) who are Malaysian citizens who Preferential Homosexuals by Hewitt (1998). reside in Penang. All respondents have been The respondents were gained via the sexually active within the past 12 months. All snowballing method. All respondents respondents only reported having sex with were given pseudonyms to protect their men. The respondents ranged from 21 years identity and signed a consent form to secure of age to 55 years of age. Of the respondents, their participation. Each respondent was fifteen were Chinese Malaysian, ten were posed with the question “How has stigma Bumiputra Malaysian, four were Indian affected your sexual behaviour”? Interviews Malaysian, two were Eurasian Malaysian, were audio recorded and transcribed to one was of Chinese-Thai descent and form primary data. The primary data was one was of Kadazan-Murut descent. The qualitative in format. Primary data was occupations of the respondents included analysed using a content analysis matrix. university/college students, entrepreneurs The content analysis matrix is a simple and professionals. Respondents were also matrix of rows and columns where each employed as executives of various multi- respondent’s responses were recorded and national corporations (MNC), hoteliers then compared and contrasted for recurring and engineers. One of the respondents is experiences and themes in an orderly retired from employment and two of the fashion. The example of the content analysis respondents are involved in sex work. Of matrix used can be found on the following the respondents, 30 lived on the island of page. Penang and three lived in Seberang Perai, location. The experiences narrated below I. Content Analysis Matrix are the most descriptive and vivid of the 33 Section: Stigma and identity interviews. Question: Can you please describe the stigma Jack1 reported the stigma he faced as you have experienced as a gay man. being treated as an outcast, being called Res Data Analysis Overall 1. names and not being accepted for who he is ↓ by heterosexual peers and heteronormative 33 society. He was treated as the “black sheep” of his family and this gave rise to many RESEARCH FINDINGS 1 Pseudonyms are used for all respondents A total of 33 respondents were interviewed in order to keep privacy, confidentiality and for this research. The total number was security as per the Consent Form signed by all respondents.
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 365 - 377 (2014) 369 Felix, M. S. tense situations within family discussions sex. He had managed to keep his identity and gatherings where his sexuality became as a gay man hidden from his parents as he the bone of contention, ridicule and family feared the rejection of his parents, which as condemnation. He was considered a a person of Chinese descent is something “black sheep” because he did not fulfil the he could not deal with. This was because as obligation of a Chinese son to get married a son in a Chinese family he was expected to a woman who would give birth to sons to marry into a respectable family and who would perpetuate the family name. produce male offspring who would carry He was called names such as “queer” by on the family name. When he was in college his peers and this also created many tense pursuing a degree he was bullied, laughed at situations for him as he was considered an and jeered at due to his flamboyant fashion “outsider” by many of his contemporaries choices. This caused him to “tone down” who went so far as to ostracize him from his choice of flamboyant clothes (singlets, social gatherings and extra-curricular tight-fitting jeans, bright coloured t-shirts activities. Non-acceptance by a society with and bright pieces of jewellery). However, heteronormative expectations made him he found that even when he “toned down” fearful of repercussions such as the verbal his choice in flamboyant clothes his identity abuse of name calling and continued ridicule as a gay man became stronger as his sexual by his family. However, this non-acceptance identity became more internalized and less by family members and peers also urged him expressed externally. to look at things from a different perspective Anwar was stigmatised by name and to see these experiences as challenges calling and jeering by his heterosexual to better himself as an individual. This contemporaries. He was often called strengthened his identity as a gay man. “bapok” and “pondan” by them (provide Ivan experienced stigma in the form of similar English language synonyms). He gay men being equated with HIV/AIDS by had learned not to care about the name heteronormative society. This equation was calling and he developed a tougher stance made in his presence, sometimes by his of believing that his gay sexual identity family but most often by his peers in school, was a valid expression of himself as an college and the working environment. He individual and that he did not have to take found that when he was suspected of being the name calling and jeering seriously at all. gay by his peers in secondary school, he As a soft-spoken man he often feared that became the butt of jokes and the object the name calling and jeering would take of ridicule. His peers often called him on a physically hostile dimension (such as names such as “Ah Qua” (homosexual in beatings) but had thus far not experienced the Cantonese Language) and would make any sort of physical abuse. He made it a snide remarks about his buttocks and how point to avoid being in groups that were often it had been used for penetrative anal comprised fully of heterosexual men as
370 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 365 - 377 (2014) Stigma as Part of Identity Development of Gay Men in Penang – A Qualitative Study he feared that as an “outsider” he would Muhammad S.A.W. (“in-group”). He was potentially face not just rejection but also also told that men who have a gay sexual physical abuse. As a Muslim he also felt identity are not part of “the correct way pressure to conform to Muslim society’s of life” thus further consolidating the “in- expectations that homosexuality was a sin group” and “out-group” situation. Despite and he should therefore make efforts to this he had not allowed his sexual identity develop heterosexual sexual attractions. As as a gay man to be affected negatively. He such, to avoid stigma within Muslim society did not believe that he had to conform to he made it a point to not draw attention the expectation of others in order for him to himself, preferring to keep to his small to accept himself or to have a productive circle of friends and to remain silent and and happy life. acquiescent in formal gatherings of Muslim Azam had been called names like men. Still, he felt that as a gay man being “faggot” (a derogatory term for men with part of the “out group” helped him further a gay sexual identity) and “gay”. He found define his sexual identity. that stigma began for him after he came According to Ahmad, when his peers out to some of his classmates in Secondary and contemporaries found out about his School. His school mates began calling him identity as a gay man, they distanced the derogatory names previously mentioned themselves. They distanced themselves on and began to keep a distance from him. the basis that they did not approve of him At the time of the interview he had not having same-sex sexual partners. His peers faced any physical abuse. Facing all these believed that to be a “true man” he ought to instances of stigma made him braver in his have an interest in the opposite sex and his gay sexual identity. sexual interest in other men relegated him to the position of an “outsider”. This “in- Hafiz faced stigma in the form of being group” and “out-group” situation caused made a fool of. He used the terms “kena Ahmad sadness, but he felt that he had to kantoi” (being made the butt of practical be true to himself and thus had to accept jokes) and “disindir” (belittle) to describe the loss of his friends. Being part of the “out in general his experiences of stigma. He felt group” helped him solidify his identity as hurt when he experienced all of this but the a gay man, that being true to himself was instances of stigma have buoyed his belief in more important than the shallow acceptance himself as a gay man. He felt that his sexual of his peers. identity as a gay man became more valid to Kamal faced stigma from his community himself after these experiences of stigma. that is based on religious conviction. The Iskandar does not feel that he cannot religious conviction is that those who have belong to any group of people and has tried a gay sexual identity (“out-group”) are to be friends with heterosexual men but they not considered the people of the Prophet rejected his overtures of friendship on the
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 365 - 377 (2014) 371 Felix, M. S. basis of his gay sexual identity. They could Being in the “out-group” did hurt the not accept him as a gay man and rebuffed gay sexual identity of Tan and he was called all attempts at friendship. The main form of “abnormal” to his face. This led him to being stigma he faced was the distancing of friends very careful whom he told about his same- who did not want to be thought of as gay sex sexual attractions. He found that stigma by association. However he found that this negatively affected his sexual identity as it stigma had not affected his sexual identity had made him afraid of being attacked and in that it did not dissuade him from being labelled negatively by society. He felt it was honest with his same-sex sexual attraction necessary for him to hide his sexual identity and being true to his “naluri” (natural as a gay man from his family as his family instinct). was traditional and old fashioned. Due to Dennis reported that stigma is associated this he felt they would not understand nor to homosexuality and considered as a taboo accept his homosexuality and identity as a in Malaysia.. He experienced name calling gay man. but this did not adversely affect his gay Stigma made the gay sexual identity sexual identity. The most painful stigma he of Foo stronger in that it made him stand had experienced was from his own family. up to people who had called him names or When his parents (through invasion of the ridiculed him for being a gay man. He has privacy of his private journal) found out he told people who are homophobic that they was gay his mother lamented that he was had better hope their own sons or grandsons not a filial son. His father caustically said do not turn out to be gay and be subjected to that if he was gay he would end up “selling what he had been subjected to. For Foo, his his backside” (engage in sex work where sexual identity is not only about his same- he was the receptive partner in penetrative sex sexual attractions but also being able to anal sex) and ultimately die of AIDS-related stand up to life’s challenges as an individual complications. Dennis shared that because and as “a man”. of this experience he worked hard to be Kenny found it hurtful when stigma successful in secondary school, university took the form of jokes against gay men. He and ultimately in his career to prove his did not understand why it was unacceptable parents wrong. He also shared that now to make jokes based on race and religion he cared for his parents materially and but it was acceptable to make jokes based emotionally (thus proving his filial piety) on sexual identity. As a gay man he felt that and that his successful career did not require when he heard these jokes it hurt him, but him to resort to sex work. He noted that his it would not deter him from being who he relationship with his parents was stable and is as a gay man. He noted that despite such his sexual identity was no longer an issue challenges he would continue to be honest of contention – in fact it was the catalyst with himself, even if it had strained the for open communication within the family relationship between him and his father. communication dynamic.
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The stigma of illegality of homosexuality Joe reported that stigma for him took the in Malaysia affected Wong personally and form of gay men being viewed only for their made him more careful at his workplace flamboyant facade. The intelligence, hard to ensure that stigma did not affect his work and dedication of gay men’s characters career. He did not want to be passed over are overshadowed by this view. He himself for promotions, travel opportunities and had not experienced any verbal or physical escalating remuneration because of the manifestations of stigma, therefore for stereotypes and stigma of society towards him the negative side of stigma was the gay men. As a gay man he found that stigma stereotyping of gay men as previously towards gay men made him uncomfortable mentioned. and it made him want to hide his identity. Peter had faced blatant stigma, Stereotypes of men with gay sexual where although he graduated at the top identity affected Rama as it caused people to of his undergraduate class he was denied look down on him. He found that society in employment at a firm he admired due to general tended to stereotype him and “box” his gay sexual identity (this was reported him into effeminate behaviour and also that to him by a friend who worked at the same as a gay men he would sexually prey on firm). This pushed him to prove that he unsuspecting heterosexual men. He disliked was excellent as a professional. He shared the suspicions that people had about him just that his various professional successes and because he was a gay man. He shared that no triumphs at a competing organization was matter the amount or type of stigma that was his attempt to prove the former organization levelled at him he could not change who he wrong about their assumptions and unjust was; so despite the stigma he faced he had treatment of him. His sexual identity in this accepted his identity as a gay man. sense made him feel like an outsider (“out Mike reacted offensively toward stigma, group”) but had spurred him on to reach a and since the stigma levelled against him high level of professional success. was verbal his offensive was also verbal in George reported being bullied, molested nature. For example if he was called names and propositioned for oral sex while in he would turn to the person who called secondary school. This stigma made him him names and scold the person. He would want to be a better and stronger person so also if necessary use a louder volume in his he could put those who stigmatized him verbal offensive and if necessary make a “in their place”. He often did this by telling show of physical strength such as pushing those who bullied or molested him that he away a chair or any other objects within his was not a cheap sex worker and they were reach. Instances of such stigma made him wrong to assume such things about him more daring when his gay sexual identity because he was gay. was threatened.
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Rohan reported being taunted while Stigma had positively or negatively in school by those who considered him an affected the sexual identity of the respondents outsider. This drove him to have heterosexual interviewed. At best stigma brought out the sexual attractions and not be considered as strength and courage in them, at worst it an outsider. He wanted acceptance and has brought out fear and recrimination. The compassion from his peers. Alex faced the most positive effects of stigma as narrated same form of stigma as Rohan and this by the respondents had been being more sure stigma caused him to exercise discretion and confident of their same-sex attractions about his gay sexual identity in order to and sexual identity; being able to manage gain societal acceptance and approbation. and defend themselves when faced with Eric felt that his identity as a gay man was name-calling and bullying; succeeding “battered” due to the stigma associated with professionally despite misgivings by family; homosexuality. He felt that because of his and honesty with self that led to better self identity as a gay man society “looked down acceptance and peace of mind. The opposite on him as an abnormal person”. His religion of this are the negative effects such as self- also considered his identity as a gay man “a censorship; being fearful of being found out curse or something that is not right” and this in a professional setting; being subjected added on to the negativity associated with to “out-group” behaviour; and feeling his same-sex sexual attractions. pressured to conform based on cultural, social and religious expectations. DISCUSSION The common types of stigma reported Stigma (homophobia) can construct sexual by the respondents range from name-calling identity via “in” and “out” groups and (D’Augelli, 1998) to the creation of “in- religious prejudice (Duran et al., 2007; group” and “out-group” situations (Duran Savin-Williams et al., 2010) while also et al., 2007; Savin-Williams et al., 2010). causing gay men to develop heteronormative The “in-group” and “out-group” as posited social behaviours in order to avoid stigma by Duran et al. (2007) and Savin-Williams (Sylva et al., 2010). Stigmatization causes et al. (2010) was evident as well as in some activism which forms sexual identity reported cases religious prejudice. These (Asthana & Oostvogels, 2001). As Duran have (negatively or positively) constructed et al. (2007) stated, stigma does cause an the sexual identity of the respondents “in-group” and “out-group” situation. The interviewed in this sample. There is also experience of stigma and how stigma shaped experience of being in the “out” group the sexual identity of respondents from an (Meyer & Dean, 1998) according to the “in-group” and “out-group” perspective add respondents. The stigma faced by the to the understanding of the sexual identity respondents had not however resulted in of gay men. activism (Asthana & Oostvogels, 2001).
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The stigma reported by the respondents more than just the recognition of stigma; it takes different forms (bullying, being will require the joint voices of gay men to laughed at, name-calling). But what is push society to listen to them. evident is that in the experience of gay men in Penang stigma is a reality and to REFERENCES an extent forced some of the respondents Asthana, S., & Oostvogels, R. (2001). The social to conform (at least when in public) to construction of male “homosexuality” in society’s expectations. The type of stigma India: Implications for HIV transmission and most often reported by the respondents is prevention. Social Science and Medicine 52, 707–721. Retrieved from http://www.doaj.org 9 the “in” and “out” group situation. Thus far September 2010. there is no way to avoid this “in” and “out” group situation. However, the animosity Baba, I (1995). Social Work Students’ Readiness to Work with HIV/AIDS Clients and their found in such a context can be mitigated Families in Malaysia, Thailand and Singapore. by developing a better understanding of Unpublished thesis, Barry University, Miami, homosexuality and the challenges faced by Florida. gay men in Penang. Baba, I. (2001). Gay and lesbian couples in Malaysia. Gay and Lesbian Asia: Culture, Identity, CONCLUSION Community (ed: Gerard Sullivan and Peter A. Stigma had assisted in the development of Jackson), Harrington Park Press. sexual identity of the respondents. Sadly, it Baba, I. (2002). Psychological aspects of HIV/AIDS is stigma and not a more positive experience prevention: a look at Community AIDS Services of socio-cultural interaction that had assisted Penang (CASP). HIV/AIDS The Realities The in the development of sexual identity. As Challenges. Malaysian Ministry of Health, Malaysia. a population, the sexual identity of gay men would benefit from a more positive Baba, I (2006). Caring for People Living with and affirming stance of society toward HIV/AIDS and their Families in Malaysia. In Challenge of Social Care in Asia. Edited by homosexuality. This affirming stance would Vasoo & Tan Ngoh Tion Eastern Universities be acceptance by society that homosexuality Press. exists as an alternative form of human Bouton, R., Gallagher, P., Garlinghouse, P., Leal, sexual expression (Roughgarden, 2004), T., Rosenstein, L. & Young, R. (1987). Scales that gay men not be subject to derogatory for measuring fear of AIDS and homophobia. name-calling (Baba, 2001; 2002) by society Journal of Personality Assessmentol, 51(4), and that gay men be judged on the content 606-614. Retrieved from http://www.doaj.org of their character and not solely on their 15 May 2010. same-sex attraction. However, within the D’Augelli, A. R. (1998). Developmental implications confines of a conservative society such as of victimization of lesbian, gay and bisexual Malaysia the need to move towards such a youths. Stigma and Social Orientation positive and affirming stance will require Understanding Prejudice Against Lesbians,
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Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 379 - 391 (2014)
SOCIAL SCIENCES & HUMANITIES
Journal homepage: http://www.pertanika.upm.edu.my/
Settling Down Spiritually: Chinese Malaysian’s Worship of Datuk Gong
Chin Yee Mun1 and Lee Yok Fee2* 1Faculty of Creative Studies, Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman, No 3, Jalan 13/6, 46200 Petaling Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia 2Faculty of Human Ecology, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
ABSTRACT When the Chinese migrated to Malaya en masse in the 19th century, they brought along with them their religious belief. Many aspects of the Chinese Religion are still maintained and practiced by the Chinese in Malaysia today. However, after years of interaction with people from other ethnic origins in Malaysia, the Chinese has synthesized local elements into their belief system. Empirically, the worship of Datuk Gong is one of them. The worship originated from the Datuk Keramat cult, which was popular among the Malays in Malaysia. This paper attempts to explain why the Chinese in Malaysia accepted local elements such as the worship of Datuk Keramat into their religion and the meaning of such acceptance. When the Chinese Malaysian transfigured certain elements found in their religion to accept the concept of Datuk Keramat, it shows their long-term commitment to make Malaysia their home. In order to achieve these objectives, observations and interviews at ten Datuk Gong temples in Peninsular Malaysia were made to collect relevant data. Data gathered shows the Chinese have transfigured their religious practice to facilitate their adaptation to live in a country, which was once foreign to them.
