YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK

a product of the

NATIONAL PARK SERVICE

SYSTEMWIDEARCHEOLOGICAL INVENTORY PROGRAM YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK Submerged Resources Survey

James E. Bradford Archeologist

Matthew A. Russell Archeologist

Larry E. Murphy Archeologist

Timothy G. Smith GPS Coordinator

Submerged Resources Center Professional Reports Number 16

Cultural Resources Management Professional Paper Number

Submerged Resources Center Region National Park Service

Santa Fe, New Mexico 2003

... 111 Submerged Resources Center Cultural Resources Management Region National Park Service US Department of the Interior

iv TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF FIGURES ...... FOREWORD ......

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... xv

PART I: REMOTE SENSING SURVEY ...... 1 Matthew A. Russell, Larry E. Murphy and Timothy G. Smith

INTRODUCTION ...... 2

PROBLEM STATEMENT ...... 3

SURVEY DESIGN AND RATIONALE ...... 4 Geographic Information Systems (GIS) ...... 5 Data Archiving ...... Survey Blocks and Sample Intervals ...... Positioning ...... 6

SURVEY INSTRUMENTATION ...... 7 ... Positioning ...... RoxAnn Bottom Classification Device ...... 8 Depth Sounder ...... Side Scan Sonar ...... 9 Magnetometer ...... 10

SURVEY METHODOLOGY...... 10 Objectives ...... 10 Digitizing ...... 10 Survey Planning...... 12 Survey Positioning ...... 12 RoxAnn Survey ...... 13 Side Scan Sonar Surv ...... 14 Magnetometer Survey ......

SURVEY OPERATIONS ...... 15 ... Geodetic Positioning ...... 15 Hydrographic Survey ...... 16

ROXANN TRAINING SITES ...... 17 RoxAnn Bottom Type Classifications ...... 17 RoxAnn Classification Boxes ...... 19

V SURVEY RESULTS ...... 22 Survey ...... 22 Side Scan Sonar Survey ...... 23 Depth Sounder ...... 23

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 23

PART CULTURAL RESOURCES INVESTIGATIONS ...... James E. Bradford and Matthew A.Russell

1 INTRODUCTION ...... 46

2 ENVIRONMENTAL CONTEXT ...... Geology ...... 49 Volcanism ...... 49 Glaciation...... 52 Climate ...... 53 Biology...... 53 Flora and Fauna ......

3 HISTORICAL CONTEXT ...... Brief History of Yellowstone National Park ...... 58 Yellowstone Use ...... 61 American Indian Lake Use ...... 61 Euro-american Lake Use ...... 63

4 PREVIOUS ARCHEOLOGICAL WORK ...... 85 Fishing Bay ...... 85 Bay ...... 87 ...... 87 SoutheastArm ...... 88 1995 SCRU Reconnaissance ...... 88

5 SURVEY RESULTS ...... 91 Frank Island ...... 91 Dot Island ...... Pumice Point ...... 94 Little Thumb Creek ...... 94 West Thumb Geyer Basin ...... Lake Boat Docks ...... 100 Small Craft ...... 103 and Jean D ...... 108 E......

vi Hull Remains ...... 117 Propulsion System and Related Features ...... 126 Disarticulated Machinery and Other Features ...... 132 Analysis and Discussion ......

6 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...... Recommendations ...... 146 Management ...... Future Research ......

REFERENCES ......

vii LIST OF FIGURES

PART I

Planned survey blocks and side scan sonar coverage ...... 2. Category 1: Cobble and rubble with sand ...... 3. Category 2: Rubble and sand on hard bottom ...... 4. Category 3: Mud and fine sand ...... 5. Category 5: Dispersed rubble with sand ...... 6. Category 7: Sand with dispersed rubble ...... 7. RoxAnn boxes generated during the YELL Sub Survey, August 1996 ...... 21 8. Raw RoxAnn data, survey block ...... 25 9. Raw RoxAnn data, survey block ...... 10. Raw RoxAnn data, survey block ...... 11. Raw RoxAnn data, blocks YELL009 and 010 ...... 12. Sonograph of single small boat located offshore Lake Hotel ...... 13. Sonograph of two small boats located offshore Lake Hotel 14. Three small boats in close proximity offshore Lake Hotel ...... 15. Sonograph of unusual geological feature on lake floor ...... 16. Sonograph of C. Waters’site showing hull features and bottom areas ...... 17. Sonograph of West Thumb dock supports (cribbing) ...... 18. Two-meter bathymetric contours, survey block 19. Two-meter bathymetric contours, survey block ...... 20. Two-meter bathymetric contours, block YELL006 ...... 21. Two-meter bathymetric contours, survey blocks YELL009 and 010 ...

PART 1.1 Yellowstone National Park ...... 47 2.1 Major geological featuresin Yellowstone National Park ...... 50 3.1 Anna, the first boat launched on Yellowstone Lake ...... 65 3.2 Zillah, possibly at West Thumb, after 1889 ...... 68 3.3 Zillah, about 1896 ...... 69 3.4 Zillah at Lake dock, 1896 ...... 69 3.5 Zillah at Lake dock ...... 70 3.6 Postcard photograph of Waters at Lake dock, about 1905 ...... 73 3.7 C. at Lake dock in 1961 ...... 74 3.8 Jean about ...... 75 3.9 Jean about 1912 ...... 3.10 Jean about 1910 ...... 76 3.11 Jean D and Zillah on shore at Lake, about 1922 ...... 3.12 Rental boats at Lake ...... 3.13 Passenger launch at Lake, September 1934 ...... 77

ix 3.14 Gas-powered launches at West Thumb ...... 79 3.15 Gas-powered launch at West Thumb ...... 79 3.16 US Fisheries vessel, 1930s...... 80 3.17 NPS speedboat at Lake dock, about 1915...... 80 3.18 NPS speedboat, October 1938 ...... 81 3.19 Eleven-passengerspeedboat Adelaide postcard during the 1920s ...... 81 3.20 NPS Chris Craft, 1930s...... 82 3.21 Deckhouse cruiser NPS No. 2 at Lake dock, 1938 ...... 3.22 Deckhouse cruiser NPS No. 1 on Yellowstone Lake ...... 3.23 Former US Coast Guard lifeboat Arena Cove on marine railway at Lake, 1936 ...... 83 3.24 Arena Cove being launched at Lake boathouse, 1936...... 84 4.1 Yellowstone Lake ...... 86 5.1 Areas and sites investigated by SCRU in 1996...... 92 5.2 Frank Island boat dock, about 1950 ...... 93 5.3 Algae covered dock crib at West Thumb ...... 95 5.4 Wagon wheel at West Thumb...... 96 5.5 Close-up of West Thumb wagon wheel ...... 97 5.6 docked at West Thumb ...... 97 5.7 Plan view site map of West Thumb dock cribs ...... 98 5.8 West Thumb dock crib ...... 5.9 West Thumb dock ...... 100 5.10 docked at West Thumb, about 1900 ...... 101 5.11 E. . Waters at the Lake dock, about 1905 ...... 101 5.12 Lake dock rental boats ...... 102 5.13 Lake boathouse ...... 5.14 Small launch off Lake Hotel ...... 104 5.15 Hotel launch stern ...... 104 5.16 Field sketch of four small rental boats off Lake Hotel ...... 105 5.17 Small boat bow ...... 106 5.18 Small boat bow ...... 106 5.19 Small boat stern ...... 107 5.20 Small boat stern ...... 107 5.21 Yellowstone Park Company rental boat #78 ...... 109 5.22 Yellowstone Park Company rental boat ...... 109 5.23 at the Lake dock, 1889 ...... 5.24 Jean D docked,probably at West Thumb, about 1910 ...... 110 5.25 southeast of E. C. Waters’remains on Stevenson Island‘s eastern shore ...... 111 5.26 View northeast of . . Waters .remains...... 111 5.27 ...... 113 5.28 Plan view of . C. Waters .hull remains ...... 115 5.29 . . Waters’frames. View aft of paired frames with butt joints in the wreck’s forward port section ...... 118

X 5.30 Differentstyles of framing a wooden vessel ...... 120 5.31 Plan and elevation of engine bed and thrust bearing showing additional frames to support engine weight ...... 123 5.32 Side and end views of boiler saddle ...... 5.33 Boiler saddle ...... 127 5.34. View west of . . Waters propulsion system ...... 128 5.35 Starboard side of thrust bearing ...... 128 5.36 Plan, elevation and end view of forward propeller shaft bearing ...... 130 5.37 Top view of propeller shaft bearing ...... 131 5.38 View southeast of after bulkhead stuffing box and gland, and propeller shaft coupling ...... 131 5.39 View southwest of forward en box and gland...... 132 5.40 Plan, starboard elevation, fore and aft views of adjustable stem bearing assembly ... 133 5.41 View north, starboard side of adjustable stern bearing assembly and propeller ...... 134 5.42 View northeast of propeller ...... 134 5.43 Plan view and aft elevation of the globe valve with intake pipes ...... 5.44 View aft along port midships showing feed water intake piping and globe va 5.45 Close-up view of globe valve ...... 5.46 Scale drawing of E. . Waters’ an ...... 137 5.47 Partially buried capstan ...... 5.48 Scale drawing of life boat davit and support bracket ...... 138 5.49 Davit and support bracket within E. . wreckage ...... 139 5.50 Metal rod handle wedged between frames on the port side of the bilge ...... 139 5.51 Plan and profile views of flat metal plate, brace and boat davit brace..... 141 5.52 Iron or steel strap near . . Waters.stem ...... 142 Thick glass fragments between . . Waters’frames ...... 142

xi FOREWORD

It is surprisingto most that one of the largest Initially, park managers contacted SRC water bodies in National Park Service (NPS) regarding natural resource issues arising from jurisdiction is in Wyoming, in Yellowstone exotic lake trout introduction and visitor use National Park (YELL). Those most familiar issues surrounding the growth of YELL as a with parks on the Atlantic, Pacific and Gulf of destination for sport divers. Several team Mexico coasts are often astonished to learn members made a reconnaissance visit in 1995, Yellowstone Lake encompassesa water surface which formed the basis for the park‘s request for rivaling Biscayne NationalPark and larger than a field operation devoted to both sets of issues in that National Park. Yellowstone 1996. Lake is not just large - it is deep. Average The project reported here represents an Yellowstone Lake depths exceed all other NPS approachto park-based research that is unusual areas, with the possible exception of Lake to the normal divisions of labor in our agency. Superior’s Isle Royale National Park. Ordinarily, NPS projects are either natural or Beyond physical dimensions, NPS cultural, each approached with separate lines of Submerged Resources Center (SRC, formerly inquiry with different methodologies. Effective Submerged Cultural Resource Unit or SCRU) submerged culturalresources investigation and divers were greeted by geological features management requires consideration and unique to YELL and remarkable vestiges of incorporation of natural resources in a human occupation that stretch from prehistory multidisciplinary approach. Natural resource through the stagecoach era to steam-powered investigation is core to all SRC research, tour boats. Underwater, we observedhot springs whether to characterize archeological site emerging in the lake and, with side-scan sonar, formation processes or environmental context. strange mineral formationsresembling volcano In some instances, park management has cones and tall, thin spires rising high from the requested SRC to conduct submerged natural The long procession of human visitors resource investigations. In these cases, we to this extraordinary landscape is well combine cultural-orientedresearchto the extent represented by material remains in and around practical. This approach, which utilizesa single the lake. We recorded many submerged team and mobilization, is effective and structures and small boats and documented a efficient, as demonstrated here. SRC projects well-preserved tour boat. These archeological are often designed to serve as models and to features are material evidence of adaptations test and refine methodology to accommodate developed to address the challenges of NPS’ particular needs. The Yellowstone Lake navigating this large, isolated, high mountain project demonstrated benefits to be gained from lake and material remains diverse seabed classification applied to lake biology, and long-standing involvement with this park. whichthe park has pursued. The body of water upon which watercraft This YellowstoneNational operate influences their design, and we are Resources Study is an example of combined among the few to have the opportunity to natural and cultural resource approach to investigate rare mountain lake vessels of the Yellowstone Lake research. In consultation with West. park staff, System-wideArcheological Inventory Program (SAIP) funds from SRC were funding and other field obligations delayed combined with park natural resource funds to printing the final report. We acknowledge and accomplish this project. The 1996 fieldwork appreciate the patience and continuing support generated most of the informationreported here. of Sue Consolo-Murphy, Laura John Part One of the report discusses hydrographic Varley, John Lounsburyand Ann Johnson while survey and remote sensing operations aimed at bringing this report to press. simultaneously generating data for delineating Partly in association with the work at lake-bed classifications in areas park YELL, SRC conducted an assessment of biologistsdeemed importantto determining lake submerged cultural resources at Glacier trout habitat and obtaining high-resolutionside National Park, Yellowstone’s northern cousin scan sonar coverage of selected cultural and (another example of combining tasks to natural features in the lake. Part Two is a minimize costs). Perhaps the most important comprehensive discussion of the submerged observation we made during our involvement cultural resources of Yellowstone Lake that in thesetwo magnificent parks is that submerged places human activities in and around the lake resources are all too easy to ignore when there in the contextofregionalprehistory and history. is such scenic magnificence and pressing Although this report is the finished visitation problems that confront managers document required of NPS research, other every day on land. Both parks have wonders project results with immediate relevance to that extend beneath the surface into realms that ongoing management concernswere forwarded are often out of sight and out of mind. We to the park within three months of fieldwork commend the resource managers and rangers completion. Deliverables included allprocessed of Yellowstone for having the vision to begin survey data for inclusion into the YELL GIS addressing submerged resource issues database so as to be immediately available to proactivelyas concerns rather than waiting until, fisheries biologists. At the park’s request, we through some unfortunate circumstance, they conducted a survey to establish coordinates for become crises. their park’s GPS base station, which was completed during the fieldwork. This was provided at no cost to the park and represents the efficiency of combining multiple tasks. A draft report was forwardedto the park for review Larry E. Murphy, Chief in March 1997. Personnel attrition, reduced Submerged Resources Center

xiv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Many people contributed to the success of ArchivistLee Retired park historian the Yellowstone National Park (YELL) Aubrey Haines provided much insight into SubmergedResources Survey. The park staffs Yellowstone Lake’s maritime history and foresight in dealing with submerged cultural particularly regarding lake tour boat resources on equal footing with terrestrial Other park staff and volunteers who worked cultural resources made this project possible. with us on the project include: Travis Wyman, Superintendent Michael Finley; Chief Ranger Bill Archer, Bob Ryan, and Frank and Beverly Rick Obernesser; Dr. John Director, Ford. In addition, Midwest Archeological Yellowstone for Resources; Laura Center Archeologist Ann Vawser provided Chief, Branch of Cultural Resources; and Lake background on archeological work conducted District Ranger John all played key in the park and a draft manuscript was reviewed roles in project planning and execution and by YELL Archeologist Ann Johnson, Scott supporting an innovative, cost-effective Harris and Dan Lenihan. approach to combining natural and cultural Many specialists and volunteerscontributed resource survey and evaluation that may serve directly to the project. of Marine as a model for other areas. YELL Dive Officer SonicTechnology, Ltd. generously donated use Wesley Miles and Rangers Rick Fey and Gary of a side scan sonar and operator. We thank Nelson worked on adaily basis andwere him for making the side scan sonar survey crucial in providing logistical support. Fisheries possible. Ian Ablett, steam engineering biologists and natural resource specialists Dan consultant; Stan Liddiard, marine surveyor; and Jack and James Ruzycki VIPs Greg and Linda helped with were integral in planning the RoxAnn survey. analysis of the E. C. Waterssite. Field personnel In particular, James Ruzycki came out on the included: Principal Investigators Dan Lenihan survey boat when we collectedRoxAnn training and Larry Murphy, Field Director Matt Russell, sites for lakebed sediments and identified Archeologist Jim Bradford, Photographer Brett primary RoxAnn lakebed classifications of Seymour and NPS GPS CoordinatorTim Smith. primary biological interest. Geographic This publication would not have been Information System (GIS) Specialist Eric possible without the active support of IMR Compas worked closely with National Park Regional Director Karen Wade, Deputy Director Service (NPS) Global Positioning System Mike Snyderand Support Superintendent (GPS) Coordinator Tim Smith integrating Hal Grovert on the regional level and Sue data with the YELL GIS database. Murphy at Yellowstone National Park. Cultural resources staff members particularly Finally, we SCRUVisual Information helpful with archival research include: SpecialistFran Day, who corrected and revised SupervisoryMuseum Curator Susan Lead the manuscript and designed and produced the Museum Technician Vanessa Christopher, final publication during a time when reduced Museum Aide and staff greatly increased her workload.

XV PART I

REMOTE SENSING SURVEY

Matthew A. Russell Larry E. Murphy and Timothy G. Smith Part I Yellowstone National Park

PART I

Remote Sensing Survey

INTRODUCTION underwater remote-sensing of cultural resources. The Biscayne National Park Survey, During August 1996, the National Park funded through post-Hurricane Andrew Service’s Submerged Cultural Resources mitigation funds, focused on natural resources Unit (SCRU) conducted a multiresource and seabed classification but included cultural remote-sensing survey in Yellowstone Lake, resources survey. Methodology developed for Yellowstone National Park (YELL). This these two projects was to be tested during the surveywas initiated through discussions among Yellowstone National Park Submerged Dan Lenihan, Program Manager, SCRU; John Resources Survey. Lake District Ranger, YELL; Laura SCRU methodology was designed to Chief of Cultural Resources, YELL; and produce high-resolution, concurrent data on John Varley, Director, Yellowstone Center for both natural and cultural resources as a Resources during a reconnaissance visit efficient approach to survey and inventory of to the park by Lenihan and others. marine park areas. Basic methodology The general strategy was to apply incorporates a Differential Global Positioning methodology developed by SCRU for marine System (DGPS) to position digital data derived resource hydrographic survey to specific from remote sensing instruments for addition management issues at Yellowstone Lake. The to the park GIS database. GIS data sets are first submerged resources surveys designed cumulative, integrated, comparative and readily specifically for Geographic Information System accessible. This technology provides the (GIS) applications were conducted several years infrastructure for data collection, storage, earlier by SCRU in areas of the National Park manipulation and presentation necessary for System in Florida. The Dry National long-term park management and research Park Survey,begun in 1993,was through applications. Yellowstone Lake management the Systemwide Archeological Inventory concerns provided a test case for the SCRU Program (SAIP) to generate an NPS model for survey system in afreshwater environment with

2 Yellowstone National Park Part I

a priority focus on natural resource issues. Exotic lake trout control is critical to Specific methodological refinements were made continued viability of native trout species in for the YELL Submerged Resources Survey to Yellowstone Lake. Currently, control consists address particular management problems and of gill net capture and evaluation of lake trout. are discussed below. Based upon gill net results, certain shorelines Information gathered by Lenihan in 1995 were identified by YELL natural resource indicated a high potential for historically specialists as productive lake trout areas, with significant submerged cultural remains in some no assumption of relation between gill net areas of Yellowstone Lake (Lenihan 1996). production and breeding habitat. Primary Cultural resources remote-sensing survey among productive gill net areas were the West planning for the 1996 survey was directed Thumb north shore and the “Neck” area toward locating exposed cultural materials and between West Thumb and the main lake. The documentingknown sites. Site documentation Neck area was specified as the first priority for utilized minimum-impact techniques; no test lake bed classification, with West Thumb excavation, artifact collectionor site disturbance second. of any kind was planned. Additional historical Past work utilizing remote sensing (side research was conducted to refine site location scan sonar), remotely operated vehicles models and enhance interpretative uses of field equipped with video, and submarines has data. Principal study areas included: West successfully demonstrated potential of these Thumb dock area, where activity took place approaches for determining ideal lake trout between 1890 and 1960; Lake Hotel dock area, breeding substrate in Great Lakes areas (Manny where depositional activity and small watercraft and Edsall 1989; Edsall, Brown, Kennedy and use may have left cultural materials and which Poe 1992;Edsall, Brown, Kennedy and French was also the primary search area for the 1992;Edsallet al. 1995). SCRUhas experience passenger steamerZillah;PumicePoint, where with another sediment classification divers have reported wagon and stagecoach device, RoxAnn, which has recently been used parts; Frank Island dock area; Dot Island dock for marine seabed classification in NPS areas, area; and Stevenson Island, particularly the particularly Biscayne National Park (Murphy et grounded vessel E. Waters site area. SCRU al. 1995). The RoxAnn device would be the was granted a Special Use Collecting and principal remote sensing instrument for this Research Permit June 24, 1996, for the project experimentalYellowstone Lake naturalresource titled: Underwater Investigations of Selected application, and its efficacywould be evaluated. Localities in Lake. Natural resource issues focused on lake bed PROBLEM STATEMENT sediment classification to locate and map substrate that might include lake trout 1. Natural Resources: Exotic lake trout spawning habitat. Although primary lake trout introduced into Yellowstone Lake compromise spawning substrate has been identified for the viability of native trout species. Identification Great Lakes, there is currently no corollary and delineation of optimum lake trout breeding model forYellowstone Lake. To date, lake trout substrate could increase control method biological data for Yellowstone Lake depends effectiveness. Primary objective was to develop upon shore-based gill net capture numbers and an appropriate survey methodology and sport fishermen capture reports. conduct a lake bed classification survey to

