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Religion and environmental behaviour (part one): World religions and the fate of the Earth

Most religious individuals and groups do not express and promote pro-environmental values Bron Taylor and behavior but increasing numbers of individuals, and subsets within religious traditions, do. Consequently, some observers perceive that a ‘greening of religion’ is underway that About the author promises to make significant contributions to the construction of sustainable societies. Social Bron is Professor of scientific research is less sanguine, however, finding that the lack of pro-environmental Religion, Nature and activities by the vast majority of religionists is due in part to religious beliefs, practices at and priorities that hinder environmental understanding and concern. Extant research the University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA, and a further shows that even those religionists with environmental concerns generally retain Fellow of the an anthropocentric bias and confine their felt obligations within the sphere of individual Center for Environment and virtue ethics. Largely outside of the world’s predominant religions, however, there are Society, Munich, Germany. nature spiritualities with ecocentric values prioritizing biodiversity conservation and radical social transformation. Nevertheless, the best available evidence (reviewed here and in the Citation next issue of The Ecological Citizen) indicates it is unlikely that religions of any sort will Taylor B (2019) Religion and significantly slow, let alone prevent, the current, accelerating extinction event, and the environmental behaviour concomitant collapse of Earth’s still wildly diverse biocultural systems. (part one): World religions and the fate of the Earth. The Ecological Citizen 3: 71–6. very earthly thing we care about, (e.g. Winkelman and Baker, 2008). Given the including our closest kin and hopes huge number of variables in such systems Keywords for equitable and sustainable social it is far easier to identify associations than E ; systems, depends on the health and resilience causal relationships. Consequently, scholars environmental humanities; of Earth’s environmental systems. If we do studying environment-related human religion; worldviews not successfully address our environmental behaviour typically focus on only a few of predicaments, it will be impossible to solve a the factors that might influence the ways myriad of other problems we face, let alone humans shape and impact, and in turn are debate and pursue social arrangements that shaped and impacted by, the environments could lead to the flourishing of our own and they inhabit. other species. For this reason the central As an interdisciplinary scholar I have research question I have sought to answer sought to incorporate diverse views is: What might lead humanity to stop degrading and studies into my understanding of Earth’s environmental systems? If this question environment-related human behaviour. I can be answered, then we would retain the have been especially focused on the ways opportunity to pursue a host of other good that religion – understood broadly to things. include the affective and what some call If the answer to this question were easy, the spiritual experiences of humankind many individuals and organizations would – influences values, practices and Earth’s undertake ameliorative efforts, including living systems. those needed to overcome ignorance and opposition. Unfortunately, the answer The ferment over religion and 1 is obscure, because environmental and environmental behaviour social systems are incredibly complicated For a number of reasons I took this focus early and entangled, so much so that it makes in my career: First, because I understood that sense to refer to them, as scholars religions typically reinforce but sometimes increasingly have, as biocultural systems disrupt existing values, social arrangements

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and ecosystems. Second, because of scholarly liberation theologian Leonardo Boff (1995) analyses that argued, variously, that this or and (ironically) perhaps as well by Lynn that religion, or all religions or subsets of White Jr, the most famous critic of Christian them, hinder or promote pro-environmental environmental attitudes and behaviours. behaviour. Third, because when studying White contended as well that because the environmental movements in North religion was the root of the environmental America that had emerged forcefully in the crisis “the remedy must also be religions,” 1960s, I discovered that certain scholarly concluding his seminal paper with the arguments had become widely accepted – provocative remark , “I propose Francis as in particular, arguments that claimed that a patron saint for ecologists” (1967: 1207). (especially Christianity, Pope John Paul II apparently accepted given its prominence and power in the this advice and did precisely that in 1979; West) produced environmentally destructive Bergoglio took the idea further. attitudes and behaviours, while indigenous Soon after his election, in May 2014 Pope Another reason traditions and religions originating in Asia Francis invited prominent environmental “ (especially Daoism and Buddhism) were more scientists to a workshop, and in