A TELLTALE NARRATIVE: AMERICAN HORROR FILM AND METACINEMA by Savanna R. Teague A Dissertation in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in English Middle Tennessee State University May 2020 Dissertation Committee: Dr. Will Brantley, Chair Dr. Linda Badley Dr. Elyce Helford ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS One common misconception about horror fans that I experienced in online forums and dark film club rooms over the last twenty years is that we love “trash” cinema. Horror fans do not thrive on trash; we find genuine love for the labors of the macabre, even when those efforts do not produce a critical darling. After all, how many films in the horror genre were once deemed indecent throwaways yet are now counted amongst cinema’s classics and deemed worthy of respect by film academics and critics alike? These are the works of Tod Browning and James Whale through George A. Romero and Wes Craven, and there are newer works that deserve the same treatment. Consider this, then, my love letter to American horror films – the good, the bad, and the hilariously awful – and to its unwavering spirit and all the frights to come. This dissertation would not have been possible without the support of many friends, family, and colleagues who offered listening ears and comforting shoulders when the stress began to make me feel like a modern Sisyphus, rolling mounds of research uphill fueled by nothing but sheer will, caffeine, and Prozac. With much love and thanks to Hayley Allen, Brandon Couch, Nichole Karvaski, Mathilde Michea, and, of course, my mother. Special thanks also go to my dissertation committee and the English Department at Middle Tennessee State University for their commitment to supporting me through the doctoral program. ii ABSTRACT The film genre of horror will not and possibly cannot die. The genre’s metacinema tradition existed in the first flickers of the motion picture industry with its reliance on adaptation and serialization, and it continues, producing along the way an expanding range of scholarship. To understand the trajectory of current genre trends is to examine horror’s inherently meta nature—its need to reference itself and its audience’s growing awareness of horror’s intertextuality. With metanarratives as the focus of analysis, a singular, linear progression of the genre emerges. This progression links films to one another through their reflexivity; it relies less upon historical categorizations that group films on the basis of dates or production cycles. Metatextual remnants, such as characters like Igor in any Frankenstein iteration, carry on through decades of films in the form of references, adaptations, and fourth-wall breaks, resulting in a visible metanarrative within the horror genre. By confronting tropes self-referentially, meta becomes a language that horror filmmakers use to speak to their audiences, to other filmmakers, and to the genre itself. Behind the Mask: The Rise of Leslie Vernon (2006) achieves meta status by creating multiple points of view through careful camerawork that invites an audience to examine its understanding of horror. Films like Scream 4 (2011), however, demonstrate the risk of relying too heavily on a metanarrative to stand in place of a coherent story, especially with an audience aware that certain meta elements are expected in a film franchise. A crucial difference between most of the overt meta-horror films of the 2010s and their predecessors, including Wes Craven’s New Nightmare (1994) and the original iii Scream (1996), is the purposeful use of meta. Whereas horror films of the 1990s and 2000s use meta to engage audiences with reminders of the real world, meta-horror films of the 2010s devolve into satire without advancing a metanarrative conversation. The horror genre is still recovering from its most meta era of the last three decades with a better appreciation for what meta can do when employed strategically and with knowledge of its various imitations. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Page INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................... 1 CHAPTER ONE: TIME WARP: THE INTERTEXTUALITY OF WESTERN HORROR FILM .......................................................................................................... 12 CHAPTER TWO: “IS IT A STORY?” “YEAH, IT’S A STORY:” THE VIABILITY OF METANARRATIVES IN FUTURE HORROR FILMS ................. 26 CHAPTER THREE: “THE WHOLE SELF-AWARE, POSTMODERN META SHIT:” SCREAM 4 AND THE DEATH KNELL OF SELF-REFERENTIALITY IN AMERICAN HORROR FILM? ............................................................................ 47 CHAPTER FOUR: AHABS, TURTLES, AND SURVIVOR GIRLS: POSTMODERNISM IN BEHIND THE MASK: THE RISE OF LESLIE VERNON ... 59 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................ 75 BIBLIOGRAPHY ....................................................................................................... 78 FILMOGRAPHY ........................................................................................................ 83 v 1 INTRODUCTION Horror is the Schrödinger’s Cat of film genres, seemingly neither dead nor alive but in a constant state of dying. However, whether one looks to the films themselves or their critique, horror has been very much alive and thriving since Thomas Edison produced The Execution of Mary Stuart (1895), one of the first film sequences intended to produce a sense of dread in its audience. The simple editing technique used to depict the monarch’s public decapitation led to more advanced special effects that future filmmakers would expand upon, including Edison himself with the production of the first American horror film, Frankenstein (1910), a fitting choice given the amount of adaptations and re-imaginings that would follow throughout the century. Despite the lulls in quality and commercial viability, American horror’s lasting presence should be celebrated rather than mourned as it continues to persevere with a diverse range of films released each year without signs of slowing. Over a decade ago, Steffen Hantke outlined the perpetual anxiety surrounding horror films in “Academic Film Criticism, the Rhetoric of Crisis, and the Current State of American Horror Cinema.” When examining critiques of the genre, Hantke pinpointed the singular issue that hinders progress within the field of study and furthers the notion that American horror is dying out: Horror academics and professional critics are typically fans. This would not be such a drastic statement if it were not for the compounding factors of shame and overall displeasure with the genre. The fact that academics who cannot shake feelings of embarrassment associated with their chosen field, and who are also dissatisfied with the caliber of horror films produced, are fans themselves is the 2 reason for the ever-present accusations of stagnation in American horror discourse. Negativity from those who, however ashamedly, admit to enjoying the genre keeps critique focused on a select group of canonical American films and directors without moving forward. The solution, then, is a shift in critical paradigms “[if] not in their role as academics, then in their role as fans” (Hantke 200). Simply, it is time for American horror scholarship and its critics to progress beyond the need to legitimize the field in the eyes of other scholars and to follow the precedent put forth by the genre itself, to accept that negativity may always surround how the field is perceived, and to take up Hantke’s challenge. This spirit of re-evaluation and expansion of the canon with a new critical lens allows the horror genre the same intellectual treatment granted to other contemporary films, i.e. the application of structuralism and post-structuralist analysis, specifically and most tantalizingly the use of meta-narratives. More than any other genre, horror tends to fall within a meta-cinematic tradition, meaning that a film’s plot or characters are in some way self-referential to the genre or to films in general and rely upon the audience’s pre- existing knowledge. While film scholars or historians may not use the term “meta” ubiquitously, most do acknowledge horror’s ability to provide social commentary along with cultural analysis. Meta-narrative horror films are not a modern subgenre of American horror; they are the genre, and that can, at best, create a legacy of intertextuality between films but, at worst, perpetuates reductive criticism that cements tropes in public opinion even when the films no longer rely on them. Meta is not unlike cinematic sound. Sound that occurs within the world of a film is diegetic, such as footsteps or music playing on a radio; it has a logical reason to be present. Non-diegetic 3 sound is that of the soundtrack and other sounds outside the film’s diegesis, or its immediate narrative. Meta functions in both diegetic and non-diegetic ways. Characters watching a horror film within another horror film constitute diegetic meta, representing a desire to communicate with the genre. Non-diegetic meta is the reflection of cultural issues, such as race or gender, that are not directly addressed within the film but are immediately recognized by the audience’s experiences. Thomas Edison’s work in the film industry’s infancy, for example, perfectly encapsulates the development of horror films in the United States: With the tendency toward and necessity of this intertextuality of genre and subject matter (an existing