3 ascertain lake bed sediments, and in particular, SCRU designed the YELL survey to presence of potential lake trout breeding produce a comprehensive data set that would substrate in the priority areas delineated by be accessible to YELL managers for planning natural resource specialists based on gill net and interpretation. The survey design was based capture numbers. upon wide-area archeological survey 2. Cultural Resources: Historical methodology developed by SCRU during the documents indicate several long-term activities NPS SAIP survey of Dry National directly associated with Yellowstone Lake. Park beginning in 1993 (Murphy Submergedcomponentsof these activities have Murphy and Smith 1995; Shope et not been investigated, and their extent and 1995). significance level is currently unknown to Data collection, post-plotting, analysis and managers. A secondary objective was to presentation were designed to be utilized in a delineate high-priority areas based upon historical documents, oral histories and diver GIS database to facilitate their use by managers reports, and to conducta remote sensing survey and incorporation into permanent archives. This designedto locate cultural materials on or above approach results in an electronic product that the lake bed. can incorporate available digital data, such as aerial imagery and digitized historical maps, so SURVEY DESIGN AND RATIONALE they can be combined with project-specific results and be analytically manipulated to For the natural resources survey,the general examine relationships that would otherwise be investigative approach was to systematically extremely difficult to observe. The project GIS survey specific areas for lake trout habitat using data set was generatedto provide a standardized, depth sounder and positioning system permanent, cumulative, computer-accessible to generate water depth and bottom product for multiple applications by managers, classification data and to develop signatures for interpreters, researchers, the public and those specific bottom-type classifications for use in involved in planning and conducting future post-processing analysis. Because no submerged resource operations within the excavation was anticipated, cultural resource park. surveywould utilize positioned side scan sonar This survey approach, which combines survey of high probability areas for shipwrecks, natural and cultural resource survey, reduces small watercraft and discarded materials lying overall park costs for resource evaluation. NPS exposed on the lake bed. A proton-precession equipment was deployed, so no equipment magnetometer would be tested to determine rental or procurement was necessary Because effectiveness in a volcanic environment. The stranded and wrecked passenger steamer NPS does not possess a side scan sonar, a Waters on Stevenson Island would be cooperative partnership was established with documentedand surrounding area surveyed for Marine SonicTechnology, Ltd. of White Marsh, related materials. Planned products included Virginia, manufacturers of a high-resolution, digital and analog information appropriate for PC-based, digital side scan sonar that easily park GIS applications, research and interfaces with SCRU equipment. Marine Sonic interpretation. Maps of the survey area were provided a state-of-the-art instrument and delivered to the park soon after completion of operator for this survey at no cost to the the fieldwork and before report completion. park.

4 Yellowstone National Park Part I

GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEM data sets can be presented as tabular database files or themes that can be generated, analyzed, scaled, combined, superimposed and GIS is the use of multiple, spatially displayed through direct user access in referenced databases to produce maps that unlimited variations. Data themes are graphically depict user generated combinations presentations of nonspatial data referenced to a of variables presented as themes, layers or common location expressed as geographic coverages. Spatially referenced data are basic coordinates. One way of looking at themes is to archeologicalinquiry, but it has only been in to consider them horizontal locations that the last few years that technological advances share a category of variable values, which in software and hardware have overcome represent discrete, quantifiable attributes. difficulties in collecting, collating, storing, Analytical techniques include statistical and editing, querying, depicting and manipulating spatial analysis, measurement and comparisons the large amount of data generated by marine that can be used to create additional themes remote sensing survey. YELL Submerged reflecting analytical resultsuseful for additional Resources Surveyresults were formulated to be hypothesis testing. incorporated into a GIS product easily GIS can be contrasted with transferrable to park managers. assisted design (CAD) systems that are GIS provides a methodology to compare generally limited to graphic output such as variables among many sets of spatial data, such drawings, pictures and maps, and contain no as artifact categories, remote sensingresultsand relational database capability nor the ability to natural environmental characterizations, to generate new data sets based upon analytic examine distribution and change over space, functions. CAD systems generally contain no and, if data are available, over time. interrogative capability and are unable to Rapid manipulation of scale and variables can manipulate database attributes (see allow pattern recognition that may not be Murphy apparent at other levels. Examination of Two problems make creation of GIS data combined variables is instantaneous because sets expensive and time consuming: accuracy they are presented graphically, greatly determination and conversion of various data simplifying analysis by precludingthe necessity setsto an appropriateformat. Mixing different of generating mathematical and statistical accuracy levels among data sets degrades models to characterize patterned relationships. overall accuracy and gives a false sense of Current computer and software speed allow comparability that can lead to seriousanalytical rapid manipulation of multiple variable problems in data interpretation. Data set combinations, which allows generation of conversions must consider fundamental associations and relationships that might geodetic concepts such as geoid, ellipsoid, otherwisebe unanticipated. Hypotheses can be datum, coordinate system and projection. quickly generated and tested through seamless Geodesy factorsvary over time and space, and graphical display. Data manipulationcan easily each variation is critical to conversionaccuracy be done by researchers or managers with basic (Smith 1997). Few archeologists record a softwarefamiliarity, which does not require chart’s datum and projection when generating sophisticated mathematical ability. coordinates. For example,

5 Part I Yellowstone National Park

coordinates in North American Datum 1927 SURVEY BLOCKS AND SAMPLE 27) and those in World GeodeticSystem INTERVALS 1984(WGS 84) can vary from tens to hundreds of these datums introduces Hydrographic survey is conducted in area serious error. Being given coordinates in NAD blocks through which the surveyvessel travels 27 and trying to relocate the point with an along preplotted transects, or lanes, at instrument reading in WGS 84 is an easy and investigator-defined intervalsselectedto ensure common mistake to make. All data generated complete instrumental coverage of the study during the YELL SubmergedResources Survey area. Lane spacing depends upon the survey were based on the WGS 84 datum. Other data questions and remote sensing instrument not collected by SCRU during the project and attributes. The YELL survey was conducted not already in WGS 84 datum were converted with a preplotted block to maximize remote from their original datum before incorporation sensing coverage. Standard SCRU practice is into the YELL survey GIS database. to label survey blocks with the four-letter park acronym followed by a numerical designation, GIS DATA ARCHIVING such as Standard SCRU methodology for wide area Raw and processed hydrographic survey survey requires 30-m transects, which have been field data and GIS information archiving is as demonstratedto provide cost-effectivemagnetic much a concern as any archeological data coverage for discovering most colonial period archiving, and it must be planned in advance. (Murphy Murphy and YELL remote sensing survey electronic data Because magnetometry archiving is in a nonproprietary format, was not the primary survey objective, however, primarily DOS ASCII text, which ensures long- the survey blocks designed for and term data accessibility by many scientific bathymetric survey were disciplines, managers, archeologists and other created with first 20-m, and later 40-m transects researchers. All results are stored in latitude/ (see discussion below). Side scan sonar can longitude and Universal Transverse Mercator produce high-resolution imagery in (UTM), WGS 84. SCRU stores archive data in swaths, so the side scan portion of the survey coordinates so that the was run on 100-m transects. database can be easily converted if future GPS provides a position every second, and alterations or corrections are made to WGS 84; all instrument data were collected at intervals it is more to convert grid coordinates of 1% seconds or less and collated with the after a datum revision. Most current computer appropriate DGPS position. At a typical boat programs require grid coordinates, so GIS speed of 6 a sample is collected about themes are also archived in this form. Upon every 4-6 along the transect. report completion,YELL staff will be provided a CD-ROM (some media now have 100-year POSITIONING archival quality) containing all pertinent field data and GIS coverages. This CD-ROM will Hydrographic survey requires real-time be directly accessible through a positions with very rapid updates (1-2 seconds) readily available PC-based GIS program that is for accurate vessel navigation to ensure the current NPS standard. complete, systematic coverage at the desired

6 Yellowstone National Park Part I

sample interval. GIS accuracy requirements are Autonomous civilian GPS receivers produce a2-3 m circle-of-erroror less. Unlike terrestrial circles-of-error of about 10-30 m. archeological survey and mapping, Unfortunately, GPS instrumental accuracy is hydrographic survey usually has no landmarks; furtherreduced by “selective availability” (SA), simply, on the water, it is very difficultto occupy which is intentional, random dithering of the and then reoccupy the same point and to code GPS signals by DOD as a security continually know where you are without real- measure that degradesthe signalto a guaranteed time positioning. accuracyof no more than 100m. However, real- Accuracy is usually expressed as time accuracy of m ispossibleby deploying unit 1 plottable accuracy, the a base station to compensate for SA through accuracy that a point can be plotted, less differential GPS (DGPS) correction. important now because of digital entry and Ionospheric variables alter the satellite signal zoom capability; or circle of error, which is an propagation times through the atmosphere and ellipse whose largest radius represents the root are an additional error source, which are also mean squareerror of a set of measurements, correctablewith a differential base station. The whose orientationshowsdirectionaluncertainty. base station, which is set up on a control point The ellipse, centered on the true position, is whose positionis known to high accuracy, typically at the 95% statistical confidence generates corrections for SA and transmitsthem level. via aradio modem to the mobile survey Although several positioning systems are instrument. Broadcast differential corrections presently available, GPS offers several are currently available in most coastal areas advantagesover most others. GPShas become through the US Coast Guard navigational the state-of-the-art and will likely ultimately beacons and commercial suppliers, which replace other systems for survey applications. provide differential corrections at various The US Department of Defense (DOD) accuracy levels. Because correction services developed the GPS system for military were not available in the study area, the YELL purposes. This system uses trilateration of survey utilized proprietary, self- satellite-transmitted signals to determine contained base station position. GPS provides 1-second updates with global coveragefrom 24 satellites,meaning four SURVEY INSTRUMENTATION or more space vehicles are continuouslyin view anywhere on the globe. The satellites produce GPS-based Archeological Data two signals, known as code and code Acquisition Platform (ADAP) survey system, frequency, the latter encrypted and available built in 1992 by Sandia Research Corporation onlyto military or users. The GPS of Albuquerque, New Mexico, to SCRU is close to an ideal positioning system; it is specifications, was used during the YELL accurate and continuously availableon demand Submerged Resources Survey. The ADAP anywhere in the world under any weather system automates and integrates field data conditions. collected with a variety of remote sensing The GPS and combinationhas provided instruments, and accurately tags each data point a solution for accurate positioning and analysis with real-time differential GPS position and in hydrographic remote sensing. However, time references (Shopeet 1995;Murphy and some additions to the basic GPS system are Smith 1995). Generating survey blocks, necessaryto achieve acceptable accuracylevels. navigating preplotted lanes, and collecting and Part I Yellowstone National Park

post-processing data were done with Coastal ROXANN BOTTOM CLASSIFICATION Oceanographic’s “Hypack” hydrographic DEVICE survey software. This program time tags and collates incoming multiple sensor data for post- The basic natural resource survey sensor is processing into standard database formats. RoxAnn, manufactured by Marine Micro Standardized post-processed data are easily Systems of Aberdeen, Scotland. RoxAnn, incorporated into a PC-based in this case, basically a hydroacoustic “black box” with no which YELL also uses. user-manipulated controls, is easily deployed Consultation with Eric Compas, YELL GIS and adaptable to various survey systems (see coordinator, ensured data compatibility between discussion in Murphy et 1995). The model the SCRU data sets and park used for the YELL survey is called a “Groundmaster,” which incorporates a depth POSITIONING sounderand is designed to give absolute, rather than relative, numerical bottom Accurate, real-time vessel positioning is characterizations. These characterizations, fundamentalto systematic hydrographic survey. based on comparative analysis of multiple The YELL Submerged Resources Survey relied depth-sounder returns, give two numerical upon GPS for geodetic survey, vessel values for surficial sediment roughness and positioning during survey, target relocation and hardness, called El and E2 values. Bottom shore survey. sediments can be characterized and Geodetic survey during the project used two differentiated by these two values, and subtle Trimble Navigation geodetic receivers. changes in bottom types can be reliablydetected Positioning aboard the survey vessel relied on by RoxAnn. a Trimble Accutime GPS receiver and VHF The demonstrated strength of the RoxAnn radio datalink. Differential corrections were device is that it produces unambiguous, provided to the survey vessel by self- nonintrusive, reproducible sediment contained, shore-based GPS base station, which classifications. The instrument derives its uses a Trimble geodetic receiver and information from the first and second echo VHF radio datalink to generate and transmit a reflections from a single-beam depth sounder. data stream of real-time RTCM-104 differential An index, El, is derived from the initial bottom corrections. This base station allows reflection and its characteristics are related to independent differential correction generation sediment roughness. The second index, E2, is for remote park areas, which makes SCRU’s produced by the second echo, which is reflected ADAP system completely self-contained. The twice from the bottom and once from the water ADAP base station supplied Yellowstone Lake surface, and its characteristics are related to survey corrections sufficient for a 1-2-m sediment hardness. of-error at 95% confidence,required for SCRU Every surficial sediment has a particular survey parameters developed for GIS signature that is a combination of the two applications. variables El and E2, which are displayed as

8 Yellowstone National Park Part I

coordinates on a Cartesian grid (see Figure reduced accordingly. The RoxAnn reading is 7). The range of coordinates for a bottom basicallyan average of the area within the depth type are represented as a square or sounder transducer sample area. box,” to which a user-selected color is attributed The Furuno video depth sounder supplies by the survey software. The RoxAnn boxes can the signal source for RoxAnn. The RoxAnn be adjusted for specific bottom types whose producesa digital depthfromthe soundersignal presenceis indicatedin the raw data by the color that is recorded and collated with position and pixel representing each unique bottom type. In collected as part of the survey data set at each post-plotting, the color pixel is plotted in its 1-2-second sample interval. geographic location and combined with others to form GISthematic layers. Polygonsdepicting SIDE SCAN SONAR geographic extension of bottom types, as defined by similar colored pixels, can be hand Side scan sonar is one of the principal drawn or produced through various GIS remote sensing instruments used in submerged analytical procedures. Thesemultiplepolygons archeological survey. Side scan sonar uses are displayed as a map or thematic layer in a sound waves to image the sea floor and objects large-scaleGIS to provide bottom classification laying on or above it. Normallya towed system, informationon lake bed bottom types. a side scan sonar transmits a microsecond, pulsed and shaped acoustic beam to each side DEPTH SOUNDER of the tow vessel’s path at multiple times per second. The beam propagatesthrough the water Bathymetric information was collected and across the sea floor, reflecting incident using a Model LS-6000 LCD Video sound energy back to the sonar. A sonar data Sounder, which is integrated into the RoxAnn processor converts the reflections’ intensity and “Groundmaster” bottom classification device. time delays to a visual image for display. The Soundingarea, and consequently bottom sample end result is a sea floor (or lake bed) image of area for RoxAnn lake bed classification, is a near photographic quality showing areas of light function of transducer beam width, which is (strong reflection) and dark (areas of lower generally a function of frequency. Usually, the reflectivity or shadow areas). higher the frequency, the narrower the beam For the YELL Submerged Resources width. Most depth sounders use a frequency of Survey, a Marine Sonic Technology Sea Scan about 50 khz, which has a beam width of PC Side Scan Sonar was used. The Sea Scan approximately and samples a circular area PC is a digital, high-resolution side scan sonar with a 42-m diameter at a depth of 50 m. The system that uses a Windows-based personal depth sounderuses a200 transducer, computer for all control, display, analysis and which provides a high-resolution sample area storage functions. The reflected signal is and reduces bubble-derived noise. The 200 digitized within the sonar data processor and beam width is about which provides bottom stored as digital information. Digital imagery coverage equal to about 17% water depth. is preferred because it allows images to be For example, the area covered in 50 m of water filtered and enhanced for improvedanalysisand is a circle with a diameter of 9 m, or an area of target recognition, and it can be processed into 64 In shallower depths, the sample area is mosaics and incorporated into as an image

9 Part I Yellowstone National Park

layer, much like aerial photography. The digital 50,000 Currentindustry standards for format facilitates archival data storage and proton-precession magnetometers allows 3 retrieval. gammas a level that SCRU experience The Sea Scan PC includes an integrated has demonstrated to be too high for navigational plotter, using standardDGPS input, discriminating some cultural materials on a cost- that allows all parts of the acoustic image to be effectivetransectspacing. The G-876 generates automatically correlatedwith correctgeographic a sensor depth and height over bottom, which position. During the YELL survey, a 600-khz are displayed during the survey and are was used. Like the depth sounder, the important for quality control of data collection higher the sonar signal frequency,the higher its and anomaly interpretation. These data are resolution. This instrument was selectedfor the collected and collated with DGPS positions as YELL survey because prior deployment by part of the ADAP data set at each sample SCRU proved it was a reliable instrument that position at a rate of less than 2 seconds. Unlike produced very high resolution images in a most NPS cultural resource surveys, digital format appropriate for inclusion into a magnetometer deployment was secondary to GIS database. side scan sonar during the YELL survey. Only visible remainswere to be examined during this MAGNETOMETER project. SURVEY METHODOLOGY In addition to side scan sonar, submerged cultural resource surveys are primarily OBJECTIVES accomplished with a vessel-towed magnetometer, which measures the earth’s Survey objectives included several goals: magnetic field. Some objects, primarily ferrous cover specific areas of Yellowstone Lake (iron) materials, distort the earth’s magnetic defined by parknatural resourcemanagers with field and show up as anomalies in ambient the RoxAnn bottom classification device to magnetic readings. The primary anomaly identify and delineate lake bed sediments, in source in hydrographic survey is typically particular possible lake trout spawning habitat; ferrous cultural materials associated with survey high probability areas with a side scan shipwrecks or other submerged archeological sonar to identify submerged cultural resources sites. The magnetometer’s strength is that its related to historical use of Yellowstone Lake; readings are generally unaffected by burial; it characterize lake-bottom surficial sediments easily locates buried ferrous cultural materials. concurrently with RoxAnn and the A model G-876 resolution side scan sonar for direct comparison precession magnetometer was used as part of to determine the most effective methodology; ADAP system. The output of this and test effectiveness of a proton-precession magnetometer is proportional to the total magnetometer in the volcanic geological magnetic field intensity and independent of environment of Yellowstone Lake. sensor coil orientation. Because dataprocessing is done in-water with a separate, towed computer connected in-line with the sensor, typical noise levels are 0.5-1.0 gammas As a normal part of survey planning, the (nanoteslas)in the earth‘s field of approximately most current Yellowstone Lake bathymetric

10 Yellowstone National Park Part I

Side Scan Sonar Coverage Hydrographic Survey Blocks

Stevenson Island

YeI tone Lake Point .