Keywords: Datuk Gong, Chinese Religion, Syncretism, Shenism, Pragmatism.
INTRODUCTION Chinese immigrants started to converge in Southeast Asia en masse in the 19th century ARTICLE INFO in search of better opportunities (Freedman, Article history: Received: 18 April 2012 1979, p. 5) which also saw an influx of their Accepted: 22 March 2013 religious beliefs and practices. As a result, E-mail addresses: their religious beliefs and practices are felt [email protected] (Chin Yee Mun), [email protected] (Lee Yok Fee) in many parts of Southeast Asian countries. * Corresponding author In the context of contemporary Chinese
ISSN: 0128-7702 © Universiti Putra Malaysia Press Chin Yee Mun and Lee Yok Fee
Malaysian, many aspects of their religiosity Chinese Malaysian does not commonly are inherited from their immigrant ancestors practice this feature. Such contradiction (Tan, 1983). In other words, the religious could be an outcome of adapting the design practices of the Chinese Malaysian are quite of the Chinese Malaysian temples to the similar to the practices of their ancestors needs of the Chinese immigrants. Probably, in China. It also means that there are some in the 19th century, the Chinese in Malaya developments within the Chinese Malaysian did not see the need to build an ancestor religion. When the Chinese landed on hall to worship their ancestors since they Southeast Asia, they faced numerous only perceived this country as a stepping- difficulties in adapting to the new social stone to accumulate wealth. Once they have environment. The adaptation process has acquired sufficient wealth, they would not caused them to adjust some of their cultural hesitate to return to their homeland in China, practices. Some of the adjustments required where the ancestral hall had already been them to change certain aspects of their built. Furthermore, their socio-economic traditional practices, which included their condition did not permit them to do so. The religious practices. The adjustments caused difference between the Chinese temples in the Chinese Malaysian religion to develop Malaysia and China reflects the pragmatic into an interesting and unique form, and changes of the Chinese immigrants had most probably, some of these practices can taken place to suit their needs. only be found in Malaysia or its neighboring The alterations made by the Chinese countries where the Chinese population Malaysian on their temples may not be formed a significant mass. This paper refers significant enough to highlight how they their religion as Chinese Religion. This have altered their religion to suit their terminology was introduced by Tan Chee needs and identity in Malaysia. It will be Beng (1983) to reflect that the fact that significant if they have transfigured certain the diverse nature of Chinese Malaysian aspects of the nature of their ancestral traditional religious practices should be religiosity. Judging from the present state of understood as a whole system instead of the Chinese Malaysian religious practices, being classified into Buddhism, Taoism or the transfiguration is obvious when they have Confucianism, included local elements into their religious Certain aspects of the Chinese Religion belief especially in the worship of Datuk in Malaysia are outcomes of alterations, Gong. Many Chinese Malaysians worship which were made to make end meets. Datuk Gong and this is evident when According to Kok (1993, p.119), in many one observes the landscape of a Chinese Chinese Malaysian Buddhist temples, a majority housing area in this country. In special space is allocated to house ancestral most of the Chinese Malaysian homes, there tablets. This feature is not common in the will be a shrine which they use to worship temples in China. In China, the ancestral tian gong (God of Heaven). But for the tablets are placed in ancestral hall and Chinese who worship Datuk Gong, there is
380 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 379 - 391 (2014) Settling Down Spiritually: Chinese Malaysian’s Worship of Datuk Gong an extra mini shrine. This shrine is different the link between their needs and the Datuk from the tian gong shrine in terms of its Gong worship, a Chinese way of settling design. While, the tian gong shrine is either down spiritually. supported by a pillar or hung on a wall, the Datuk Gong shrine is normally built on soil. METHODOLOGY Some are built on stilts that resemble the One of the characteristics of Chinese Religion design of a traditional Malay house. The is that the religion unifies human microcosm shrine houses the Datuk Gong. A closer look and divine macrocosm (Ackerman, 2001, at the idol of Datuk Gong will certainly raise p. 293). The Chinese believes man, nature many questions especially those who do and divinity form a unified cosmos (Adler, not understand the Chinese Religion. The 2002, p. 113). This belief indicates the role miniature resembles the feature of a Malay of meaning in the Chinese Religion. The man. Clearly, this worship is something that relationship between human and divinity is unique and is not practiced in China, the is actively determined by individuals. Each land of Chinese Malaysian forefathers. The individual has his or her own interpretation Chinese Malaysian is worshipping a deity of how the relationship should be managed. which is not worshipped by their ancestors. Based on this characteristic, it is important This paper intends to relate the worship to understand how the Chinese Malaysian of Datuk Gong to the Chinese Malaysian interpret Datuk Gong and how the needs when settling down in this country. The interpretation is expressed when they settled worship is an outcome of the transfiguration down in this country. of certain aspects of the Chinese religiosity. In order to find out the identity and However, it will not emerge unless the history of Datuk Gong, the rituals and Chinese has already developed similar offering in the worship, the methods of concept much earlier. It will also not interview and observation were employed. emerge if the Chinese Malaysian and Data collection was carried from April their immigrant forefathers do not see the 2010 till June 2010. Interviewees are the necessity to worship Datuk Gong. Besides committee members of the Datuk Gong these two conditions, the worship of Datuk temples visited and also the worshippers met Gong would not be possible if the worship in the temples. A few Datuk Gong temples, is not supported by principles found within located in several states in Peninsular the Chinese Religion. The principles have Malaysia, namely Penang, Perak, Selangor provided ample rooms for the Chinese and Kuala Lumpur were visited for the Malaysian to alter their ancestral religious purpose of the study. Before discussing practices. In order to discuss the above, this the worship of Datuk Gong, the writing in paper will elaborate the nature of Chinese the following section attempt to provide a Religion and Datuk Gong worship in background understanding on the nature of Malaysia. The spiritual needs of the Chinese Chinese Religion in Malaysia. Malaysian will also be discussed to establish
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THE SYNCRETIC NATURE OF Chinese Religion is the syncretic nature of CHINESE RELIGION the Chinese Religion. DeBernardi (2009), It is incomprehensible to observe a Chinese Goh, (2009), Tan (1983) and Sakai (1997) worships a Malay man who is also a Muslim believe the worship of Datuk Gong is an without understanding the nature of Chinese outcome of the syncretic nature of Chinese Religion. Those who do not understand the Religion. nature of Chinese Religion will certainly According to Tan (1983, p. 220), most question such worship. However, it may not Chinese Malaysian refers to their religion as be so if the worship is understood from the bai shen or bai fo. The former refers to the worshippers’ point of view. Generally, as worship of deities and their interpretation immigrants, it was natural for the Chinese to of deities refer to all deities found in build their relationship with the local people. Chinese religious system, including those The Datuk Gong worship represents the from Buddhist origin. The latter refers to Chinese’s intention to establish a spiritual the worship of Buddhas or Bodhisattvas. relationship with Malaya and its people. However, in actual practice, they may Goh (2009, p. 121) linked the worship include all deities, including those from of Datuk Gong to the anxiety which the early Taoist origin. Due to such circumstances, Tan Chinese immigrants had when they arrived labeled the Chinese Malaysian religion as in Malaya. The early Chinese immigrants Chinese Religion. Generally, most Chinese needed a local force to safeguard their well- Malaysian worship Buddha and Taoist being in a foreign land. Datuk Keramat was deities simultaneously. It is common in the seen as suitable to play the role of the local Chinese Malaysian’s home to find Buddha force. Their worries then were many. Being being positioned next to Taoist deities in immigrants, they were worried of dangers the altar. Such sight is also common in most such as illness. The popularity of Datuk Chinese temples. These features indicate Keramat among the Malays as healers had the inability of the Chinese Malaysian to then caused the Chinese to worship Datuk separate or differentiate Buddhism and Keramat as Datuk Gong. Taoism. For them, both religions carry the But the Chinese Malaysian would not same sacred significance. In other words, the be able to accept a foreign element into Chinese have amalgamated Buddhism and their religion if their religion is exclusive. Taoism and such practice had caused Tan to The worship of Datuk Gong by the Chinese label the religion of the Chinese Malaysian Malaysian must have originated from as Chinese Religion. In his opinion, it certain characteristics of the Chinese is erroneous to associate the majority Religion which caused the religion to be of the Chinese Malaysian to Buddhism, inclusive. As a result the Chinese Malaysian Confucianism or Taoism. The Chinese are able to worship Datuk Keramat as their Malaysia traditional religious beliefs have deity. The key to the inclusiveness of the to be viewed as a whole system.
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The Chinese does not only amalgamate system allows them to do so? Scholars (Goh Buddhism and Taoism. To a certain extent 2009; Tan 1983; Bernardi 2009) attributed Confucianism has also been integrated into the amalgamation to the syncretic nature of their religion (Adler, 2002, pp. 91-94). In Chinese Religion. The syncretic nature of Adler’s view, Confucianism reinforced Chinese Religion is not a recent development. the elements of mysticism within Chinese The idea of worshipping gods of different Religion by bringing in concepts such religions or sects has always been a part as Tian Li (principle of Heaven). There of Chinese religious practice. Twinem’s are also elements of other religions in (1925) study exhibited the syncretic nature Chinese Religion. DeBernardi’s (2009) of Chinese Religion in Shanghai, China. findings show the Chinese Malaysian has His study described the syncretic nature of not only worshipped Buddha and Tao Wu Shan She (Apprehension of Goodness deities. According to DeBernardi, elements Society) which combined five religions of other religions such as Christianity – Confucianism, Buddhism, Taoism, and Hinduism are also found in Chinese Mohammedanism (Islam) and Christianity. Religion. The mixtures of many religious The society preached good deeds as their elements are further complicated by the central principal. worship of deified men. Yang (1961) Similar combination can be found in elaborated on the existence of ethnopolitical Malaysia. The Che Ru Kor Moral Uplifting cult or popular religion among the Chinese. Society in Endau, Johor unites five religions, Normally, these cults exist within certain i.e. Islam, Christianity, Buddhism, Taoism locality but there are also some cults which and Confucianism into a single belief. As became popular and are now worshipped by an extension of Dejiao, a Chinese religious Chinese all over the world. The cult of Guan movements started in early 20th century Di is one of such cult. The ethnopolitical (Goh, 2009), the society promotes good cults have also emerged in Malaysia. Early deeds and moral virtues through its ‘ten Chinese immigrants deified their leaders. virtues and eight rules’, developed through When a respected leader died, the leader the amalgamation of Confucianism and was worship, deified. One of such cult Taoism principles. Members of the society is the Si Shi-Yeh cult in Rasah, Negeri believed in one supreme deity who is similar Sembilan. He was a Chinese triad leader in to the concept of the belief in one God of the the 19th century. When he was murdered, Christians and Muslims. The only difference his followers deified him and built a temple is that the society supreme deity is Guan for him. Di-yeh who succeeded the throne of heaven What allows Buddhism, Confucianism, after the abdication of the Jade Emperor Taoism and other religions supernatural (Goh, 2009, p. 115). elements to be amalgamated as the Chinese The syncretic nature of Chinese Religion Religion? Which aspect of Chinese Religion allows different sects or religions to take part
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 379 - 391 (2014) 383 Chin Yee Mun and Lee Yok Fee in forming Chinese’s religious ideologies In Elliot’s observation, Chinese worship and practices. The unity of different religious many shen with pragmatic purposes. The elements constructs new ideologies that shens have different tasks to perform and add dynamism to Chinese Religion. The hence worshipped according to their task. dynamism portrays the openness of Chinese Da Bo Gong for example is worshipped to Religion in incorporating elements that the bring wealth as well as protection since he is Chinese perceive as important and benefit the local god of soil. Guan Shi Yin (Goddess them. Just like Wu Shan She, Che Ru Kor of Mercy) is worshipped for salvation from Moral Uplifting Society place good deeds negative karma. Summarily, the deities are and behaviors as the central principles that worshipped because the Chinese hopes to have to be followed by its members. These use their magical power to fulfill their desire. principles are derived from the teaching of Therefore, in Goh’s (2009, p. 112) view, the five religions. In other words, members shen is an almost-empty concept. It is up of the society believe all religions have to a person to interpret the concept and as the same objective. The society unifies such shen may differ according to the person the teachings of the five religions and needs at different point of time and place. derives principles that benefit human kind. Consequently, the syncretic nature of This conclusion confirms Ackerman’s Chinese Religion is probably an outcome (2001) observation. Syncretism has allowed of the pragmatic needs of the Chinese. Their different religions or sects worship by the needs are intertwined with their religiosity. Chinese to maintain their respective identity The intertwinement is a consequent of the while contributing to the development of Chinese belief that the divine, human and new ideologies and perhaps new practices nature are elements of cosmos. As a result too. of such belief, the Chinese believe their Up to this stage, this article has explained relationship with the divine or should be the reason for the mixture of religions found mutually benefitting. The divine will assist in the Chinese Religion. It is due to the them by fulfilling their needs and in return syncretic nature of the Chinese Religion; the the divine will be worshipped. Since the religion has absorbed multiple religions and divine or shen is an almost-empty concept, transforms them into the religious practices there is no boundary to stop the Chinese of the Chinese. But, what caused Chinese from including divine elements of other Religion to be syncretic in the first place? religions as their shen. In the context To answer this question, Elliot (1955, p. of Chinese Malaysian, their cosmos are 27) introduced the concept of shenism. The very much confined to the physical and concept is derived from the term bai shen. social environment of Malaysia. Their Bai means to pray or worship while shen needs have been pre-determined by their means powerful spiritual beings which must intention to settle down in this country be worshipped to secure human well being. either temporarily or permanently. In order
384 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 379 - 391 (2014) Settling Down Spiritually: Chinese Malaysian’s Worship of Datuk Gong to fulfill their needs, the Chinese seek the implication derived from such needs is the assistance from the divine found within their acceptance of Datuk Keramat as the Du Di interpretation of ‘Malaysian cosmos’. Gong of the Chinese Malaysian; a clear-cut Hitherto, the syncretic nature of Chinese transfiguration of elements found in Chinese Religion has devised an open system within Religion to fulfill the needs of the Chinese the Chinese cultural system (Lee, 1986, Malaysian. p. 199). It enables the Chinese to accept As mentioned earlier, the Datuk Gong and absorb whatever that they perceive as worship in Malaysia originated from the beneficial and useful to them. This pragmatic concept of Datuk Keramat. Besides Goh approach has allowed Chinese Religion to (2009), Cheu (1992) had also related Datuk be inclusive. The inclusiveness of Chinese Gong to the worship of Datuk Keramat. The Religion has enabled it to transfigure; to incorporation of Datuk Gong worship into accept elements found in other religion Chinese Malaysian religion transfigures or cultural practices and this include the Chinese Religion by bringing in local worship of Datuk Gong in Malaysia. elements into the complex cosmos of Chinese Religion. The worship of Datuk THE CONCEPT OF DATUK GONG Keramat is by itself an outcome of Islamic In relation to the acceptance of Datuk mysticism. It is a Malay cult which worships Gong as a shen, the Chinese Malaysian saints. These saints or Keramat were pious (either the 19th century immigrants or their men, preachers of Islam and leader of descendents) needed a local divine force to Islamic movements and were believed to protect them from the harm that they may have semi-divine power. Datuk Keramat encounter in this country. Besides warding worship is no longer popular among the off harm, the Chinese Malaysian are also Malays today. Due to the revival of Islam hoping the local divine force would be able which started since the 1970s, the worships to provide them opportunities to amass are now done privately (Lee, 1988, p. 402). wealth and prosperity. Traditionally, within Although the Malays have almost the Chinese Religion, these needs are deserted the Datuk Keramat worship, the provided by Du Di Gong (god of the soil). Chinese have sort of preserved it, albeit In the Chinese language, Du Di carries the within the context of Chinese Religion. meaning of local soil. Thus, Du Di Gong is The interactions between the Chinese and the local deity whose role is to protect and the Malay in Malaysia have provided a assist the people who live in a particular platform for the Datuk Keramat worship locality. Datuk Gong has been accepted to be accepted by the Chinese Malaysian. by the Chinese Malaysian as their Du Di The Datuk Keramat concept is accepted Gong (Sakai, 1997). The Chinese Malaysian and was later pronounced as Datuk Gong worshipped Datuk Gong for protection, by the Chinese. The ‘Datuk’ in the Datuk wealth, health and multiple other needs. The Gong concept is the Datuk Keramat. ‘Gong’