June of for taking the ecologically friendly (Taylor, 1991). Fourth, the following year, he issued Laudato Si’: potential of such beginning in the late 1980s, I noticed that On care for our common home, an encyclical greening seriously some individuals and groups affiliated with that made a religious and ethical case for is compelling world religions – by which herein I mean environmental protection (Pope Francis, the world’s largest and predominant ones 2015). Those who hoped or thought that evidence produced – believed that the religious traditions a greening of religion was underway by evolutionary they belonged to or studied – at least if took this as further evidence, while some theorists (including properly understood or revised in the natural scientists who had been involved environmental light of contemporary understandings – in the 2014 workshop expressed similar promote environmentally friendly values hopes. anthropologists) that and behaviours. Some also averred that a As a close observer of sincere efforts religious beliefs and powerful ‘religious ’ and a to promote the greening of religion and practices have often ‘greening of religion’ was underway, even if claims to the effect that such a greening evolved in ways that this trend was, as yet, only nascent. was underway, I recognized that these are both socially Reflecting on all this as a young scholar views needed to be taken seriously. In with an activist background, who had many cases these claims were being and ecologically studied and seen first-hand that sometimes advanced by individuals who had extensive adaptive.” religious individuals and groups effectively experience with and within world promote social justice, I thought, perhaps religions, interfaith organizations and they would eventually join the cause of even, in some cases, within prominent environmental protection.2 This issue of international and political enclaves. The Ecological Citizen exemplifies the long- Even the World Bank has supported standing ferment about the role of religion greening of religion efforts (Palmer and in environmental behaviour, as well as the Finlay, 2003), as have institutions under hopes of many that religion might become a the United Nations umbrella, including positive environmental force, and perhaps UNESCO and the UNEP, which in 2016, for even promote ecocentrism.3 example, co-sponsored with the Islamic To many, such hopes seemed all the more Republic of Iran an International Seminar plausible when, in March 2013, after his on Environment, Culture and Religion election to the Roman Catholic Church’s (UNESCO and UNEP, 2017).4 Another reason Chair of St Peter, Cardinal Jorge Mario for taking the potential of such greening Bergoglio chose ‘Francis I’ as his papal seriously is compelling evidence produced name, honouring St Francis of Assisi while by evolutionary theorists (including signalling his intention to prioritize care environmental anthropologists) that for the poor and the environment. In this, religious beliefs and practices have often he was clearly influenced by Brazilian evolved in ways that are both socially and

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ecologically adaptive; that is, they promote I shall now summarize my current the diversity and resilience of biocultural understandings about the role of religion systems.5 in biocultural systems. My primary focus Over time, however, it became clear to me will be on whether world religions have that the evidence of positive co-evolution inspired, or might inspire, dramatic between religious, environmental and political mobilization to protect and defend social systems was compelling primarily the Earth’s ecosystems, rather than on with regard to small scale, pre-industrial which individuals or groups typically have societies – precisely those societies greater or less per capita environmental that are being overrun by large-scale, impact. “The studies ever-expanding industrial civilizations. purporting to Moreover, assertions about the greening of World religions and religion were largely based on statements by environmental behaviour show religion religious and political elites, or were based Religious individuals and groups sometimes contributing to on efforts being made by small numbers of protect biodiversity and ecosystem adaptive biocultural individuals and groups within the world’s resilience but more often do not. When they systems, however, predominant religious traditions. I did do, it is often through processes in which have tended to be not see much evidence that significant religious beliefs and practices co-evolve proportions of religious individuals within in ways that are ecologically and socially about indigenous, these traditions were following suit. adaptive. small-scale Given this, I wondered whether the hopes, Anthropologist Roy Rappaport put this foraging societies, dreams, assumptions and social locations idea provocatively, arguing that religious and sometimes of those making such pronouncements rituals are “neither more nor less than part were a result of what social scientists call of the behavioural repertoire employed by pastoral and larger ‘observer bias’, making it difficult for them an aggregate of organisms in adjusting to pre-industrial to notice disconfirming evidence. I also its environment” (Rappaport, 1979: 28). agricultures.” became