Dot Island

West Thumb I Frank Island

Figure 1. Planned survey blocks and side scan sonar coverage. chart was digitized for survey design, execution supplied to Eric Compas, YELL GIS and incorporation into This chart (and its coordinator. digitized format) is problematic, however, and During field operations, a brief pedestrian should not be used for navigation until corrected survey was conducted along the lake shore through additional high-resolution survey. adjacent to surveyed areas to provide positions Chart contours only generally represent bottom for correcting the north lake shoreline. Figure features, and the shoreline had to be georectified 1 incorporates changes made to the original with very few control points. This chart was digitized chart to correct shoreline inaccuracies Part I Yellowstone National Park

in the study area, and these corrections have SURVEY POSITIONING been incorporated into the GIS survey results. Positioning was provided by on-board GPS SURVEY PLANNING and real-time differential corrections from shore-based GPS base station, placed Dividing the study area into at either the Lake District or Grants location. shaped blocks provides an easily controlled and Survey data points were collected executable methodology to ensure full survey approximately every 1.5 seconds, with DGPS coverage at the desired sample interval. Survey positioning accuracy within a 1-2m blocks covering lake bed classification areas error (95% confidence level) throughout the were established using the digital lake map. survey area. Real-time positions with rapid These blocks are depicted in Figure updates (1-2 seconds) are necessary in Survey blocks were first laid out in the hydrographic surveys for accurate vessel primary survey area, as defined by YELL natural navigation to ensure complete, systematic resource managers. This survey area is based coverage at the desired sample interval. A on productive gill net locations, which may not Trimble Navigation Accutime GPS receiver be directly related to spawning loci. There is and radio were used aboard the survey not yet a model for lake trout spawning loci, boat for navigation and data collection. but the primary survey area represents an Typically, about 10,000 points per are estimate of high lake trout populations by collected with all data collated and tied to DGPS natural resource researchers. The desired survey position. Survey positions and sensor data were coverage was in two areas: the restriction stored to the hard drive of an on-board computer between the main lake and West Thumb, known as it was collected, and backed-up nightly via as the and the north part of West modem to a computer at the SCRU office in Thumb, from Pumice Point to Carrington Santa Fe. Island, from the shoreline to a depth of 120 ft. Preplotted survey lanes were followed using Thermal features, such as in the vicinity of the navigation information provided by the GPS and West Thumb Geyser Basin, were the lowest displayed in Hypack, a commercial priority. Six survey blocks were laid out to cover hydrographic software package. A computer the area specified by park biologists: , monitor mounted near the helm provided the YELL009 boat pilot with current position as well as and navigation information such as cross-track error, Initial survey transects or lanes in block speed, course, distance to end-of-line and were designed with 20-m lane bearing to end-of-line to ensure complete, spacingto evaluate survey interval adequacy for systematic survey block coverage. In addition coverage in Yellowstone Lake. These to tabular information, a graphical display data were post-plotted and discussed with showed real-time boat position and movement Yellowstone natural resource personnel. and survey lanes superimposed over a Evaluation of survey transects indicated that referenced, digitized lake chart. m lane spacing would be adequate for habitat Three geodetic surveys were conducted to location purposes and allow maximum coverage establish extremely accurate survey points of desired target areas. during the project, two for SCRU base station

12 Yellowstone National Park Part I

positions at Lake District Ranger Station and with 10-30 cm interstitial depths Grants, and one at Mammoth Hot Springs to (Edsall et which is sufficient to establish a YELL community base station for prevent mechanical damage and predation of park operations (see discussion below). eggs and fry. This environment often appears as cobble patches or piles on bedrock. Trout ROXANN SURVEY breeding apparently occurs in a range of water depths, from 1-36 m, with most in the Interval depth range, but reportedly as deep as 46 m (Edsall et al. Edsall,Brown, Kennedy and Poe Edsall et National Park Service submerged resource Spawning lake trout in Lake Superior were often survey standards utilize transects for found in water deeper than 10 m, and they are general survey. The spacing represents NPS abundant on reefs deeper than 15 m, with one experience regarding optimal cost-effective researcher stating that 36 m is the maximum magnetic coverage for most colonial-period lake trout spawning depth (Edsall, Brown, shipwrecks and related materials (Murphy Kennedy and Poe YELL Murphy and Submerged Resources Survey bottom In block the surveytransectdistance classification was designed to isolate this was reduced to 20 m for RoxAnn performance bottom type should it later prove to be a evaluation in Yellowstone Lake. The initial spawning ground in Yellowstone Lake as it is survey block datawere examined and a decision in the Great Lakes. was made in consultation with Yellowstone There are two ways to develop seabed fisheries biologists that halving the resolution categories based on RoxAnn classification data. would be adequate for their purposes. In all First, post-processed data sets can be grouped later blocks, transect interval was 40 m, which into discrete value ranges of El (a numerical appears to provide acceptable RoxAnn data quantification of sediment roughness) and E2 resolution for the rather patchy environmentof (sediment hardness), which are each attributed Yellowstone Lake. a specific color. Correlation of RoxAnn ranges and bottom types requires diver investigation. RoxAnn Generation Diver examination and ground in past RoxAnn surveys revealed a 1: 1 congruence between RoxAnn data and bottom type. There To map potential trout habitat, a signature was also a very high correlation between for the target substratehad to be developed for aerial imagery and RoxAnn data. the RoxAnn data. Increased knowledge about In one case at Gulf Islands National Seashore, lake trout spawning habitat has resulted from a sandy area of about 1.5 was classified attempts in the Great Lakes to re-establish lake into six categories derived solely from trout populations decimated by lamprey mathematical data set analysis. Diver predation and overfishing (Edsall et al. observationsand grab samples verified that the Although complete lake trout range of classifications developed habitat utilization studies have not been mathematically directly reflected subtle conducted (Edsall, Brown, Kennedy and Poe variationsof sedimentsizeand constituentsthat generally, the optimum lake trout correlated very well with submerged dune spawning habitat is believed to be rounded or formation. This test and diver evaluation has angularrubble and cobble-sizedrocks, 5-50 cm provided compelling empirical verification of in diameter (Edsall, Brown, Kennedy and Poe resolution.

13 Part I Yellowstone National Park

The second method of seabed categorization SIDE SCAN SONAR SURVEY requires specific software capabilities. Recent modifications to Hypack, a Windows-based A corporate-partnershipwith Marine Sonic survey software used by SCRU, allow RoxAnn Technology of White Marsh, Virginia, allowed data color boxes to be manipulated in real time use of a side scan sonar and operator for four and also allow static data collection into a days. There were three basic goals for the use reference file. This particular combination of this instrument: to characterize the lake allows generation of seabed classifications bottom concurrently with RoxAnn for direct based on existing bottom classifications as comparison to high resolution side scan developed by sedimentologists,biologists and imagery; to survey high-probability lake areas other natural resource scientists. For this for submerged cultural remains above the lake procedure,the survey vessel ispositionedabove bottom; and to image areas surroundingknown the type location for the seabed classification submerged archeological sites to locate further and a reference (training) file is collected. The material. RoxAnn color box is altered to fit the data range, The principal areas chosen for the cultural resulting in a tight classification capability. This resources survey and termed “high-probability” procedure, which was used for bottom are locations near the Lake Hotel likely to classification of Yellowstone Lake, combined contain cultural remains associated with hotel with the RoxAnn Groundmaster instrument, activities, the vicinity of Waters on the results in a standardized bottom classification east side of Stevenson Island and the West capability for specific areas that can be Thumb GeyserBasin docks. One specifictarget compared over long periods of time. This new was the passenger steamer Zillah, which may seabed classification tool coupled with GIS have been scuttled for disposal in the early should provide comparable databases over wide twentieth century According to former YELL areas appropriate for long-term monitoring and management needs and be entirely compatible HistorianAubrey Haines, if Zillah was scuttled, with existing YELL GIS data sets and layers. the most likely location would have been just Based on the Great Lakes experience and west of the former Lake Hotel docks, offshore the reported lake trout literature, the target the old boathouse and marine railway. In depths and lake bed sediment would be addition to Zillah, one known site, a small steam concentrationsof cobble-sized material on hard launch associated with the Lake Hotel, is located bottom in depths between 4-40 m. Several in the same area. This site was briefly visited training sites for RoxAnn data collection were during Lenihan’s reconnaissance in 1995 developed to represent bottom-type (Lenihan The Lake Hotel offshore areas classifications of interest to natural science became top priority for sonar survey for cultural researchers for post-processing the RoxAnn remains based on possible presence of Zillah, data. James Ruzycki, a fisheries biologist, heavy use of the Lake Hotel area and presence assisted SCRU in locating and evaluating of known sites. Secondary priorities were RoxAnn training sites specific to Yellowstone offshore Stevenson Island to locate materials Lake. Lake bed sediment signature generation potentially associated with and methodologyis discussed in detail below in the otherwrecks, and the West Thumb Geyser Basin “RoxAnnTraining Sites” section. dock area.

14 Yellowstone National Park Part I

Three survey blocks were established in two installing survey gear on the park’s 25-ft. of the high-probability areas. One block, Bertram and testing the system. was constructed offshore of the Lake Survey operations began August 2 and Hotel, and two smaller blocks, YELL003 and continued through August 14,totaling 12 days were created on Stevenson Island’s of survey; survey operationswere not conducted east side. These blocks defined the general August 12. RoxAnn coverage was completed survey area for simultaneous side scan sonar in six survey blocks and RoxAnn coverage. These blocks, 009, totaling approximately 4 in maximized for sonar coverage, were surveyed addition to side scan sonar coverage depicted on mtransects at 3knots or lessto maximize in Figure 1. sonar record quality. The bottom topography was extremely irregular in these survey areas, GEODETICPOSITIONING so preplotted lanes could not always be followed. No block was created for the West Three geodetic surveys were conducted Thumb Geyser Basin dock area because dock during the August field operations: to position remnants are visible from the shore, and the DGPS base stations at Lake District Ranger shoreline affords a navigation guide. headquarters and Grants, and to establishapark DGPS base station at Mammoth. MAGNETOMETER SURVEY For a base station to supply accurate corrections, its position must be surveyed magnetometerwas deployed to test accurately, which is done using the instrument’s effectiveness in the volcanic capable GPS receivers. A static geodetic survey Yellowstone Lake geological environment. As was conducted to establish control coordinates a cultural resource discovery tool, the for the GPS base station at a point on the old magnetometer’s effectiveness is considerably “airqualityshack”near the Lake District Ranger reduced in an environment with excessive Station. The base station control point was background noise; subtle anomalies generated triangulated from two “Order horizontal by cultural remains can be masked by the greater control monuments, “Yellowstone” and “CVO fluctuationsofthe earth‘s magnetic field caused 84 23.” by the geological environment. Deployment The YELL Submerged Resources Survey and tuning of the instrument on the first day of study areas included both the Lake Hotel survey proved this was the case and was shoreline and the far shore of West Thumb. A sufficient to determine that it would be water test of the Lake District base station ineffective to use it on subsequent days. indicated the radio link could not reach the West Thumb area, which was the primary survey area SURVEY OPERATIONS fortrout-habitat bottom classification. The base station was moved to Grants, where a geodetic SCRU members arrived in YELL on July survey was conducted to locate the new base 28,1996, and began surveypreparations. From station position and tie it to the Lake District July 29 to August 1, the SCRU survey team position. Subsequent tests of the new base installed and readied the survey system for station location proved it easily covered the operations. This included setting up a mobile primary survey area. Full study area coverage GPS base station to provide real-time required repositioning the base station between differential corrections to the survey boat, Lake District and Grants.

15 Part I Yellowstone National Park

During the project, geodetic positioning was (“Mam-Base”), which is an “Xscratched in conducted at the park’s request to aid the fire cache building roof peak just north of a Spatial Analysis Center in establishing a raised roof portion. The third observation was community GPS base station. The base station made from to “Mam-Base.” All was designed to continuously collect GPS base observed data were processed and baselines station information for differential corrections adjusted according to the strengths of the of remotely-collected GPS data in the park and monuments. Horizontal control was used from surrounding areas, up to 300 miles distant. A both “F-Mammoth” and vertical basic requirement for a community base station control was used from “C 157” only. is the GPS antenna be geodetically positioned Statistical analysis of the resulting to a circle-of-error of no more than a few horizontal coordinates for “Mam-Base” centimeters. An antenna location was selected establish it to within a few millimeters. by YELL GIS Coordinator Eric Compas on the Confidence in the geodetic coordinates for this Mammoth Village Fire Cache roof, which point is high, within a few centimeters. provides a secure, unobstructed position. Established WGS 84 datum coordinates for On July 30, 1996, SCRU Geodesist Tim “Mam Smith, assisted by YELL conducted 41’ HAE = 1901.0199 m. a GPS geodetic-control survey to establish coordinates for the Mammoth permanent GPS HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEY base station. This station was named “Mam-Base.” Two National Geodetic Survey Weather was frequently a limiting factor (NCS) Control monuments were used for this during Yellowstone Lake survey operations. survey: “F-Mammoth”,athird-orderhorizontal Inclement weather could appear with very little control and aB-order horizontal and warning, quickly making conditions vertical control monument. “F-Mammoth” unacceptable for accurate survey and unsafe for NAD 83 horizontal coordinates are: 58’ boating. Surveying had to be terminated early 54.761666” N, 42‘ 16.47553” Mean on several occasions because of strong winds Sea Level (MSL) height for this monument was and seas. The weather patterns generally scaled from an existing topographic map by the deteriorated in the afternoon; consequently,the NGS, and geoidal height (-8.37 m) obtained survey team began work early when the wind using the Geoid 90 program. Coordinates for was still calm, often leaving the dock before are, 58’ 12.29096” N, 42’ 0600. 06.93849” Height is 1937.218m The first four survey days, August 2-5, 1928.757m Height Above the Ellipsoid were spent on block in the southern Vertical height for this monument was part of the “Neck.” On the first day, the survey established though differential leveling and team deployed the magnetometer. This geodetic separation (-8.35 m) by the Geoid 90 instrument, which is extremely sensitive, program. typically has internal noise of 0.5-1.0 gammas. The first baseline observation was In Yellowstone Lake, readings. fluctuated more conducted from “F-Mammoth” to to than 20 gammas. Extensive attempts to tune verify the coordinates on both monuments. The the instrument were unsuccessful; the observed ground distance was 1328.0253 m. background noise in the earth’s magnetic field The second baseline was established from was simply too much for reliable recording of Mammoth” to the YELL base point small anomalies. Magnetometer operations

16 YellowstoneNational Park PartI

were terminated. Inclement weather on several ROXANN TRAINING SITES of these first days forced survey operations to terminate midday. On August training site data files were The Marine Sonics Technology side scan collected for RoxAnn post-processing. Nine sonar and operator arrived August 5, and on homogenous bottom types were selected based August 6 the instrument was mobilized and on raw RoxAnn data to produce RoxAnn tested. The next two days were spent covering identification signatures. These categories are high-probability areas offshore the Lake Hotel presented in the software as RoxAnn and east of Stevenson Island, including Classification Boxes, which are user defined. imagingE . C. Wafers andthe surroundingareas. Each box was based on bottom type For these survey days, three blocks, found in Yellowstone Lake. Each site was YELL003 and were created,and they visited and divers were sent down to visually defined the general survey area covered inspect the bottom and videotape the location simultaneouslyby side scan sonarand RoxAnn. as a permanent record. These sites varied in The fourth and last day of sidescan sonar survey, bottom type from fine, deep, fluff-type mud to August 9, covered the area aroundWest Thumb hard rock surfaces. Each data file was Geyser Basin, includingimagingthe submerged completed successfully, and a good dock structuresand vicinity. Finally, an attempt classification model with seven distinct bottom was made to cover block YELLOOl with side types was produced from thesetraining files for scan sonarto generatedata for comparison with the entire surveyed area. Identified bottom RoxAnn inthe highpriority area. Unfortunately, classifications were based visually on the strucka vertical underwater cliff on Wentworth Scale definitions: sand = less than the first lane and was disabled beyond field 2 mm in diameter (0.07 in.); gravel =2-64 repair. Side scan operations were terminated, (0.07-2.5 in.); rubble = 65-256 mm (2.5-10 and no direct comparisons between side scan in.); cobble = 257-999 mm (10-39 in.); and sonar data and RoxAnn data could be boulders = greater than 999 mm (39 in.). accomplished. Block YELLOOl was completed with BOTTOM TYPE RoxAnn coverage only during the afternoonof CLASSIFICATIONS August 9. The next day, which is adjacent to YELLOOl to the north, was The following categories were developed completed on 40-m lane spacing. Completing for Yellowstone Lake surficial bottom type this block finished RoxAnn coverage in the analysis and display. Bottom classifications 1, restriction between West Thumb and the main and 7 were developed from trainingsites; lake. 4 and 6 werejudgmentallydeterminedfrom data Final RoxAnn coverage was completed set categorization. The classification August 13 and 14. Blocks nomenclature indicates predominate sediment YELL009 and type first, followed by lesser sediment types; encompassingthe area in the north part of West “dispersed rubble with sand” consists of Thumb from Pumice Point to Carrington Island, more rubble than “sand with dispersed rubble.” the shoreline to a water depth of 120 ft. Yellowstone Lake classifications are: were surveyed, completing all primary RoxAnn survey areas defined by YELL natural resource 1. Cobble and rubble with sand (Figure 2) managers. 2. Rubble and sand on hard bottom (Figure 3)

17 Part I Yellowstone National Park

3. Mud and fine sand (Figure 4) color. The boxes can be made any size and 4. Hard bottom with sand attributed any color, and the data set can be re- 5. Dispersed rubble with sand (Figure 5) evaluated afterthe surveyto produce additional 6. Large cobble and boulders or different categories. Inpracticalapplications, 7. Sand with dispersed rubble (Figure 6) we have found that only a fewbottom types have been to categorize survey areas for ROXANN CLASSIFICATION BOXES most research purposes, although more could be added at any time as scientific questions RoxAnn classification boxes are generated about the lake bed are developed. as a normal part of data collection and post- To produce a RoxAnn box from a training processing, and are the method of converting site, the survey boat and transducer are raw RoxAnn data into bottom categories for positioned over a homogenous bottom type display purposes and integration. Basically, desired as a bottom category. A training site digital values collected from field data file is recorded and displayed on the RoxAnn representing bottom sediment characteristics are grid. A box is constructed around the scatter of attributed a color indicating presence of a sample points. (The variation in plots is aresult particular bottom type that is collated with of boat movement, bottom variation and other position to produce a map showing bottom type factors. A stable transducer generally produces distribution. The RoxAnn classification boxes a fairly small point-cluster spread.) If it is are developed and designedbased on two basic necessaryto isolate that particular bottom type types of information: homogeneous bottom to a very high degree of accuracy, a small type files or “training sites”and the overall field RoxAnn box is constructed in the software on data set. the grid. Generally, a larger box is constructed RoxAnn data are displayed as El to incorporate the range of variability a (roughness) and E2 (hardness)values with each particular category encompasses. The process data point presented on a Cartesian grid as an is repeated for each bottom category in the position representing roughness and desired classification series. hardness. The range of RoxAnn values can It is unlikely that all bottom variations will theoretically portray thousandsof bottom types, be represented by desired categories. Our and it is capable of extremely high-resolution experience has shown that ability to discrimination. Similar bottom types produce discriminate variations in bottom sediment similar El and E2 values and appear clustered exceeds researchers’ ability to discriminate on the grid. A RoxAnn box is simply a square categories. For example, variable percentages or rectangle formed onthe grid around a cluster of sand versus gravel, rubble or cobble can be area that defines a particular range of El and discriminatedby RoxAnn, but are difficult, and E2 values, which indicates a similarbottom type often unnecessary, to categorize into separate (Figure 7). The software attributes a color bottom types through on-site observation. (actually a color value number) to each point The second way of generating RoxAnn based on its position within the grid in relation classification boxes is by using the whole to described RoxAnn boxes. Any survey point hydrographic surveydata set. Typically,the data producing El and E2 values falling within the over a large area will more or less cluster into range as defined by the RoxAnn box will be areasof densesamplepoints on the graph, which attributed the box color and appear on the map represent similar bottom types. Training sites as the bottom category represented by that box’s can be selected in an area where nothing may

18 Yellowstone National Park I

Figure 2. Category 1: Cobble and rubble with sand.