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 379 - 391 (2014) 385 Chin Yee Mun and Lee Yok Fee is an honorific title attached to Chinese Gongs were crafted as a Malay man wearing deities. Therefore the Datuk Gong concept Baju Melayu (traditional Malay clothing). maintains the identity of Datuk Keramat, a The Datuk Gongs ethnic origins feature of the syncretic nature of Chinese observed in the Malay Datuk Gong temples Religion. were also reflected through their names. In Lian Hup temple in Kelang, Selangor, the DATUK GONG WORSHIP: RITUAL Datuk Gongs of this temple were named as AND IDENTITY Datuk Haji Keramat and Datuk Mustafa. The authors visited ten Datuk Gong temples The worshippers got to know the Datuk and numerous Datuk Gong shrines to learn Gongs’ names from through a trance session more about the Datuk Gong worship. held by a medium. The authors also visited Surprisingly, in the visits, they discovered temples where the Datuk Gongs’ names temples which worship non-Malay Datuk were based on colors. In such temples, the Gong. Such discovery contradicts their Datuk Gongs’ were referred to as Datuk earlier assumption that all Datuk Gong Hijau (Green Datuk), Datuk Hitam (Black are Malay Datuk Gongs since the belief Datuk), Datuk Merah (Red Datuk), Datuk originated from the worship of Datuk Kuning (Yellow Datuk) and Datuk Biru Keramat. In this section, the authors will (Blue Datuk). According to Cheu Hock explain Chinese Malaysian Datuk Gong Tong (1992, p. 387), the colors represent worship and their interpretations concerning the different functions of the Datuk Gongs. the worship. For example, the Yellow Datuk is supposed to take care of the general well-being of Malay Datuk Gongs the people living in a particular locality Seven out of the ten temples visited by meanwhile the Green Datuk is to take care of the authors worship Malay Datuk Gongs. the flora and fauna. A Keris (Malay dagger) In these temples, the authors observed was also found in all the Malay Datuk Gong that the Datuk Gongs ethnic origin were temples. In some of the temples, the authors clearly represented by the appearance of the noticed that the keris was placed at the figurines. In these temples, the Malay Datuk Datuk Gong altar. In some other temples, Gongs were positioned in the center altar, a the keris was inserted into Datuk Gong feature to indicate their status as the resident figurine’s palm. The keris strengthened deity of the temple. Their figurines were Malay ethnic identity of the Datuk Gongs. crafted to resemble the feature of a Malay The fact that the Datuk Gong is a man wearing either a songkok (a black Malay man and worshipped by the Chinese headgear) a kopiah (a white headgear) or a Malaysian is certainly an interesting tengkolok (a traditional Malay headgear). phenomenon to be studied. Questions such The other indicator observed would be the as do the Chinese worshippers know that Datuk Gongs’ clothing. The Malay Datuk they are worshipping a Malay deity, and if
386 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 379 - 391 (2014) Settling Down Spiritually: Chinese Malaysian’s Worship of Datuk Gong they know, why do they still want to worship would be a Muslim. Therefore, it should not it? These questions were posted to several be viewed as strange. He further explained Datuk Gong worshippers. that, there was nothing wrong to worship a All the worshippers interviewed in Muslim. In fact, he believed that the Malay the Malay Datuk Gong temples knew that and Muslim identity were the reasons to they were worshipping a Malay deity. The worship a Malay Datuk Gong. According to members of Bagan Sekinchan Datuk Gong him, “If the Datuk Gong is not representing Temple Committee said that they knew the feature of local force, the ling is absent about it and they were not surprised. They and the Datuk is not a powerful one.” explained that the Datuk Gong must be a The rituals of Datuk Gong worships Malay since the term originated from the and the design of the Malay Datuk Gong Malay language. According to them, a temples or shrines visited by the authors Malay Datuk would be helpful in solving had also exhibited the Malayness of Datuk their local daily issues. In another interview Gong. In the visits, the authors observed that session, the interviewee, Mr. Ng, former some of the temples were very expressive chairman of Teluk Intan Datuk Gong in reflecting the Malayness of the temples’ temple’s committee concurred that the Datuk Gongs. For instance, Lian Hup Datuk Datuk must be a local person, recognized for Gong Temple has a dome as its roof. A his contribution to the local community and dome is a symbol of a Malay mosque. Such as such the local person must be a Malay. design had caused uneasiness among the The worshippers were also asked local Malay people. There were attempts to whether the Datuk Gong worship would demolish the temple but were unsuccessful be a strange practice since worshipping (Lee, 1988, p. 412). According to Mr. Soh, a Malay Datuk Gong would mean they the medium cum caretaker of the temple, were worshipping a Muslim. One of the the dome design should not be an issue. worshippers at Kampung Sawa Datuk Gong He said, “The dome merely represents the Temple, Mr. Lau expressed that there should identity of the Datuk Gong, a Malay deity not be anything strange about it. To him, a and we have no intention to offend another Datuk’s religious identity and ethnic origin religion.” In other words, the design of the should not be the focus of the worship. The temple is merely showing the identity of a focus of the worship should be on the Datuk Chinese deity who is a Malay man and also Dong’s ling (magical power). According a Muslim. The cultural expression of Datuk to him the Chinese worshippers needed a Gong’s Malay identity was also found in the local divine force with ling to assist them design of Datuk Gong shrines. Most shrines to resolve local issues that affect their well- visited in Bagan Sekinchan, a fishing village being. That force should be represented exhibited the design of traditional Malay by the Malay who knew and were familiar house. with local surroundings who coincidentally
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 379 - 391 (2014) 387 Chin Yee Mun and Lee Yok Fee
Besides the architectural aspects, the as the resident deity. In their visit to this Malayness of the Datuk Gong had also temple, the authors analyzed newspaper been observed in the rituals practised by reports found in newspapers cuttings that the worshippers. In a Datuk Gong Dan were pasted on the notice board of the (festival to celebrate Datuk Gong’s birthday) temple. The newspaper cuttings illustrated organized by Desa Aman Puri Datuk Gong the origin of the temple. The temple was Temple Committee, the worshippers were established due to a local legend. According cautious in selecting their offerings to the to the legend, the Datuk Gong of the temple temple’s Datuk. Since Islam forbid pork, provided protection to the villagers who the worshippers did not serve any pork to were facing persecution of Japanese Army the temple’s Datuk Gong during the festival. during the Second World War. The Datuk Instead of serving pork, the worshippers Gong hid the villagers via its supernatural served chicken curry and mutton curry to power. As a result, the Japanese armies the Datuk Gong. Other food offered to the failed to find them. Such legends had caused Datuk Gongs were Kopi-O (coffee without the worshippers to believe that the Datuk milk), betel leaves, native cigarettes and Gong of this temple has ling. As a result, nasi pulut kuning (yellow glutinous rice). this temple became highly popular among All these offerings were made to suit Datuk Gong worshippers. The temple is one diet of the Malay Datuk Gong they were of the most popular Datuk Gong temples in worshipping. In another Datuk Gong Dan, Malaysia. Based on the newspaper reports, held by Kampung Datuk Sawa worshippers, hundreds of tourists and worshippers would they sacrificed two goats as offering to the visit the temple during weekend and Chinese temple’s resident Datuk Gong. The temple festival. According to the temple care taker, committee hired two Malays to slaughter Mr. Soon, due to temple’s popularity and the goats to adhere to the Islamic method large number of worshippers, the temple of slaughtering. Such action was taken to managed to accumulate big sum of donation ensure that the mutton would be ‘halal’ every year. The money was used for charity. (permissible according to Muslim beliefs Every month, the temple’s committee would and values) and safe to be ‘consumed’ by spend nearly RM30, 000 for charity causes. the Datuk Gong. Through conversation with Mr. Soon, the authors had also discovered that since the Non-Malay Datuk Gongs Datuk Gong of this temple originated from As discussed earlier, the Datuk Gong the Orang Asli ethnic origin, food offering worshippers also worship non-Malay made by the worshippers differ slightly Datuk Gongs. In Broga, Selangor, the from Malay Datuk Gong food offerings. authors visited Shi Natuk (Stone Datuk) The worshippers served pork and liquor. Temple in which an Orang Asli (aborigine Other than that, the architectural design of of Malaysia) Datuk Gong was worshipped the temple also did not reflect any Malay or Islamic influence.
388 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 379 - 391 (2014) Settling Down Spiritually: Chinese Malaysian’s Worship of Datuk Gong
Besides the Orang Asli Datuk Gongs, acknowledged the importance of worshipping there are also Datuk Gongs from other the local divine force to safeguard their well- ethnic groups origin. For instance, the being. This explains why most Datuk Gongs authors discovered four Datuk Gongs of are Malays. However the interpretation of different ethnic origins worshipped in the local divine force is not confined to the Kampung Sawa Datuk Gong Temple. The Malays. As discussed earlier, some Datuk resident Datuk Gong of the temple was Gong worshippers worship Siamese Datuk Datuk Kassim, a Malay Datuk Gong and Gong and also Datuk Gongs of other ethnic other Datuk Gongs were Datuk Che Pu origins. Whether or not the Datuk Gongs’ Long (Siamese), Datuk Ah Chong (Chinese) ethnic origin are Malays or from other ethnic and Datuk Mutu (Indian). According to origins, the fact that can be established here Mr. Soh Huat (temple’s medium) Datuk is that Chinese Malaysian has transfigured Ah Chong was deified as a Datuk Gong the concept of Du Di Gong or Earth God due to his contribution in developing the by replacing it with what they interpret temple. Meanwhile, Datuk Mutu was as the local divine. The holistic nature worshipped as a Datuk Gong after a nearby (unifying human, divine and nature in one Indian community worshipped him as their cosmos) of Chinese Religion has permitted deity. Mr. Soh Huat further elaborated that the Chinese to be pragmatic. Under such although Datuk Kassim was the resident holistic nature too, the Chinese are permitted Datuk of the temple, his rank was lower to worship any divine elements which they than Datuk Che Pu Long, a Siamese Datuk. consider as worth worshipping. The Chinese He explained that such hierarchy was Malaysian have chosen to worship Datuk created because in the past, Gerik was Gong because they believe that the local under the patronage of the Siamese rulers. divine force that will be able to assist them. Similar temple was found in Taiping, Perak. Being immigrants, the Chinese Malaysian The temple was built by the villagers of forefathers sought the blessing of Datuk Kampung Penglong and house four Datuk Gong to assist them to adapt to a foreign Gongs of different ethnic origin. Based on environment. They needed a force that was the information provided by Mr. Ng (former able to provide them security as well as medium and caretaker of the temple), the opportunities to prosper. By worshipping Datuk Gongs were from Malay, Chinese, Datuk Gong, they assumed their needs were Indian and Sikh origins and as such the taken care of by a local divine force. temple was named as Datuk Empat Keramat Chinese believe that human, divinity Temple. and nature form a unified cosmos. The non-dualistic nature of Chinese Religion DATUK GONG AND CHINESE allows human and the divine to correspond MALAYSIAN INTERPRETATION (Adler, 2002, pp. 112-113) to maintain the Based on the above findings, the Chinese harmony of the cosmos. The non-dualistic immigrants and their descendants have nature has also caused Chinese Religion to
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 379 - 391 (2014) 389 Chin Yee Mun and Lee Yok Fee be syncretic, pragmatic and inclusive. In the divine is not restricted by cultural or Malaysia, the Chinese need a local divine physical boundaries. It goes beyond these power to correspond with to safeguard boundaries and very often what constitute their well-being. Datuk Keramat which shen is dictated by the needs of the Chinese. was worshipped by the Malays for more or As a result, the Chinese Religion is able to less the same reason was then selected and accept and to a certain extent amalgamate included in the system of Chinese Malaysian element found in other religions and beliefs. Religion. However, as time passed by, Their descendents continued the worship the Chinese enlarged their interpretations with similar interpretations. The worship of local divine power. Thus, Datuk Gong provided them the spiritual link which worship is not confined to Malay Datuk connects them to a place and enables them Gong worship. The worship of other Datuk to make a living in a place that later they Gong of non-Malay origin proved that call home. the Datuk Gong may not necessarily be a Malay. As the Chinese interact with people CONCLUSION of other ethnicities, they started to visualize Based on the above discussion, the worship the others as forces to be reckoned with too. of Datuk Gong by the Chinese Malaysian is This development has been described by not incomprehensible after all. The nature of Goh (2009) as the hybridization process of Datuk Gong worship will naturally invites Chinese religious practices in Malaysia as questions especially from the Malays since well as Singapore. Due to interaction with the worship involves them. But if studied, other cultural systems, the Chinese hybridize Datuk Gong worship is merely an outcome their religious practices by including and reflections of the nature of Chinese elements found in other cultures into their religious system. The syncretic, pragmatic religious system. Such hybridization as and inclusive nature of Chinese Religion has shown in the Datuk Gong worship reflect allowed the Chinese Malaysian to transfigure the syncretic nature of Chinese Religion. their Du Di Gong concept and localized it Underlying the syncretic nature, is the in Malaysia in the form of Datuk Gong. If Chinese Malaysian pragmatic approach to Geertz’s (1975) definition of religion is to be contextualize and interpret the Malaysian used here, then to a large extent the worship social and physical surrounding. of Datuk Gong has illustrated the culture of Their needs have motivated them to the Chinese Malaysian. According to Geertz search for a local divine power that will be (1975, pp. 87-125), religion is a system of able to solve their problem or assist them symbols which provide the motivation for to achieve their desire and the search is human to build the general order of living. not confined to the traditional elements As immigrants and now descendants of the found within the Chinese Religion. As immigrants, the Chinese in Malaysia are discussed above, the meaning of shen or always aware of the necessity to interact
390 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 379 - 391 (2014) Settling Down Spiritually: Chinese Malaysian’s Worship of Datuk Gong and to respect people of other ethnicities Freedman, M. (1973). The Study of Chinese Society. who live in this country. The interaction and Standford: Standford University Press. respect will develop harmonious relationship Kok, H. J. (1997). Chinese Malaysian Folk Religion which is prioritized by the Chinese culture. with Special Reference to Weizhen Gong in The worship of Datuk Gong is the Chinese Kuala Lumpur. (pp103-142) in. Cheu, H.T. (ed). Malaysian way of adjusting and to live in a Chinese Beliefs and practices in Southeast Asia. Petaling Jaya: Pelanduk. country which was once foreign to them. It is a spiritual approach used by the Chinese Lee, R. (1986). Continuity and Change in Chinese Malaysian to settle down in Malaysia. Spirit Mediumship in Urban Malaysia. Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land-en Volkenkunde. 142, 198-214.
REFERENCE Lee, R. (1988). Patterns of Religious Tension in Malaysia. Asia Survey. 18, 4, 400-418. Ackerman, S.E. (2001). Divine Contracts: Chinese New Religions and Shamanic Movements Sakai, T. (1997). Chinese Religious Practices and in Contemporary Malaysia. Journal of Customs in Singapore and Malaysia. (pp 3-15) Contemporary Religion. 16, 3, 293-311. in. Cheu, H.T. (ed). Chinese Beliefs and practices in Southeast Asia. Petaling Jaya: Pelanduk. Adler, J.A. (2002). Chinese Religious Traditions. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Tan, C.B. (1983). Chinese Religion in Malaysia: A General View. Asian Folklore Studies. 42, Cheu, H.T. (1992). The Datuk Kong Spirit Cult 217-252. Movement in Penang: Being and Belonging in Multi-Ethnic Malaysia. Journal of Southeast Twinem, P.D.W. (1925). Modern Syncretic Religious Asian Studies. 23, 2, 381-404. Societies in China. The Journal of Religion. 5,(5), 463-482. DeBernardi, J. (2009). Wudang Mountain and Mount Zion in Taiwan: Syncretic Processes in Space, Weber, M. (1996). The Origins of Ethnic Groups. In Ritual Performance and Imagination. Asian Hutchinson, J. & Smith, A.A. (eds) Ethnicity. Journal of Social Science January 2009 special New York: Oxford University Press. issue on the theme of religious syncretism. Yang, C.K. (1961). Religion in Chinese Society: A Elliot, A.J.A. (1955). Chinese Spirit- Medium Cults Study of Contemporary Social Functions and in Singapore. London: Athlone Press. Some of Their Historical Factors. California: University of California Press. Geertz, C. (1975). The Interpretation of Cultures. London: Hutchinson & Co.
