. ' DOCUSENT RESUME

5 . . ED207 050 ---CS -206 .430

. . AUTHOR ,Cheney, Michael R..- TITLE, CAture writ Electronic: Themes in -, . .

PUB DATE Aug 81 . , - --3115.- Paper-presented at the Annual fleeting or the association for Education in;Journalism (64th, East Lansing, 4 August-8-11, 1981). 4 '

EDRS PRICE UP01/PCO2 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS fidvertising; *Content Analysis; *Cultural Context; Media Research; Pefsuasive DiscourSe; Propaganda41

. es *Television Commeicials

ABSTRACT' . I content analysis was mule of the advertiSements broadcast during a half-hoh; of:Prime-timettelevision, in an effort r - to discern tlap overt (obvious) and covert (underlying).themes present in television advertising. The analysis revealed an overt theme of a world view of individual determination, initiative, self-confidence and self-reliince, and gratification. The covert or unobtrusive theae presents a world.viey of external ddtermination in which standards are established, consumption is encouraged, and the Status quo is accepted and maintained. These two themes appeared to be at Odds with each other. One interpretation for this divergence ss'the gap between the middle-Ars ideology and the level of consumers in relation to that ideology. A second interpretition is that both themes are attempts to persuade, one. as bf agitation and the others propaganda of integration. Still a third interpretation suggetts at advertising be viewed as ritual father than as , and a such, the overt theme is of symbolic action While the covert the e is of ritual action. Each of these interpretations suggests thlit , television advertising is not so knoll a Ridden persuader of culture , . f as iris a reflection of culture. (HTH)

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,,' ..:,...., . ,4-0-r, . ' *4.-.? . f, ....,..., , 45 ,,,,,--.:,, ,v. , 1 ' 00, By - 4 i-, '1';'' ; )4 ''. Michael'R Cheney V / Assist= Professor '4,5 ' . Depattient of Human Communication -,'... ,,,..1^,,,,, I - RutgersUniversity .11110, New Brunswick, New Jersey

S. '"PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THIS , MATERIAL HAS SEEN GRANTED BY . Michael R. Cheney

TO THEEDUCNTIONARESOURCES INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC)."

,

resenterto the Qualitative Studies Division,'Associationfor Education ournaliimLAnhualaiifhicion*st Augu-st-1981i S

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/ 11TELEVISION-ADVERTISING 7

F \ By ,v .40

M ichael R: Cheney

I. :.Administrative and Critical

'Much bag; been made of adVertising's "influence" on public life.Samuel e \s, nl Johnsort first- suggested that advertisers ."play too wantonly with our paSsions. d ' . . More recent inquiries, sL*h as thse on the lubliminal seduction of advertising,

. - 1 ,do little more than rephrase and update this contention:,

_ Scholarly study of advertising, attempting to provide a more systematic,

less impressionistic analysis of the question of "influence," has only recently

flourished.An index of journalsincommunicationthrough 1974 lists over half

. 3 of all Studies on advtising being published since 1970. The two major journals

.1' , bi 461. in advertising, Journalof Advertising and the Journal of Advertising Research, 4 / / N were begun only ten 4kd twenty years ago, respectively.An finally, recent

bibliographies of advertising research, suggest that almost three-fourthsof all

4 studiis on adverti g were published in the .19701s. / t . These recent Aiudies of.adirertising fall into three groups--those which ry study advertising an institution, such as reports on how outside developments !, s (e.g. produci 1/065.0.es) influence the operation and trandidision of advert

tieing messages,,: those which study Advertising Messages, such as inquiries,which

, 11 6 determine what constitutes a deceptive advertisement for chil en; and thos,e . ,which study the,recoption of advertising 'messages, such as investigationg of

audience preferences in editorial. and program content by heavy mediauser;.' ___ la each oitheSeicategories, the underlying idea is that advertising is

a tool, albeit of , usedfor particular purposes and that advertising,

, , 15 4 V5v.

y 3 S. 4 o4 3

a ot* N ) 2

research attempts to make advertising better understood and used,as a tool. Such-an Approach is ideitical_with_ae-approach_ taken_ia_much_of...mans_communica.-_

.tion research, be it in adrtising,ve entertainment or journalism. And as Paul

_,,, .e Lazarsfeld initially, and,Michael Realmore recently suggested, such research r ,c I, is administrative in nature.8 1. i As they noted, administrative research is "carried through in the service . . % . ) . .. . of some kind of administrativeagency of public or private citaracter.0 Usually. --,.. . . , , .. such research.is intent on addressing and solving parAiculam problems.The end ,, .,, . , result of adminstrative research is usuallya refinementin, strategypr method.

. . By and large, the bulk of advertising research addsto one's understanding of .

. . thd effectiveness of an advertisement and thus serves the'adverfising,industry

an agency of private character. . f In contrast to administrative 'research, Lazarsfeld pasited the idea of

.. crticali research.Accordingto his thinking, Tical research respires that,

% . in 'addition tc0 whatever specificpurposeisNo be served bya study, the general . . , ,,... role of communication in the present social system should also be studied.Thus,

,critical research is different from administrative research in that "it,develops 4', . , . , . ", . A theory ail the prevailing social trends of our times . . . and it seems to imply. lk- ,ideas of basic human values."10 4

... 3,. .. % 4,.s.It vas the critical theorx,of the Frankfurt. School which ,informed much of . . ..,A . . , . ,Lazaisfeld's thinking about critical research.While based on psychoanalysis

. . t . and aesthetics, more recent refinedenti.and advances in critical research have

involifed sociology and political economy. Other influences on critical, research a . .. , have-comefrom anthropology ind)philosophy.11 . . -N . / In differing from administrative research, critical research not,onlymval-

2 I . , . crates the role of communication in society, it may also suggest in a critical . . , ,

fashion what changes may be needed to reshape mass communication for the- , oad.

4 p , 4 4 '4.

I I. A betterment of the individual and society. Snch an objective, within the thinking aflazarsfeld,'doeas not negate nor diminish the ongoing study of mass communica-

tion. Rather, he suggested t t "if it were included in the general spread of . e communication research, it cou d contribute much in terms of challenging problems . Ik . . . , - t and new cOncepts."I2 . )

In the area of advertising research this is particularly true. As noted

earlier, much of the research in advertising is administrative in nature--focusing

. , on issues of strategy or method. What critical research that does exist has 13 more often been intent on popularization than serious analysis andcritique.

S Nevertheless, those works which have seriously studied institutions ofadvertising

and messages of advertising, have usually challenged thethinking of advertisers

and tbe, public. . Among those few studies of advertising as aninstitution,.the work ot David a Potter, although several years old, is perhaps the most notable:In reviewing

she historical and economic development of advertising as an institution, Potter

came to the tconclusion that advertising was one of alimited group of social

institutions which he labelled "instruments of social control.""These institu-

tions ," he wrote:/ .

guide the life of the indi vidual by conceiving of him in a dia-

,

- tinctive way and encouraging hiliNto conform as far asp ossible

1 . tattle concept. .. eAdvertising appeals pr to thedesires,

the wants--cultivbted orinatural--of the inaiyidualand it sometime5

'offers as its gdat a power to command the envy of others by outstripping

1, 14 themin the consumption of goods and --a vices.