Figure 3. Category 2: Rubble and sand on hard bottom.

19 Part I Yellowstone National Park

Figure 4. Category 3: Mud and fine sand.

Figure 5. Category 5: Dispersed rubble with sand.

20 Yellowstone National Park Part I

Figure 6. Category 7: Sand with dispersed rubble,

2 3 , .. . 4 Disperse

5 [Mud Fine Sand

6 [Large Cobble and Bould

7 [Rubble Sand on HB 8 Bottom 9 NONE 10

11 NONE 12 NONE 13 NONE 14 NONE 15 NONE

Figure 7. boxes generated during the YELL Submerged Resources Survey, August 1996. The center box is shown with the points generated during collection of a training site file over an area of cobble and rubble with sand. Part I YellowstoneNational Park

be known about the bottom sedimentsbased on classification is “Mud and Fine Sand,” by the data clustering alone. A central point in the enlarging the classification box along the El graph is selected and the survey boat proceeds (roughness) axis, which was done for the to that area and collects a training site. Diver Yellowstone data. Classifications “hard observationsprovide the category descriptions. bottom with sand,” and “large cobble and Box size and number arejudgmentally selected, boulders,” were judgmentally developed by with the results fairly reliably providing extendingthe data range to encompass categorization of the predominate sediment data sets outside the training site categories. types present in the survey area. Both Bottom type categories can range from procedures require judgmental determination of several to many, their number and ranges box boundaries, and they incorporate some determined by research questions and the assumptions about bottom variability during natural range of variability. Any bottom post-processing operations. Categories are characterizationnecessarily creates boundaries easily tested by conductingdiver investigations between arbitrary abstract categories that are in of areas on the post-processedmap to determine reality gradations of sediment types and homogeneity of bottom types depicted. SCRU percentages. Distinct boundaries between has conducted several tests of this nature in polygons representing similar types are useful marine areas. in GIS, but they mask the natural range and In practice, SCRU uses a combination of complexity of the sediments depicted. these two approaches with the methodology Any set of categorizations incorporate varing according to research questions and combinations of empirical observation, general conditions. For example, a question judgmental determinations and assumptions might involve one particular sedimenttype. A about sediment characteristics. However, all training sitegeneratedfrom that sediment could depictions arebased on reproducible, quantified be developed, and the survey data divided into attributes of bottom sediment that can be two categories: the desired sediment and reanalyzed to incorporate additional everything else. Typically, a more information, training sites or different comprehensive bottom classification is desired assumptions. for management purposes. Some classifications are developed from particular bottom types of SURVEY RESULTS research interest that are combined with types generated from survey data clusters. ROXANN SURVEY Classification boxes based solely on training sites will, generally, be too to cover all Training sites from August provided a the bottom variations in the survey area. bottom classification model for theYellowstone Adjustmentsto existing ground-truthedbottom Lake bottom as discussed above. Data classification boxes is usually desirable for collectionwas skewed toward areas most likely comprehensive coverage and to eliminate to include lake trout habitation, so more training undescribed areas. Typically,one assumes there sites may be required for future work in other is a range of El, E2 values within any bottom lake areas. Indications are, however, that most type category. For example,a classificationbox bottom types will probably fall between the for fine mud assigned training data may variations found in the bottom classification incorporate coarser grained bottom types such model developed during this survey. Bottom as fine sand so that the identified bottom type classification maps for each survey block were

22 Yellowstone National Park Part I

produced, and this information was sent to DEPTH SOUNDER YELL shortly the project’s completion for use in developing lake trout control methods. A 2-m-contour surface model of the lake Survey block maps for surveyed areas are bottom was produced from the bathymetric data, and is presented in Figures 18-21. presented in Figures 8-11. CONCLUSIONS AND SIDE SCAN SONAR SURVEY RECOMMENDATIONS

Yellowstone Lake side scan sonar coverage The project surveyed approximately 4 mi? is presented in Figure High-probabilityareas with a DGPS-positioned RoxAnn bottom near the Lake Hotel revealed several interesting classificationdeviceand depth sounder for lake cultural and natural features. Although no trace trout habitat location. The instrument appears of was observed, eight small, wooden effective and of sufficient resolution to distinguishlake bed sediment for estimation of rowboats associated with the Lake Hotel were fish breeding and other habitats. data located; three were briefly visited and incorporation into the park’s GIS database documented (Figures 12-14 and Part In provides a permanent record that can be used addition, unique bottom topography and for future lake trout control and research geological features were also observed. For operations. Sidescan sonar survey of about 4.8 example, the probable hot water vent in Figure located eight small watercraft and 15. Side scan sonar images (sonographs) of eliminated the highest potential areas for (Figure 16) and the West Thumb location. docks (Figure 17) did not reveal any additional Should further bottom classification be desired, additional training sites need to be remains associated with these sites. However, developed to refine bottom classification the sonographs have proved useful for typology. Survey data generated during this analytical and documentation purposes. project is ultimately forthemanagement Because the sonar was damaged, no issues for which it was conducted only if it is comparative data were collected in the primary collated with gill net locations and fish catch coverage areas. numbers in the

23 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Survey Park Service

44627’00“ -

- 44426’30”

I I I I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Figure Raw data, survey block

25 1 1 1 1 11 1 I I I

. 44427’45“

44427’30”

44d2

I I I 11 1 10429’30” 1 1 1

Figure 9. Raw data, survey block

27 1

- Pumice

44627'00" -

-

I 1 I 11 110631 110630'30" 1 1 0429'30" Figure Raw data, survey block

29 1 1 1 11 110631'30" I

500 --.- den

2

locks YELL010 National Park Service Submerged Cultural Resources Unit

I I I I I 1 1 110632'00" 1Od3 1 '30" 1

Figure Raw data,survey blocks YELL004

31 Yellowstone National Park Part I

Figure 12. Sonograph of single small boat located offshore Lake Hotel.

Figure 13. Sonograph of two small boats :ed offshore Lake Hotel.

33 Part I Yellowstone National Park

Figur 14. Three small boats in close proximity offshore Lake Hotel

Figure 15. Sonograph of unusual geological featureon lake floor. Most likely this is a hot water vent surrounded by mineral deposition.

34 Yellowstone National Park Part I

Figure 16. Sonograph of E. C. Waters’ site showing hull features and surrounding bottom areas. Curvature is the result of the survey vessel’s path. Waters’bow is at the bottom of the image.

35 Part I Yellowstone National Park

Figure 17. Sonograph West Thumb dock supports (cribbing).

36 rvey National Park Service Submerged Cultural R Unit ,

Pumice Point

- 44627’00” 44627 00

-

I I

Figure 18. Two meter contours, survey block

37 1 1 1 1

. 44427'00"

.

I I I 1 1 1 1

Figure 19. Two meter bathymetric contours, survey block

39 1 1 1 1Od31’30” 1 Od31’00” 1 1 1

- Pumice Point

-

-

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Figure 20. Two meter contours, survey block

41 1 1 110632'30" 1 1 I I

- -500

2 meter contours

Submerged Cultural Unit

I I

Figure 21. Two meter bathymetric contours, blocks YELL009 and

43 PART

CULTURAL RESOURCES INVESTIGATIONS

James E. Bradford and Matthew A. Russell Yellowstone National Park Part Chauter 1

CHAPTER 1

Introduction

Yellowstone Lake, with more than 100 sites and begun a program to survey, inventory of surface area, dwarfs the other 75 ponds and and evaluate them in a manner necessary for lakes in Yellowstone National Park (YELL) their management, protection and (Figure 1.1). Centuries before the idea of the interpretation. Terrestrial archeological surveys world’s firstnational park was discussed around and excavations have been conducted in many a frontier campfire, Yellowstone Lake was the park areas, including some portions of the focus human activity. AmericanIndian Yellowstone Lake shoreline. groups had long been moving through the area, As a result of discussions with park hunting and living along the shores of this management in 1995 during an archeological altitude, volcanic lake. How many aboriginal reconnaissance, the Submerged Cultural sites occur along the lake shores is unknown, Resources Unit (SCRU) was asked to provide but evidence indicates a long history of human technical information on lake physiography for occupation and use of the unusual area natural resource issues. YELL scientists had associated with Yellowstone Lake. become aware of systematic remote The earliest Euroamerican activities in the sensingofnatural resources in otherpark areas, area mirrored those of American Indians. particularly Biscayne National Park and Dry However, these activities shifted toward National Park. An importantquestion scientific studies by the 1870s and, before the facing YELL natural resource scientists was end of the century, included recreation, with how to control proliferation of exotic lake trout heavy influence from concessionairescatering that compete with native trout in Yellowstone to the growingtourist trade. Euroamerican sites, Lake. These scientists wished to determine if many of which are integral to the park’s history, the methods developed by SCRU for seabed are numerous around Yellowstone Lake, classification would be appropriate for althoughthe number and fullrange of these sites classifying lake-bed sediments in order to are not yet known. Park management has understand their relationship to lake trout recognizedthe importance archeological breeding. Recognizing the cost-effective

46 Part Chapter 1 Yellowstone National Park

Figure 1.1. Yellowstone National Park.

47 Yellowstone National Park Part Chapter 1

benefits of multiresource investigations, SCRU including small boats near the old Lake Hotel accepted the opportunity afforded by this natural dock and the first large lake tour boat, resource investigation to collect information on reported to have been sunk near the lake’s submerged cultural resources at the same time. northern end. Although park divers have The 1996 SCRU investigations of observed submerged near-shore featuresnear the YellowstoneLake were a follow-up to 1995 Lake Hotel and West Thumb Geyser Basin, no reconnaissance-level study. This second, more systematic archeological survey of these areas intensive project was designed to acquire has been conducted. Lake District Ranger John substantial information on cultural resources Lounsbury provided the background in the lake in areas selected by park managers. information and historical context for these The cultural resources survey and areas. documentation phases were opportunistically Fieldwork began July 30, 1996, and was “piggy-backed” on the primary field objective completed August 15, 1996. Daniel J. Lenihan of testing the efficacy of was overall SCRU project director and Larry sensing survey methodology for lake sediment E. Murphy was field director. Murphy and classification to assist resolution of the park’s Timothy Smith were principal remote sensing lake trout issue. surveyors; Lenihan, Matthew A. Russell, Brett The cultural resource component of the T. Seymour and James E. Bradford conducted 1996 project was designed to accomplish two the in-water investigations; John D. Brooks and goals: 1) investigate selected shoreline Seymour documented cultural and natural archeological sites and submerged near-shore features with photography and video. Park features related to the history of Yellowstone rangers provided logistical support, with John Lake, including precontact and postcontact Lounsbury, Rick Fey, Wesley Miles and Gary American Indian sites, and historical Nelson directly involved in field operations. Euroamerican features such as boat docks, This report presents the methodology and watercraft remains and other material culture results of the 1996 field investigations in scatters; and 2) conduct side scan sonar survey YellowstoneLake. Recommendations for to locate submerged watercraft remains, work are included in the last chapter.

48 Part Chapter 2 Yellowstone National Park

CHAPTER 2

Environmental Context

This chapter presents a brief discussion of specificGreater Yellowstone Ecosystem aspects Hague’s classic studies done between 1883 and that have particular relevance to the 1902 (Hague area’scomplexity context of archeological sites was not well understood until the work of Boyd presented in this report. Its purpose is to briefly when the vast age difference between describe how Yellowstone Lake was formed, the older and younger rocks was recognized. discuss the bio-diversity that evolved along its Since Boyd’s work, studies by Pierce shores, and explain why these factors attracted Christensen (1984) and others have increased people to Yellowstone Lake, the largest and refined knowledge of Yellowstone’s altitude lake in the intermountain west. complex geology.

GEOLOGY VOLCANISM

Situated in the northwest corner of The Yellowstone Plateau has been Wyoming, YellowstoneNational Park is at the destroyed, altered and reshaped often through juncture of three physiographic provinces: the geologic time. The oldest rocks in Yellowstone southeasternmost extension of the Northern National Park are volcanic, dating to perhaps Rockies; the northern lobe of the Middle 50 millionyears ago when countless mud flows Rockies; and the easternmost extension of the cooled into breccia deposits forming a nearly Columbia Plateau. This location, in the heart mountain range between of the youngest and largest mountain chain in Mt. Washburn, 26 km (16 mi.) north of North America, affords one of the most Yellowstone Lake, and Mt. Red geologically complex and fascinating settings Mountains, 13 (8 mi.) south of the lake’s in the world. Although pioneering geological West Thumb (Figure 2.1). Connecting studies were conducted inthe Yellowstone area high peaks and running along Yellowstone as early as 1871 by the western geologist F. Lake’s eastern edge is the Absaroka Range

49 YellowstoneNational Park Part Chapter 2

Figure 2.1. Major geological features in Yellowstone National Park.

50 Part Chapter 2 Yellowstone National Park

which, together with the Range and or ring fractures around the dome and allowing the Red Mountains, form a “sort of geologic rising magma to ventto the surface. Theventing horseshoe open to the southwest” (Good and triggered a sudden release of tremendous Pierce The original size of these pressure in the form of gasses and molten rock mountainous deposits will likely never be that erupted almost immediately and, upon known because later geologic events have exposure, began cooling and solidifying into destroyed many of them. pumice, ash and dust across the surrounding Beginning about two million years ago, a landscape. Vast ash flows quickly covered series of volcanic eruptions occurred in the thousands of square miles, obliterating a general Yellowstone area creating four large complex ecosystemof plant and animal life and calderas, three of which directly affect park replacing everything with a barren, black topography (Figure 2.1). Calderas are “large moonscape (Good and Pierce With basin-shaped volcanic depressions more or less relief of underlying pressure, the dome collapsed in form” (Good and Pierce 19968). The several thousand feet into the underlying magma first caldera eruption, about 2.1 million years chamber forming a giant caldera 77 (48 mi.) ago, produced 965 (600 mi?) of volcanic long by 45 km (28mi.) wide, ultimately creating rock-2,400 times more than the recent Mt. the depression for what is now most of eruption. Thiscaldera iscenteredin west Yellowstone Lake. Yellowstone, extending westward into Idaho Even with these eruptions, the magma and eastwardto includethe areanow containing chamberstillcontained most of itsmaterial and the western half Lake. Asecond began rising again, creating two resurgent domes explosion,the islandpark caldera, occurred 1.3 within the caldera floor and causing a series of million years ago outside the current park rhyolite flows through the fractures. These boundaries but within the westernmost flows spread across the caldera floor and extension of the earlier caldera. The third and completely buried the caldera’s western rim most relevant caldera to the study area erupted (Good and Pierce This youngrhyolite about 650,000 years ago in muchthe same place along the caldera floor shaped the foundation as the first, overlapping it and extending the of much Yellowstone topography seen today. newly formed Yellowstone Caldera 16 (10 This process created many streams, waterfalls mi.) northeast. Thisthird caldera encompassed and lakes. For example, Shoshone and Lewis all of what would become Yellowstone Lake lakes’ fill basins are located between adjacent except for the two southern fingers (Southeast flows, and “Yellowstone Lake [eventually came and South arms). It may have been this to fill] a basin in the southeast part of the explosion that destroyed the part of the 600,000-year-oldcaldera between the east rim much older Washbum Range (Good and Pierce of the caldera and the rhyoliteflows ofthe west” More recently, about 160,000 years (Good and Pierce 1996:14). ago, an eruption, minor by comparison to the This formative geologic activity is caused earlier ones, formed the West Thumb Caldera by what geologists now believe to be the slow, within the southeast portion of the much larger southwestem movement NorthAmerican Yellowstone Caldera (Taylor et 1989). tectonic plate passing over a stationary thermal TheYellowstone Calderawas created when mantle plume-a bulbous mass of magma that ahugemagmachamber beneath the earth‘s crust has risenfrom the earth’s coretoward the crust, began risingand archingthe overlyingcrustinto which is slowlybeing flattened by crustal plate a huge dome, resulting in a series of concentric movement (Good and Pierce This 51 Yellowstone National Park Part Chapter 2

tectonicmovement over the mantle plume also Yellowstone Plateau’s glacial history is as uplifted much of northwest Wyoming, complex as its volcanic history. In the southwest Montana and southern Idaho, Yellowstoneregion, there were at least 10 glacial resulting in Yellowstone’s 2,450 m (8,000 ft.) periods; the last began around 70,000 years ago, average elevation (Good and Pierce reached its maximum size about 25,000 years Subsequent volcanism, glaciation and erosion ago, and all but vanished 15,000 years ago. The have caused elevation differences within the Yellowstone Plateau ice shield was separate park ranging from 1,620 m 15 near the from the North American ice shield and covered park’s north entrance to 3,462 m (11,360ft.) on the entire area in an almost flat ice mantle for Eagle Peak near the southeastern corner miles in all directions. During this last glacial boundary period, the ice mantle was 1,200 m (4,000 ft.) thick above the Yellowstone Lake area (Good GLACIATION and Pierce Because of Yellowstone Plateau’s modest elevation, early warming Concurrent with Yellowstone Plateau’s significantly affected the area when the volcanic history is glaciation. Although one Yellowstone ice field began to shrink about does not usually think of fire and ice 20,000 years ago. The snow line rose 900 m coexistence, Yellowstone’s geologic history (2,953 to current position, which resulted often encompassed both simultaneously, much in the plateau being in the initial melt zone. as the Kamchatka Peninsula of eastern Russia does today. A combination of factors caused As the plateau ice field melted, the glaciation, the second major geologic influence Yellowstone valley glacier retreated on park terrain: the upward thrust of the plateau up valley and thinned . . . [but the to its current elevations and a cooler global major valleys] were still full of climate. Glaciation requires “considerable moving ice. Meltwater streams snowfall [and] summer temperatures . . . cool from the plateau ice field drained enough for some of the winter snow to survive toward the ice-filled major valleys into the succeeding winter, year after year” and ran along the margins of the (Good and Pierce valley glaciers [Good and Pierce Glacial conditions existed during the past two million years over 26 million (10 million of Canada and the United States As the ice thinned, the underlying volcanism that are now almost ice-free, extending as far was uncovered, and interactions between south as Louis, Missouri (Good and Pierce stagnant ice and hydrothermal features were This glaciation was abundant (Good and Pierce Moving cyclical, alternating between periods of ice often blocked the valley streams creating glaciation and glacial melting about every large lakes that, in turn, eventually rose to 100,000 years, which was influenced by two overpower the ice dams and create violent, factors: 1)eccentricityof the earth‘s movement massive glacial outburst floods (Good and around the sun; and 2) effects on globalweather Pierce Such wasting of the massive patterns created by plateau and mountain uplift, ice cover caused a 61 m (200 drop in the as in the western United States, that created level of Yellowstone Lake, resulting in the barriers to west-east storm tracks (Good and explosion of superheated water from below that Pierce created the 1.6 m long (1 mi.) by 49 m deep 52 Part Chapter 2 Yellowstone National Park