Goh, D.P.S. (2009). Chinese Religion and the Challenge of Modernity in Malaysia and Singapore: Syncretism, Hybridization and Transfiguration.Asian Journal of Social Science. 37, 107-137.
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Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 393 - 408 (2014)
SOCIAL SCIENCES & HUMANITIES
Journal homepage: http://www.pertanika.upm.edu.my/
Identifying Factors Influencing Mathematical Problem Solving among Matriculation Students in Penang
Ong, H. C.* and Lim, J. S. School of Mathematical Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 USM, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia
ABSTRACT Mathematics is recognized as an important subject in the school curriculum in Malaysia. It is a compulsory subject for many courses in matriculation, private colleges and universities. The purpose of this study is to identify the factors that influence the matriculation students in mathematical problem solving. Bayesian Network, a data mining technique, is used in this study to analyse the causal relationships. Bayesian network is a probabilistic graphical model which converts variables and their dependent relationships into nodes and arcs respectively. We compare the resultant networks using the different constraint and score based algorithms to identify the main factors affecting students in problem solving of mathematics. We found that students in Penang Matriculation College faced problem solving in mathematics owing to their problem with mathematical symbols. Hence, the students have no confidence in answering mathematics problems especially in questions related to their understanding of mathematical symbols.
Keywords: Bayesian Network, Learning Algorithms, Network Scores, Causal Relationship, Graphical Model, Mathematics Education, Data Mining.
INTRODUCTION kindergarten, right up to their matriculation Mathematics is recognized as an important studies. In private colleges and universities, subject in the school curriculum in Malaysia. mathematics is a compulsory subject in In the Malaysian education system, many courses. Students can apply for students have to learn mathematics from admission to matriculation courses which are coordinated and carried out by the ARTICLE INFO Ministry of Education (MOE) (Hong et al, Article history: Received: 14 June 2012 2009). In the application, mathematics and Accepted: 2 August 2012 additional mathematics are two important E-mail addresses: [email protected] (Ong, H. C.), subjects that are considered for admission [email protected] (Lim, J. S.) * Corresponding author into the matriculation programme. Most of
ISSN: 0128-7702 © Universiti Putra Malaysia Press Ong, H. C. and Lim, J. S. the selected applicants have good grades in G, encodes the probabilistic dependencies these two subjects. However, the majority in the data and the presence of an edge of the matriculation students under the between two variables means that there 1 year programme still face difficulties exists a direct dependency between on problem solving in mathematics. This them. This set S contains the parameter
θπ= Px| xi study uses a questionnaire survey to gather xii|π Si( i) for each realization of information needed from the students in Xi conditioned on π , the parents of xi in i Penang Matriculation College session G. Thus, S can be defined as a unique joint 2010/2011. We then use Bayesian Network probability distribution over X, written as nn
PXXS( 12, ,..., Xn) =Π=Π PX S( ii|πθ) X|π to analyze the causal relationships of the ii=11= iiwhere students on problem solving in Mathematics. π represents the causes (parents) of variable i The Objectives of this study are to explore Xi . Bayesian Network is an approach to the mathematics problems faced by students detect causal structures in data (Pearl, in the Penang Matriculation College and to 2000). We know that Bayesian Network is use Bayesian Network to identify the most a graphical representation of a probabilistic significant mathematics problem faced by distribution on a set of random variables. students in the matriculation programme. Tchangani (2002) stated that Bayesian Bayesian network is used in this study Network has a graphical representation of in place of other statistical methods like causality relationship between a cause and regression because it does not fix or its effect. The nodes are linked by directed assume the variables to be dependent or arcs that create a Directed Acyclic Graph independent. Instead, the structural learning (DAG) and the DAG shows no route or path in Bayesian network explores the structural from one node connecting back to itself or dependencies among the variables. else it will be a cyclic graph. However, the A Bayesian Network is a probabilistic arcs represent the conditional independent graphical model that encodes variables and relationships between the nodes. Assume their dependent relationships into nodes that an arc from node R to node Q shows and arcs respectively (Heckerman, 1995; that the probability specification for nodeQ Pearl, 1986). In general, Bayesian Network is directly dependent on the values in node can be defined as follows: Assume that R. In this case, R is called a parent of node S = { G, θ } be a joint probability distribution Q and node Q is called a child of node R. of a set of n random variables = {X1, X2, Fig.1 shows the relationship between the
…, Xn} and is specified by a directed nodes R and Q. acyclic graph G with a set of conditional probability functions parameterized by θ (Pearl, 1988). According to Cao and Fang (2010), the Bayesian Network structure, Fig.1: Connection from node R to Q
394 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 393 - 408 (2014) Identifying Factors Influencing Mathematical Problem Solving among Matriculation Students in Penang
The direction of the arrow shows the understanding of concepts, principles and state of information of the decision maker, mathematical relationship with the others that is, whether the decision maker is subjects. Norah et al. (2009) also claimed capable of expressing the probability as P that learning of mathematics is a dynamic (Q│R). and complex process due to the interaction between previously acquired levels of LITERATURE REVIEW understanding, conceptualization and In the early development of Bayesian incorporating of new materials. However, Network, it is used to solve problems in mathematics is more challenging for computational complexity and independence students. In matriculation, students often assumptions (Ni et al., 2010). According to complained that mathematics is hard to Tchangani (2002), Bayesian Networks derive learn and difficult to relate to in their from convergence of statistical methods studies. According to Haron et al. (2000), that allow one to go from information mathematics is the most difficult subject (data) to knowledge (such as probability to understand among the students in the laws and relationship between variables) matriculation programme of Universiti and Artificial Intelligence (AI) that allow Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM). In Mahmud computers to deal with knowledge. Pearl (2003), the main reason for secondary (1988) and Jensen (1996) both agree that school students’ difficulties in solving Bayesian Networks (BNs) are among the mathematical problems was an inability leading technologies to describe and derive to understand the problem. Hong (2004) conditional independence relationship found that students had problems in solving among the random variables. Bayesian non-routine mathematical problems even Network has become a powerful tool though they could pass their mathematics for causal relationship modelling and examinations. Aziz (2005) claimed that probabilistic reasoning (Tang et al., 2010) mathematics is difficult to learn because because researchers use Bayesian Network the concept in mathematics is abstract to handle problems with much greater and hard to understand. Irvin and Norton complexity. It has become advantageous in a (2007) claimed that students’ poor attitudes variety of areas including medicine (Gevaert toward mathematics cause them to perceive et al, 2006), environmental protection mathematics as a dry and static subject, (Henriksen and Barlebo, 2007) and financial abstract and only involved calculation. risk management (Neil et al., 2005). In this study, problem solving in In Malaysia as in most countries, mathematics is an issue we focus on. In st mathematics is a compulsory subject the start of the 21 century, the Ministry of for students. Aziz (2005) stated that in Education (MOE) in Malaysia emphasizes learning mathematics, students always that problem solving is one of the various encounter problems involving calculations, aspects in teaching and learning when
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 393 - 408 (2014) 395 Ong, H. C. and Lim, J. S. implementing the revised curriculum This instrument contains 12 questions. (MOE, 2001). Chapman (2005) stated that They are from Q1 until Q12. All the problem solving is important as a method questionnaires from Q1 to Q12 are available for learning and teaching mathematics. in Appendix 1. The questionnaires are Zakaria et al. (2009) said that solving a distributed to the students during their problem is a task in which an individual lectures. uses his/her existing knowledge, skills and understanding to address an unfamiliar Structural Learning in Bayesian Network situation. A problem solver also needs a rich, Structure Learning Algorithms which connected understanding of mathematics, include Scored-based (Singh and Valtorta, ability to see patterns of similarities and 1995; Margaritis, 2003) and constraint- association, skills to carry out the solution based (Cooper, 1997; Margaritis, 2003) and finally, check that the results make sense are two categories of structure learning in context of the problem (Burkhardt and algorithms for Bayesian Network. The Bell, 2007). score-based method uses a score metric that measures how a structure reflects the METHODOLOGY data and finds a Bayesian Network structure The sample involves 1312 students with the highest score (Na and Yang, 2010). from Penang Matriculation College in However, the DAG in constraint-based the academic session 2010/2011. The method is based on a set of conditional respondents are of the same age and independent statements and is recognized similar educational background where all from some prior knowledge or on some have passed their PSPM 1 (Peperiksaan calculation from the data (Margaritis, 2003). Semester 1 Program Matrikulasi) semester 1 examination. In addition, the respondents Analysis in the Bayesian Network will sit for their PSPM 2 soon. This study In this study, we use both score based methods used a questionnaire that is similar to and constraint based methods to determine Chong (2006) but is modified to cater for the major causes for students to be poor in matriculation students. This questionnaire solving mathematics problems. In learning consists of twelve items. All the twelve a large system, heuristic algorithms such as items are given in five Likert scales, with 1 Hill – Climbing (HC) are commonly used in denoting “Strongly Disagree”, 2 denoting practice (Kojima et al., 2010). Kojima et al. “Disagree”, 3 denoting “Neutral”, 4 (2010) also claimed that the Hill – Climbing denoting “Agree” and 5 denoting “Strongly algorithm is used to find the local optima Agree”. This instrument is designed to see and upgraded versions of this algorithms a causal relationship between the items and lead to improving the score and structure all items are related to problem solving in of the results. Daly and Shen (2007) stated mathematics. that the optimised implementation uses
396 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 393 - 408 (2014) Identifying Factors Influencing Mathematical Problem Solving among Matriculation Students in Penang score caching, score decomposability and other learning algorithms used constraint finally score equivalence. These scores will based methods. A score based Bayesian reduce the number of duplicated tests. Grow network structure search is used in Tamada –Shrink (GS) algorithm consists of two et al. (2011) to find the DAG structure phases which are a grow phase and a shrink fitted to the observed data and the score phase. The GS algorithm was proposed by function is used to measure the fitness of the Margaritis (2003). In Tsamardinos et al. structure to the given data. Ge et al. (2010) (2003), Incremental Association Markov stated that a score function Score (G, D) Blanket ( IAMB ) algorithm is based on for learning a Bayesian network structure is the Markov Blanket detection algorithm decomposable. It can be expressed as a sum m which consists of two phases: a forward of local scores. Score (G, D) = ∑ SDD( i, Gi ) i=1 phase and a backward phase. Interleaved where G is a directed acyclic graph (DAG) Incremental Association Markov Blanket and D is a certain data set. There are several (Inter- IAMB) is another variant of IAMB. scores proposed for learning Bayesian It has two phases: growing phase and networks such as the Bayesian Dirichlet shrinking phase. It used a forward stepwise equivalent or Bde (Heckerman et al., 1995), selection which avoids false positives in the Bayesian Information Criterion or BIC the Markov Blanket. (Tsamardinos et al., (Schwarz, 1978), the Akaike Information 2003 ; Ge et al., 2010). Fast Incremental Criterion or AIC (Akaike, 1974) and the Association Markov Blanket (Fast- IAMB) greedy heuristic algorithm or K2 (Cooper also contains two phases: growing phase and Herskovits, 1992). We calculate the and shrinking phase (Yaramakala and score results based on networks obtained Margaritis, 2005). It is similar to GS and from the seven learning algorithms, which IAMB. An algorithm that is called max – are Hill-Climbing (HC) , Grow- Shrink (GS), min hill climbing (MMHC) proposed by Incremental Association Markov Blanket Tsamardinos et al. (2006), combined an (IAMB), Fast Incremental Association independence test (IT) approach with a Markov Blanket (Fast-IAMB), Interleaved score based strategy where an undirected Incremental Association Markov Blanket graph is constructed or built depending on (Inter-IAMB), Max - Min Hill Climbing an IT approach and a constrained greedy (MMHC) and Restricted Maximization hill climbing search which returns a local (RSMAX2). These score functions are optimum of the score function. Restricted used to estimate the network fit for these Maximization (RSMAX2) is a more general algorithms. Score-based methods produce a implementation of the Max-Min Hill- series of candidate Bayesian networks from Climbing, which can use any combination of the learning algorithms; calculate a score constraint-based and score-based algorithms for each candidate and return a candidate (Scutari, 2010). Thus, HC and RSMAX2 of highest score (Jensen, 2009). Akaike used the scored based method while the Information Criterion or AIC was developed
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 393 - 408 (2014) 397 Ong, H. C. and Lim, J. S. by Akaike (1977). Akaike (1973) used the (Yang et al., 2006). The log-likelihood AIC to select the model that minimizes the (loglik) score is equivalent to the entropy negative likelihood penalized by the number measure used in Weka (Witten and Frank, of parameters as specified in the equation (1). 2005). The maximized likelihood P( DG) AIC = - 2 log p (L) +2p (1) decomposed by the network structure and for the decomposable scores is the where L refers to the likelihood under complexity penalty. the fitted model and p is the number of parameters in the model. It is used to find RESULTS AND DISCUSSION the approximate model to the unknown true data (Acquah, 2010). Another information Similar to Ge et al. (2010), the bnlearn criterion that is widely used is BIC or package (R Team 2009) in R is used to run Bayesian Information Criterion. BIC is the structural learning algorithms. From derived within a Bayesian framework as the structural learning algorithms, there an estimate of the Bayes factor for two are seven different networks outcomes competing models (Schwarz, 1978; Jensen, which are noncyclical. The arcs show 2009). The score for the BIC is defined as direct dependent relationships between the connecting variables. However, the BIC = - 2 log p (L) + log n (2) existence of conditional independence where n is a sample size. The difference relationships is indicated by the absence between AIC and BIC is based on the second of arcs (Ge et al. 2010). These diagrams term which is the sample size (Acquah, also represent the logical cause and effect 2010). Heckerman et al. (1995) developed between the variables. Table 1 shows the the Bde or Bayesian Dirichlet Equivalent numbers of edges and arcs for each pair of score. This score uses Bayesian analysis the learned networks. The “edges” represent to evaluate and estimate a given dataset the number of common links or edges (in network. The idea of Bde is dependent on either direction) for each learning networks the BD (Bayesian Dirichlet) metric which structure. However, the “arcs” represent the is developed by Cooper and Herskovits number of common directed arcs between (1992). The Dirichlet distribution is a the nodes in these learned networks. Table multivariate distribution to describe the 1 also shows the number of common links conditional probability of each variable and arcs that are obtained in each network in in the network. The algorithm of K2 the diagonal section. From Table 1 a number score is another posterior density which is of nodes that were constructed or built are proposed by Cooper and Herskovits (1992). the same. The nodes with the common arcs The K2- like greedy search method will for all models in these learned networks incrementally add a node to a parent set and represent a strong relationship in between find the best parent set to maximize the joint the connections in these nodes. The edges probability of the structure and the database with strong relationships are Q1 to Q2, Q4
398 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 393 - 408 (2014) Identifying Factors Influencing Mathematical Problem Solving among Matriculation Students in Penang to Q5, Q5 to Q6 and finally Q11 to Q12. (after white list) in Fig.4. We also show the Besides that, the other nodes that show the final result on the HC network in Fig.5. weak relationships in between them are Q3, By running all the algorithms, the result Q7, Q8, Q9 and Q10. Fig.2 shows all the of scores for the seven algorithms are learned networks of the various algorithms. shown in Table 2. The obtained results are The common arcs are shown in Fig.3. These important for comparing the network from common arcs show that there is only one the algorithms. In this study, network scores way direction to the consecutive nodes in are used because they select which network all these learned networks. fitted the data best. Based on the results For instance, node Q5 links to node Q6. shown in Table 2, we highlighted the highest The connection of edges from Q5 to Q6 scores for the networks. Following the white can be interpreted as students being sure of list of all the learned networks and having which method to be used when encountering set the arcs, we found the Hill – Climbing a long mathematics question because they ( HC ) algorithm as having the best result do not know what information is needed for this study from Table 2. The arc strength to handle the mathematics question. This is used to evaluate the strength for all the happens because they do not understand edges. Each edge will show the highest and the question and fail to transform their the lowest score of the strength. The arc idea into mathematics symbol. Fig.3 shows strength is used to measure the strength of the the directly connected nodes. These links probabilistic relationships expressed by the between the nodes represent common edges arcs of a Bayesian network and it uses model to all of the learned networks. Following averaging to build a network containing only this, we run again these seven learned the significant arcs (Scutari, 2010). network algorithms and set the common In Fig.5, the thicker arcs represent the edges using Fig.3 as a white list for each stronger relationships between the nodes. learned networks. Then, we obtained the These arcs also represent the highest values result for all the seven new learned networks in arc strength compared with the others.