-yr Like otherwo rks inthe critical tradition, Potter embodied in,his analysis

the "theory_of the.prevailing_social trends of the times" whichLazarsfeld found

( , to be a key characteristic of critical research.

. . 6 ; 4 1.

4 ( 4 41hile more recentstudies of advertising ind,9iutpns have been piesented, % i.* ey have usually beenwithin the framework of a latger study of culture and / society. A ncitable exception'is Stuart Ewen's study of the early years of

advertising in which advertising is presented lean instrument of lode].

Control, A theme. of Potter's, but one not cited in the rather expansive biblio- .

' . graphy ofadvertising commentary and research..15 :tie of Critical research hap. als6 addressed the message aa.symbol systems of --- 1 v e-_.--- advertisipp Such studies have attempted to construct the "pecuniary 'Iosophy"

embodied in advertising, as Jules Henrx did in Culture AgainstMan.16These PI t-.- . .. - .- studies have also attempted semiotic investigations of advertising, as illustra- I . ted by Vard4 Leymore's Hidden Myth and 'Judith Williamson's DecodingAdvertisements,"

, Most/recently, Erving Goffman studied' several hundred"advertilements to

explicate the prevailing social trends of our times with regards to gpnder rela-

, tionshipsHis studies did not suggest the manipulative posture of advertising

Chat the studies of Potter and Ewen suggested. Instead, Coffman envisioned

advertisements as rituals. In commenting on the ritualistic nature of adver-

., tising, he wrotethat: .. ...0 #. Aadvertisers do not create the ritualized expressions they empaoy; they . . .

' seem to drax.upon,the same corpus of displays, the same ritualidiom,

that is the resource ,of all of us. whoparticipate in social situations,

gnd tp,the_same end: the rendering ofglimpses of action readable. If

anytiing, adVertieers.conventionalizeour own conventions, stylize what

is lieadx 4 stylization, make frivoloui use of what is already some- , r thng consillerably cueoff from contextual controls. Their hype is " i jperritualization."1'.

t / . - , . In such a foimulation, GoffMantis.wbrk differs radical* feom much of the

earlier, work cited. Instead of adopting"thi manipurative model of much critidal

4 6' . 0' 6 . Jr , 0 % ..,

% the.advertisements'aimply represent oursocial , research,' poffman argues that .

life, In so doing, he not ohlyrchallengessomeymitivel reaenrch;-bUt--A-1-Pi-mtia

of the administrative research which attemptsto-ascertain how o'he manipulates 19 and shapes consumer attitudes and behaviors.

Critical communicatioA.research, whetheraf,the institutional level of

Potter and Ewen or at the message or symbol systemlevel of Henry, Leymore'

the lives of individuals , and Coffman, evaluates the role.of mast; cemmunication'in

. and society with the objective of suggestingand developing, where necessary,'

fundamental changes in thi understanding and use of masscommunication.

Given the paucity of advertising research within acritical

ges the'phrpO of the 'following will be to evaluate therole of advertisiulmes . r ing 'in the lives o ndiViduals and society to contribute tothis small, but gr

body of critical advertising literature.

I1 %\i!ethods of Critical:Analysis'.

In writingon critical communication researchin the early 1940'i, Laza rsfeld

argued that "the main task of research is to uncoverthe jnintentional (fortche

...... ving ha its most pari) and often subtle ways inwhich the media coatribute to

and social attitudes." The manner or methodin whidh this is uncovered, - 20 Lazaisfeld noted0,"is not easy."

The methods used in critical analyeSit varywidely. The work of Goffmin,

for instance, utilized "frame analysis" tosuggest the nature of gender relation-

. 1 , inelisages, ships embodied in print advertising. The other studies of advertjsing I 0, I // specifically thoseok Leymore and Williamson, analyzedprint advertisements..in .-;

terms of signifiers,signifiedsand signs of meaning aemioticp:' And the work

those studies of Potter and Ewen,relied on on advertising as an institution, . 4, historical anaiysis toeva luate advertising.21

ti 7 6

One of the original methods of_critical_ana4sisis theme analysis, specific-

ally explicating,the,overt end covert themes of masscommunication messages. In " one ofthe first studies to use this method, "Television and the Patterns of Haw . Culture," Theodore Adorno charaxterized the intentione,ofthematic analysih and a . . \ . critical inquirAbenrhe-,stated that "we are notconcerned with the effectiveness .1 . . / '4 of any particular program or show, we are concernedwith the nature of present ,, day television and its imagery.' Going further, Adornoco, ntended that' it is in ...... the study of this imagery that one discovers"the prevailing ideology of or ,.. ( 4 H22 %lame, 1 a . In articulating the ideology of thetime theme analys is argues that, mass

which contribute to communication messages4ensist1.of seve'ral layers of meaning

/the overall meaning of the message. While sensitive-to different levels of

-meaning, Adorno argued that most mass communicationmessages have two major

levels of meaningovert and hidden (orcovert)." .

The overt theme or level of meaning, s thereadily faMiliar and obvious

obvious ', II messagen, ofmass communitation. This theme or motif can be, the

n+ appeal of anadvertisement, "the consumption of a softdrink brings happiness. .

I - or the motifof an entertainment program,"rural life (ala The Waltons) is

. . harmonious and wonderful."

is hot publiminal nor ,The coverttheme in the mass communication message

unconscious, assome would argue, butis merely unobtrusive in ;emus of the total

message.Quitefrequently the covert meaning or themeis the background against

which the overttheme is placed. The covert theme could be the cancerousnature . . of cigarettes, inspite of the overt suggestionthat they provide a taste ofthe

country,o; the urban quality of modern life, contrary to thestiburbaniiiali e of Eight Is Enough.

In hypothesizing multiple level themesin masa communication messages,Adorito.1/4,

I 7' / various psychological levels argued, that such messages "enthrall thespectatorqn .

Such,a psychologicalinvolvementAllows, Adorno 'claimed, for simultaneously." .4** 24 In fact, such masscommunica- . aless than consistents et of themes or'tootifS, \ . Whether that tion messages may embqdy contradictory overt,and covert themes. h f . ,.. the prevailing ideology of the is in fact the case depends to a large extent on 4 time,whiZh,finds 'its articulation in mass communicion messages. television In his study, Adorno fetind that the overtand covert themes of

.prograringwere diametrically opposed. The overt themes of suchprogramming,.