(160 ft.) Mary Bay on the lake's northern end. CLIMATE Similar,smaller explosions between 5,500 and 3,500 years ago created IndianPond and Turbid Yellowstone's climate is affected primarily and Fern lakes (Hirschmann With by its latitude, Yellowstone Plateau elevation, the lake level currently stabilized, we are left and its location within the Rocky Mountains. today with numerous, but much less violent, The climate is consideredsevere along the lake hydrothermal features that characterize the shore, with a mean annual temperature of YellowstonePlateau: an estimated 150 geysers (32" F). Daytime summer temperatures are and more than 5,000 hot springs,hot pools, and generally mild, in the C F) range, steam vents. These geothermal features, but winter temperatures can plunge to particularly geyser basins, are concentrated C F)below zero. Winters are long with along streams and on lake shores because it is snow commonly occurring from September to here that the necessary concurrence of heat and June, snow can also occur in limited water is found. These remarkable features have amounts during summer months. Annual no peers, and they have made "Yellowstone" precipitation varies from 30-200 cm (12-80 in.) synonymous with geothermal activity (Haines across the park with a mean precipitation of 76 cm (30 in,),most of it snow. Yellowstone Lake Today, glaciers, along with a few remnant is often icebound by late December and stays ice fields, are all but gone within the frozen all winter, though the ice is rarely more United States remaining only in the highest than 60 cm (2 ft.) thick (John Lounsbury, Rocky Mountain elevations within classic personal communication 1996). Winter glacial erosion topography. These features generallylasts 7-8 months, and it usually snows include mud, sand, gravel and boulders reduced every few days. Winds can reach 160kph (100 and redeposited by glacial action. This mph) on the region's higher peaks, and debris forms much of the lake shore and islands dangerous winds come up on the lake most Aside from minor within Yellowstone Lake. summer afternoons. These climatic conditions exposures of late Tertiary and have a major influence on the region's floral volcanic flows and a few hydrothermal deposits and faunal populations. alongthe shoreline, almost the entire lake shore is composed of Quaternary-age glacial BIOLOGY sedimentsand subsequent lake deposits (Taylor et al. 1989). Also left over from the last Volcanism produced enormous amounts of Yellowstone glacial retreat was a large amount silica sediments that cover the landscape, of melt water that originally filled low areas withinthe calderas, creating the many lakes that creating a relatively sterile soil environment. are replenished each spring with snow melt. Certain plants have adapted to this environment, This cycle created the ancestral Yellowstone including lodgepole pine, pine grasses and Lake, which once covered the and (Good and Pierce These Pelican Creek valleys. Many features of the adaptations eventually led to plant and animal present Yellowstone Lake reflect its complex associations that add to the area's uniqueness formation. and include wildlife that, along with the

53 Yellowstone National Park Part Chapter 2

geologic wonders, has drawn people to During the period from 10,000-6,000years Yellowstone for centuries. ago, the earth was at its perihelion, the closest approach to the sun. Lodgepole pine flourished FLORA AND FAUNA in this period of higher solar radiation, probably also due in part to the natural fires that swept As described by Good and Pierce the area. These pines occupied areas that today the postglacial Yellowstone Plateau history support primarily spruce and fir, while Douglas is one of a successionofplant communities and fir predominated around Yellowstone Lake’s their attendant animal populations. As shore. Today, these pines are restricted to dry temperatures rose and the glaciers retreated, new southern exposures. deposits of glacial till supported a seriesof plant Cooler temperatures followed the warm communities. Toward the glacial-period early Holocene period, allowing four minor terminus, the plateau was a tundra containing a glacial advances in the last 6,000 years. The mixture of grasslands, stunted sagebrush, and last of these cooler periods, dubbed the “Little other tundra vegetation, with dwarf willows Ice Age,” began around A.D. 1250 and lasted lining meltwater streams. Pleistocene animals until about 1900. During this period, the snow from south of the continental ice sheets moved line dropped 90-180 m (300-600 ft.). This northward with the ice shield’s retreat. Many cooler, 650-year period was the last major tundra-related animals, such as musk oxen, environmental influence on plateau vegetative woolly mammoths, dire wolves and elk, were communities, and is evident in the local plant present. About 14,000 years ago, the communities and distribution patterns seen Yellowstone Plateau became ice-free and today. Of the arboreal species found in the episodic changes in vegetation began to occur. park, eight are conifers that cover almost 80% With lake and pond formation, hardier plants of the park terrain. Along the lake shore, became established throughpollination by trees lodgepolepine dominates and herbaceous plant and shrubs from areassouthof the plateau. With communities are principal understory types. these new plant communities may have come glacial sediments support sagebrush such animals as American lions, bison, ground communities, including silver sage, big sloths, camels, horses and, by late Holocene sagebrush, and a variety of forbs and grasses. times (about 10,000 years ago), beaver. Two Stream banks and marshy areas produce stands animals not previously recorded in North of willows, sedges and rushes, important food America, humans and grizzly bears, also entered for elk and moose. during this period (Good and Pierce Just as plant communities are dependent on The tundra-like vegetation was replaced by the region’s geology, native animals are Engelmann spruce that spread through the dependent on the vegetation. As described by region over a 500-yearperiod, indicating rising Haines, Yellowstone today is not only a: summertemperaturesand moist conditions. As the temperatures continued to rise, whitebark, .. . hot-water extravaganza [but also] limber and lodgepole pine formed open forests . . . anunusual wildlife habitat, a great that were eventually succeeded by the present outdoor zoo preserving a more closed forests of lodgepole pine (Good and representative sample primeval Pierce Deer and black bear probably fauna of the American West than is entered the region at this time. now found anywhere else. Here,

54 Part 11, Chapter 2 Yellowstone National Park

living under conditions very nearly doming above the hot spot fostered those existing when white men first Pleistocene glaciation that sculptured entered the area, are elk, buffalo, stunning scenery-mountains, mule deer, moose, antelope, bighorn canyons, and lakes, large and small. sheep, black and grizzlybear, cougar, Pleistocene glacial and interglacial coyotes, wolves, beaver and a cycles also produced cyclical numberof smaller animals, aswell as advances and retreats of forests and many species of resident and wildlife over the millennia [Good migratory birds and Pierce

To briefly summarize the environmental Similarto human migration into the western history of Yellowstone: hemisphere that followed Pleistocene herd animals, it was the promise of animal furs,

. . . we have that . . , particularly beaver, that brought the first Yellowstone [isa] very activepart of americans to the Yellowstone region in the our planet. . . . The (the early 1800s. But the lure of profits from pelts thermal mantle plume) produced quickly gave way to the fantasticgeologic sights repeated volcanic eruptions and still these early explorersand trappers encountered. produces prodigious amounts of heat Tales of these wonders soon brought public energy that drive the largest natural interest to Yellowstone, which began the hydrothermal system in the world. In exploitation of its less tangible resources: its the greater Yellowstone region, scenic beauty.

55 Part Chapter 3 Yellowstone National Park

CHAPTER 3

Historical Context

Yellowstone National Park (YELL), be reserved for public use as a park” (Haines established by Congress March 1, 1872, as a Meagher soon led his own group to “pleasuring ground for the benefit and explore Yellowstone, the 1867 Curtis-Dunlevy enjoyment people” (Tilden 195 was expedition. Unfortunately, he died suddenly, and the world’s first national park. The idea of the expedition only reached Mammoth Hot preserving a vast in its natural state Springs before turning back. This expedition for the general public was a novel concept, elevated interest inYellowstone exploration and particularlyin ayoung country where extractive was soon followed by another futile attempt in exploitation of the seemingly limitless resources 1868, as well as the successful, three-man was considered a right. To actually preserve expeditionof David Folsom, Charles Cook and this large area is even more astounding, William Peterson in 1869 (Haines although it took almost a half-century of David Folsom was later credited by an experimentation to how to manage such expedition partner as proposing that the an unparalleled undertaking. Although the “government ought not to allowanyoneto locate congressional concept of natural preservation here at all,” to which Cookresponded, “it ought did have precedent inthe 1864Yosemite Grant to be kept for the public some way” (Haines that provided state protection for that area, the 1996a:103). unique wonders of Yellowstone so impressed The Folsom team was followed explorers and scientists that the idea of a the next year by the Washburn expedition, the nationalpark originated early in its exploration. first to collect important information about the Perhaps the earliest recorded comment on the area. Washburn expedition member Cornelius matter, which was made in 1865by thenActing Hedges, present in 1865 when Meagher made Territorial GovernorThomas Meagher, who his prophetic comment, was the only member upon hearing first-hand stories from trapper to suggest in print that the area should be and Father Francis X. Kuppens, preserved for public use (Helena Herald, declared that such a place of wonders “should November 9, 1870). N. P. Langford credited

51 YellowstoneNational Park Part Chapter 3

Hedges with the idea of . . . a great National in current affairs and influential in the national Park . . when Langford compiled his 1870 capitol. By early December 1871, a memorial Washburn expedition diary more than 30 years (Joint Memorial. earlier adopted by the after Congress created the park (Haines Montana Legislative Council), was submitted Cramton provides to Congress, calling for granting the a good discussion of this facet of Yellowstone Yellowstoneregion to the Territory of Montana history, with (Cramton This memorial was based the benefit of Father Kuppens’ 1865 on two premises: the precedent set when the information, expands upon who may have first federal government transferred Yosemite Valley proposed the national park wording: Hedges, and Mariposa Big Trees to California in 1864; Langford or even F. who led three and 2) that Montana’s claim to the region was expeditions into Yellowstone in Haines’ justified by its exploration of the area and chapter on this early settlement of Yellowstone Valley north of the Yellowstone history is particularly good. proposed grant (Haines 165-166). The Historians may someday settle the question of memorial was not supported because Congress who first proposed the idea of a “great national determined the government could not grant park,” but whoever is finally credited, it is clear public lands to territories (Montana was not yet that the idea’s seed had been planted, a state), although it could to states, as in the and taken root in the MontanaTerritory by 1870. California precedent. However, the national The 1870Washburn expedition resulted in park idea rapidly gathered support, and a draft several articles written by various expedition bill establishing a national park was introduced members and Langford’s speaking tour in the into both houses of Congress on December 18, eastern United States. These presentations 1871. The bill passed within ten weeks and was initiated a rapidly growing interest in signed into law by President Grant March 1, Yellowstone and spurred many others to bring 1872. Yellowstone’s remarkable natural wonders to The fledgling park was an exciting, new the American public’s attention. experiment, but it had a nearly disastrous beginning. Congress failed to define basic HISTORY OF YELLOWSTONE guidelines and appropriate funds, which were NATIONAL PARK limited in the post-CivilWar recovery era. Park management and protection responsibilities In 1864,the Montana Territory was carved were given, by law, to the Secretary of the from the vast Idaho Territory, which had been Interior, initiating federal land management created in 1863. YELL is located within the policies. Although there was pressurefor a local Wyoming Territory, which was established in person as the park’s first superintendent, on May 1868 from the Montana Territory. Although 10,1872, the secretary Langford, Yellowstone could be reached from either the a member of the Washburn expedition visiting Montana or Wyoming side, it was much easier Washington at the time. Langford promptly from the MontanaTerritory, particularlythrough selected David Folsom as assistant the and Yellowstone River drainages, superintendent-both men served without and, to a lesser extent, from eastern Idaho via salary. The managers believed lack of park the Snake River. Consequently, impetus for operational funds would be ameliorated by creating a Yellowstone park came from growth of a tourist economy resulting from the Montana, principally through people educated Northern Pacific Railroad, a major park 58 Part 11, Chapter 3 Yellowstone National Park

supporter, reaching Montana. This certain a ceaseless war against poachers and vandals. tourist growth from easy, dependable Norris was tireless in exploring the park, transportation to Yellowstonewould encourage mapping its physical features, and adding concessionaires from whom fees would be immenselyto geographic knowledge about the collected to offset park costs. Unfortunately, park, but he was criticized by somefor applying these plans collapsed with the failure of Jay his own name to several landmarks, including Cooke Company, which started the Panic of Norris Geyser Basin, Norris Valley and Norris 1873. No railroads were built for the next six Pass (Clary years, which meant no tourist growth, no Despite his best efforts, Norris got caught concessionaires, no fees, and ultimately, no in the politics of big business and was replaced money for park operations(Haines after nearly five years as superintendent. Langford, for all his efforts to explore Yellowstone and establish the park, proved to The removal ofNorriswas indicative be an ineffectual manager. In five years as of Yellowstone’s plight. During its superintendent, he visited the park only twice: formative years, the park was fought once in 1872 to accompanythe second over by interests that for political or survey; and again to evict squatter Matthew financial reasonshoped to claim it as from his Mammoth Hot Springs a prize and control it totally. Without homestead (Haines Langford had legal protection against such some good ideas for managing the new park, exploitation or against poaching and and portended the major park roads. But his vandalism, the park suffered greatly reluctance to select concessionaires, perhaps during its first two decades. An active influenced by his close association with the and conscientious, if abrasive, railroad and its eventual recovery, damaged his superintendentlike Norris was unable relationship with the Secretary of the Interior. to fully protect the park. After his Growing criticism of Langford’s dismissal, promoters of schemes to unresponsiveness to increasing vandalism of build railroads and toll roads in the thermal formations, setting of wildfires and, park and to monopolize particularly, rampant slaughter of park animals accommodations usually blocked the led to his dismissal in early 1877 (Haines appointment of capable superintendentsand harassed anywho Langford was replaced inApril 1877 by the showed signs of honestly striving for dynamic P. W.Noms, a highly energeticperson the benefit of the park. A succession critical of Langford. Norris’ management of powerless and mediocre difficulties began upon his arrival. During two superintendents took office [Clary weeks of warfare, the US Army chased Chief Joseph’s band of 600 Nez PerceIndians through the park, and severaltouristswere killed (Haines The attemptedto bring law and Norrisreceivedsome funding order to the park in the 1880s. In addition to for salary and park improvements, and he the superintendent, ten assistantsuperintendents constructed many park facilities, including the were hired to patrol the park and enforce famous Mammoth Hot Springs blockhouse regulations. These measures failed, and they headquarters. He also basicpark road were describedas “notoriouslyinefficientif not system, hired the first gamekeeper, and waged positively corrupt” (Clary Because 59 Yellowstone National Park Part Chapter 3

of this failure, Wyoming Territory laws were Continued poaching in Yellowstone extended into the park in 1884. But this eventually forced Congress to correct the lack situation only created a different brand of of enforceable laws. In 1894, poacher corruption-it allowed magistrates and E. Howell’s arrest for slaughtering park bison informers to split fines. Consequently, no led to the National Park Protective Act (Lacey money went to the park. In 1886, Congress Act) that finally put teeth in protecting repealed the act allowing territorial law Yellowstone’s treasures. Although the Army’s enforcement The park soon fell record over the next 30 years was admirable, victim to a new onslaught of poachers, wood something was clearly needed. TheArmy cutters, vandals, squatters and pyromaniacs. was not in the business of running parks, and Failure of superintendents to protect the park they could not meet requirements of the rapidly gave Congress reason to refuse appropriations increasing tourists who wanted more for their ineffective administration. At this information about the park. During this period, point, no one could be found to serve as YELL 14 other national parks had been established, superintendent. and each was managed independently. This The Secretary of the Interior, lacking both situation caused uneven management, park funding and a superintendent,enlisted the inefficiency and a general lack of direction. By aid of the Secretary of War, which was allowed 1916,it was obvious that a government agency under the act establishing the park. Beginning was needed to provide coordinated national park in 1886, the US Army had jurisdiction of administration by professionals able to meet Yellowstone, which proved a positive protection responsibilities and other special park management step for the park. The Army had needs, including a new concept called sufficient manpower for mounted patrols and interpretation (Clary On August 25, law enforcement. They posted new regulations 1916, President Woodrow Wilson signed into in the park, and constant military patrols law a bill creating the National Park Service enforced them. Military detachments were stationed around heavily visited areas and, Yellowstone management and protection although no specific law denoted offenses, the responsibilities passed from the Army to the Army had authority to evict troublemakers and NPS in 1918, and C. A. Lindsley became the keep them out of the park (Clary first NPS superintendent. Many early park Congressional appropriations increased, and the rangers were Army veterans already familiar Corps of Engineers began a series of with Yellowstone’s issues and territory. But by improvements that included completion of the this time, tourism, particularly automobile road system begun by Norris. Army Engineer was becoming a major issue for park H. Chittenden, who also wrote the first history management. The growing influx and of YELL, left a tangible mark on the park with cars required more time spent on control these improvements, including the great arch at and protection of the park’s fragile natural the park’s north entrance. The Army’s features. More sophisticated management Yellowstone legacy is most obvious at their techniques were clearly required. Mammoth Hot Springs headquarters, initially This growing challenge was met by Horace at Camp Sheridan, and, later, at Fort M.Albright, who became superintendent in June Yellowstone, which houses park headquarters 1919. Albright is legendary for innovative park today (Clary management during this period of rapid park

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visitation growth. He laid the foundation for scant material evidence indicates only rare and Yellowstone’s management, which became a brief sojourns onto the plateau to hunt modem model for the whole park system. Albright species and now-extinct Pleistocene herd emphasizedpublicinterpretation and portrayed animals such as mammoth, horse and giant parks, important in themselves, as part of an bison, and to gather supplemental wild food intricate interrelationship of humans and their plants. environment. During his tenure, Albright Artifactsfrom Fishing Bridge peninsula on extended Yellowstone’s boundaries to the lake’s east shore indicate Yellowstone Lake encompassrelated natural topographicfeatures, shores were probably used as early as 10,000 protect petrified tree deposits, and increase elk years before present (B.P.), and certainly by winter grazing range. Developers’ attempts to about 9000 B.P. (Reeve 1989;Cannon impound the Yellowstone River were Sometime around 8500 B.P., many Pleistocene successfully defeated, and solid research into megafauna species died off as the climate the park’s natural resources provided a changed to a warmer, drier regime. Rainfall foundation for more sophisticated wildlife and remained abundant in the mountains, and forest management policies. A better succeeding human occupations continued into understanding of park ecology led to better ways Late Prehistoric times. The most intensivelake of allowing public access to the natural use appears to have been during either Middle wonders without inflicting severe to Late Archaic times (5000-2000 B.P.) or environmental impact (Clary during the Late Prehistoric period (up to Albright’s pioneeringYellowstone management A.D.1500). Many precontact sites, some quite style continues today throughout the National large, from both periods have been located Park System. around the lake (Taylor et al. 1964;Reeve 1989; Cannon 1993). YELLOWSTONE LAKE USE Yellowstone’saboriginal occupation is often referred to as limited or transient, but the Yellowstone Lake occupies the central archeological evidence indicates a long history Yellowstone Plateau. By the time ancient of American Indian use. This archeological humans arrived on the plateau,therewere many evidence supports American Indian origin lakes, ponds and streams created by melting stories and ethnohistorical accounts from glacial ice. Yellowstone Lake was the region’s severaltribesthat describe theYellowstone Lake largest, and its present size of 139 makes region as their ancestral homeland or place of it the United States’ largest natural, origin. Groups claiming ties to Yellowstone elevation lake (Whittlesey Lake include the Kiowa (Mooney Yellowstone Lake, like most fresh water Shoshone (Dominick 1964;Wright 1978) and sources, was a focal point for human activity. Apache groups (Perry particularly the Kiowa-Apache (Gunnerson and Gunnerson AMERICAN INDIAN LAKE USE By the late introduction of the Archeological evidencefrom YELL reflects modem horse intothenorthernplains drastically more than 10,000 years of human utilization, changed subsistence patterns of indigenous beginning at the end of the last ice age with cultures. Pedestrian bands became more mobile seasonal occupation by highly mobile hunting and much faster with the horse, so groupshunted bands possessing limited material culture. The plains bison more and used the mountains less 61 Yellowstone National Park 11,Chapter 3

(Haines By the time Euro-Americans The Great Bannock Trail through the park’s first penetrated the Yellowstone Plateau in the northern section was the major east-west early the plateau was largely abandoned thoroughfare with other trails forming minor except for occasional trips through the area by connecting routes in other directions. the Shoshone, (Blackfeet), Crow and Yellowstone Lake appears to have been a major Bannocks, and the more distant Flatheads and landmark in north-south travel, and sites Nez Perce to the north and west along associated with these movements are likely to established trails. These trails: be found along its shores. One exception to general plateau though indistinct, were found by the abandonment was an American Indian group early explorers, generally on lines referred to as “Sheepeaters.” This group has since occupied by the tourist routes. been described as: One . , . followed the Yellowstone Valley across the Park from north to , ..Shoshonis who had ‘retainedthe south [branching] at Yellowstone oldway of livingfrom thetimebefore Lake, the principal branch following horses were introduced and who the east shore [to] a great trail which established a specialized mountain connected the Snake and Wind River culture.’ [They are described] as Valleys. The other branch passed living in very small groups, often of along the west shore of the lake and family size; traveling on foot, over the divide to the valley of the accompanied by large dogs which Snake River and JacksonLake. Other were used for hunting and as beasts intersecting trails connected the of burden (they were sometimes Yellowstone River trail with the packed, and sometimes pulled Madison and Basins on the shaped dog travois); and living on west and the Bighorn Valley on the berries, herbs, fish, small animals, elk, east. The most importanttrail. . . was deer, and bighorn sheep. that known as the Great Bannock Trail. It extended from Henry Lake , . . As a people, they were timid but across the Range to not unfriendly, and their philosophical Mammoth Hot Springs,where it was outlook was animistic. Altogether, joined by another coming up the their lifestyle was a holdover the valley of the Gardiner. Thence it led Late Prehistoric period [Haines across the plateau to the ford above Tower Falls; and thenceup the Lamar Valley, forking at Soda Butte, and The first recorded Euro-American observation reaching the Bighorn Valley. .. . This of Sheepeaters is from 1835 when a party of trail was an ancient and much- Lamar Valley trappers led by Osborne Russell traveled one. ., [But] with one or two encountered them (Haines Early exceptions the old trails were Euro-American exploreraccounts of the region indistinct. ..[and] their undeveloped suggest that most Indian groups, including condition indicated infrequent use Sheepeaters, were generally unfamiliar with the [Chittenden area beyond specific areas they frequented.