TABLE 1 Number of common edges/arcs between each pair of the learned networks
Hc Gs Iamb Fast. iamb Inter. iamb Mmhc Rsmax2 Hc 11/11 8/1 6/1 6/2 6/1 5/3 8/8 Gs - 13/7 6/2 6/2 6/2 5/0 11/1 Iamb - - 12/9 10/6 10/9 10/2 6/1 Fast. iamb - - - 11/10 10/6 9/3 6/2 Inter. iamb - - - - 12/9 10/3 6/1 Mmhc - - - - - 10/10 5/3 Rsmax2 ------11/11
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(a) (b) (c)
(d) (e) (f)
(g)
Fig.2: Network structures learned by selected algorithms. (a) Hill – Climbing; (b) Grow – Shrink; (c) Incremental Association Markov Blanket; (d) Fast Incremental Association Markov Blanket; (e) Interleaved Incremental Association Markov Blanket; (f) Max – Min Hill Climbing; (g) Restricted Maximization
400 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 393 - 408 (2014) Identifying Factors Influencing Mathematical Problem Solving among Matriculation Students in Penang
Fig.3: Common edges of all the learned networks
TABLE 2 The results of scores of all learned networks for each algorithm
Aic Bic Bde Loglik K2 HC -20568.34 -21521.33 -21852.35 -20200.34 -20893.12 GS -21336.91 -24527.37 -23366.60 -20104.91 -21565.67 IAMB -22943.70 -31106.29 -24796.8 -19791.70 -22091.64 Fast-IAMB -20961.85 -22287.75 -22337.56 -20449.85 -21307.40 Inter-IAMB -22943.70 -31106.29 -24796.8 -19791.70 -22091.64 MMHC -20758.08 -21711.08 -21989.83 -20390.08 -21079.28 RSMAX 2 -20883.56 -21795.12 -22048.56 -20531.56 -21188.50
However, the thin lines that are shown in Table 3 is from the HC algorithm the network are edges that represent the which gives the best scores among the supplementary edges. Based on the Fig.5, seven learned networks except the log- we displayed the stronger relationship and likelihood scores. IAMB and Inter- IAMB the highest value of arc strength in the final both obtained the same highest score result of the learned network in Table 3. compared with the others. Therefore, the result from HC algorithm (from Fig.4(a) TABLE 3 and in Fig.5) is the learned network from The stronger relationship between the nodes and the which we select the final result of this study. arc strength in the final result learned network In Fig.5, the arc from node 2 to node 12 Edges Arc strength represents the strongest relationship among Q2 to Q12 198.92559 the nodes. Based on the questionnaire, due to Q4 to Q6 186.66152 students’ abilities in solving the mathematics Q11 to Q12 113.60172 questions, they have difficulties with the Q5 to Q6 102.7143 complicated mathematical symbols and this causes students to have no confidence in
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 393 - 408 (2014) 401 Ong, H. C. and Lim, J. S.
(a) (b) (c)
(d) (e) (f)
(g) Fig.4: Network structures learned by selected algorithms after white list. (a) Hill – Climbing; (b) Grow – Shrink; (c) Incremental Association Markov Blanket; (d) Fast Incremental Association Markov Blanket; (e) Interleaved Incremental Association Markov Blanket; (f) Max – Min Hill Climbing; (g) Restricted Maximization 402 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 393 - 408 (2014) Identifying Factors Influencing Mathematical Problem Solving among Matriculation Students in Penang
Fig.5: The final result of the score learned network using the Hill – Climbing algorithm. coming out with a neat and complete solution them to be not sure of which method to use in solving the mathematics question. The if they are faced with a long mathematics final result of learned network shows that question. Also in Ilany and Margolin (2010), this is a major factor that causes students to language of symbols, concepts, definition be poor in solving mathematics problems. and theorems are considered mathematical Similarly in Kinzel (1999), students have language. They also mentioned that the difficulties in understanding and interpreting mathematical language needs to be learned the symbolic notation used in algebra. and it cannot be developed naturally like a Capraro and Joffrion (2006) claimed that child’s natural language. The arc from Node middle-school students often demonstrated 11 to node 12 gives the third highest score much stronger skills in solving formal and for the strength in Table 3. Students always informal problems that require algebraic make careless mistakes in the process of reasoning than in symbolizing equations. calculation during their attempt to solve They also indicate those students’ abilities to the mathematics questions. The mistakes solve simple word problems with arithmetic that they make will lead them to be weak and should be connected to the formal and poor in coming out with a complete algebraic symbolic notation. solution in solving mathematics problem. Furthermore, the arc from node 4 to Students are unable to write the appropriate node 6 shows the second major problem solution for the mathematics question faced by students in this study. We found given because they do not plan well and that students who lack understanding of organize in solving mathematics problem. the mathematics question requirement, From Montague (1988), some students with failed to transform the question needed learning disabilities may have learned and into mathematical symbols which causes organized correct strategies and conceptual
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 393 - 408 (2014) 403 Ong, H. C. and Lim, J. S. knowledge to solve problems, but then fail mathematics symbol which causes them to to carry out them as is required. be not confident in coming out with a neat and complete mathematical solution. Having CONCLUSION identified mathematics symbols as the root The major problem solving in mathematics cause of the problem in mathematical that are faced by students in Penang problem solving, future and subsequent Matriculation College is due to their work can be carried to help students based understanding of mathematical symbols on their understanding of the various types that influence their abilities in solving of mathematics symbols. mathematics problems. From the Bayesian Network, this score is the highest in the ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS final result of learned network. Owing to This work was supported in part by U.S.M. the complicated and difficult mathematical Fundamental Research Grant Scheme symbols, the students are unable to perform (FRGS) No. 203/PMATHS/6711319. their solution well or in other words; they cannot solve the mathematics question with REFERENCES a neat and complete solution. Furthermore, Acquah, H. (2010). Comparison of Akaike information our study also revealed that students in criterion (AIC) and Bayesian information Penang Matriculation College are confused criterion (BIC) in selection of an asymmetric with the method to be used when they are price relationship. Journal of Development and Agricultural Economics. 2(1), pp. 1 – 6. faced with long mathematics questions. We can also conclude that the students Akaike, H. (1974). A new look at the statistical model are afraid of the complicated mathematics identification. IEEE Transactions on Automatic Control.19 (6), pp. 716 –723. symbols and do not really understand the questions needed when they try to solve Akaike, H. (1973). Information Theory and an the questions. This study also revealed that Extension of the Maximum Likelihood Principle. In: B.N. Petrov and F. Csaki (eds.) students are quite weak in transforming the 2ndInternational Symposium on Information information from mathematics questions Theory: pp. 267-281. Budapest: Akademiai into the mathematics language. Kiado. Bayesian Network is a powerful tool Akaike, H. (1977). On entropy miximisation principle. to trace problems in many areas such as In: Proc. Symp. On Application of Statistics ed. in the industry and data mining. In our P.R Krishnaiah, pp. 27 – 47. Amsterdam, the study, we use Bayesian network algorithms Netherlands. in the mathematics learning situation to Aziz, N. (2005). Students’ Perception on Teaching identify the problems which arise. The And Learning Mathematics In English. Buletin results obtained show that the students Pendidikan Sains dan Matematik Johor, 14(1). in Penang Matriculation College have ISSN 0128-4290. difficulty in understanding complicated
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APPENDIX 1 The Questionnaire for Mathematics Problems Faced By Matriculation Students
This questionnaire is designed to collect data regarding mathematics problems faced by matriculation students.
You are required to answer all the questions sincerely. There is no right or wrong answers. Please circle your preference.
Guideline: 1 = Strongly Disagree 2 = Disagree 3 = Neutral 4 = Agree 5 = Strongly Agree
1. I am lacking in ability to solve the question given because I 1 – 2 – 3 – 4 – 5 do not understand the words/ phrases in mathematics. 2. Complicated mathematics symbols in solving mathematics 1 – 2 – 3 – 4 – 5 question reduces my ability. 3. Long and complicated / tough questions hinder me from 1 – 2 – 3 – 4 – 5 solving the mathematics question. 4. I do not understand the question requirement and fail to 1 – 2 – 3 – 4 – 5 transform to mathematics symbol. 5. I do not know/ am not sure what information is needed at 1 – 2 – 3 – 4 – 5 tackling mathematics question. 6. I am not sure of which method to be used when faced with 1 – 2 – 3 – 4 – 5 long mathematics question. 7. I cannot change to an alternative method when I am stuck 1 – 2 – 3 – 4 – 5 half way with the method used to solve question. 8. I always make mistakes when solving mathematics question 1 – 2 – 3 – 4 – 5 because I am not familiar with the basic operation of mathematics (+, - , x , ÷). 9. I am nervous when faced with long mathematics question 1 – 2 – 3 – 4 – 5 because I am unable to connect/ to link the theory that I have learned. 10. I am always forget the symbol to be used to solve 1 – 2 – 3 – 4 – 5 mathematics question. 11. I am always careless in the process of calculation when 1 – 2 – 3 – 4 – 5 solving mathematics questions. 12. I have no confidence in coming out with a neat and complete 1 – 2 – 3 – 4 – 5 mathematics solution.
408 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 393 - 408 (2014) Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 409 - 422 (2014)
SOCIAL SCIENCES & HUMANITIES
Journal homepage: http://www.pertanika.upm.edu.my/
Socioeconomic Status, Physical Activity, Physical Fitness and Sedentary Activity in 7-to 11-year-old Iranian Children
Samad Esmaeilzadeh 153 Nasim 1, part III of Sabalan, Ardabil, Iran. (Postal code: 5619888457)
ABSTRACT This study aimed at Evaluating the socioeconomic status (SES), physical activity (PA), physical fitness and sedentary activity in Iranian children aged 7-11 years. We analysed the following cross-section data from a selected sample of children (N=766) aged 7 to 11 years: age, anthropometric characteristics, SES, PA, ten physical fitness tests and sedentary activities. 29.4% and 31.3% of the children reported TV watching and video playing daily time (TVVPT) higher than 3 and 4 hours/day, respectively. Fat mass (FM) was significantly related to PA (r=-0.165; P<0.01), cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) (r=-0.793; P<0.01), and TVVPT (r=0.200; P<0.01), after controlling for age and SES. Although, the children by high-SES represented higher height, weight, body mass index, waist circumference, FM and fat free mass than the children by mid-SES and low-SES, but the differences were not significant among them. Although, PA was not different among the children by SES, however, the children by high-SES represented significant higher TVVPT than the children by mid-SES and low-SES (p<0.05); and had significant lower CRF than the children by mid-SES (p<0.05). The results of this study indicated higher sedentary activities and lower CRF in the children by high-SES in comparison to the children by mid-SES and low-SES. Furthermore, regarding the relationship between FM with PA, CRF and sedentary activity, increased PA and decreased sedentary behavior in children as much as possible should be considered.
Keywords: Fat mass, body mass index, TV watching, cardiorespiratory fitness
INTRODUCTION Regular physical activity (PA) is associated ARTICLE INFO with improved physical and psychosocial Article history: Received: 25 June 2012 well-being in children (Boreham and Accepted: 12 August 2012 Riddoch, 2001), while frequent television E-mail address: [email protected] / [email protected] viewing appears detrimental (Bar-on, 2000).
ISSN: 0128-7702 © Universiti Putra Malaysia Press Samad Esmaeilzadeh
The family is a potentially important source et al., 2007; Pavon et al., 2010 21; Mutunga of influence on children’s PA and television et al., 2006) with contradictory results. viewing (Ritchie et al., 2005). There is These studies concluded that studies from a inconsistent evidence for an association widespread vision and including populations between socioeconomic status (SES), from different countries (by different Social the most commonly investigated aspect and cultural contexts) are required to of family circumstance, and the physical facilitate a better understanding. activity of preadolescent children. A 1999 Moreover, the prevalence of child review (Sallis et al., 2000) of studies obesity is rapidly increasing worldwide considering SES and PA associations in (World Health Organisation, 1998). The 4–12 year olds found positive, negative specific causes of overweight and obesity and no associations were reported. On the are varied and complex but, at a population balance of evidence the review concluded level, are consistent with sustained positive there was no association. Even recent energy balance. Sedentary behavior and low studies, using objective assessments of levels of PA may, in part, explain the rising PA (e.g., accelerometer, pedometer) still prevalence of childhood overweight and report equivocal results (Kelly et al., 2006; obesity (Wang and Lobstein, 2006). Eisenmann and Wickel, 2009). A simultaneous assessment of weight On the other hand, speed-agility, status, anthropometric variables, PA, muscular fitness, and cardiorespiratory physical fitness and sedentary behavior fitness (CRF) are considered important among children by different SES especially health related markers already in youth in Iran is scanty. Therefore, the primary (Pavon et al. 2010; Ortega et al., 2008b). aim of this study is to assess comparison Genetics greatly determines physical fitness of anthropometric characteristics, physical (Bray et al., 2009), but there is little doubt fitness tests, PA and sedentary behavior that environmental factors also play an of the sample of 7-11 year old boys in important role. Socioeconomic status is Ardabil, Iran by different SES. Furthermore, associated with several health outcomes the secondary aim is to evaluate possible (e.g., birth weight, obesity, diet, etc.) as relationship between adiposity with PA, mentioned by Ramsay et al., (2008), and CRF and sedentary behavior in the selected with mortality rate (Berkman, 2005). sample of children. To better understand the specific role of different indicators of socioeconomic METHODOLOGY status on health-related fitness markers Participants will enable a more efficient physical fitness The present analyses included data from 766 promotion. In this regard, the association school boys, aged 7 - 11 years (mean 9.2 ± 3.4 between socioeconomic status and fitness years), attending the 1th- 5th grade classes was investigated in different areas (Freitas of primary schools which were selected
410 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 409 - 422 (2014) Socioeconomic Status, Physical Activity, Physical Fitness and Sedentary Activity in 7-to 11-year-old Iranian Children with stratified sampling in urban areas of Tricipital skin folds (TSF) and subscapular Ardabil’s capital, North West of the Iran. skin folds (SESF) were measured three Ardabil’s capital stands about 70 km from times on the right side of the body using the Caspian Sea with an area of 18011 km², an adipometer (Lange, Beta Technology and 537920 inhabitants. The nature and Incorporated, Cambridge, USA) and the purpose of the study were explained to mean of all three measurements was used parents before consent was obtained, and for analysis. Body adiposity was then participation was on a voluntary basis. The estimated using the equation and sex- measurements and the tests that the children specific reference values proposed by underwent were carried out during regularly (Lohman, 1986; Lohman, 1987), based on scheduled physical education classes. The summing the two skin-fold measurements. age of the subject was determined from Body Fat percentage and then Fat mass their date of birth in their school register. calculated according to the following The age was rounded off to the nearest equations: whole number. This study was approved Prepubescent white males: by the Ethical Committee of the Ardabil %BF= 1.21(SS*) - .008(SS) 2 - 1.7 Department of Education, Iran (?). *SS= Sum of triceps and subscapular skinfolds Anthropometric variables Weight was measured in underwear and For a sum of triceps and subscapular without shoes with an electronic scale (Type > 35mm SECA 861) to the nearest 0.1 kg, and height All males: %BF= 0.783(SS) + 1.6 was measured barefoot in the Frankfort Fat mass (FM) = weight * fat horizontal plane with a telescopic height percentage/100 measuring instrument (Type SECA 225) to the nearest 0.1 cm. Body mass index TV watching and video playing daily time (BMI) was calculated as body weight in (TVVPT) kilograms divided by the square of height Children and their parent(s) were given a in meters. Cut-off points for BMI defining, written questionnaire, which was filled out underweight, normal weight, overweight by the parent(s) only if the child was aged and obesity were identified by using the less than 8 years, and both parent and child International Obesity Task Force (IOTF) together if the child was between the ages BMI cut-off points (Cole et al., 2005; Cole of 8 and 11. If completed by parent and et al., 2000). Waist (at the level of the child together, they were instructed to agree umbilicus and the superior iliac crest) was on and record a single estimate of average measured to the nearest centimeter using daily time spent watching TV (time spent flexible tape rule, while the subject was watching TV, videotapes, or DVDs) and standing erect. In order to fat% evaluation, playing video game (time spent on a home