Adorno argued, represented the imagery,ofan earlier middle-class society,

while the covertthemes portrayed a morecOnfased and contradictory world, one middle-class. which corresponded rather closely tothat lived in by the present such disparate The success of the analyzedprogramming and the acceptance.of and themes was the result of. the fact, Adornoclaimed, that."the more opaque desper- complicated moderti life becomes, th'e morepeople Are tempted to cling

. ately to cliches which seam tobring some prderinto the others.,ise unun.d4rstadd-

25 . able."

A more recent study of overtand covert themes intelevision programming,4.T. Brown; "Prime Time Television and EmergingRhetorical Visions" by William provides differs withn# onots and suggests that current television programming 0 inconsistent visions'of modern life which cannotbe used for successful social ,

organization and action.As such, according to'Brown, they are unsatisfactory

rhetorical visions in that they `do notprovide "an internally consistent

symbolic reality that confers integration uponthe felt-quality of Americanlife."2

It is worth notingithat themeanalysis, such asthit-6f Adorno and Brown,

does not dictate a preordainedinterpretation and understanding of mass comMUn- & of .1..- As shown above, Adorno suggestedthat television programming ication messages. ,

provided a cliche ideology forliving% while Brown argued that television &

S 9 4

I)

8

.....prograzzaing-..provided -nosy aresTiaticidep-logy fOrriffing, cliche or otherwise.

In the, analyses of Brown and Adorno, the suggestionis thatcovertand

view, characterise the symbolictele- covert themes, and the resulting world e . i In point of fact,theJeGthemea portlay the motifsof the vision environment. e- televisionprogrammingelirciTioent, ignorin 'or subsuming the themes of tele- , , visioil advertising.The assumptionimpliede\insuch studies is that televis

- , advertising is not worth consideration. Thia.maylm due to the belief that

television advertising.is thematically similar to televisionprogramming. How-

every more realist ically, this lack of considerationis probably the result of

scholars feeling. that television advertisingis a qualitatively inferior cult4ral

expression which is not Worth consideration. tther attitude goes against current

thinking and writing. As Bob Shanks has recently contended,television adver-

tising is intricately-Eelated_to television programming. Specifically, television

programming is usually- constructed in a "bland" fashion so as notto seriously 4 engage the viewers,but rathex_to allow television advertising to more deeply 27 affect acid engage the receivert.'* Consequently, Shanksconcu4 with Boorstin, . ---.. . .,1 . '. Phelan andothers that advertising provides the truestrepresentation of the

1 ' 28 ideoiogy of your times. As a result, advertismentsmaybe more appropriately'

understood as the quintesbential mass communication message forcritical

research Vith theme analysis a proper means for.such research toascertain

141- theprevai/ifg,ideology of these times.:

III. Thematic Analysis% Data and Procedures A The television advertisements for thisavert and covert. theme analysis came'

from onertele,s worth of prime time television. Using a sampling procedure, the

author randomly selected half -bout segments, from the threecommercial teldii ion

rnetWOrk8 during One of the television industry's sweep weeks.In c hoosing a

4

vew 10 P . . t '9-

,, swell) period, the author assumed that the televisionindustry, intent on Attract-

, int:the largest audience possibie, would present some of the befitprogramming , . 4'0 . and that the advertisihg ipdustry* intent onmaking the most impact, Mould offer

its best advertisements -during-thiti-period. - . After editing the itideotapes to eliminate allprogramming,, promotions and

18cal advertising, the national advertisementswere analyzed for overtand covert t

themes, using the definitions of.Adorno and Brown toclarify the nattire of vA4it

theme. The author-chose to eliminate local advertisingin the belief that local

advertisements donottavean impacton thenational prime time audience..

The resulting themes were then organized in termsof the major overt and covert theme ,present in televisionadvertising. Here, the concern was1 with the "relative signif;cance" of the various themes tothq larger Norld view

presented, not with tile statistical frequency withwhich particular theme's

.* 29 as ' occurred. The following discussion it of the typeGerbner has defined

"consequence meaning-oriented" where the.emphasia is onthe value of the partic- 4 ular meaning to the overall research program orinquiiy"-

IV. Theme Analysis

-Much of.tgebcommentary which panses for serious criticism support

. of advertising, selects particular. aspects ofadvertising-2a blatantly sexist

commercial here or a particularly creative commercialthere--and argues 'ther - for or against advertising's influence onPublic opinion,and behavior. - purpose of thd following analysis and discussion is toavoid such seldaive

fashion the overt s commentary, instead, the author will analyze in a holistic

and crovertl themes which pervade the'commercialtelevision Advertisini environ- ..,

ment. Toward that end, Ithe following will detail theovert themes which are . / manifest in television advertising and 'thenpre'sent the covert themes which I 1 4 ".

...Ar -

underlie these overt motifs. , I" 110'; 01.4rt ,.Themes I , the fundamental overt theme in theprime time television advertising em!ir.ter, 4. onment is4the need and importande.f satisfaction and self-glori9.caton.

While evidenced in most.idvertising, theme is most.apparent in the beauty

$ and cosmetic commercials which make upalarge part off the television 4d ertising

" environment. Consider, asa first example', the following dialogue from a

11. commercial in which a man and a woman, against a neutral backdrop, carry on 4

. the following discussion:.

. _WOMAN: When I started to go gray,it made me feel old and grumpy. - SAN: _Yes,aI remember that.

WOMAN: idetikdow about Toying Care then. Now I just wash away

my.gray and wash in my own natural color.'Loving Care is

really 'different. And it is gentle becauseoving Care has

no perogides. Me gray?No wayI I'm too young to:look old:

,MANCBut y9u still get a little grumpy. % ANNCR: Loiing Care, Only from Clairfl. Because youl,re tdo,young I to -lookold:31 fi . Like other cosmetic.product advertisements, thiscommercial emphasizea they . . - ,importante of individual satisfaction and ye11-being. The woman,!s contention'. :-. 6 % e , I that gray'V hairmakes her "feel old 'and grumpy" and herlater declaration that do. r"I" tooyoung to look olir evidenceaconcern for individualsatisfactlbn pn m , a.physical and:emotionalletl." The actualstructure of the commercial further

acknowledging" encouarges thisovert theme. The woman talks of her dilemna without - or addressing the man.The realization of satisfaction and wellkeing,are defined V in ,terse of the individual's effort and choice. Outside parties are not-important

12. .4. v 4.

S. /. 41 * a ti 1 A . .c

. I .. R .J , v 5 . of 4 . 4.

. 0: \ .' '. . - td self-satisfaction 'and selfl-realization. , 4. .. , . , other 'commercialsetliis there i$ yefingd and enlarged.Ope variation, of

), .. .'In. l. - . -. 4 , . .62'basic theme of indiiduaf choice resulting insekl-pniction is a theme u . . 1 . .. . . ,- , . , . suggesting that individual initiative produces self-improvemept and advancement.