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Apparently, they were unaware of the main Russell made five trips into the Yellowstone geyser basins’ thermal features (Chittenden country between 1835 and 1839. Although Sheepeater diet included fish, YellowstoneLake was the original objective of which indicates they probably utilized, and his 1835 trip, (its location had been drawn for perhaps seasonally occupied, Yellowstone Lake him by a Sheepeater on ahide map), he instead shores. Euro-American encounters occurred trapped in the surrounding mountains (Haines until the Sheepeaters were dispossessed Russell returned in summer 1836, lands in 185 Their lands were ceded by treaty trapping in the lake’s marshy south shore area with the United States to the Piegan and Crow, where theYellowstoneRiver enters. From there, who, in lost them in an 1868treaty (Haines he traveled up the lake’s east side to Pelican Hodge Creek, exiting the region to the north at Archeological evidence of Yellowstone summer’s end (Haines Russell Lake fishing is scant, although some has been returned to the area twice in 1839. During the observed. A submerged feature just offshore second trip while camping at Pelican Creek, an occupation site northeast of Bridge Bay has Piegan Indians attacked his party, and he escaped been suggested as a fish weir (John Lounsbury, along Yellowstone Lake’s west shore to the personal communication 1996; Johnson and Snake River (Haines Also in Lippencott Net-weight sinkers have 1839, Indians attacked a group of 40 trappers been found in archeological sites south of the traveling the lake’s east shore near Mary Bay lake and along the Yellowstone River. Fish just south of Pelican Creek (Haines bones were recovered from a roasting pit at site Trappers were only interested in beaver; their (AnnJohnson,personal communication association withYellowstone Lake was trapping 1997). Thereis only a singlemention of Indian where the Yellowstone River connects and using watercraft in the ethnohistorical literature-an established shore trails. Warren Angus Ferris, . anAmericanFur Company clerk, was probably canoe at the lower rapids of the Upper the first “tourist” to visit Yellowstone. Ferris Yellowstone, and probably others have been traveled to Yellowstone specifically to see the used by both Indians and white men, . . geological wonders, rather than for solely commercial reasons (Haines EURO-AMERICAN LAKE USE For the next 20 years, few Euro-Americans visited Yellowstoneterritory,but gold strikes in It is generally agreed that John Colter, a the early 1860s brought an incursion of miners member of the 1803-1806 Lewis and Clark to the Idaho-Montana region. By the end of expedition, was the firstEuro-Americanto view this period, miners had explored most parts of Yellowstone Lake. In his 500-mi. solo trek the future park, and many undoubtedly saw through the Northern Rockies in the winter of Yellowstone Lake. At least nine mining 1807-1808,Colter walked alongthe lake’s west expeditions entered park territory between 1863 side during his return to the Bighorn River and 1870. The 1864 Phelps-Davisparty skirted (Haines In 1827, trapper Daniel the lake’s eastern edge, and, in 1866, George Potts described Yellowstone Lake as “a large Hustonmentioned a “horse-thief trail” along the water Lake . . . on the very top of the west side of Yellowstone Lake (Haines Mountain. ..and as clearas crystal. .. (Haines Both mining groups and horse Many trapping parties probably thieves were apparently taking advantage of camped by the lake after 1826, and Osbome earlier Indian and trappertrailsthroughthe area. 63 Yellowstone National Park Part Chapter 3

Like the trappers, miners’ interest was utter and ignominious failure that the commercial,and their association with the lake subject was dropped by mutual was incidental. Before 1869, when the first consent. The wind was always from expedition was organizedto specificallyinspect the wrong direction, the waves rolled and record Yellowstone’s unique natural unnecessarily high, the water was features, Yellowstone Lake’s importance was evidently deep and unmistakably likely limited to providing fish for American cold, the islands distant, and the logs Indians, trappers and miners. altogether too much inclined to slip The 1870swere a decade of scientificstudy their cables and strike out in their for Yellowstone. Although visitors to the area individual capacity. The toil of a day continued to mention Yellowstone Lake’s was the wreck of a fewmoments, and productive fishing, it is during this period that we hushed our disgust with the glad direct use of Yellowstone Lake for transportation reflection that we had never got away is first mentioned. on it, and quit the subject by promising ourselves to bring an Yellowstone Lake’s Earlv Watercraft rubber boat when we came again” [HelenaHerald, November 9, 1870; The First see also Cramton

The first recorded Yellowstone Lake The combined watercraft was a small raft built September 4, expedition rafted the Yellowstone River near 1870,by the expedition. The builders Mud Volcano in July 1871. On July 30, Captain assumed lake islands had “doubtless . . . never built another raft to cross the been trodden by human footsteps” (Helena Yellowstone River lake outlet, and with it Herald, November 9, 1870). In a single explored east of the river to Pelican Creek sentence of his 1870 official report, Washburn (Haines 148). expedition member Lt. C. Doane noted the In 1873, another raft was launched on the raft’s fate and characterized Yellowstone Lake Yellowstone River at its lake outlet. Two navigation: “We built a raft for the purpose of members of the Corps of Engineers had only attempting to visit them [the islands], but the slightly more success than their predecessors. strong waves of the lake dashed it to pieces in Near the river outlet an hour” (Cramton Fellow expedition member C. Hedges provided more . . . two topographers (Paul detail: and his partner, decided to abandon their horses temporarily for The wonderful beauty of the lake had a float trip down the Yellowstone wrought a charm over almost the River. . . [which] they expected to be entire party, and around the evening a pleasant voyage of a day or so to camp fire we voted to traverse the the falls. . . . The first three miles were entire lake shore. . . . We would build delightful, but, on approachingsome a raft, raise a blanket sail, and visit cascades . . . the raft went out of the wooded islands; we would visit control in the swift rapids, straddled every nook and corner. . . . Our a conical rock, and the rear end pulled attempt at raft building was such an under and stuck [Haines 64 Part Chapter 3 Yellowstone National Park

H. Jackson photograph 273). Haines attributes the misspelled name to the photographer altering the negative.

The men survived, and Rapids gained daughterof H. D. Dawesof Massachusetts, then its name. Chairman of the House Committee on mentions that in the Appropriations, which helped fund the same year (1874) US Government surveyors expedition, and sister to Henry Dawes, the constructed a raft to conduct their business expedition’s general assistant. The boat was around the lake, but other information is quite effective for exploring both Yellowstone offered. and Shoshone lakes in 1871 37). Haines describes the lake’s first boat trip: Early Boats Thatevening [July Hayden’s party The first lake navigation boat assembledthe framework of a occurred during the 1871 Hayden expedition. foot boat and covered it with a ‘skin’ Hayden’s group brought a collapsible, of well-tarred canvas, and the next and-wood-frame sail boat for exploration morning were able to launch the (Figure 3.1). The craft was named Anna in Anna. . . . In it, Henry Elliott and honor of Anna Dawes, an early and effective James Stevenson sailed over to the proponent of the national park. She was also island which Hayden proceeded to Yellowstone National Park Part Chapter 3

name for his assistant, whom he canvas boat Anna on Yellowstone considered ‘undoubtedly the first 1871. white man that ever placed foot upon it.’ Having proved its seaworthiness The boat had been built in the post by that voyage, the Anna was put to carpentry shop before the expedition work sounding the lake [Haines was authorized. It was a 22-foot double-ender with a beam of 46 inches and a depth of 26 inches, In 1874, E. Topping, 1872 strongly up-curvedforeand aft. After Expedition member and one of the early park construction the boat was taken apart tour guides, along with Frank Williams, built a and packaged in two bundles row boat and a small sail boat of green convenient for mule transportation. It whipsawed timber at his cabin (later named would be reassembled with wood Topping Point) near the foot of Yellowstone screws upon reaching the launch site Lake. Topping described the boat and its maiden [Haines voyage: When the party reached the Yellowstone .. . furnished with a whipsaw, canvas, Lake outlet, it took two days to assemble the and rigging, (they) went up the boat. When ready, the party used the boat to Yellowstone to its lake. There they transport supplies by towing it with a mule sawed out lumber to build a row boat, around the west shore. This worked well for and a yacht, which they rigged in about 15 miles, but “at Pumice Point, where it sloop form. They launched the latter was necessary to cast off the line and row around on the twentieth of July. On the trial the rocks, a large wave swamped the loaded trip the two ran into a flock of geese boat, and it sank instantly. Everything was which were moulting and could not saved, but time was lost drying the cargo and fly, and secured enough to make repairing the damaged hull” (Haines feather beds and pillows [Topping 1). Three soldiers took the boat across 1968: West Thumb, but it was slow going against the wind, and the boat and men were coated with The yacht, referred to as Topping by ice when they reunited with the others. They Whittlesey after its builder, but as found the boat would not bear a cross-sea, and by Topping had a short life their only choicewas put the bow into the wind and after “perilous service during a small and row as hard as possible, bailing the boat portion of the seasons of 1875 and 1876, was each time a freezing wave caught them. The dismantled, abandoned and finally lost” boat was transported overland to Heart Lake Whittlesey This was the where it was used, again with great difficulty, earliest boat on the lake to provide some tourist to transportthe group’s supplies down the outlet services. stream to the Snake River, where it was Lt. Doane, who led the military escort for eventually lost and the expedition abandoned the 1870 expedition, conducted a (Haines military reconnaissanceof thepark inthe winter In the summer of 1880at Topping Point, of 1876. equipment included a small W.Norris, secondsuperintendent had boat, and one of his enlisted men had operated T. ‘‘Billy’’ Hofer and his brother construct a 66 Part Chapter 3 Yellowstone National Park

small sail boat, also of green, whipsawed including Mr. Renshawe, were lumber, measuring 20 ft. long by 6 ft. wide by rendered unconscious but soon 2%ft. deep, dubbed Explorer. Norris and two revived and brought their lifeless companions, Captain Jack Davis and W. H. companion to shore, where other Parker, made a 10-12-day voyage in Explorer members of the party stated that they during which they circumnavigatedYellowstone heard thethunder [Haynes Lake and most of its bays and fingers and ascended Pelican Creek, the Upper Yellowstone This incident likely occurred during the and other streams to their rapids. These Hague geological survey. Hague’s park field investigations did not result in any major studies spanned 20 years and he discoveries, but they did confirm Stevenson’s continuedwork for another 14years after formal 1871 lake soundings. The boat, described as fieldwork ended. Although his studies loggy and clumsy, proved to be very concentrated on hydrothermal features, his unseaworthy and was maneuverable only with influence pervaded all aspects of the park, and great effort. “After encounteringmany mishaps his works are still in park literature. and dangers,” Explorer eventuallywrecked near Hague was one ofthe most eloquent tour guides the point where it was built and was abandoned in park history (Whittlesey The to the elements (Norris second government boat was US a At least two other boats operated on small craft tested on SwanLake by Dan C. King Yellowstone Lake in T. E. Hofer “built a ofthe US Army Corps of Engineers before being boat [in and tried to make some money used on Yellowstone Lake (Whittlesey with it in catering to the tourist trade, but did This boat, built by Road Foreman not succeed, and the boat later drifted over the Lamartine, was the first Corps of Engineers Falls” (Chittenden Another “boat vessel Lake (Haines piloted by Billy Hofer and William D. Pickett US is not mentioned again after made at least one trip in 1880” (Whittlesey its trial voyage that year (Livingston Enterprise, 1988:167). August 22, 1885). Two governmentvesselswere operatingon Another Corps of Engineer boat operated Yellowstone Lake in 1885. The first, a US on Yellowstone Lake in July 1891: “the U. S. Geological Survey (USGS)boat, was destroyed Army Engineer Corps put on [the lake] a small by lightening (Whittlesey John H. boat which they use in supplying their road Renshawe, geographer-in-charge of a USGS camps with forageand provisions and in surveying team on the lake, provided the lumber from the mill to the various points where following details: it is to be used” (Anderson Lt. Grayhill, in charge of park road construction in Three members of the party were early 1891, hauled a 40-ft. steam launch to the making observations, also in the lake to supply road crews working on the east northeast part of Yellowstone Lake, end of the West Thumb-Lower Geyser Basin in a rowboat fitted with a mast and road (Haines sail. The sky was clear yet the mast The idea of launching a passenger boat on was struck by a bolt of lightning, Yellowstone Laketo servicethe growing tourist accompanied by a clap of thunder. trade wasmentioned several times in the 1880s. The oarsman next to the mast was As early as 1880, P. W. Norris observed killed and the other men in the boat, Yellowstone Lake, though very dangerous for 67 Yellowstone National Park Part Chapter 3 sailing craft, . . . even a small steamer, well When 14, he enlisted in the Union army and built and managed . . . would be [in] little danger received praise from his commanding officer attending regular trips around the fingers, thumb for bravely in Civil War action. On July 26, and palm ofthe lake. . . Norris continued his 1865, he mustered out of service and began a visionary statement: . . . with a suitable series of endeavors that eventually led him to steamer making regular excursions. , , it is safe Yellowstone, including stints as a gold to predict that a hotel on some one of the many prospector, tea merchant, hotel operator, charming terraces near the foot ofthelakewould cattleman and representative in the Montana ultimately prove a profitable investment in this Territorial Legislature. By the after region of wonders” 1880:12-13). watching his fortunes rise and fall several times, In 1889, park administration granted a he found himself in Yellowstone country. In permit to the Yellowstone Park Association for 1887,he was appointed general manager of the a naphtha launch on Yellowstone Lake, but the Yellowstone Park Association plan was never executed (Harris In the same year, the Yellowstone Park Association Board of Directors voted to put a steamboat, to Zillah be operated by Ella C. Waters, on the lake under the company’s franchise (Haines 18). In the summer of 1889, the Yellowstone Park Association acquired a steel-hulled, 40-ton Captain Ella C. Waters’ Boats steamer to provide tourist transportation on YellowstoneLake (Figures 81 Ella C. Waters, born 1849 in New York, ft. long with a beam, was brought from spenthis early years in Fond du Lac, Wisconsin. Michigan to Yellowstone in segments (Haines

68 Part Chapter 3 Yellowstone National Park

Figure 3.3. about 1896 (YELLArchives).

Figure 3.4. at Lake dock, 1896

69 Yellowstone National Park Part Chapter 3

Figure 3.5. Zillah at Lake dock

During winter 1889-1890, a a full complement of six or seven crew reassembled and fitted out the vessel. and crew. It was powered by Zilluh, originally launched on the Great Lakes one steam engine and one boiler in 1884, had sunk in Lake Michigan and was ‘made of lawful steel, in the year raised before its disassembly and trip west 1890’ [Bartlett (Haines was working on Lake Minnetonkain eastern Minnesota when Haines (1 18-19) states Zillah was on purchased by Charles Gibson, owner of Yellowstone Lake by 1890, but the 1891 Yellowstone Park Association (Bartlett Superintendent’s Report indicatesthe boat was 1989:190-191). The “Certificate of Inspection actually licensed a year later: of the Zilluh,” from the firm of Douglas and Douglas dated September 5, 1906, provides The proposition to put a small steamer additional information about the vessel: on the lake for the accommodationof tourists has been agitated for a good An inspector’s report in 1905 many years, but was only recently described the vessel, dubbed the accomplished. Early in July, an ‘Zillah,’ as having been built in inspector came and gave the boat a Iowa, in 1884. It had a steel license to carry 125 passengers. It is hull, was of forty gross tons a smooth-running, seaworthy little displacement, had staterooms and vessel and will add much to the berths, could carry up to 120 attractiveness of the lake as a resort. passengers, and was required to carry I hope to see it made a part of the Park 70 Part Chapter 3 Yellowstone National Park

transportation, and used in ferrying Superintendent Anderson commented in his tourists from the Lake Hotel to the Annual Report: West Thumb in their journey around the circuit [Anderson The boat company has suffered quite as much as other industries in the Park captained by E. C. Waters, provided from lack of patronage. The boat has an alternative to the laborious stagecoach that been put in excellent condition, and brought tourists through the park to the Lake it furnishesone of the most delightful Hotel. BecauseWaters was not in business with bits of travel on the tour. The the coach transportation companies, he charged proposition to put a few small steam an additional fee for lake transportation. Many or naphtha launches on the lake has tourists complained to the superintendent about not been carried out, but I believe it Waters’ extra fee. Despite this and other would prove remunerative and questionable acts, Waters received favorable certainly would be a great comments in the park annual reports, for accommodationtotourists [Anderson example, Acting Superintendent Anderson’s 1892 report: By the following year, business returned to The steamer on the lake has been normal. E. C. Waters obtained a large running successfully for a year or percentageof the tourist travel and, as company more, and adds much to the pleasure general manager, was granted a license to of a trip through the park. It is expand his business to include selling small commodious and comfortable, and I groceries, providing blacksmithing to campers believe perfectly safe. It is now made and taking parties on small side trips, a niche a part of the park transportation, and not filled by larger concessionaires (Anderson carries passengers, at their option, He also expanded his business to from the Thumb to the Lake Hotel, include renting tourists small boats and fishing thus relieving them of 18 miles of tackle. In 1896,Watersplaced bison and elk on tedious staging. I believe the boat Dot Island as an added attraction to company has enough small boats for customers, a move that contributed to his the demands of fishing parties, but I eventual undoing in the park. think prices might be lowered where Waters received permission to construct boats are used continuously for small landings at several points on the lake several hours [Anderson shore, including Dot Island and athis operations center near the Lake Hotel (Anderson 1896:10). The pattern continued into the following Satisfactory reports of the boat operation year with the description that steamer continued through the remainder of the decade continuesto be satisfactorily and is greatly and intothe early years of the twentiethcentury. enjoyed by all tourists who make the trip on it” was popular with tourists, and it carried (Anderson However, laborproblems 2,589 passengersduringthe 1897 season (Young affected lake business in Becauseof close and 3,050 in 1900 At association between Yellowstone tourism and the turn of the century, the strong Yellowstone the railroad companies, the 1894 railroad strike Lake tourist business prompted Acting resulted in losses to all park operations. Superintendent Pitcher to suggest it 71 Yellowstone National Park Part Chapter 3

would be desirable to have “some competition (Anonymous was expected to carry be introduced in this business.” The following Waters’ business into the next decades. year Pitcher (1902:12) suggested a larger boat, Waters, 125 ft. in length and 26 ft. in or several smaller ones, be placed on the lake to beam and the largest Yellowstone Lake accommodate increased tourist traffic. passenger steamer, was designed to carry 500 Within a few years, E. C. Waters, likely in passengers (Haines 127) (Figure 3.6). an effort to thwart competition, followed Bartlett quoting from the Montana Pitcher’s suggestionof a larger boat. Meantime, Standard, Butte, Montana, gives different however, the first few years of the new century information on both E. C. Waters size and continued to be successful for Waters. Zillah launch date: carried 3,826 passengers in 1904 (Pitcher 1904:10)and a record 5,275 passengers in 1907 In 1902,Waters brought into the park (Young Despite these successes, from Tacoma, Washington, and Waters’ Yellowstone Lake Boat Company fell floated in time for the 1903 season, a into financial trouble due to “his unscrupulous larger vessel dubbed the ‘Eli C. activities” (Haines Because tourists’ Waters.’ It was, if a newspaper article complaints continued about the “exorbitant” can be accepted as accurate, 140feet $3.00 charge for passage, Pitcher pushed his long and 30 feet wide and could carry suggestionfor lake excursion boat competition, 600 passengers. Trouble was, the which was likely fueled by Zillah’s deteriorating authorities refused to allow him to condition. As early as 1902, declining place it in service on the grounds that condition was commented upon by one traveler it was unsafe. Waters eventually who, when seeing the moored vessel, said: “It sailed it to Dot Island where he was such an old rattletrap that I would not risk moored it; it became an ugly hulk and passage on E. C. Waters, was finally burned. in an apparent effort to shore up his operation, acquired a new larger vessel in 1905. Several parts of this account do not match other information in the literature: 1) the date Waters Watersarrived in the park is given as 1902 instead of 1905; 2) the vessel is called “Eli Increasingtourist trade after the turn of the Waters” (Elivs Ella)instead of Waters;3) century and comments by park management the length is given as 140 ft. instead of 125 ft.; suggesting competition prompted E. C. Waters 4) the beam is given as 30 ft. instead of 26 ft.; to expand his tour boat operations. As president 5) the number of passengers indicated is 600 of the Tacoma-based Pacific Launch Company, instead of 500; and 6) it states the vessel was Waters brought plans and materials for a “140’ sailedto Dot Island instead of Stevenson Island. by 30’wooden hulled steamship” to Yellowstone Given the number of discrepancies in this Lake in 1904 (Anonymous The new newspaper article,it is doubtful that it represents vessel, larger than Zillah, was constructed and first-hand knowledge at the time of publication. launched on the marine railway at the Lake After launchingthe vessel, Watersrequested docks boathouse in 1905 (Aubrey Haines, a permit to carry 500 passengers, but park personal communication 1996). Christened administration refused it. Because ofdifficulties E. C. Waters after its owner and captain, the with the park, Waters apparently never made new steamer, reportedly costing $60,000 more than test runs with his new steamer 72 Part Chapter 3 Yellowstone National Park

Figure 3.6. Postcard photograph of Waters at Lake dock, about 1905 (YELL Archives photo no. 14871).