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 409 - 422 (2014) 411 Samad Esmaeilzadeh computer or video game). Parent estimates PA of large and small populations at low of child viewing and playing time have cost (Kowalski et al., 2007). been shown to be reliable predictors of child screen time (Anderson et al., 1985). Physical fitness measurements In order to further ensure the validity of Physical fitness was determined using ten TVVPT estimates, we verbally reviewed physical fitness tests which were completed and confirmed the time estimate obtained during regularly scheduled physical from the questionnaire during the clinical education classes. At the beginning of taking interview with the parent(s) and, if aged over each test, the examiner explained the testing 8 years, the child. procedures to the participants in details. 1. Cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF): Physical activity (PA) The 1-mile run test was used to assess Physical activity for children was measured VO2max (Welk and Meredith, 2008). using the PA Questionnaire - Children The objective of the mile run was (PAQ-C) (Kowalski et al., 1997). The to cover a mile in the shortest time PAQ-C is used to assess the PA behaviors of possible. Students were encouraged the participants at different times and places to run throughout the test and to take (i.e., during school, after school, recess, walking breaks only as needed. Physical weekend, etc.) during the previous seven education instructor also reminded days. Scoring is based on a 5-point Likert children to avoid starting too fast to type scale, with an overall PA score derived avoid premature fatigue. This test has from the mean of each scored item. Greater shown to be valid and reliable for the levels of PA are indicated by higher scores prediction of the VO2max in children and vice versa. The PAQ-C has been tested (Welk and Meredith, 2008). The CRF and re-tested and results have shown that is then calculated according to the the instrument is reliable and valid measure following formula (Welk and Meredith, of PA for children during the school year. 2008): Kowalski et al. (1997) reported moderately high validity coefficients for the PAQ-C VO2max = (0.21 * age * gender) – (0.84 when compared to a variety of criterion * BMI) – (8.41 * time) + (0.34 * time * measures, including activity ratings, recall time) + 108.94 questionnaires, and activity monitors (r = Gender = 1 for males and 0 for females; .39 to .63,). The test retest reliability for Time is in minutes the PAQ-C ranged from r = 0.75 to 0.82 2. Sit ups: Maximum number of sit and internal consistency reliability values ups achieved in 60 seconds. This test (coefficient alpha) ranged from 0.81 to 0.86 measures the endurance of the abdominal (Crocker et al., 1997). This instrument is muscles (Welk and Meredith, 2008). widely used in research in order to assess
412 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 409 - 422 (2014) Socioeconomic Status, Physical Activity, Physical Fitness and Sedentary Activity in 7-to 11-year-old Iranian Children
3. Modified pull ups: To measure upper Status (Hollingshead, 1975; Cirino et al., arm and shoulder girdle strength 2002). SES was calculated on the basis of and muscular endurance (Welk and education and occupation levels. SES index Meredith, 2008). values (range: 8–66) were categorized as 4. Pushups: This test measures upper arm high (values of 48–66), moderate (values and shoulder girdle strength/endurance of 28–47), or low (values of 8 –27) (Hassan (Welk and Meredith, 2008). et al., 2006). 5. Sit and reach: Reaching as far as Data Analysis possible from a sitting position. This test measures the flexibility of the Data were screened for problems of skew, hamstrings, buttocks, and lower back kurtosis, and outliers. Descriptive statistics (EUROFIT, 1988). were run on all variables. The primary independent variable was socioeconomic 6. Standing long jump: Jumping for status defined as high-SES (values of 48– distance from a standing start. This test 66), mid-SES (values of 28–47), and low- measures explosive strength (EUROFIT, SES (values of 8 –27) which was estimated 1988). by using the Hollingshead 4-Factor Index of 7. Hand grip: Squeezing a calibrated hand Social Status (Hollingshead, 1975; Cirino dynamometer as forcefully as possible et al., 2002, Hassan et al., 2006). The with the dominant hand. Static strength dependent variables were physical fitness is assessed (EUROFIT, 1988). tests, PA, anthropometric variables, and 8. Vertical jump: The vertical difference TVVPT. Chi-square analyses were used to in centimeters (cm) between the original detect differences of underweight, normal trace (extension, standing on the toes), weight, overweight and obesity rates among before jumping, and the trace after the the children by SES. One-way analyses of jump. This test measures explosive variances (ANOVA) were carried out to strength (EUROFIT, 1988). assess differences in the anthropometric variables, TVVPT, physical fitness tests, and 9. 4×10m shuttle run test: Speed of PA scores among the children by low-SES, movement, agility and coordination mid-SES, and high-SES of this study. The assessment (Ortega et al., 2008a). Scheffe correction was used for multiple 10. 30-meter sprint (from standing comparisons. Pearson correlation coefficient position): This test measures speed. was used to assess the relationship between fat mass and selected variables. For further Socioeconomic status evaluation, Partial correlation coefficient The socioeconomic status (SES) of the was used to assess relationship between fat families was estimated by using the mass, VO2max, PA, and sedentary behavior by Hollingshead 4-Factor Index of Social controlling for age and SES. All calculations
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 409 - 422 (2014) 413 Samad Esmaeilzadeh were performed using SPSS v.18.0 software difference for the anthropometric variables for Windows. The significance level was set (height, weight, BMI, WC, FM and FFM) at p< 0.05. (p>0.05). Nonetheless, the results showed significant difference for the overweight/ FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION obesity and underweight prevalence among All variables approximated a normal the children by SES (see Table 1). By distribution (skew: <3, kurtosis: <10). referring to Table 1 of this study it was The Hollingshead Index indicated that showed that the rate of underweight in the 9.7% families were of high-SES, 66.4% children by low-SES and high-SES was 9% of mid-SES, and 23.9% of low-SES (see and 1.9%, respectively; and in contrast the Table 1). Table 1 shows the prevalence of rate of obesity in the children by low-SES and underweight, normal weight, overweight high-SES was 0% and 9.7%, respectively. and obesity according to SES. The results Tharkar and Viswanathan (2009) found of this table show that the prevalence of that high-SES children had higher height, underweight, normal weight, overweight weight and waist circumference than low- and obesity is 10.7%, 71%, 14.1% and 4.2%, SES group. Furthermore, they reported respectively. Chi-square analyses indicated that Prevalence of overweight and obesity significant difference for the prevalence of was significantly higher among the high- underweight, overweight and obesity among SES children. In contrast, McMurray et the children by SES (P<0.05). al. (2000) and Poskitt et al. (1993) found The primary aim of this study was to low-SES adolescents were more likely to be evaluate anthropometric characteristics, overweight and obese than their high-SES PA, physical fitness and sedentary activity counterparts. Wang (2002) reported that in a sample of 7-11 year boys by different children by higher SES were more likely to SES. Although the results (Table 2) showed be obese in China and Russia, but in the US that the children by high-SES had higher low-SES children were at a higher risk. He weight, FM, BMI and WC than the other concluded that prevalence of obesity varied counterparts, however, ANOVA analyses remarkably across countries with different indicated that there was no significant socioeconomic development levels.
TABLE 1 Prevalence of underweight, normal weight, overweight and obesity among the children by SES
Low-SES Mid-SES High-SES (n=183) (n=509) (n=74) Underweight (n=82) 9% (n=16.5) 14% (n=71.3) 1.9% (n=1.4) Normal weight (544) 70% (n=128.1) 67.4% (n=343.1) 69.2% (n=51.2) Overweight (n=108) 21% (n=38.4) 14.5% (n=73.8) 19.2% (n=14.2) Obese (n=32) 0% (n=0) 4.1% (n=20.8) 9.7% (n=7.2)
414 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 409 - 422 (2014) Socioeconomic Status, Physical Activity, Physical Fitness and Sedentary Activity in 7-to 11-year-old Iranian Children
TABLE 2 Comparison of various anthropometric variables among the children by different SES
Low-SES (1) † Mid-SES (2) High-SES (3) F P (n=183) (n=509) (n=74) Height(cm) 131.5±8.8 132.8±8.8 132.1±6.3 1.06 NS Weight(kg) 29.8±8.5 30.3±8 31.3±5.1 0.62 NS BMI(kg/m2) 16.9±2.7 17±2.9 17.9±2.6 2.8 NS Fat Mass(kg) 7.8±4.9 7.7±4.9 8.4±3.8 0.5 NS FFM(kg) 22.1±4.1 22.7±3.9 22.9±3 1.3 NS Waist circumference (cm) 59.6±8.6 59.5±8.1 61.7±6.7 1.65 NS Significance of differences was evaluated by ANOVA for all variables. *Significant at <0.05; **Significant at <0.01. † Numbers show groups: Low-SES (Group 1), Mid-SES (Group 2), High-SES (Group 3)
The present study results showed that run test), lower-body muscular strength except VO2max and sit ups all the other (standing long jump, squat jump, counter physical fitness variables were not different movement jump, Abalakov jump) and one among the children by different SES (see upper-body muscular strength test (bent Table 3 and 4). The children by high-SES arm hang), while no associations for speed- did significantly better sit ups than the agility (4 x 10 m shuttle run test) and other children by low-SES (p<0.05); however, upper-body muscular strength (handgrip) had lower VO2max than the children by were found (Pavon et al., 2010). Mutunga mid-SES (p<0.05). Contradictory results et al. (2006) reported higher CRF (20 m between SES and physical fitness have been shuttle run test) in boys and girls with higher reported (Freitas et al., 2007; Pavon et al., socioeconomic status compared to those 2010, p. 21; Mutunga et al., 2006). Freitas with lower socioeconomic status. Therefore, et al. (2007) reported adverse relationship discrepancies among the studies might between socioeconomic status and CRF be due to the specific social and cultural (12 min walk-run) and muscular strength contexts of each country, together with (standing long jump and bent arm hang); and the different methodologies used to assess positive association between socioeconomic socioeconomic status and physical fitness. status and speed-agility performance (5 x Furthermore, it should be stated that the 10 m shuttle run test) in boys. They also means of CRF among the children by SES reported a higher upper-body muscular are close to each other, and the significant strength (handgrip) in those boys with difference of CRF between the children by medium socioeconomic status compared mid-SES and high-SES might be because of to those with lower socioeconomic status high sample size. (Freitas et al., 2007). Pavon et al. (2010) The results of this study found no found positive associations between difference for PA among the children by socioeconomic status and CRF (20 m shuttle SES (see Table 4). However the previous
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 409 - 422 (2014) 415 Samad Esmaeilzadeh
TABLE 3 Comparison of physical fitness variables among the children by SES
Low-SES (1) † Mid-SES (2) High-SES (3) F P (n=183) (n=509) (n=74) One-mile(s) 664.8±116 646.9±111 667.3±113 1.2 NS Sit and reach(cm) 29.5±6.1 28.2±5.9 27.2±6.7 3 NS Vertical jump(cm) 21.2±4.6 22±4.2 20.5±4.6 2.7 NS Standing long jump(cm) 114.2±21.6 119.2±23.2 115.6±29.4 1.9 NS Hand grip(kg) 19±6 19.2±6.2 18.1±4.5 0.8 NS Time in run speed (s) 6.8±0.7 6.7±0.8 6.7±0.6 1.7 NS Time in 4×10m shuttle run (s) 13.8±1 13.9±1.2 13.8±1.2 0.2 NS Pull ups(n) 10±6 9.4±6.9 8.5±6.4 0.8 NS Pushups(n) 13.1±10.1 13.2±10.2 9.5±6.9 2.95 NS Sit ups(n) 17.3±9.3 19.2±10.7 21.8±11.5 3.2 1≠3* Significance of differences was evaluated by ANOVA for all variables. *Significant at <0.05; **Significant at <0.01. † Numbers show groups: Low-SES (Group 1), Mid-SES (Group 2), High-SES (Group 3). literatures have reported equivocal findings total energy expenditure was not higher in concerning the relationship between SES higher SES youth, due to lower participation and PA levels in children and adolescents in unstructured activities. Besides the (Inchley et al., 2005; Kelly et al., 2006). often cited socio-environmental reasons, Even recent studies, by using objective biological aspects have also been shown assessments of PA (e.g., accelerometer, to influence habitual PA (Lightfoot, 2008). pedometer) reported equivocal results The results of this study (see Table (Eisenmann and Wickel, 2009). There are 4) showed that TVVPT of the high-SES several possible reasons for differences in subjects was significantly higher than both habitual PA to exist across socio-economic low-SES and mid-SES subjects (p<0.05). backgrounds, including behavioral, socio- Furthermore, in our study, Ardabilian cultural, and/or biological factors. For schoolboys reported higher TVVPT (29.4% example, socio-environmental influences >3 h/day; and 31.3% >4 h/day) than may include accessibility to sports/exercise adolescents from some developed countries, facilities as well as safety (Lovasi et al., where a 24.7% of US (Eisenmann et al., 2009). However, some studies have argued 2002) and 22–24% Finnish (Tammelin et that SES does not influence overall PA al., 2007); or less than some other countries levels in children and adolescence despite such as 36–38% of Welsh (Vereecken et al., a higher participation in formal sports in 2006) which reported watching TV >4 h/ children and adolescents with a higher SES day. In contrast to this study some studies (Macintyre and Mutrie, 2004). For example, reported that children from a low SES show Macintyre and Mutrie (2004) indicated that a trend of lower PA levels and spend more
416 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 22 (1): 409 - 422 (2014) Socioeconomic Status, Physical Activity, Physical Fitness and Sedentary Activity in 7-to 11-year-old Iranian Children
TABLE 4 Comparison of TVVPT, physical activity and VO2max among the children by SES
Low-SES (1) † Mid-SES (2) High-SES (3) F P (n=183) (n=509) (n=74) TVVPT (min) 180.7±88 180.6±86.7 218.1±70.1 4.45 1≠3*, 2≠3* Physical activity (score) 3.2±1.6 3.1±1.75 3.25±1.55 0.3 NS
VO2max (ml/kg/min) 46.3±3.2 46.5±3 45.1±3.6 3.7 2≠3* Significance of differences was evaluated by ANOVA for all variables. *Significant at <0.05; **Significant at <0.01. † Numbers show groups: Low-SES (Group 1), Mid-SES (Group 2), High-SES (Group 3)
TABLE 5 Pearson correlation and Partial correlation (controlling for age and SES) between fat mass and selected variables
Pearson correlation Partial correlation Partial correlation Fat mass (controlling for age) (controlling for age and SES) Fat mass Fat mass Age (year) 0.397** ********* ********* Physical activity (score) -0.120** -0.130* -0.165**
VO2max (ml/kg/min) -0.700** -0.792** -0.793** TVVPT (min) 0.162** 0.169** 0.200** *Significant at <0.05; **Significant at <0.01. time in sedentary behavior (TV viewing) when practiced regularly, PA reduces than high SES children (Drenowatz et al., the risk for a range of chronic disease. 2010). Not also TV watching time, but It helps building strong bones, healthy also, video playing daily time was taken joints, a strong heart, a good mental health in this study. So, it is probable that higher and prevents today’s major public health accessibility for having video playing concern – obesity (Ferreira et al., 2007; instruments in the high-SES group might Strong et al., 2005). It has been reported that be the cause of having higher cumulative Physical inactivity is a strong contributor TVVPT than their mid-SES and low-SES to overweight. Sedentary activities such as counterparts. Moreover, specific social and excessive television viewing, computer use, cultural contexts of each country should video games, and telephone conversations be considered. However, the results of this should be discouraged. Reducing sedentary study showed significant direct relationship behaviors to <2 hours per day is important between fat mass with TVVPT, and to increasing PA and to health (Strong et adversely significant negative relationship al., 2005). with PA and CRF, even after controlling Nonetheless, the main limitation of this for age and SES (see Table 5). Physical study is its cross-sectional nature. Moreover, activity (PA) is a health enhancing behavior: this study couldn’t take subjects of both
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REFEREES FOR THE PERTANIKA JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCES AND HUMANITIES VOL. 22(1) MAR. 2014
The Editorial Board of the Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities wishes to thank the following:
Abd Haris Shamsuddin Chin Yee Whah Lilly Metom (UiTM, Malaysia) (USM, Malaysia) (UiTM, Malaysia) Abdolreza Pazhakh Dessy Irawati Lloyd Holliday (Islamic Azad University, Iran) (Radboud University, the Netherlands) (Maejo University, Thailand) Ahmad Esa Elena Gregoria Chai Chin Fern Loke Yiing Jia (UTHM, Malaysia) (UNIMAS, Malaysia) (USM, Malaysia) Ahmad Fauzi Mohd Ayub Fakhreddin Soltani Merza Abbas (UPM, Malaysia) (UKM, Malaysia) (USM, Malaysia) Ahmad Nurulazam Md Zain Hairul Nizam Ismail Michael Khoo Boon Chong (USM, Malaysia) (USM, Malaysia) (USM, Malaysia) Ahmad Rozelan Yunus Haliza Abdul Rahman Mohamad Razali Abdullah (UTeM, Malaysia) (USM, Malaysia) (UNIMAS, Malaysia) Ahmad Tarmizi Talib Hazita Azman Mohd Hasani Dali (UPM, Malaysia) (UKM, Malaysia) (UUM, Malaysia) Alan Maley Hrushikesh Senapaty Murad Abd Ghani (Metropolitan University, UK) (NCERT, India) (UPM, Malaysia) Ambigapathy Pandian Ismi Arif Ismail Mustafa Kamal Mohd Shariff (USM, Malaysia) (UPM, Malaysia) (UPM, Malaysia) Asok Kumar Ghosh Jaime Orejan Nirwan Idrus (UTAR, Malaysia) (Winston-Salem State University, USA) (MMU, Malaysia) Aziah Ismail Jamalludin Sulaiman Nor Atiah Ismail (USM, Malaysia) (USM, Malaysia) (UPM, Malaysia) Azirah Hashim Jatswan Singh Norhasmah Sulaiman (UM, Malaysia) (UM, Malaysia) (UPM, Malaysia) Azlin Hilma Hillaluddin Jayakaran Mukundan Normah Che Din (UUM, Malaysia) (UPM, Malaysia) (UKM, Malaysia) Aznan Che Ahmad Kamisah Ariffin Rance P. L. Lee (USM, Malaysia) (UiTM, Malaysia) (The Chinese University of Hong Kong) Bayode I. Popoola Kesuma A. Bakar Sailesh Sharma (Obafemi Awolowo University, Nigeria) (UKM, Malaysia) (UM, Malaysia) Brian Tomlinson Krishnamoorthy Karunakaran Saratha Sathasivam (Leeds Metropolitan University, UK) (UM, Malaysia) (USM, Malaysia) Saw Kim Guan Tan Bee Hoon Wan Shahrazad Wan (USM, Malaysia) (UPM, Malaysia) Sulaiman (UKM, Malaysia) Seow Ta Wee Tan Jo-Pei (UTHM, Malaysia) (UPM, Malaysia) Zalina Mohamad Kasim (UPM, Malaysia) Sha’ri Mohd Yusof Tan Siew Kuang (UTM, Malaysia) (UM, Malaysia) Sumathi Renganathan Tang Chor Foon (UTP, Malaysia) (USM, Malaysia)
UPM - Universiti Putra Malaysia UNIMAS - Universiti Malaysia Sarawak UM - Universiti Malaya UTHM - Universiti Tun Hussein Onn UiTM - Universiti Teknologi MARA UTAR - Universiti Tun Abdul Razak UTP - Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS UTem - Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka USM - Universiti Sains Malaysia UKM - Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
While every effort has been made to include a complete list of referees for the period stated above, however if any name(s) have been omitted unintentionally or spelt incorrectly, please notify the Chief Executive Editor, Pertanika Journals at [email protected]. Any inclusion or exclusion of name(s) on this page does not commit the Pertanika Editorial Office, nor the UPM Press or the University to provide any liability for whatsoever reason. Pertanika Our goal is to bring high quality research to the widest possible audience
Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities
INSTRUCTIONS TO AUTHORS (Manuscript Preparation & Submission Guidelines)
Revised: February 2013 We aim for excellence, sustained by a responsible and professional approach to journal publishing. We value and support our authors in the research community.