aware that some of those working to Such understandings have been buttressed precipitate a greening of religion considered by evolutionary ‘group selection’ theorists the making of optimistic statements that who argue (controversially but plausibly) it was happening to be a strategy to make that natural selection favours not only the it happen through a sort of ‘band-wagon’ fittest individual organisms but also the effect. Consequently, through my own best adapted social groups.6 The studies experience and experiences reported to me purporting to show religion contributing to by others, I learned that some involved in adaptive biocultural systems, however, have these efforts did not welcome evidence- tended to be about indigenous, small-scale based scepticism, and considered it foraging societies, and sometimes pastoral counterproductive. and larger pre-industrial agricultures.5 Despite my concern that greening-of- There is far less evidence that religion is religion enthusiasts were getting ahead of playing an ecologically adaptive role in the facts, I shared their hope that the green large, industrialized civilizations, which shoots that were sprouting from world universally consider economic growth to be religions would mature into a powerful a central organizing principle, if not their force for environmental sustainability. To raison d’être – regardless of which economic evaluate such claims, and thinking that system is in force, or which religions are research might illuminate ways to hasten most influential in such societies. such greening, I reframed assertions There are, however, individual members that it was significantly underway as and subsets within world religions that ‘The Greening of Religion Hypothesis’. consider the protection of nature a religious In concert with others I have sought to and ethical duty. There are even examples review, inspire and contribute to research in which poor people affiliated with that would illuminate what would most world religions draw on their traditions effectively promote such greening. while resisting ecologically destructive

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enterprises (Taylor, 1995). They do not conditions fail, religionists have often typically enjoy widespread support from blamed some person or group (usually their fellow religionists and usually are from another religion or social group), defeated and remain marginalized. More or some evil spiritual being or force, typically, those striving to bring about the for offending the nature-controlling greening of their own and world religions deity. Such perceptions sometimes generally are from relatively well-educated lead to efforts to eliminate the offence and thus scientifically literate sectors of the and restore environmentally favourable societies in which they are situated; they conditions by suppressing the offending also tend to be more affluent and liberal individual or group. Whether after failed “It is well than religious traditionalists – where by efforts to secure favourable environments established that ‘liberal’ I mean more willing to modify long- in these ways, or through religious standing religious teachings in the light metaphysics that view current realities to the vast majority of contemporary understandings. These be the irreversible and just deserts for past of religionists are environmentally concerned religionists behaviours, such beliefs and practices not environmentally have increased in number, and some of tend to produce fatalism and resignation concerned, or at them have created religious environmental rather than ameliorative actions. least do not make it movement organizations (REMOs), which Research also has shown that have gained public attention. This is why other variables, such as political and a priority to reduce some observers think that a significant and economic ideologies, are often far more their environmental promising greening of religion is underway. important than religious ones in shaping impacts or engage Historical and social scientific research, environmental attitudes and behaviours. in collective however, is less sanguine. It is well Indeed, such ideologies are often entangled established that the vast majority of with religious systems; consequently, action to promote religionists are not environmentally challenges to the former can be considered environmentally concerned, or at least do not make it a tantamount to an assault on sacred beliefs sustainable priority to reduce their environmental and values. Even those religionists who societies.” impacts or engage in collective action have sincere environmental concerns tend to promote environmentally sustainable to retain anthropocentric biases, such societies. This is due in part to religious as, that human beings are morally more beliefs and related priorities that hinder valuable and spirituality more advanced environmental understanding and concern. than other organisms. With such beliefs Too rarely discussed are the ways some concern for non-human organisms and religions enjoin practices that have ecosystems depends on whether these are negative environmental consequences. critical for human well-being. Moreover, Unsurprisingly, it is difficult to dislodge it is generally the case that even the most practices that are invested with sacred passionate