, ... , . . , . .- _ - Set to music; the following jingle for a soft drink commercial La sung'overa .- 1 i r. s, .0 . - 11 aer ies olimisual images ofijoggers and runners and makes fais'ihedatic poifitt . CHORUS: Maratfion and cross countty,,eyerybodyli.gjy& run. t . ! Not solmuch Just to stay itshape, but because it's lots 1- $ . . .

'of ffun.. . 4? . , . ..% ... And light .refreshing.ta4e'todayls what we're looking for. ,---' Tilat is why Seven-Up itturning up nowmo!re.and mo re.

Reaching Up!' Waiking Up!

. Looking UplIr HunxiineUpl

America is turning Sego#-Up.

Moving Up! Sokging uE

4r FeellngUp 'Being Up! :,

Americas turning Severypir "Jr.. The logic f the overt theme in this commercial is that,i#aividual effort,

athletic end vorsproduceSor equals self-satisfaction and Self-impiOvement.'

t . . . o f ,o The'basicheme ,is such anti; as :everybody is on the run./Not So much

/ . .- : . # t 0 ' ." 11101" just to stay-in shape, but betause it'slots offun." And, the present valliation -: ..''.! , ismanifest is the closing refrains where individual effort is coven-4dKith) . . '.. . . , - . . 4341iMpiqrvert. Amidst images of joggers. and athletic actions,"joggingIR, kr . e . . s / 1 . I - ..,' ' -1t ', 4141"running up," the commercial mixes lyrics of self-improvement, "looking up," . ,

"feeling ty,"1."moving'upi". and ".heing-up." , I. 4 ' 1st .. . , r , ' -. a k . 41 theme-is broadened to suggest that . In spill other commeroials, thetvert

),I;iividuiii effort) productivity and choice areinterrelad and,collactively they

.. . ..

1.3 :1 -a; '4.

9 s . . p_ f 1''' - . /1. r .if .:.,define the essehce of the individual. In cosmetic'commercialsJ, for example, a .

_ . consistent theme is that individuals can create and, consequently, change their _ . . appearance,aaself. The first commercial sgggerated that "I just wash away, my

. o..- 3 gray and,slash in my own natural color.* Another example inthis self-expression . 0. . and definition motif introduces a new activitylo-face writing.'In this commercial, _-,-. .$ ... - the woman,speaks directly to the viewer, while the, camera cuts to close-opsof

the cpsmetib's application., She tells the viewertiv;t:

WOMAN: Face writing is here from Mayb.elline. It's lip writing.

It's cheek writing.Andit's easy with new lip-and Cheek

, . * ...... atyler pencils. Wrieelips with lipstick in'apencil. ,

' , . Lots of ludcious long wearing colors.Write aChe4 with

creamy soft, blendable colors.Writg a face as unique ad

your signature.. Get styler'pencild forlips, cheeks and

r- eyes. Pace writing is here from Haybelline.

The advertisement overtly equates self -expression --write lip2," write a ...... cheek" w,ith,self -definition .,wrino- a fate as u ?ique as yoursignature." .,,. A . re, , *;,.-i,, .f.f-.4 ' productivity and individuality is also The overt themeof accomp l , v .. , ,. . . . 1...,,, . 1 .present in the iumerops commercial meAsegesfor.photographiC equipmeni.From . . ." . - .,, . 1,, ..t. v- the "Can Do" cameras to the variops 35mm cameras, individualcreativity and , r- . . Cons ider . . -accomplishment areopthe signifixant ovtrt'themes in these advertisements. ..- , . o . the following advertisement-in which a min isphotographing an ice skater., The . . advertisement-visually presents the man watching the skater through the cameta . . , viewfinder apd thcp, at the end of the commercial, the woman photographing -- ( . the man. The dialogue is as follows: ,c .. . . , , MAN: Photographing Peggy Pleming was like watching a bird'in . . . flight was a perfect assignment for my Canon API. .

Unlike wst camerae, even on automatic, I get the shutten, ,

_ 14 a 13

speed I need to stoithe 'action. to-it is like Poggy'a 4 in-th e'clouds and I am with her and the shot s just happen.

Here, you try* it. Peggy. - r

WOMAN: get

MAN: It's really so; simple.All you do is focus and click.

ANNCRk The incomparable Canon A. So advanced,it's simple.

As in theAvicaocommercial,, the overt theme is individualcreativity

and productivity.The' photographer contendA that "I get theshutter speed I

11 need to stop the action. Sodt is like Peggy's inNthe clouds and I anwith her.

In this overt motif, photography becomes a creative, participatoryand indilid- , f r ually.controlledactivity.

op .In general, the overt*theme manifested in these and othertelevision.

, . advertisements is that self-initiative and effort result inself-sa tisfaction,

improvetentandaccomplishment. Theoverall worldview which emerges from such 1. I an overt...theme/is that of an active andprOdUctive lifestyle in which 'individual's . . are independent, self-reliant end self-fonfident. .1

,. Covert Themes

. . -4.' The covert themes present in television advertising contrast,if/not negate, - the over t motifs and world view discussed above..Although the overt themes 5r promote self-satisfacgon andself-glorification,thefundamental covert theme 4 , .. . suggestssternal determination Of individual well-being and essence.As a case

example, tbe.first.noted commercial for hair coiozing stated that grayhair makes

f 2) one feel old and grumpy.And in the advertisement.'s resolution, the application I

P cro - is that ynatural"colored hair,an external factor, makesone feel young andalive. *A V. : -this basic covert motif extendq.beyond matters of apjearance.In many comer- ».

. , i ciala, the product determines individual well-being. Consider the following in 0 I 1 15 .1. .. e 1 .... w 0, , . ...' .. I k.. . .4 I . t . 42 ,-.. I'. f . , i o , ) 5 r-% I . . ' . 14 \ ...- ...... A .. . , r.- which a.man is depicted showering.aia dressing for work, while over these images ....- / .1`..1; . . .- * , the following is presented: , 1. A tt .. CHORUS:Zt's a new..Dial morning andAydulie up and feeling new.

.,:..

' . itiWa clein'DLal morning and that clean belongs to you. . 1.1... , .., - . ." There's .a new day and youi bathistshowing through.

Starting,out. clan, starting out Dial, starting out pew. O

. . a MICR :, Thereis no olehaer way..to, start a ,new day than Dial is .,. 4 \lZ *dr soap.:Ebb deodorant.protection that gets you so clean

I. : youfeel yoqi.best. -.

. % 44p CHORUS: Starling put clean, starting out Dial, starting out new.