Please read the guidelines and follow these instructions carefully; doing so will ensure that the publication of your manuscript is as rapid and efficient as possible. The Editorial Board reserves the right to return manuscripts that are not prepared in accordance with these guidelines.
About the Journal Pertanika is an international peer-reviewed journal devoted to the publication of original papers, and it serves as a forum for practical approaches to improving quality in issues pertaining to tropical agriculture and its related fields. Pertanika began publication in 1978 as Journal of Tropical Agricultural Science. In 1992, a decision was made to streamline Pertanika into three journals to meet the need for specialised journals in areas of study aligned with the interdisciplinary strengths of the university. The revamped Journal of Social Sciences & Humanities (JSSH) aims to develop as a pioneer journal for the Social Sciences with a focus on emerging issues pertaining to the social and behavioural sciences as well as the humanities, particularly in the Asia Pacific region. Other Pertanika series include Journal of Tropical Agricultural Science (JTAS); and Journal of Science and Technology (JST).
JSSH is published in English and it is open to authors around the world regardless of the nationality. It is currently published four times a year i.e. in March, June, September and December.
Goal of Pertanika Our goal is to bring the highest quality research to the widest possible audience.
Quality We aim for excellence, sustained by a responsible and professional approach to journal publishing. Submissions are guaranteed to receive a decision within 12 weeks. The elapsed time from submission to publication for the articles averages 5-6 months.
Indexing of Pertanika Pertanika is now over 33 years old; this accumulated knowledge has resulted Pertanika JSSH being indexed in SCOPUS (Elsevier), EBSCO, Thomson (ISI) Web of Knowledge [CAB Abstracts], DOAJ, Google Scholar, ISC, Citefactor, Rubriq and MyAIS.
Future vision We are continuously improving access to our journal archives, content, and research services. We have the drive to realise exciting new horizons that will benefit not only the academic community, but society itself.
We also have views on the future of our journals. The emergence of the online medium as the predominant vehicle for the ‘consumption’ and distribution of much academic research will be the ultimate instrument in the dissemination of research news to our scientists and readers.
Aims and scope
Pertanika Journal of Social Sciences & Humanities aims to develop as a pioneer journal for the social sciences with a focus on emerging issues pertaining to the social and behavioural sciences as well as the humanities. Areas relevant to the scope of the journal include Social Sciences—Accounting, anthropology, Archaeology and history, Architecture and habitat, Consumer and family economics, Economics, Education, Finance, Geography, Law, Management studies, Media and communication studies, Political sciences and public policy, Population studies, Psychology, Sociology, Technology management, Tourism; Humanities— Arts and culture, Dance, Historical and civilisation studies, Language and Linguistics, Literature, Music, Philosophy, Religious studies, Sports. Editorial Statement Pertanika is the official journal of Universiti Putra Malaysia. The abbreviation forPertanika Journal of Social Sciences & Humanities is Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. Hum.
Guidelines for Authors Publication policies Pertanika policy prohibits an author from submitting the same manuscript for concurrent consideration by two or more publications. It prohibits as well publication of any manuscript that has already been published either in whole or substantial part elsewhere. It also does not permit publication of manuscript that has been published in full in Proceedings. Please refer to Pertanika’s Code of Ethics for full details.
Editorial process Authors are notified on receipt of a manuscript and upon the editorial decision regarding publication.
Manuscript review: Manuscripts deemed suitable for publication are sent to the Editorial Board members and/or other reviewers. We encourage authors to suggest the names of possible reviewers. Notification of the editorial decision is usually provided within to eight to ten weeks from the receipt of manuscript. Publication of solicited manuscripts is not guaranteed. In most cases, manuscripts are accepted conditionally, pending an author’s revision of the material.
Author approval: Authors are responsible for all statements in articles, including changes made by editors. The liaison author must be available for consultation with an editor of The Journal to answer questions during the editorial process and to approve the edited copy. Authors receive edited typescript (not galley proofs) for final approval. Changes cannot be made to the copy after the edited version has been approved.
Manuscript preparation Pertanika accepts submission of mainly four types of manuscripts. Each manuscript is classified asregular or original articles, short communications, reviews, and proposals for special issues. Articles must be in English and they must be competently written and argued in clear and concise grammatical English. Acceptable English usage and syntax are expected. Do not use slang, jargon, or obscure abbreviations or phrasing. Metric measurement is preferred; equivalent English measurement may be included in parentheses. Always provide the complete form of an acronym/abbreviation the first time it is presented in the text. Contributors are strongly recommended to have the manuscript checked by a colleague with ample experience in writing English manuscripts or an English language editor.
Linguistically hopeless manuscripts will be rejected straightaway (e.g., when the language is so poor that one cannot be sure of what the authors really mean). This process, taken by authors before submission, will greatly facilitate reviewing, and thus publication if the content is acceptable.
The instructions for authors must be followed. Manuscripts not adhering to the instructions will be returned for revision without review. Authors should prepare manuscripts according to the guidelines of Pertanika.
1. Regular article Definition: Full-length original empirical investigations, consisting of introduction, materials and methods, results and discussion, conclusions. Original work must provide references and an explanation on research findings that contain new and significant findings. Size: Should not exceed 5000 words or 8-10 printed pages (excluding the abstract, references, tables and/or figures). One printed page is roughly equivalent to 3 type-written pages.
2. Short communications Definition: Significant new information to readers of the Journal in a short but complete form. It is suitable for the publication of technical advance, bioinformatics or insightful findings of plant and animal development and function. Size: Should not exceed 2000 words or 4 printed pages, is intended for rapid publication. They are not intended for publishing preliminary results or to be a reduced version of Regular Papers or Rapid Papers.
3. Review article Definition: Critical evaluation of materials about current research that had already been published by organizing, integrating, and evaluating previously published materials. Re-analyses as meta-analysis and systemic reviews are encouraged. Review articles should aim to provide systemic overviews, evaluations and interpretations of research in a given field. Size: Should not exceed 4000 words or 7-8 printed pages. 4. Special issues Definition: Usually papers from research presented at a conference, seminar, congress or a symposium. Size: Should not exceed 5000 words or 8-10 printed pages.
5. Others Definition: Brief reports, case studies, comments, Letters to the Editor, and replies on previously published articles may be considered. Size: Should not exceed 2000 words or up to 4 printed pages.
With few exceptions, original manuscripts should not exceed the recommended length of 6 printed pages (about 18 typed pages, double-spaced and in 12-point font, tables and figures included). Printing is expensive, and, for the Journal, postage doubles when an issue exceeds 80 pages. You can understand then that there is little room for flexibility.
Long articles reduce the Journal’s possibility to accept other high-quality contributions because of its 80-page restriction. We would like to publish as many good studies as possible, not only a few lengthy ones. (And, who reads overly long articles anyway?) Therefore, in our competition, short and concise manuscripts have a definite advantage.
Format The paper should be formatted in one column format with at least 4cm margins and 1.5 line spacing throughout. Authors are advised to use Times New Roman 12-point font. Be especially careful when you are inserting special characters, as those inserted in different fonts may be replaced by different characters when converted to PDF files. It is well known that ‘µ’ will be replaced by other characters when fonts such as ‘Symbol’ or ‘Mincho’ are used.
A maximum of eight keywords should be indicated below the abstract to describe the contents of the manuscript. Leave a blank line between each paragraph and between each entry in the list of bibliographic references. Tables should preferably be placed in the same electronic file as the text. Authors should consult a recent issue of the Journal for table layout.
Every page of the manuscript, including the title page, references, tables, etc. should be numbered. However, no reference should be made to page numbers in the text; if necessary, one may refer to sections. Underline words that should be in italics, and do not underline any other words.
We recommend that authors prepare the text as a Microsoft Word file.
1. Manuscripts in general should be organised in the following order:
o Page 1: Running title. (Not to exceed 60 characters, counting letters and spaces). This page should only contain the running title of your paper. The running title is an abbreviated title used as the running head on every page of the manuscript.
In addition, the Subject areas most relevant to the study must be indicated on this page. Select the appropriate subject areas from the Scope of the Journals provided in the Manuscript Submission Guide.
o A list of number of black and white / colour figures and tables should also be indicated on this page. Figures submitted in color will be printed in colour. See “5. Figures & Photographs” for details.
o Page 2: Author(s) and Corresponding author information. This page should contain the full title of your paper with name(s) of all the authors, institutions and corresponding author’s name, institution and full address (Street address, telephone number (including extension), hand phone number, fax number and e-mail address) for editorial correspondence. The names of the authors must be abbreviated following the international naming convention. e.g. Salleh, A.B., Tan, S.G., or Sapuan, S.M.
Authors’ addresses. Multiple authors with different addresses must indicate their respective addresses separately by superscript numbers: George Swan1 and Nayan Kanwal2 1Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, USA. 2Office of the Deputy Vice Chancellor (R&I), Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Malaysia.
o Page 3: This page should repeat the full title of your paper with only the Abstract (the abstract should be less than 250 words for a Regular Paper and up to 100 words for a Short Communication). Keywords must also be provided on this page (Not more than eight keywords in alphabetical order).
o Page 4 and subsequent pages: This page should begin with the Introduction of your article and the rest of your paper should follow from page 5 onwards. Abbreviations. Define alphabetically, other than abbreviations that can be used without definition. Words or phrases that are abbreviated in the introduction and following text should be written out in full the first time that they appear in the text, with each abbreviated form in parenthesis. Include the common name or scientific name, or both, of animal and plant materials. Footnotes. Current addresses of authors if different from heading.
2. Text. Regular Papers should be prepared with the headings Introduction, Materials and Methods, Results and Discussion, Conclusions in this order. Short Communications should be prepared according to “8. Short Communications.” below.
3. Tables. All tables should be prepared in a form consistent with recent issues of Pertanika and should be numbered consecutively with Arabic numerals. Explanatory material should be given in the table legends and footnotes. Each table should be prepared on a separate page. (Note that when a manuscript is accepted for publication, tables must be submitted as data - .doc, .rtf, Excel or PowerPoint file- because tables submitted as image data cannot be edited for publication.)
4. Equations and Formulae. These must be set up clearly and should be typed triple spaced. Numbers identifying equations should be in square brackets and placed on the right margin of the text.
5. Figures & Photographs. Submit an original figure or photograph. Line drawings must be clear, with high black and white contrast. Each figure or photograph should be prepared on a separate sheet and numbered consecutively with Arabic numerals. Appropriate sized numbers, letters and symbols should be used, no smaller than 2 mm in size after reduction to single column width (85 mm), 1.5-column width (120 mm) or full 2-column width (175 mm). Failure to comply with these specifications will require new figures and delay in publication. For electronic figures, create your figures using applications that are capable of preparing high resolution TIFF files acceptable for publication. In general, we require 300 dpi or higher resolution for coloured and half-tone artwork and 1200 dpi or higher for line drawings.
For review, you may attach low-resolution figures, which are still clear enough for reviewing, to keep the file of the manuscript under 5 MB. Illustrations may be produced at extra cost in colour at the discretion of the Publisher; the author could be charged Malaysian Ringgit 50 for each colour page.
6. References. Literature citations in the text should be made by name(s) of author(s) and year. For references with more than two authors, the name of the first author followed by ‘et al.’ should be used.
Swan and Kanwal (2007) reported that … The results have been interpreted (Kanwal et al., 2009).
o References should be listed in alphabetical order, by the authors’ last names. For the same author, or for the same set of authors, references should be arranged chronologically. If there is more than one publication in the same year for the same author(s), the letters ‘a’, ‘b’, etc., should be added to the year.
o When the authors are more than 11, list 5 authors and then et al. o Do not use indentations in typing References. Use one line of space to separate each reference. The name of the journal should be written in full. For example:
. Mellers, B. A. (2006a). Choice and the relative pleasure of consequences. Psychological Bulletin, 126, 910-924. . Mellers, B. A. (2006b). Treatment for sexually abused children and adolescents. American Psychologist, 55, 1040-1049. . Hawe, P. (2005). Capturing the meaning of “community” in community intervention evaluation: Some contributions from community psychology. Health Promotion International, 9,199-210. . Braconier, H., & Ekholm, K. (2006). Swedish multinationals and competition from high and low wage location. Review of International Economics, 8, 448-461.
o In case of citing an author(s) who has published more than one paper in the same year, the papers should be distinguished by addition of a small letter as shown above, e.g. Jalaludin (1997a); Jalaludin (1997b).
o Unpublished data and personal communications should not be cited as literature citations, but given in the text in parentheses. ‘In press’ articles that have been accepted for publication may be cited in References. Include in the citation the journal in which the ‘in press’ article will appear and the publication date, if a date is available. 7. Examples of other reference citations: Monographs: Kalimapour, Y.R. (2004). Images of the U.S. Around the World: A Multicultural Perspective. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. Chapter in Book: Bjork, R. A. (2007). Retrieval inhibition as an adaptive mechanism in human memory. In H. L. Roediger III & F. I. M. Craik (Eds.), Varieties of memory & consciousness (pp. 309-330). Hull: Hull University Press. o Proceedings: Amir Awang. (2006). Counseling, human resources development and counseling services. In Sulaiman M. Yassin, Yahya Mat Hassan, Kamariah Abu Bakar, Esah Munji and Sabariah Mohd. Rashid (Eds.), Proceedings of Asia Pacific Conference on Human Development (p. 243-246). Serdang: Universiti Putra Malaysia.