religious environmentalists meaning (Wexler, 2016). confine their felt obligations and priorities Another common aspect of many world to the sphere of individual virtue ethics. religions that hinders environmental Such ethics enjoin efforts to reduce concern are beliefs that the world was consumption and waste on a personal level made and is maintained by a powerful and can lead to local efforts to protect and deity or deities. For those with such beliefs, restore ecosystems, rescue animals and a sensible strategy to ensure beneficent so forth. Few environmentally concerned environments and avoid environmental religious leaders and laypeople, however, dangers is to please or appease the take strong political stands or challenge nature-controlling being or beings existing economic systems. With good through prayer or religious rituals. This reason or direct experience, they fear that if is why ritual sacrifice, real and symbolic, they did so they would lose friends, status has been so common in the history of and, consequently, monetary support. This religion. When religious approaches fear is common among pastors and others to secure favourable environmental responsible for local religious bodies, who

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usually can ill afford to lose members and more ecocentric values, move beyond their financial contributions. individual virtue ethics and become more According to Ellingson (2016) these politically active. I will explore these dynamics also hinder the efforts of promising trends in the next issue of The those working within faith-based and Ecological Citizen as I shift focus from world interfaith REMOs to encourage religious religions to dark green religion and the fate environmental concern and action. These of the Earth. n Religious individuals typically feel that to be effective, “ individuals and they must be considered ‘credible’ by their Acknowledgements constituencies. To do this, REMO advocates I am grateful to the University of Florida for a grant groups are especially must emphasize fidelity to their religious facilitating the comprehensive review of research unlikely to challenge into religion and environmental behaviour, and tradition, and tailor their messages to existing political and cohere with already existing beliefs, values especially my collaborators and co-authors of this review, Gretel Van Wieren and Bernard D economic systems and priorities, or convincingly argue that, Zaleha, which was published in 2016 and cited – even though, when ‘properly’ understood, their religions herein. I’m also grateful to the the Rachel Carson consider protecting the environment to Center for Environment and Society in Munich, nearly everywhere, be a religious duty. Ellingson found that which through its Fellows programme provided these systems are this strategic necessity limits religious support and writing time for this and other unsustainable, innovation – it makes it more difficult to research projects. Amanda Nichols also provided valuable comments and proofreading during the incorporate understandings from scientists stressed and, in many review and production of this and the subsequent and relevant insights or practices from other essay published here. regions, already in religious traditions – while also hindering the process, or at the interfaith alliances and collaborations with Notes brink, of collapse. secular scientists and environmentalists.7 ” 1 For more details of the extensive research Whether environmentally concerned underpinning this overview, see this cultural religionists are leaders, laypeople or REMO history (Taylor, 2016a), the related comprehensive advocates, they face similar and daunting review (Taylor et al., 2016), and this study of challenges. Ellingson reluctantly concluded ecocentric spiritualities (Taylor, 2010). Other that REMOs were unlikely to convince particularly helpful sources include Taylor (2005), Sponsel (2012; 2014), Johnston (2013), significant numbers of religious individuals Veldman et al. (2014) and Berry (2015). Most of my and groups to prioritize environmental publications are available at www.brontaylor.com. causes, especially those that are “not purely 2 For my own path to ecocentrism and interest in focused on alleviating human suffering religion and social change see Taylor (2019). and meeting human needs” (2016: 155). 3 For a representative argument in The Ecological And religious individuals and groups, as Citizen defining and promoting ecocentric values, explained previously, are especially unlikely to which I also contributed, see Washington et al. to challenge existing political and economic (2017). systems – even though, nearly everywhere, 4 For a description of this event see Taylor (2016b); these systems are unsustainable, stressed for the role of religion at United Nations Earth Summits see Taylor et al. (2005); for an insider’s and, in many regions, already in the process, recollection of his work facilitating the religion- or at the brink, of collapse. infused Earth Charter see Rockefeller (2008). Outside of the world’s predominant 5 The extensive literature includes Rappaport religions, however, there are those with (1979; 1999), Wilson (2002), Berkes (2008), nature-based religions and spiritualities Winkelman and Baker (2008), Whyte et al. (2016) who have ecocentric values and prioritize and Nelson and Shilling (2018). biodiversity conservation. In many 6 For a lucid introduction to such theory see Wilson societies, these actors are increasingly (2002). numerous, influential and engaged in 7 I saw a good example of this at a 2012 forum organized by the WWF’s Sacred Earth Program political activities promoting radical social in Washington, DC, USA. During it, I heard one transformation. They are even influencing Catholic climate change activist tell those gathered some environmental advocates within the that he needed their scientific information world’s predominant religions to embrace but would have to remove information that