\ Like the photography commercial in which the4proper camera gave the individ '''

ual particular attributes, this advertisement conforms to the basic covert

. . 1 motif and suggests that using the particular toiletry 'Will make'one feel better A . ,-. ., and start out new. #.,40*+

. 4"c' Within this covert motif 'of external determination and control ofindividual . . -;... ..,...,...... well-being, television advertising promotesspecific social criteria or standards

. I , * r for living. These standards cap-i/aiesi-A multitude of areas aad issues: TI;e %, . . importance of idiog youngor looking young) is evident in much of the beauty

and cosmetic advertising. An4her hrea, covered in the previous commer 'al, is

. . cleanliness and its significance. The Dial advertisement stresses the need to

start ogt clean each morning by washing withdeodoraile soap.Rather,fronically, 1 proxidedifferet meanings for cleanliness. In the ' however, other commercial.a , .. , . 0.--,'' : ? 4.. following commercial, a woman andian announcer aid then her husband discuss v.

., ...... laundry.Te'conversations goes as follows: . 7 0 r , . lt. . .. ., . . s.. \ ANKH:Doesyour:iusl?andcare. aboutwahh2 .1 R. I 1 W' SAN: No, he doehn'ecare. "":." .-. .

T - t see what happens i AHHCII: Mrs. DiAxuses,,justdetergent'alone. Let's, , . e'-''''7 .44 . . . V ;fr .!.. ..:. ,. .... i- . ,._ 5 , .,: , , 4 1 , e ' .-:. N .1,6 when she adds Clorox bleach tooneof her loads.

(rojir, Diaz)Which pair of sock would you ratherwee ?

MAN:- These. 'Theyjust look calmer.Who wants to walk

in dull socks. 1 ; WOMAN; -Yes T would rather see you inthese socks also.He picked

the socks washed in Clorox.I didn't thinkClorox wodld make

. , apparently. it does.Clorox makes the . 4 % a difference,,re but ,* k 4. differvncl. I believe he,oeres.

, . c This commercial covertly not onlyreinforces the theme of externaldetermining . . biighter internal,- but also espablishds thequalitisok cleanlineds whiter and 1. 1 11 areOlKeaner." C.,

4 ' The prime time televiiion grayironmentabounds insuch covertly establishel

its implications to the criteria and standards. One of the more significant in b.

larger themes and mOtifs'is the geed for childsatisfaction, often through 9

Yr V- parental acquiescence to achila!s wants or demands. In one commercial which* - deals with this theme, a woman, against abackdrop ofplaygrouncrequipment and

4 ki4,04ith'lundh boxpi, makes the following presentation; 4

.. . .e' % 1 WOMAN:NoJimiA-That!cyour sandwich. . . . , . , . $. . Vali. As their days caxip , (To viewer) If theiraotheus,only ry k ti 4 Lunselor,,Tseekidedon'talAys eat what you pack ibi . lundh...I know mine do, now that I pack theirfavorite . )4 - 1, .. lean:Michason'ttieir, favoritebrealronder. There are . . -. ,s

. :cheaper-breads, but they are not always this frehh and

When. you send lunch, send ,^soft, the way kids likebread.

Wonder. SOft,,freshWonder. Kids eap it up.

Inline,with the general world view of the individual b g satisfied by

and attentive to external factorsand forces, the ad presented accepts a

4 d. . ,

. . t . - factor in selecting thepiodisct. C onsider- child's like or dislike as kbe major.

. . ,,,,- . A-further impli-* aiions of nutrition or cost areeither ignored or discounted. . . 1' // this commetdials thepositive nature of youth. cation of the covert motiflin/ commercials'expousing youth as atime of life and:. In,harmony with the cosmeic ( "please the youth"' leasure, this advertisement reipforcesthis standard with the

,.. theme.' / . # .1 grdtiiication Another variation of the ,basic covertmotif of acceptance and . . dependence on the-- by extergal sources is the encouragementof Continued use or , marketing implications. 4dvertised products or services. Such a theme has obvious 1- . 411 s however, such a theme !lore importantly forthr(elevision advertising environment, standaFds,presented by tele- gives added 'significance tomaintaining particular . theme-- The beauty and cosmeticcommercials illustrate this viaion commercials. . *' "natural!: color everytime the wash every morning with Dialand wash in your own . ''' % . covert motif gains even gray begins torreappear. Thip variation aRf the general improved"%conteXt which informi the more importance when putinto a "new and

. standards have been raised and youneed to keep ' consumers of the need tokeep upthe

up with this betterquality of life. commercial Which The-covert world view can beillustrated by.the following alsoithe need Co be aware not only suggeststhe variation of continued use, but grandmother, a mother and of the-most currentimandarde. In A ilyndry room, a

her daughter-enact thefollOwing: CHUM Grandma make amistake Mohey. She di4It't OultClinglrreee 4 e 4 GRAMMA:, I bought new andimprov ed Clihg Pree, with sp?ihgtime , softness fresh fragrance:lidCling Predhas thousands qf ;# . ' cells with4peciatsoftners to make youi whole laundry

soft. No static cling andeverything :liens springtime

1 ' , And Cling-Free is. more conveni than the white clean. . :/. na,r ."18 5' M. 4 fi

., a.

ro'

4 17

al" sheets. From the box inta the dryer.

1. AMR:. Get'Cling Free with new springtime freshness. Its softness made simple. . A Not only does this commercial suggebt the continued use and the' general

* motif of outside agents affecting internal actions, but the advertisement also fla. I adds new qualitie to the general standard of cleanli ss mentioped above.Here,

cleanliness is defined is soft, 'free of static, and imeling,. clean.

In each pi, these characteristics, a,quality not directly related to cleanliness

becomes associated with the general concept of cleanliness.The success of such

an equation is dependent upon the more general motif of external determining

the inner nature. of something or someone. One is not young unless one's hair

is a "natural" color.And one's clothing is not clean unlbss it is whiter,

brighter, soft,Iree of static and smelling'springtime clean.

This commercial also embodies a third variation of the covert motif of

acceptance and acquiescence. Hex!, the given orddr of society, tha status quo,

4 4 is accepted and glorified. In the advertisemenWthe presence of static cling --- is accepted as part of rdern e. The origins of the static cling, man:-made

drying which replaced fresh airtying, are never questioned or cohsiderea.

Bather, the manmade problem (y tic cling) is solved with a man-made solution 'V . ek (the product)06d, in the proces, alost.attrilike of fresh air drying (the

smell) is also given a man-madeolution and replacementoa chemically produced e . e "springtime smell." ...... t . . This third variation, the a cep;ance of man-made problems, or at least the 1 . . ., 4,,, coping with thg problems by devising varioussolutions to diminish. those problems,

.; p" is.evident muc h of the pitin,remedy advertising: Cdnsidep the following in

which'several individuals are interviewed by anoff-screen announcer: %

..' * AMOR: When you've got a headache, what does extra-itrength . . . . 4,1,... i . .;. x'.

4 . c. wJ , ,.. ti

# 18

C mid 'to you?

WOMAN:'(Standing in busy metropolitanarea) %t mean s a crummy

a headache wart ruin your day., It mewsExcedrin.

k : WOMAN/2: (Pointing to fighting children inbackground) Extra- strength R ..1 : means relief from this. It means E' edrin.