(Whittlesey Waters refused to agree C. Waters was secured in a cove on to a permit to carry fewer than 500 passengers, Stevenson Island’s east side. The “ship was so the new steamer sat idle at its Stevenson wintered in that cove for many years because it Island anchorage (Haines was thought safe from the lake ice, which Because of disagreements with park normally went with a southwestwind in the administration over the 500-passenger spring. But the ice broke up with an easterly Waters permit and other problems he created wind in 1921,pushing the vessel onto the beach through the years, Waters was run out of the where it reamined. The machinerywas removed park in 1907(Haines After Waters in 1926” (Haines leftthe park, the E. Hofer Boat Company was After removal of E. Waters’machinery, given a permit to operate Yellowstone Lake the boiler, “a typical scotch marine boiler” concessions,and they bought Waters’park assets (Aubrey Haines, personal communication in 1910. T. E. Hofer Boat Company was was used to heat the Lake Hotel for 46 reorganized into the Yellowstone Park Boat years. The boiler was converted from wood to Company in 191 with Harry Child as director oil in 1937 (Dittl and and, a (Bartlett By this time, had some point, coatedwith asbestos insulation. In deteriorated beyond repair, and its tour boat 1972, it was sold as scrap to a year career had ended. The vessel was either sold ThreeForks, Montana (Aubrey Haines, personal for scrap or scuttled (Anonymous At communication 1996). Some of E.C. Waters’ least one other tour boat of comparable size was original gauges are reportedlystillin use running on the lake, but not E. Waters. in the hotel heating system (John 73 Yellowstone National Park Part Chapter 3

Park, the boys at Lake decided to do something about the boat-burn it!

So in the spring of 1930 a little party consisting Elliot and Skeet Dart, both rangers, with winter keeper “Boots” Chenard, skied over to Stevenson Island, poured a can of kerosene on the bow of the boat and torched it [Haines

191 930

Figure 3.7. Waters’ anchor After the Yellowstone Park Boat Company at Lake dock in 1961 (photo by A. (formerly Hofer Boat Company) transition L. YELL Archives). from E. C. Waters’ Yellowstone Lake Boat Company, little information is available about personal communication 1996). No record of the lake tour business. Visitation apparently what became of the vessel’s engine could be remained fairly constant. For example, from located. The steamer’s anchor is at the Bridge 1912to 1915,passengersranged from 3,305 to Bay marina and servesas a signpost (Figure 3.7). 4,277 per season (Brett Brett E. Wafers was never removed from the Brett Brett similar to E. C. StevensonIsland beach: Waters’ business during the late 1890s. The new company operated Jean (Figure On the longer crossings ofthe lake . . 3.1 a boat similar to but fishing boat .skiers could stopon StevensonIsland rentals (Figures 3.12 and 3.13) and tackles to warm up in the shelter of the sales were more profitable (Bartlett 1989:193). abandoned steamboat, Waters. The hulk had lain aground in the cove In 1916, passenger numbers dropped on the east side of the island to 2,558 (Anonymous A throughout the twenties; its engine and prophetic note in the superintendent’s boilers had been removed through a 1917Annual Report provides a clue gaping hole which left the boat a for Yellowstone Lake passenger useless derelict. Beyond the shelter it decline-touring carshad supplanted gave skiers, the Wafers was the old stagecoach for park travel useful as apropforJack Croney’s fish- (Anonymous More visitors business and as a retreat for brawls were using their own car to visit with moonshine. On the other YELL. Auto camping became hand, the hulk was an eyesore, and, popular after World War I, as since the rangers were under pressure indicated by a comment in the to clean up the debris of more than superintendent’s 1918 Annual fifty years of indiscriminateuse of the Report:

74 Part Chapter 3 Yellowstone National Park

Figure 3.8. Jean about 1910 photo no. 36373-3).

Figure 3.9. Jean about 1912 photo no. 36362). National Park Part 11, Chapter 3

Figure 3.10. Jean D, about 1910 photo no.

Figure 3.11. Jean (left) and (right) on shore at Lake, about 1922(YELLArchives photo no. 36372-1).

76 Part Chapter 3 Yellowstone National Park

Figure 3.12. Rental boats at Lake photo no. 18771).

Figure 3.13. Passenger launch at Lake in September 1934 (YELL Archives photo no.

71 Yellowstone National Park Part Chapter 3

The Yellowstone Park Boat Co. bought to Gardiner, Wyoming, by rail and rendered little service to the public trucked to the Lake Hotel dock boathouse, this season. This company has very where they were reconditioned and launched as little useful boat equipment. Its big NPS Boats 1,2and 3. These boats were used boats are in poor condition and will into the 1940s and 1950s. Another NPS boat, not meet present demands on service named Lollipop, is reported as sunk in the lake on the lake, and its small boats, except in 1940 (Dan Lenihan, personal two 45-foot gasolineboats and a few 1996). No additional information on Lollipop launches [Figures 3.14 and are has been located. old, dilapidated, and unsafe. This company has not furnished satisfactory equipment for the boat service since 1916 [Anonymous Photographs depicting three NPS boats dating to the 1950swere found in the archives: Pelican 1958and Gull 1959. No Park archival photographs depict several other information was found on these boats. small watercraft operating on Yellowstone Lake Mention of another boat, Tender, was located during 1910-1930, but no supplemental in the archives. No photographs of this appear information was found during this project’s inthe filesbut a photograph caption of a window limited search in these archives. The weight and a small propellor found in shallow photographs include: a US Fish and Wildlife water attribute them to Tender. Service boat (Figure 3.16) from around 1910; Yellowstone Lake has a rich navigation what appears to be an NPS speedboat (Figures history, and many watercraft undoubtedly 3.17 and 3.18) dating to the 1920s;and another remain underwater. So far, no aboriginal craft NPS boat named Marion. Several commercial have been located, but their submerged remains speedboats operated on the lake in the 1920s. are likely preserved in the lake. At least three One,Adelaide (Figure used between West tour boats more than 50 ft. in length operated Thumb and the Lake Hotel, may be the boat on Yellowstone Lake between 1890 and 1930. “added in 1922 which carried 11 passengers Only Waters’ remains have been located. and was propelled by a 185 hp Sterling engine Many small craft were operated by both at a speed of mph , . (Anonymous concessionaires and government agencies, includingcabin cruisers; steam, naptha and powered launches; and small Fisheries Bureau 1930-1950 boats. Based on archival sources, about 25 watercraft operatedonYellowstoneLake before NPS purchased a 28-ft. Chris Craft (Figure 1950. Added to these are many nonmotorized 3.20) in 1930 for lake service, and the Bureau rental boats and canoes, which make an operated several boats in 1930-31. impressive material record of lake navigation In 1936,the Department Interior provided history. The history of these watercraft is three lake boats to the NPS: two cabin cruisers incomplete, but it could easily compete with the (Figures 3.21and 3.22)and a Coast Guard boat park’s history of stagecoach and motorcar use (Figures 3.23 and 3.24). These boats were for transportationand recreation.

78 Part Chapter 3 Yellowstone National Park

Figure 3.14. Gas-powered launches at West Thumb (YELL Archives photo no. 43549).

Figure 3.15. Gas-powered launch at West Thumb (YELL Archives photo no. 43575).

79 Yellowstone National Park Part Chapter 3

Figure 3.16. US Fisheries vessel, 1930s (YELLArchives photo no. 9254-6).

Figure 3.17. NPS speedboat (runabout) at Lake dock, about 1915 (YELL Archives photo no.

80 Part Chapter 3 Yellowstone National Park

Figure 3.18. NPS speedboat (runabout), October 1938 photo no.

Figure 3.19. Eleven-passengerspeedboat (runabout)Adelaide postcard during the 1920s photo no. 87423).

81 Yellowstone National Park Part Chapter 3

Figure 3.20. National Park Service 28-foot Chris Craft, 1930s photo no.

Figure 3.21. Deckhouse cruiser National Park Service No. 2 at Lake dock, 1938 (YELLArchives photo no.

82 Part Chapter 3 Yellowstone National Park

Figure 3.22. Deckhouse cruiser National Park Service No. 1 on Yellowstone Lake (YELLArchives photo no.

Figure 3.23. Former US Coast Guard lifeboatArena Cove on marine railway at Lake, 1936 photo no.

83 Yellowstone National Park Part Chapter 3

Figure 3.24. Arena Cove being launched at Lake boathouse, 1936 (YELL Archives photo no.

84 Part 11,Chapter 4 Yellowstone National Park

CHAPTER 4

Previous Archeological Work

Archeologists have conducted a variety of evidence of frequent occupancy by Sheepeater investigations in Yellowstone National Park aborigines” in the form of “decaying brush (YELL) through the years. The National Park corrals, wickiups, and lodge-poles . . . [as well Service Midwest Archeological Center as] rude stone heaps of wickiup sweathouses” (MWAC) contains about 221references relating to YELL archeological investigations,including One of the park’s largest and oldest sites, trip reports, cultural resource management is located at Fishing Bridge between (CRM) investigations, and more traditional the lake outlet (Yellowstone River) and Pelican archeologicalsurvey, inventory, evaluationand Creek, covering nearly the entire peninsula. excavation studies. National Register of Work began on this site in the 1940swhen two Historic Places documentation, post-firesurveys human burials, with associated grave goods and and park developmentprojectsproduced many dogs, were removed from the area during of these archeological investigations. Most park construction activities 1948; Wright archeology has focused on prehistoric sites; et Cannon Montana however, there has been some on sites related State University (now University of Montana) to early park history. About 30 archeological archeological survey crew members recorded studies have been donenear Yellowstone Lake, the site and five others in the northern lake area most on the north and west shores (Figure 4.1). during a 1960s park-wide inventory survey (Taylor et al. 1964). According to Cannon FISHING BAY lack of diagnostic artifacts prevented the Montana survey crew from The Mary Bay north shore, just east of determining site age. However, related Pelican Creek between Indian Pond and components and Reeve’s (1989) later work Yellowstone Lake, has long been noted for its indicate may have been occupied from human activity. As early as 1880, observers the Paleo-Indian period (about 9000 B.P.) to described this area as having “abundant Late Prehistoric times. Reeve who

85 YellowstoneNational Park Part Chapter 4

Figure 4.1. Yellowstone Lake.

86 Part Chapter 4 Yellowstone National Park

recovered 8,560 lithic artifacts, fire-cracked few aboriginal sites being located, but several rock, bone, shell and ground stone, concluded Euro-Americansites,related mostly to hotel and aboriginal subsistence may have centered on park activities, being recorded. With one fishing. Work on other sitesinthe area has been notable exception, aboriginal sites along this conducted by Cannon including a site shoreline tend to be small and contain limited datingto 7000 B.P. on Mary Bay’s south shore. materials. The exception is a large site located Historical activity has also centered on Fishing just northeast of Bridge Bay, with a purported Bridge. Recent evidence supports this location fish weir located just offshore. Reports of as one of 1872 Expedition campsites numerous artifacts encountered during road (Cannon Other work in the construction through this site attests to its size. immediate area, conducted ahead of road Haynes (1946:104) noted: “In building the road development or facility improvements, includes along the lake, the workmen found many that of Williams and Wright Baumann arrowheads, spearheads, knives and (1 Cannon (1990, 1992 and 1995) and other Indian artifacts.” Johnson (1986, (1994). Daron Three NPS-related siteshave been reported Cannon and Phillips and Cannon (1995) in the Lake Butte area south of Mary Bay (Hunt have conducted development-related surveys Becausethe Fishing and archeological testing projects in the Lake/ Mary Bay area was a primary camping place Bridge Bay area. for both Euro-American expeditions and Hunt (1989) located 11Euro-Americansites American Indian groups traveling through the between Lake Junction and Bridge Bay, area, there may be many more significant sites including some associated with road in this area. Historicaldocumentation supports construction,NPS maintenanceactivities, hotel this possibility. Haines (1 cites trash dumps, and, on Stevenson Island, the several references to the lake exposed E. C. shipwreck. Johnson and Bay vicinity as a camping area for Lippencott first recorded this trappers as early as 1836,when a two-daybattle shipwreck as an archeological site between a40-person trapping party and Piegans during their post-fire assessment work. occurred near Indian Pond (Haines Underwater sites are present in the area, Five prospecting parties camped in thisvicinity particularly features related to the Lake Hotel, between 1864-67 (Haines 75, Lake boathouse and dock, and the former fish and later exploring expeditions made the hatchery. areaa regular camping place between 1869and 1871 (Haines A large Nez Perce WEST THUMB squaw camp was locatedat Indian Pond in 1877 (Haines West Thumb (Figure 4.1) history is similar to that of Lake. Archeologists from Montana BAY State University recorded the first 12 archeological sites along the West Thumb The area between the lake outlet at the shoreline in 1958-1959 (Taylor et al. 1964). Yellowstone River and Bridge Bay is the most Most sitesrange GrantVillage on the west extensively developed part of the lake shore shore to Arnica Creek on West Thumb’s north (Figure 4.1). Several archeological projects shore. These sites date from Paleo-Indian period have been conducted in this area resulting in (about 10,000 B.P.) to Late Prehistoric (Taylor 87 Yellowstone National Park Part Chapter 4

et 179). In 1980, Samuelson (Haines 263). The Upper Geyser (1981) discovered two more sites, which she Basin road to West Thumb was improved and concluded represent winter hunting and spring opened to the public in 1892 (Haines fishing activities. Little work was done in this leadingto increased visitation, area until 1992 when MWAC archeologists which, in turn, led to development (and surveyed and tested several sites later NPS) visitor facilities. With the road’s Creek and Little Thumb Creek near the Potts opening and its extension to Lake, tourists were Geyser Basin north of West Thumb (Cannon rerouted through West Thumb as they passed 1993). Archeological testing exposed hearths through the park. As a result, many structures on an old occupation surface. Researchers also have been built, removed, and maintained near recovered sherds from only site the geysers, all contributing to the archeological to yield such artifacts in the park. Some older record of the West Thumb Geyser Basin. Of sites, deeply buried and dating back 5,000years, particular interest to this study,the West Thumb provide important information on aboriginal area was a terminus for the passenger steamer lakeshore use relative to changing lake levels between 1891 and 1907, which had its throughtime. Most sites in this area, like Lake, dock near the Thumb Paint Pots. are small with few stone artifacts. Johnson Cannon SOUTHEAST and Phillips and Johnson et (1993) have all conducted archeological Very little archeological work has been investigations here as a result of park conducted alongYellowstone Lake’s Southeast improvementsin GrantVillage and Potts Geyser Arm (Figure 4.1). However, three archeological Basin. sites were briefly visited during this study. One West Thumb, protected from prevailing of two sites reported in the vicinityof the south winds, was apparentlyheavily utilized and likely shore patrol cabin was located. The “YCC containsmany more aboriginal sites. This area Camp Site” could not be relocated. A site on shoreline due southofMollyIsland was located, was also the center for much Euro-American but not formally recorded. Site on activity in the park. For example, in 1839, TerracePointonthe arm’s east shore was briefly trapper Osborne Russell camped at West Thumb visited. This site consists of several lean-tos Geyser Basin as did George Huston in 1866 and was first recorded in 1989 by Cannon (Haines and probably several 140-141). unrecordedprospectorsduringthe 1860s. Most later expeditions camped at the Geyser Basin: 1995 SCRU RECONNAISSANCE the 1869 Cook-Folsom party; the 1870 expedition; the 1871 InAugust 1995, after discussions with park expedition twice (along with his military escort); management, the Submerged Cultural the 1873military reconnaissance by Lt. Jones’ Resources Unit (SCRU) staff spent nine days troops; and Lt. Doane’s winter expedition of in the park conducting reconnaissance-level 1876 (Haines 125, 127, 148, 203, underwater investigations at several 210-211). Yellowstone Lake locations (Lenihan By 1879, there was a rough trail from the 1996). Upper Geyser Basin to West Thumb and, in The 1995 SCRU Yellowstone Lake 1882, General cut a rough road from investigation was initiated, in part, by the the park’s south entrance to West Thumb impendingvisitof a large group of scuba divers. 88 Part Chapter Yellowstone National Park

Later, a scuba diving club asked permission to West Thumb Geyser Basin and E. C. Waterssite conduct an instrument survey to locate the on StevensonIsland. Dives were made at other shipwreck purported to have been locationsto document someof the park’s scuttled in deep water offshore the Lake Hotel. underwater features. Recommendations by Park management became concerned about Lenihan led to the subsequent potential impacts to underwater archeological work in 1996, as reported in this document. sites from large dive groups and they requested In conclusion, although much archeological advice from SCRU about the park response to research has been conducted around the dive club request. The 1995 SCRU Yellowstone Lake, the 1995-1996 SCRU investigations included divesin particular areas investigations were the first time submerged to determine site location, character, integrity cultural resources have been intensively and archeological significance. Investigations investigated in the lake. Chapter 5 discusses were conducted at the Lake Hotel dock area, these investigations’ results.