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showed it was from this environmental group Taylor B, ed (2005) Encyclopedia of Religion and Nature. for the information to be considered credible. I Continuum International, London, UK. also learned that many scientists in the WWF Taylor B (2010) Dark Green Religion: Nature spirituality considered wasteful the funds spent on this and the planetary future. University of California Press, effort to influence religions. Berkeley, CA, USA. Taylor B (2016a) The greening of religion hypothesis References (part one): From Lynn White, Jr. and claims that Berkes F (2008) Sacred Ecology: Traditional ecological religions can promote environmentally destructive knowledge and resource management (2nd edition). attitudes and behaviors to assertions they are Routledge, New York, NY, USA. becoming environmentally friendly. Journal for the Berry E (2015) Devoted to Nature: The religious roots of Study of Religion, Nature and Culture 10: 268–305. American environmentalism. University of California Taylor B (2016b) The United Nations (via religion and Press, Oakland, CA, USA. its affiliated agencies) to the rescue in the cause of Boff L (1995)Ecology and Liberation: The emergence of a new conservation? Journal for the Study of Religion, Nature paradigm. Orbis, Maryknoll, NY, USA. and Culture 10: 485–90. Ellingson S (2016) To Care for Creation: The emergence of the Taylor B (2019) An ecocentric journey. The Ecological religious environmental movement. University of Chicago Citizen 2(Suppl A): 6–10. Press, Chicago, IL, USA. Taylor B, Maclean I and Eaton H (2005) United Nations’ Johnston LF (2013) Religion and Sustainability: Social ‘Earth Summits’. In: Taylor (2005): 1680–3. movements and the politics of the environment. Equinox, Taylor B, Van Wieren G and Zaleha BD (2016) The Sheffield, UK. greening of religion hypothesis (part two): Assessing Nelson MK and Shilling D, eds (2018) Traditional Ecological the data from Lynn White, Jr., to Pope Francis. Journal Knowledge. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, for the Study of Religion, Nature and Culture 10: 3 0 6–7 8 . UK. UNESCO and UNEP, eds (2017) Promoting Intercultural Palmer M and Finlay V (2003) Faith in Conservation: New Dialogue for Sustainable Development. Proceedings approaches to religions and the environment. The World of the Second International Seminar on Environment, Bank, Washington, DC, USA. Culture and Religion. UNESCO/UNEP, Tehran, Iran, and Pope Francis (2015) Encyclical Letter Laudato Si’: On care Nairobi, Kenya. for our common home. Holy See, Vatican City State. Veldman RG, Szasz A and Haluza-Delay R, eds (2014) Available at https://is.gd/tqn0lW (accessed January How the World’s Religions Are Responding to Climate 2019). Change: Social scientific investigations. Routledge, Rappaport RA (1979) Ecology, Meaning and Religion. London, UK. North Atlantic, Richmond, CA, USA. Washington H, Taylor B, Kopnina H et al. (2017) Why Rappaport RA (1999) Ritual and Religion in the Making of ecocentrism is the key pathway to sustainability. The Humanity. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. Ecological Citizen 1: 35–41. Rockefeller SC (2008) Crafting principles for the Earth Wexler J (2016) When God Isn’t Green: A world-wide journey Charter. In: Corcoran PB and Wohlpart J, eds. A Voice to places where religious practice and environmentalism for Earth: American writers respond to the Earth Charter. collide. Beacon Press, Boston, MA USA. University of Georgia Press, Athens, GA, USA: 3–23. White L (1967) The historical roots of our ecologic crisis. Sponsel LE (2012) : A quiet revolution. Science 155: 1203–7. Praeger, Santa Barbara, CA, USA. Whyte KP, Brewer JP and Johnson JT (2016) Weaving Sponsel LE (2014) Spiritual ecology: Is it the ultimate indigenous science, protocols and sustainability solution to the environmental crisis? Choice 51: science. Sustainability Science 11: 25–32. 1339–48. Wilson DS (2002) Darwin’s Cathedral: Evolution, religion, Taylor B (1991) The religion and politics of Earth First! The and the nature of society. Chicago University Press, Ecologist 21: 258–66. Chicago, IL, USA. Taylor B, ed (1995) Ecological Resistance Movements: The Winkelman M and Baker JR (2008) Supernatural as global emergence of radical and popular environmentalism. Natural: A biocultural approach to religion. Routledge, State University of New York Press, Albany, NY, USA. London, UK.

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76 The Ecological Citizen Vol 3 No 1 2019 Hu m a n supremacy is as ugly and twisted as white or male supremacy and should be just as unacceptable.

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