MAN; (on construction site) Extra-strength means notfeeling - a the painm4ymore. Extra-strength means Excedrin..

A The covert world view of this Commercialembodies all three of the variations

discussed taus far. In terms of the firstvariation, the establishment of stand-

ards or,critdria, the. advertisement suggests thatfreedom from paid is achievable

without a ltering the situationthat may haveencouraged. or Caused the pain. As

for the second variation, which encourages repeated useand consumption, the ,

home or at work A advertisement suggests product use when one is op, the town, at . ; \1/4_,.., .. acciptahee of, the status so as to not "ruin 'yourday."The third variation, the

quo, is presented in theAtolerationof' the hectic pace of the metwolitan area, :11r the turbulent nature of family and home life(here ihesupremacy,of the child is

"again reinforced); and the stresses' and strains fro working. .

- This covert world view is alai) presented in thecommercials for home protec-

tion and robbery insurance which accept the hazardandprescribes) the remedy.

Thitsame theme is also evident in,' the variouscommunication-related advertise- e , , mints on television. Against a visual m ontage of two familiesand'their

activities,-including a phone conversation, the following,ispresented: a MORNS: Your friends, they live so far from you andkeeping)them . , a , . !

.. close is so easy to do.

. s Riaacteout, reach out and touch someone. , , . x ) . , Reach out, reach out and just saphi: , A- 4 , Beach out, reach out and touch someone. 19

AMOR: Don't let those newifriends get away. A Eftlephone call ,, now and then will bring them closer. ThWiewaiting

to. hear from you. So reach out and-touclt someone.

4 Give them a caill I. it this commercial, the overt themeof;active participation and touching

is counterpointed try a covert motif of indiyidual septtionand fragmentation,

aid its acceptance. No longer can one maintain frietds and neighborsin the'

manner of earlier times, the commercial covertly suggests.Ti busy movement' th/ and mobility of modern life makes, it important for one, toadapt -and cope with

N.- the present state of affairs. Overtly one is encouraged to'seek individual

satisfaction, while dovertly,the commexcialsuggests acceptingthe status quo

and ignoring the larger social issues which contribute tothis fragmentation. IM A final example of thisvarigtiRillid the covert world view is preiented

a beauty and cosmetic commercial inwhich a woman, against a neutral

backdrop, makes the, following presentation:.

if Yourhair NOIKAN: Like your hands, your hair gets adpped too.

is rough, dried 'but, crackedthat's-chappedlairand yogi

need the conditioner forchapped hair.Breck's secret % . . formula penetrates into each cjiapped1fair,treats'the

4, damage and piotectsthelair with no oil* feel. For

. . healthy, vibrant hair with body bythe,handful. : . : Not only does this.advertisement covertly suggestthat particular probiems . . . , institutions and companies, but it also obscures the can be solved by existing . . -,.. . r .,.. , . 4 * cause of the particular probleandblqrs.thelogic of the acceptable 'alterna- x 1 tivie t Here, a"secret formal to recreate the

..' _ 1 ,huir suggested. An earlier hair coloringcommercialtp4ited that dhe could . . . ''.. -4, . one's "natural" hair color.In each Case? natural tomes from a bottle V&A . , ,. 1 V ' a'.1 . +.x...,, . ,,,, , .. . . . I ' ,: . .,. 21 . 4. h. 1 ,-. a

co

'20

L' and one is given a covert motif of acceptance of the given order and is presented

with other themes which legitimize this wor a view.

A final theme present in the 1covert w rld, view. of television advertising

.is that-ofa fragmented world in which each element is separate and isolated from

. . other elemets. Sucha theme is presented in physical and symbolic terms% 4' Physically, the television environment is'composed of a set of discrete

units or spots-.II The vier is presented with a commercial for one product,

then another product, then a service, then another product, etc. Irrthe prime

-a time televisionenvirobmjent, the order of arrangement of particular commercials

before or after other advertisements is arbitrarily determined.The resulting

logic regar'ding television advertising is fragmentation. Each commercial can

. ( . be presented in luny time spot, between any two commercials, and the meaning ..,

.1 -9 does. not cha nge. -*' .. ...1.'a . r '1. Symbolically, the theme of fragmentation is given even stronger preientation. . , Each adVertisement, as thus far shown, takes a very narrow approach to a par-

_ ... , . , 44, ticular problem and suggests a. solution within very narrow parameters. By way

of example1, theearlier advertisement forha/ir coloring suggested that simply

washing in one's natural hair color would result in a youthful individual. This

, i , narrow approach ignores the importance andinterrelationships of 'ad* aspects . . N of youthful appearanceage, postuie, dress, skin tonean d color, and overall . ,

appearance. In face, one can ideate within the piima time television environment - #- changing one's dress a variety of advertisements which, suggest that by simply 1 ' - . - or moisturizing o e's skin one cqn'become young.

. : "'.., in both physical and symbolic terms, the covert theme of fie station . -, ,,, ...... presents. the individual, as well as society, as an assemblage of parts, each . '''.4... q . " t of which can be improved or changed without relating to other parts ngr

changing the overall structure. . . 22 gi 0

7 1, `21 0 In general terms, thmajor findings of this analysis of the prime time

television advertisipi en Ironment suggest contradictory themes and motifs.

*Overtly, thesete'llvision.advertisements encourage a world view of individual

. , . determination, initiative, self-confidence and self-reliance. The covert iij d b themes, in contrast, present a world view of external determination in which 04-, standards are established, saumption is encouraged, the status quo is

accepted, and fragmentation it characteristic of modern life;..'

V. Interpretations .

In discussing the presepce of divergent oveit,and cover' themes in tele-

. r vision programming several years ago, Adorno suggested that this gap represented

, . . a thematic split in the national consciousness.Specifically, he wrote that:

the durse of modern culture seems to be its adhdrence to the almost

. . _ i .. ,unchanged ideology of earlier middle-class society, whereas the lives F ,.. 01 itt Consumers are completely out of phase wit this ideology. This '.

is the probable reason for the gap between the o ert and the "hidden" 32 1 messages of modern popular art.

re Extending Adorno's thinking to the findings of the(resentstudy, one

interpretation for the divergent themes or motifs in telvision advertising a I is that the overt theme of individual initiative and eff t producing pelf - improve-

went and self-satisfaction (a !variation on the free ente rise theme) is a cliche

ideology, out of phase with the lived ideology. Further, the covert themeiwhieh '

suggests dependence on the existingcommercialenterprise is the lived ideology

of these times. In,a simple formulation, Adornb's thinki would suggest a

political interNetatiopthe individual living in modern capitalisticisociety

clings to the ideologyof free enterprise and initiative, although the individual

is realistically weddedto an ouoing system which cannot be changed, but merel

23 I '' .7-'. '' o,..,k I, r .''' t , r- .V ,_' ? . . .

Xp, I .. . . ., I . s .- `2Aceepted. . 3'4 .w .. ,'/.. o. r .,, S Adornolde-ap represent butone interpretation o these theme's.wereare