8. Short Communications should include Introduction, Materials and Methods, Results and Discussion, Conclusions in this order. Headings should only be inserted for Materials and Methods. The abstract should be up to 100 words, as stated above. Short Communications must be 5 printed pages or less, including all references, figures and tables. References should be less than 30. A 5 page paper is usually approximately 3000 words plus four figures or tables (if each figure or table is less than 1/4 page). *Authors should state the total number of words (including the Abstract) in the cover letter. Manuscripts that do not fulfill these criteria will be rejected as Short Communications without review.
STYLE OF THE MANUSCRIPT Manuscripts should follow the style of the latest version of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (APA). The journal uses American or British spelling and authors may follow the latest edition of the Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary for British spellings.
SUBMISSION OF MANUSCRIPTS All articles should be submitted electronically using the ScholarOne web-based system. ScholarOne, a Thomson Reuters product provides comprehensive workflow management systems for scholarly journals. For more information, go to our web page and click “Online Submission”.
Alternatively, you may submit the electronic files (cover letter, manuscript, and the Manuscript Submission Kit comprising Declaration and Referral form) via email directly to the Executive Editor. If the files are too large to email, mail a CD containing the files. TheManuscript Submission Guide and Submission Kit are available from the Pertanika’s home page at http://www. pertanika.upm.edu.my/home.php or from the Chief Executive Editor’s office upon request.
All articles submitted to the journal must comply with these instructions. Failure to do so will result in return of the manuscript and possible delay in publication.
Please do not submit manuscripts to the editor-in-chief or to any other office directly. All manuscripts must besubmitted through the chief executive editor’s office to be properly acknowledged and rapidly processed at the address below:
Dr. Nayan KANWAL Chief Executive Editor Pertanika Journals, UPM Press Office of the Deputy Vice Chancellor (R&I) IDEA Tower II, UPM-MTDC Technology Centre Universiti Putra Malaysia 43400 UPM, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia E-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] tel: + 603-8947 1622 or visit our website at http://www.pertanika.upm.edu.my/ for further information.
Authors should retain copies of submitted manuscripts and correspondence, as materials can not be returned. Authors are required to inform the Chief Executive Editor of any change of address which occurs whilst their papers are in the process of publication.
Cover letter All submissions must be accompanied by a cover letter detailing what you are submitting. Papers are accepted for publication in the journal on the understanding that the article is original and the content has not been published or submitted for publication elsewhere. This must be stated in the cover letter.
The cover letter must also contain an acknowledgement that all authors have contributed significantly, and that all authors are in agreement with the content of the manuscript. The cover letter of the paper should contain (i) the title; (ii) the full names of the authors; (iii) the addresses of the institutions at which the work was carried out together with (iv) the full postal and email address, plus facsimile and telephone numbers of the author to whom correspondence about the manuscript should be sent. The present address of any author, if different from that where the work was carried out, should be supplied in a footnote.
As articles are double-blind reviewed, material that might identify authorship of the paper should be placed on a cover sheet.
Peer review Pertanika follows a double-blind peer-review process. Peer reviewers are experts chosen by journal editors to provide written assessment of the strengths and weaknesses of written research, with the aim of improving the reporting of research and identifying the most appropriate and highest quality material for the journal.
In the peer-review process, three referees independently evaluate the scientific quality of the submitted manuscripts. Authors are encouraged to indicate in the Referral form using the Manuscript Submission Kit the names of three potential reviewers, but the editors will make the final choice. The editors are not, however, bound by these suggestions..
Manuscripts should be written so that they are intelligible to the professional reader who is not a specialist in the particular field. They should be written in a clear, concise, direct style. Where contributions are judged as acceptable for publication on the basis of content, the Editor reserves the right to modify the typescripts to eliminate ambiguity and repetition, and improve communication between author and reader. If extensive alterations are required, the manuscript will be returned to the author for revision.
The Journal’s review process What happens to a manuscript once it is submitted to Pertanika? Typically, there are seven steps to the editorial review process:
1. The executive editor and the editorial board examine the paper to determine whether it is appropriate for the journal and should be reviewed. If not appropriate, the manuscript is rejected outright and the author is informed.
2. The executive editor sends the article-identifying information having been removed, to three reviewers. Typically, one of these is from the Journal’s editorial board. Others are specialists in the subject matter represented by the article. The executive editor asks them to complete the review in three weeks and encloses two forms: (a) referral form B and (b) reviewer’s comment form along with reviewer’s guidelines. Comments to authors are about the appropriateness and adequacy of the theoretical or conceptual framework, literature review, method, results and discussion, and conclusions. Reviewers often include suggestions for strengthening of the manuscript. Comments to the editor are in the nature of the significance of the work and its potential contribution to the literature.
3. The executive editor, in consultation with the editor-in-chief, examines the reviews and decides whether to reject the manuscript, invite the author(s) to revise and resubmit the manuscript, or seek additional reviews. Final acceptance or rejection rests with the Editorial Board, who reserves the right to refuse any material for publication. In rare instances, the manuscript is accepted with almost no revision. Almost without exception, reviewers’ comments (to the author) are forwarded to the author. If a revision is indicated, the editor provides guidelines for attending to the reviewers’ suggestions and perhaps additional advice about revising the manuscript.
4. The authors decide whether and how to address the reviewers’ comments and criticisms and the editor’s concerns. The authors submit a revised version of the paper to the executive editor along with specific information describing how they have answered’ the concerns of the reviewers and the editor.
5. The executive editor sends the revised paper out for review. Typically, at least one of the original reviewers will be asked to examine the article.
6. When the reviewers have completed their work, the executive editor in consultation with the editorial board and the editor-in-chief examine their comments and decide whether the paper is ready to be published, needs another round of revisions, or should be rejected.
7. If the decision is to accept, the paper is sent to that Press and the article should appear in print in approximately three months. The Publisher ensures that the paper adheres to the correct style (in-text citations, the reference list, and tables are typical areas of concern, clarity, and grammar). The authors are asked to respond to any queries by the Publisher. Following these corrections, page proofs are mailed to the corresponding authors for their final approval. At this point, only essential changes are accepted. Finally, the article appears in the pages of the Journal and is posted on-line. English language editing Pertanika emphasizes on the linguistic accuracy of every manuscript published. Thus all authors are required to get their manuscripts edited by professional English language editors. Author(s) must provide a certificate confirming that their manuscripts have been adequately edited. A proof from a recognised editing service should be submitted together with the cover letter at the time of submitting a manuscript to Pertanika. All costs will be borne by the author(s).
This step, taken by authors before submission, will greatly facilitate reviewing, and thus publication if the content is acceptable.
Author material archive policy Authors who require the return of any submitted material that is rejected for publication in the journal should indicate on the cover letter. If no indication is given, that author’s material should be returned, the Editorial Office will dispose of all hardcopy and electronic material.
Copyright Authors publishing the Journal will be asked to sign a declaration form. In signing the form, it is assumed that authors have obtained permission to use any copyrighted or previously published material. All authors must read and agree to the conditions outlined in the form, and must sign the form or agree that the corresponding author can sign on their behalf. Articles cannot be published until a signed form has been received.
Lag time A decision on acceptance or rejection of a manuscript is reached in 3 to 4 months (average 14 weeks). The elapsed time from submission to publication for the articles averages 5-6 months.
Hardcopies of the Journals and off prints Under the Journal’s open access initiative, authors can choose to download free material (via PDF link) from any of the journal issues from Pertanika’s website. Under “Browse Journals” you will see a link entitled “Current Issues” or “Archives”. Here you will get access to all back-issues from 1978 onwards.
The corresponding author for all articles will receive one complimentary hardcopy of the journal in which his/her articles is published. In addition, 20 off prints of the full text of their article will also be provided. Additional copies of the journals may be purchased by writing to the executive editor.
Why should you publish in About the Journal
Pertanika? Pertanika is an international multidisciplinary peer- reviewed leading journal in Malaysia which began publication in 1978. The journal publishes in three BENEFITS TO AUTHORS different areas — Journal of Tropical Agricultural Science (JTAS); Journal of Science and Technology (JST); PROFILE: Our journals are circulated in large numbers all over and Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities (JSSH). Malaysia, and beyond in Southeast Asia. Our circulation covers other overseas countries as well. We ensure that your work reaches JTAS is devoted to the publication of original papers that serves as a forum for practical approaches to the widest possible audience in print and online, through our wide improving quality in issues pertaining to tropical publicity campaigns held frequently, and through our constantly agricultural research- or related fields of study. It developing electronic initiatives such as Web of Science Author is published four times a year in February, May, Connect backed by Thomson Reuters. August and November.
QUALITY: Our journals’ reputation for quality is unsurpassed JST caters for science and engineering research- or related fields of study. It is published twice a year in ensuring that the originality, authority and accuracy of your work January and July. is fully recognised. Each manuscript submitted to Pertanika undergoes a rigid originality check. Our double-blind peer refereeing JSSH deals in research or theories in social sciences and humanities research. It procedures are fair and open, and we aim to help authors develop aims to develop as a flagship journal with a focus on emerging issues pertaining to and improve their scientific work. Pertanika is now over 35 years the social and behavioural sciences as well as the humanities, particularly in the Asia Pacific region. It is published four times a year in March, June, September and old; this accumulated knowledge has resulted in our journals being December. indexed in SCOPUS (Elsevier), Thomson (ISI) Web of Knowledge [BIOSIS & CAB Abstracts], EBSCO, DOAJ, Google Scholar, AGRICOLA, ERA, ISC, Citefactor, Rubriq and MyAIS. Call for Papers AUTHOR SERVICES: We provide a rapid response service to 2014-15 now accepting submmissions... all our authors, with dedicated support staff for each journal, and a point of contact throughout the refereeing and production processes. Our aim is to ensure that the production process is as smooth as Pertanika invites you to explore frontiers from all key areas of agriculture, science possible, is borne out by the high number of authors who prefer to and technology to social sciences and humanities. publish with us. Original research and review articles are invited from scholars, scientists, professors, post-docs, and university students who are seeking publishing opportunities for their CODE OF ETHICS: Our Journal has adopted a Code of Ethics research papers through the Journal’s three titles; JTAS, JST & JSSH. Preference is given to ensure that its commitment to integrity is recognized and adhered to the work on leading and innovative research approaches. to by contributors, editors and reviewers. It warns against plagiarism and self-plagiarism, and provides guidelines on authorship, Pertanika is a fast track peer-reviewed and open-access academic journal published by Universiti Putra Malaysia. To date, Pertanika Journals have been indexed by many copyright and submission, among others. important databases. Authors may contribute their scientific work by publishing in UPM’s hallmark SCOPUS & ISI indexed journals. PRESS RELEASES: Landmark academic papers that are published in Pertanika journals are converted into press releases Our journals are open access - international journals. Researchers worldwide will have as a unique strategy for increasing visibility of the journal as well full access to all the articles published online and be able to download them with zero as to make major findings accessible to non-specialist readers. subscription fee. These press releases are then featured in the university’s UK-based Pertanika uses online article submission, review and tracking system for quality and research portal, ResearchSEA, for the perusal of journalists all over quick review processing backed by Thomson Reuter’s ScholarOne™. Journals provide the world. rapid publication of research articles through this system.
LAG TIME: The elapsed time from submission to publication for For details on the Guide to Online Submissions, visit the articles averages 4 to 5 months. A decision on acceptance of a http://www.pertanika.upm.edu.my/guide_online_submission.php manuscript is reached in 3 to 4 months (average 14 weeks). Questions regarding submissions should only be directed to the Chief Executive Editor, Pertanika Journals.
Remember, Pertanika is the resource to support you in strengthening research and research management capacity. An Award-Winning International-Malaysian Address your submissions to: Journal The Chief Executive Editor —MAY 2014 Tel: +603 8947 1622 [email protected]
Journal’s profile: www.pertanika.upm.edu.my
Science Teaching Styles and Student Intrinsic Motivation: Validating a 335 Structural Model Sharifah Sariah Syed Hassan and Mohamed Rajab
Is Problem Solving and Systems Thinking Related? A Case Study in a 345 Malaysian University Liew Chin Ying, Foo Kien Kheng, Kelvin Goh Tee Hiong and Elinda Lee Ai Lim
Stigma as Part of Identity Development of Gay Men in Penang – 365 A Qualitative Study Felix, M. S.
Settling Down Spiritually: Chinese Malaysian’s Worship of Datuk Gong 379 Chin Yee Mun and Lee Yok Fee
Identifying Factors Influencing Mathematical Problem Solving among 393 Matriculation Students in Penang Ong, H. C. and Lim, J. S.
Socioeconomic Status, Physical Activity, Physical Fitness and Sedentary 409 Activity in 7-to 11-year-old Iranian Children Samad Esmaeilzadeh Lifelong Learning Model: The Experiences of Malaysian School Teachers 147 Jin Kuan Kok
Willingness-To-Pay for Monorail Services: Case Study in Penang, Malaysia 165 Lee, L. Y. and Cheah, Y. K.
Job Satisfaction among School Counsellors in Secondary Schools in 181 Mid-Western Nigeria Friday Osamwonyi Eduwen, Oyaziwo Aluede and Austine Itohan Ojugo
Acquisition of the Verb Movement Parameter in English by Adult Arabic 195 Speakers Muneera Yahya Ali Muftah and Wong Bee Eng
Restorative Justice In Relation to Collectivism/Individualism, Shyness, and 217 Conflict Resolution Method Preference Mohamad Taufik Mohamad and Azlinda Azman
Language and Identity: The Impact of a Multilingual Environment on 233 the Personal Identity among German Mother Tongue Speakers Living in Malaysia Miroslava Majtanova and Mohd. Azidan Abdul Jabar
The Level of Satisfaction towards Flood Management System in Kelantan, 257 Malaysia Tuan Pah Rokiah Syed Hussain, Abd Rahim Md Nor and Hamidi Ismail
Psychometric Evaluation of the Australian Inventory of Family Strengths 271 (AIFS) on Rural Malay Families in Malaysia Zarinah Arshat and Rozumah Baharudin
Psychometric Properties of the Malay Version of the Job Satisfaction 285 Survey among Malaysian Military Personnel Ang Chin Siang, Mansor Abu Talib, Rumaya Juhari and Zainal Madon
Improving Engineering Performance through Leadership, CE and Teamwork 307 in a Malaysian Semiconductor Firm Poh Kiat Ng, Kian Siong Jee, Jian Ai Yeow and Masyitah Mahadi
Turnover Intention among Academics: A Case Study of Private Higher 321 Learning Education in Klang Valley Afdzal Aizat Ramli, Shahrul Nizam Salahudin, Zaifudin Zainol and Turiman Suandi Pertanika Journal of Social Sciences & Humanities
Vol. 22 (1) Mar. 2014 Contents
Foreword i
Nayan Deep S. Kanwal
Review Paper 1 in Malaysia and Challenges in Provision of Services Dzalani, H. and Shamsuddin, K.
Short Communication The Challenges, Potentials, and Experts’ Opinions on Developing a 19 Malaysian Garden Identity Osman Mohd Tahir and Mina Kaboudarahangi
Regular Articles The Rural Learning Environment and Pupils’ Learning of the English 35 Language Wreikat, Y. A., Kabilan, M. K. and Abdullah, A. C.
Vol. 22 (1) Mar. 2014 A Comparative Study: Verbal Versus Printed Guiding Grid 57 Kanthimathi Letchumanan, Karthiyaini Devarajoo and Paramasivam Muthusamy
Political Cartoons in the First Decade of the Millennium 73
Faiz S. Abdullah
Diversifying the Input and the Outcome: A Case Study 85 Phuong thi Anh Le
The U.S. Geopolitical Code and the Role of the Persian Gulf Oil in the U.S. 95 Military Intervention in 2003 Saeid Naji and Jayum A. Jawan VOL. 22 (1) MAR. 2014 Exploring Lecturers’ Perception on Learning Organization Dimensions and 119 Demographic Variables in Technical and Vocational Colleges Khosrow Nazari, Zaidatol Akmaliah Lope Pihie, Khairuddin Idris and Ramli Basri
137 Taher Bahrani and Tam Shu Sim
Pertanika Editorial O ce, Journal Division O ce of the Deputy Vice Chancellor (R&I) 1st Floor, IDEA Tower II UPM-MTDC Technology Centre Universiti Putra Malaysia 43400 UPM Serdang ISSN 0128-7702 Selangor Darul Ehsan Malaysia http://www.pertanika.upm.edu.my/ E-mail: [email protected] Tel: +603 8947 1622 / 1619