,,. ... . other interpretitions which can broaden out-understand' of hoer these ert end . . . . '"?., t , An' covert themes,cap,I:coexiit and also of the filature of the ideology of ou imes 4 ''' '...1 N . - '''' % ',.d. I 40 that goes beyond the pOlitical aiid economic, notions of the Frankfurt S ool. e ", as --.... A second interpretation is to take both the overt and covert the . , attempts to persuade.Then, within such general boundaries, one can f

, the thinking,of Jacques Ellul and suggest,phat the overt themes repress what

Ellul calls "propaganda of agitation,"while the covert themes represe 11propa-

ganda'of integration."33 ;

. 'In Ellul's formtilation, propaganda of agitation takes the individ . . 4 . "out of his everyday lifev.his-normal framework, andplunges him into enthusiasm I . 4 e . and adventure; it opens to him hitherto Unsuspected possibilities,and suggests . . t % , extra-oidinary goal that nevertheless/ seem to him completely withinreach."4 . ow o Propaganda. of integration, n-cont6st, according to.Ellul,"aims at making) A , the individua l participate inert s society in every,way.': Such propaganda "seeks

to obtain stable behaviur, to tdapt the individual tohis everyday life, to 05 reshape his thoughts and behavior in terms of tht permanent socialsetting.

. a. on an . tAthin these terms, the television advPrtisingi environment presents

- , ,overtlevelsa the4e of Ehange,and "go forAll the gusto" which fits nicely

within the idea of propaganda of agitation.Covertly, the teleVision advertising . .- . . . t enviroumenppresents propaganda of integration which suggests accepting the t ...... status quo and the establrstandardsshed- of behavior. . . . , I' . :

. The problem with such, an interpretation is thatEllul's theoretical structure

does not explicitly deal with the notions of overt and covert themes. Further,

. . -; - v Ellul denies the existence of propaganda of agitation and propaganda of Integra- l Lt ,tion in the same society_at the same time, much less in the same message.11...._ ..,, . , .

.

se o.- se- .e

23

for the successful use of each typeof outlines very specific characteristics of this paper to takeEllul's propaganda. It is obviously,beyodd the scope formulatioi ideas and thoroughly _explore thepossibility of such a theoretical

for overt and covert themessemuch less arguefor the coexistence of these

two types'of propaganda. and, covert A third, alternativeinterpretation.of the reported overt addressee themes.is based on the most recent workof- Clifford Geertz and Namely, this some of the same pointsdiscuesed in thework of Goffman. understood as interpretation suggests the some aspectsC61 advertising may be Geertz ritual, not as persuasion;....47 h recentarticle, "Blurred Genres,"

Amor* those - offers a review'of the different methodsused to study societies; _ .. .' divergent approaches methods, Geertz gives particularattention to So see4lingly by the work of Kenneth to the study of social life. One approach, typified with the expressive Burke, but'also including the workof Adorno add Ellul,deals

. ie on the nature of communication. Within this orientation,' the emphasis or' manifesepeaning of social action andJuni-oneactor's message persuades 36 exemplified affects another actor's thoughts orActions. ..' A second approach, of by the work of VictorTurner and others,addresses the experiential nature

ritual meaning in social action and' communication. Here, the.focus is on the integra"te,pdsolidify social lifer notllowthet- how communication messages . , 37 agitate or persuade. Y notes: . In the ongoing study of sociallife, these two approaches, Geertz

rather opposite directionst theritual theory towards

r the affinities of 'theater and religiondrama asclikimunion, the

temple as sttige; the symbolic 'actiontheory toward those of .18 theater and rhetoric- -drama aspersuasibe, the platform as mutually This quote should not suggest,however, that the two approaches are

25. A 6'

24

Rather, as Geertz argues, thea0 approaches address different opects Tiusive. of social life which mean "rather different things, and thus have rathei

. ..: . 1 39 different implications for social fife.""Ic In his recent study* Negara, 4 , .: Geertz demonstrates how Balinese culture in the, 19th century relies on both types

, . ,. of social actionsymbolic action and ritual action--to sustain the political, 40 structure of the society. , r 4

In general: terms, Geertz argUes iniNegara that social lifeneeds both

symbolic action and ceremonial action for continued existence.As Quentin

Skinner recently argued, the significance of such a contention is that much

. ; of Western culture relies too much onA view of social lifeas symbolic action

. and, more importantly, power as'persu asiop and manipulation. A failure to

acknowudge and appreciate the ritualistic aspects of social life, accordipg

to Skinner, "may now be Serving to inhibjit rather than clarify our under .41 standing.not merely ofalien cultures, but also of ourselves. ,

Such an , it is here suggested, can be found in critical

studies of advertising. Amidst many of the works on advertising, the overriding

. as#umption is that all aspects of advertising are persuasive, or at least

intent 'on persuasion. From the more scholarly works of Ewen and Williamson

to the more sensational.books by Key, the theme is that we are being manipulated. P This general perspective is also evident in the work of Adorno and El/ul.The

: original' overt and covert theme analysis of Adorno suggested capitalistic

4 /BS persuasion, while Ellul's propaganda of agitation' and integration suggested a

. more general vies+ of manipulvion.

Clarifying our understanding, Geertz is suggesting, involves Accommodating

both syMbolic action and ritual interpretations. In critical ComMunication

studies, the work of Goffman.which stresses the "hyper4itualizat,ion" of

. , advertising provides but One exegesis which suggests .that the importance and

.

26 sZ' . 4/ I

g25 A IP' and ificauce of advertgingto understandingthe ideology of, our timesgoes

10/114 beyond,simple manipulation.Apcordiulyr" the fthdihgs from the.present study 41- can-also be lbtepreteettithin the guidelines suggestedby Geertz.

, Sjecifically, the prime tidh television advertisementuses both rhetorical .,=. , . r, : and ritualistic modes of 4 A communication, much like Balinese culture. In tele- " I > % i ...... viiipn ' adverb,ing,the overt themes of individual action and choice7-thesales

message-are themeb of symbolic action. Copywriters formulate.their appeals !) 4 and arguments on this leveland in this vein with the 4 4 , explicitintention of

persuading the individualthat particular goals can be reached and particular

...., . / lifestyles lived. ay. 4 4 I Within the prime time television commercial, the,clvertmotif--the mainten . ante of the statusquo--is of a alistic mode,a communication. In those JP Variations on thislpetif, each workstoward the communion of minds which is .

.- -- realized in"ritual communiOttion . , . . 0. P- Whilepotentiallybble to contradict andnegate eaoNother, the themes of

prime time television advertisingactually work to reinforce and complement

,tf, 9 each other, much like-aymbolic actionand ritual worked to- maintain 19th ; \ ,century Balinese c4tore as described in Geertz's Ne ara. In television adver- . . . . . tisipg, the covert, ritualistictheme of the status quo becomes the backdrop

,--- .. . _ ofthelfaiiliar and accepted ofsocial. life. The live .t9elity of the culture, 4 ve ; . thrOUgh, such a ritualized worldrview, ielegitimized. , 4 , #. . . t , A4nst background,. the oVert,,symboiiaction thede of individuality' . V becoMes the figure in the figure-groupd relati4thinof the television advertise- ; do' 4 menes-theiatic str*ttit e'. The Tesult is A highly dynamic,aAangement which . .. . . , : provides a prov cative ,fret familiar communicationmessage.. , , .the signi icanceof tele,ision advertising,then, is not in the foisting. .- . ,...1,,, . Y' . of products 0.servicevon ehe public. -4, Rather, it is in the mini-dramas in which , , v ... , p. .... , . . , . . . _V% . 4. .'.' . 6 st le . .1 1, . s . hr.

25='

, . . overt themes of symbolic action are enacted against 'a background of thefamiliar

.. . o le an4 stable. 1 . . P

1. 4 In conclusion, television advertising is too often cast as thehidden

persuadexof our -culture by peopleWhoothw ise advocatean interactive

approach to communication and culture." The present paper seeks to suggest

that television advertising can also be considered and understood in a more

fiumanisiic,mannet by addressing both persuasive and ritualistic dimensions of

the advertising message.The consequence is in not viewing television advertising

as deduction or exploitation, but as culture writ electronic.

+Or

. .

11

/ a

vA ,C!=

9

1. ii , ..w. a 4 ea4 a

'1,. a. '28 ''.:,.. I, , 4/1.... .to . . . t, \----

. I ..0". , Footnotes ...- ...... 1Skmuel Johnson; Idler, 1759 . . .- _ , 2 ..."" Brian Filson Key, The Clam Plate Orgy (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice- . ,.. . Hall, 1180); John Wright (ed:), The Commercial Connection (New York: Delta, ,

. 1979).- . - , 4 3 . Ronaldidatlon and Irene Matlon (eds.), The Index to Journals in Communica-

. tion Through 1974 (Falls Church, VA; Speech Communication Association, 1975).

4 Curries Ramond, Advertising Research -(New York:.Association of National . Advertisers,1976); and Thomas Gordon and Mary Ellen Verna Ws.), The Effects

. , ... of Mass Communication (1:104erly Hill's, CA: Sage FuWcations, 1979 I 5 Fred W. Morgan, t., "The Products Liability Consequences of Advertising,"

- . ... i ...

Journal of Advertising, Vol ...8, No. 4 (1979), pp. 30-37. .

6 Thomas E. Barry, "A. Framework for Ascertaining in Children's

.

Advertising," Journal of Advertising, Vol. 9, kb. 1 (1980), pp. 11-18.

7ChiistineD. Urban, "Editorial and Program Choices, of Heavy Media Users,"

Journal ofAdvertiSing, Vol. 9, No. 1 (1980); pp. 32-43.

8 Paul Lazarsfeld, "Adminigtrative and Critical Communications Research,"

Studies in Philosophy and Social Science, Vol. 9 (1941), pp. 2-16; and Michael

..i Real,"MOia.Theory," Amercan Quarterly, Vol. 8 (1980),, pp. 238-258.2'

9 Ibid., p. 8. 10 a '!.' ibid., Jp. 10. e

. 11

See James Curran, Michael qurevitch and Janet lioollacott (eds.), Mass .

Communication and Society (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications, 1979), pp. 1-5.

. . Lazarsfeld,, p`.14.

13See the various works of Key and Carl P. Wrighter, I Can Sell You Anything

,,(New York: Rapdom House, 1972).

y 29

.1111L. V % . r. ti 0

y i 1 , cut; . 0 ' . .:1: (4 . /..... ' /44 4 .41, . } 1 14David,Potter, People,o Plenty(Chicago: University of Chicago, 1954),

. . . 1: . - .. pt 176. , . 1116,15tUart:Ewen, Captains of tonscioUsness ,New York: McGraw-Hill,1976).

196)r pp. 45-99.. 16Jules Henry, Culture .Against Man.stew York: Random House', and' 17Nardi" Langholz Leymore, Hidden Myth(New Uric: Basic Books, 1975); ( Boyars 1978). Judith Williamson, Decoding AdvertisementsLondon: Marion - ) 18 the Anthropologyof Erlang Goffman, "GenderAdyertisements4" Studies in

Visual ComoUnication, Vol. 31:No. 2(1976),.p: 154.

19 ibid.

--2 4Lazarsfeld,p. 9.9. 21 See Leymore;Williamson;- potterl and Ewen. 22 . Culture,"Quarterly of Film, T. W. Adorno, "Television and _Patterns of Mass (ed.), Mass . and Television,Vo/..84,41954). Reprinted in Wilbur Schramm

Communications (Urbana: University ofTilinois Press, 1960), pp. 594-612.

Qudted material, p. 597.

- / 23 'bias,p. 601. }

24 Ibid. r 5 3Ibid., 608. - Vikions," 26Willitm Brown, "Prime TimeTelevision and Emerging Rhetorical

Quarterly Journal of Speech, Vol: 62,No. 4 (1977), P. 393-

'ThSob Shanks, 'the Coot Fire (Kew York: Random House,1976),13:98%

28 and Its Discontents (New York: Ibid.; Daniel J: koorsti't Democracy 1977). _Random Howie, 19744andJohnPhelan, Mediaworld (New York: Seabury,

, . . 29Leo Lowentheil, Literature and the Image of Man (Boston:Beacon Press, . .4 A ii '. , ... _1953). -' .. , & 1 ?°Ceorge Gerbner, "On Content Analysis and CkiticalResearch In Mass Coomuni- , /. - . Mo. 2 (1958), 85-108. cation," A7VCommunicatliins Review; Vol. 6;

9.6 30 11. \

la 11 '1% A

-...'"". --- . 4. 29 .. , '. ... . v 31 , All commerciallcitations are taken from transcripts of thevideotaped

. j commercials ,used in the ktuft, 321 ,Anorno,,p..49.' '''' " he 33 iacq4es ElLul, Propaganda (1iiir York Raitdotripture, -1965), pp. 70-79:

I 724, o

°?ibid:;

.36 . CliffOrd Geertz, The American ;,Scholar, Vol. 49 (1980), pp. 172-,173.

17Ibid.,pp. 173-174. I. 38Ibid., p. 172. N4 ibid, p. 173: 40 CliffordGeertz, Wegara (Princeton: Princeton UniversityPress, 1981)4 41 QuentinSkinner, "The World.,as a Stage,"New York 4:tview of Books,

Vol: 28, No. 6 (April 16,1981), P. 17. t;

se-

.f: . $1.

Ia 31 or .16

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