89 Yellowstone National Park Part Chapter 5

CHAPTER 5

Survey Results

The Submerged Cultural Resources Unit Currently, there are no structures on Frank (SCRU) cultural resource survey and Island, but plans were apparently made in the documentation conducted August 1996 late 1890s for a dock to accommodate the generated archeological data on several sites in steamer Park archives contain a and around Yellowstone Lake. Yellowstone document labeled “Frank Island - East Side National Park (YELL) staff selected and Dock,” which is one of eight blueprints prioritized sites investigated by SCRU. submitted to the park superintendent by Although some information was obtained on E. C. Waters requestingpermission to construct aboriginal shoreline sites along Yellowstone facilities for the Yellowstone Lake Boat Lake’s Southeast Arm, the primary fieldwork Company around the lake. This assumption is focus was to locate and document based on the remark by Acting Superintendent American sites, in particular sites associated Anderson (1896: 10) that “last autumn Mr. with lake passenger vessels that served the Waters, the manager, applied for authority to growing turn-of-the-century tourist industry. construct small landing places at several points Project results areprovided belowby geographic on the shoreof the Lake, one on Dot Island and areas and major sites (Figure 5.1). one for ‘ways’ near the site of his present landing in front of the hotel. All of these have my FRANK ISLAND approval.” The various planned facilitieswere for Dot Island, the Southeast Arm, near Lower Frank Island, the largest Yellowstone Lake Lake Hotel, StevensonIsland and West Thumb, Figure was named in 1871for all intended to enhanceE. C.Waters’enterprises. the brother of expeditionmember Henry Although some of these facilities were built, it Elliot. During the expedition, Elliot conducted is currently not known if all structures planned several excursions around the lake in the boat by Waters, includingthe Frank Island dock, were Anna (Whittlesey completed.

91 Part Chapter 5 Yellowstone National Park

, ./'

Figure 5.1. Areas and sites investigated by SCRU in 1996.

92 Yellowstone National Park Part Chapter 5

In an attempt to locate dock remains, Jim survey members “because it was a mere dot on Bradford conducted a diver tow visual survey the map” (Whittlesey E. C. Waters the island’s southeast tip along the entire “kept buffalo and elk in pens to show tourists east shoreline to the northernmost point, a who stopped there on the boat trip from West distance of about 3 mi. This is the island’s lee Thumb to Lake Hotel. Because the animals side,which contains two small bays that appear were mistreated, park forcedWaters to ideal locations for a dock. Water depth ranged release the animals in 1907” (Whittlesey from 3 to 20 ft., and visibility was fair to good Plans for a dock on Dot Island’s in this area. Numerous tree trunks were northeast side were submitted to the park observed on the lake bottom, but none were superintendent in 1895. Several references modified or appear associated withdock pilings mention both dock facilities and a “Game or cribbing. Despite the record of a dock on Corral”; apparently Waters requested one-acre Frank Island as late as the 1950s (Figure plots for both. “Game Corral” remnants can no cultural features were observed during this still be seen on the island, however, an visual search. archeological assessmentof the remains has not been made (Hunt Ann Johnson, DOT ISLAND personal communication 1997). John Brooks conducted a diver tow visual Dot Island, located due east of West Thumb survey for dock remains on the island’s lee side wassonamedby 1871 from the northwest point to the southeastpoint.

Figure 5.2. Frank Island boat dock, about 1950 no. 44141).

93 Part Chapter Yellowstone National Park

Visibility was good to a depth of 25 ft. A 1902, when a fish egg collection concentration of logswas found near the starting station was authorized for Thumb. point, where oral tradition suggest there may The station was put into operation the have been a navigation beacon consisting of a following year, greatly facilitating wooden platform with a kerosene lamp (Lenihan the taking of trout eggs which had 1996). Close inspection of the logs revealed been started at that place in 190 ... no cultural features, nor was there any indication By 1909, the Thumb station was of dock structuresobserved along the shore. recognized as the most successful Two possibilities could explain absence of collecting point for blackspotted dock-associated features on Dot and Frank trout eggs in the United States. Islands: 1) the windward side of these islands From then on the fishery are eroding, while the leeward sides are activity in the Park increased rapidly: building, burying any indications of structures the Thumb station was enlarged and under migratory sediments(Rick Fey, personal three boats were put into operation in communication 1996); or 2) the National Park 1912; a hatchery was constructed Service has removed all traces of the near Lake Hotel. . . [Haines docks during one of several cleanup efforts (see Waters’ burning in Chapter 3). The firsthatchery was located at the confluence PUMICE POINT of Yellowstone Lake and Little Thumb Creek about 2 mi. north of the West Thumb Junction, The area directly off Pumice Point (see an area Haynes called “Fisheries Figure 5.1) is reported to have wagon wheels Creek Crossing.” Fish stockinginYELL ceased and other stagecoach parts on the lake bottom in the and the last fishery, at Lake, was in shallow water (John Lounsbury, personal closed in 1958. communication 1996) and was considered a SCRU investigators expected that both priority area for investigationby park resource boats and docks associated with Fisheries management staff. John Brooks conducted a Commission activities would be present diver tow visual survey in an area about 600 ft. underwater near Little Thumb Creek. Brooks long on either side of the point, except in the conducted a divertow in this area from the creek north side where gill nets prevented boat confluence south for a distance of about mi., passage. Depth and visibility varied from 8 to visually searching the lake bottom to a depth of 20 ft. No cultural material was located during 20 ft. Thermal features and a steep drop off this survey. were observed,but no culturalresources of any kind were located. LITTLE THUMB CREEK WEST THUMB GEYSER BASIN Yellowstone Lake’s first fish hatchery was located in this area about 1 mi. north of West In 1995, SCRU examined an area east of Thumb Geyser Basin (see Figure 5.1): the West Thumb Geyser Basin boardwalk. The task was to observe lake bed artifactdensity and A fish hatcherywas suggested for the assess potential for scuba divers removing Park by Captain J. B. Erwin in 1898, artifacts from the shallow lake bottom. NPS but nothing was done about it until diversnoted several scattered wood pieces and 94 Yellowstone National Park Part Chapter 5

automobile engine blocks, one chained to a tire wide x thick. The rim is concrete block. Two engine blocks were composed of two felloeswith a metal wedge or removed at park request. The engine blocks shim inserted at one seam to increase the were most likely placed as small boat mooring diameter and tighten the fit. Other than some anchors. Other artifacts observed included old natural deterioration from years in the lake, the and recent bottles, and several historical West wheel is in good condition and shows little Thumb dock crib remnants. SCRU conducted damage or wear (Figure 5.5). According to general documentation of the dock remains District Ranger John an historical using videography and photography, and they wagon aficionado, the wheel size and acquired five Differential Global Positioning construction suggest a small stagecoach because System (DGPS) points to delineatethe general it appearstoo big for a buggy and too small for dock outlineand precisely positionthe cribbing. a freight wagon. Park Archeologist Ann Water conditions here promote a thick growth Johnson (personal communication 1997) of filamentous algae that covers the bottom confirmedthe wheel diameter matches those of (Figure 5.3) making visual survey difficult. the smaller stagecoaches in the park vehicle However, a wagon wheel was located and collection. There were perhaps five park removed to Bridge Bay for at the park’s stagecoach lines, and each stagecoach had a request because of potential for theft (Lenihan distinct paint scheme, which may have been The wheel (Figure 5.4) is 4 ft. 7 useful for determining an association for this in. in diameter, has tapered spokes and a metal wheel. Unfortunately, no paint remained on the

Figure 5.3. Algae covered dock crib at West Thumb. NPS photo by Brett Seymour.

95 Part Chapter 5 Yellowstone National Park

apart, have spilled rock out all sides (Figure 5.7). The east-west portion is a linear rock pile extending along the lake bottom for a distance of 85 ft.; the top of the rocks varies in depth below the surface from 3 to 7 ft., while the bottom of the rocks ranges in depth from 5 to 12 Cribs 1 and 2 are less intact than other cribs; their rocks have spilled outward into mixed piles presenting the appearanceof ajetty ratherthan discrete cribs. Numerous logs, cable, iron I-beams and a terra cotta pipe segmentwere observed in the rock piles. Crib 3, at the easternmost end of this dock section, is mostly intact and forms an acute angle; the alignment 4 to 6 extends about 115 to the south. Cribs 4 and 5 have distinct crib remnants and less rock spillage to their sides (see Figures 5.7 and 5.8). Crib 6 is a distinct pile of rocks, but shows very little original crib form. Several automobiletires, crib logs, miscellaneous cable and concreteslabs were observed between cribs 3to6. As depicted in Part I, Figure 17 and Figure 5.7 in this chapter, the crib alignment is Figure 5.4. Wagon wheel at West Thumb. not a true L-shape, but instead angles more to NPS photo by Brett Seymour. the west followingthe submerged shallow slope. One explanation for this alignment is that the builders were likely taking advantage of the wheel. As a possible terminus ante the shallow shelf slope edge, which reduced last horse-drawn lines operated in the 1916 construction materials and allowed accessto the season after which motorized tours were deep water directly offshore. conducted (Chittenden which The cribs are about 12 on a side, with indicates this wheel is at least 80 years old. what appears to be an interior wall of logs One 1995 recommendation (Lenihan dividing each crib into two parts. The cribs are was to document the West Thumb dock remains, made of logs ranging from 7 to 11 in. in which was completed during the 1996 project. diameter, with the majority about 8 in. in Sinter depositsfrom the active geysers coat the diameter. Almost solid algae growth and spilled lakeshore in the vicinity and form an underwater rocks prevent complete documentation of the shelf immediately offshore the thermal features. crib corners. Logs on all sidesabut those above A high portion of the shelf extends above water and below, creatinga solid wall. The lower logs line about 11 west of the dock remains and are shortened to accommodate the lake bottom was incorporated into the original dock (Figure slope, with those higher in the wall being the 5.6). The dock remains consist of basal portions full 12 ft. in length or, in some cases, two logs of six log cribs set three to a side to form an L- with ends abutting to achieve the total length of shape. All six cribs, spaced a consistent 22 ft. a side. The crib corners are fastened with a 96 Yellowstone National Park Part 5

Figure 5.5. Close-up of West Thumb wagon wheel. NPS photo by John Brooks.

Figure 5.6. docked at West Thumb. Note the cribbing and walkway photo no. 88438).

97 Part Chapter 5 Yellowstone National Park

CRIB CRIB 2

CRIB 3

XPOSED ROCK SHELF

CRIB

CRIB 6

20 0

Figure 5.7. Plan view site map of the West Thumb dock cribs. Drawing by Jim Bradford and Matt Russell.

98 Yellowstone National Park Part Chapter 5

Figure 5.8. West Thumb dock crib. NPS photo by Brett Seymour. single I-in. iron or steel rod driven through the 8%ft. exposed fastener length indicates entireheight crib side. The only evidence the crib extended 2%ft. abovewater level. With of overlap is in Crib 5, where the top course of the dock structure attached, the dock height logshas a single log overlap at each corner, with above lake level would have been about 3 ft. the corresponding next-side log abutting the (see Figures 5.6and to stay above overlap and tied at the next comer. Thisappears lake ice in this protected area of the to leave a weak comer atthe crib bottom, which which receives little ice shelving. might allow separation unless other fasteners As shown in Figure 5.6, the exposed shelf were driven through the courses of logs at other rock was used as a dock support. The original locations. No evidence of fasteners other than dock extended eastward from shore at the corners was observed, nor were any approximately 80 ft. to the exposed rock (with horizontal ties (dogs) between logs. Algal some small supports in very shallow water), growthmay have obscuredthesedetail features. incorporatedthe exposed rock as a support,then Crib 5 is a typical example and will be utilized cribs 1 and 2 in about 5 ft. of water, and discussed in detail. The east wall is 7 ft. high, continued to the end of this segment at Crib 3 while the west wall, because of lake bed slope, in about 12 ft. of water. Here the dock turned is 4 ft. high. Two bent comer fasteners at the south,using cribs 4 to 6, for a distance of about crib top have exposed lengths of about 8 ft. 6 15 to the end of the L. This in. Typical depth below surface at the crib tops produced 12 to 13 ft. of depth on the dock's is 6 ft. Subtractingthe 6 ft. depth below surface offshore side at current lake level.

99 Part 11, Chapter Yellowstone National Park

Figure 5.9. West Thumb dock photo no. 94212).

Cribdimensions indicate each would encase constructed the original dock. docked at about 1,656 of rock fill to the lake surface, West Thumb from the 1890s through the 191 or about 1,800 to the bottom of the dock. (Figure 5. as did other lake boats (see Figure The four north-south cribs (cribs 3 to 6) 5.6). Aphotographshowsadockinthisareaas contained about 6,624 of rock. Cribs 1 and late as the mid-1930s (Allenand Day 1935:130). 2 contained about 2,160 which gives an It is not known when the dock was removed, estimated total dock fill volume of about 8,784 but it was likely present until the early 1960s or about 325 of broken rock ranging when many older West Thumb facilities were from fist size to 1 x 2 x 2 ft. Rock type and removed and relocated or replaced by Mission origin are unknown, but acquisition, 66 developments. The West Thumb Geyser transportation and handling of that much Basin docks have not been given a site number. material involved considerable effort. The uniformity of the depth of Cribs 3 to 6 LAKE BOAT DOCKS at 6 below the surface (a similar depth as the single crib located at the former Lake Hotel Despite the rich Lake Hotel dock area dock), suggeststhe cribs were deliberately razed history, little material evidence of the various to this level when the dock structure was facilities remains today. Before the turn of the removed. This may have been done to reduce century,E. C. Watersproposed and built a dock them as navigation hazards. Intentional razing at Lake, which included the boat management to a uniform depth seems more likely than it concession headquarters. Shore facilities at being the result of ice action, because ice rarely Lake included the largest Yellowstone Lake gets more than 2 thick in the winter (John docks (Figure 5.1 the primary rental boat Lounsbury, personal communication 1996). operation (Figure the main dock for Dock construction date and are and other lake boats, a boathouse (Figure unknown, but the docks probably went through a marine railway for launching and dry docking several periods of rebuilding since first boats (see Figure and a fish hatchery. constructed. E. C. Waters undoubtedly Waters built the original dock in the and 100 Yellowstone National Park Part Chapter 5

Figure 5.10. docked at West Thumb, about 1900(YELL Archives).

Figure 5.11. Jean at the Lake dock, about 1905. Stevenson Island is in the background (YELL Archives photo no. 88090).

101 Part Chapter 5 Yellowstone National Park

Figure 5.12. Lake dock rental boats photo no. 36371).

Figure 5.13. Lake boathouse (YELL Archives photo no. 61-699). 102 Yellowstone National Park Part Chapter 5

completed a long dock extending south from the smooth, hard bottom between the shore with a short east leg by the of the rocks [Lenihan century. This dock was used until major extension and revisions were completed Park resource managers and divers between August and October 1936. These conducted a more extensive investigation of the revisions employed a pile driver, as in the Lake docks in October 1998. They officially original construction. The dock was extended, recorded the site and issued it an archeological a launch ramp constructed and a trestle track site number, At that time, they added the road to the water providing a observed a large scatter of rocks 15 ft. wide means of dry docking large boats, and a small extending in an arc for 900 ft.; a second scatter, boat ramp was built. All are well documented also 15 ft. wide, extendingfor 170ft.; and four intheparkphotographarchives. spring 1937, intact rock-filled cribs (Dave Price, personal the docks were severely damaged by ice, which communication 1999). The 1998 work done in additional ice protection measures by park staff indicatesmore Lake docks remains in October 1938. The fish hatchery was added than observed by SCRU during the 1995-1996 to the facilities in the and all vestiges of field work. these structures, with exception of the The marine railway section was located by boathouse, were removed around 1962. SCRU in 1996in shallowwater and consistsof Underwater featuresnoted during the a short segment of ties and rails still in place 1996 investigations include a single crib (John Brooks, personal communication 1996). remnant from the dock and a short marine The railway, located just west of the later railway section still on the lake bottom. The fisheries dock, was used to launch the dock crib contains only three courses of logs Waters in 1905 (Aubrey Haines, personal and has a spike projecting out of the top. the communication 1996) and three NPS boats upper end of which is at a depth of 6 brought to the park in 1936.

The bottom is sand, some of it very SMALLCRAFT well packed into a hardpan. Cobbles from the cribbing have in many A launch located on the lake bottom near places been spread along the bottom the Lake Hotel dock was dived in 1995 (Figures through natural site formation The launch’s rudder was removed processes in a manner resembling by park divers sometime in and it paving blocks. They are evenly is currently in the Bridge Bay Marina Ranger distributed over the bottom rather Station. than helter-skelter in piles. Some of In 1996, side scan sonar revealed a clear the woodenmembers utilizedincribs of a cluster of small boats about 0.2 that are now lying loose on the mi. southeast of Lake Hotel. A single dive on bottom seem to have formed a slight these craft confirmed four boats sittingin 23 ft. furrow or depression about them in of water (Figures 5.16). All four are of similar the hardpan; in some cases the design and oriented in the same direction depression is longer than the spar (Figures 5.17-5.20). Rough measurements give itself. There is also the remains of a length range from 13% to 14 ft., and a width and some smaller artifacts of from 3 ft. 7 in. to 3 ft. 9 in. All four have small a modem vintage protruding through seats fore and aft, two have a singlecenter seat, 103 Part Chapter 5 Yellowstone National Park

Figure 5.14. Small launch off Lake Hotel. NPS photo by John Brooks.

Figure 5.15. Hotel launch stem. NPS photo John Brooks.

104 Yellowstone National Park Part Chapter 5

A

A B

Figure 5.16. Field sketch of four small rental boats off Lake Hotel. Drawing by Paul Neidinger.

105 Part 11, Chapter 5 Yellowstone National Park

Figure 5.17. Small boat bow. NPS photo by John Brooks.

Figure 5.18. Small boat bow. Scale in inches. NPS photo by John Brooks.

106 Yellowstone National Park Part 5

Figure 5.19. Smallboat stem. Scale in feet and inches. NPS photo by John Brooks.

Figure 5.20. Smallboat stem. Scalein feet and inches. NPS photo by John Brooks

107 Part Chapter Yellowstone National Park

one has two such seats and the fourth lacks conversation with Aubrey Haines after the 1996 center seats. As noted by Lenihan “these fieldwork, he commented that he had found a craft are all approximately the same size with reference to Zilluh having been cut up and sold enough variations to suggest nonassembly-line for scrap, perhaps a confirmation of its being production. They seem fragile as if they have dismantled. Haines also stated that there is a been there quite some time.” They compare reference to the “destruction of the Zilluh” in exactly with the rental boats shown in Figures his 1961 taped interview with Mr. This 5.21 and 5.22, which date to 1941 and were has not yet been confirmed. Definitive apparently scuttled after becoming obsolete. references to final disposition have yet Neitherthe launch nor the small boats have been to be found. formally recorded and given site numbers. The (Figure 5.24 and see Figures along with Zilluh, was owned and ZILLAH AND JEAN D operated by the Yellowstone Park Boat Company during the 1910s (Aubrey Haines, Several Zilluh photographs are in the park personal communication 1996). Unfortunately, archives (Figures 5.23 and see Figures no other informationon this vessel was located According to Aubrey Haines (personal in a brief search of park archives. communication Zillah’s linen construction drawings were in the Maintenance WATERS Division hanging filesuntil 1968. He also stated that reproductions of these drawings were used the largest vessel ever operated by HarpersFerry Center aspart of an interpretive on Yellowstone Lake, was a kiosk on “Steam Boating on the Lake” that was wooden-hulled, single-screwpassenger steamer in front of the Lake Hotel until the late 1970s. with a 26-ft. beam (Haines The kiosk has since been removed, and neither Although depth of hold and tonnage are not of these leads could be confirmed while at the documented for this vessel, they are estimated park, nor later in the Technical Information to have been a 10-ft. depth of hold and between Center in Denver. 200 and 250 tons. Today, C. Despite local lore that Zilluh was taken from lie partially exposed and awash on Stevenson the old fisheries dock, towed out to deep water Island’s east shore (Figures 5.25 and 5.26). Initial field observations of site were and scuttled, no evidence of it in that area was that the wreckage consists of the largely intact noted during extensive side scan sonar survey lower hull below the turn of the bilge, much of of the area to a depth of 200 ft. This area was the drive train (excluding engine and boiler), selectedbased on information that Zilluh rested and many scatteredfeatures and artifacts (Figure on the bottom in the general area southwest of 5.27). Major structuralfeatures include the keel, the old docks. Archival information on main keelson, sister keelsons, floors, the first fate is contradictory. Zilluh is described as and second of most frame-pairs, engine making “her last voyage out into Yellowstone bed, propellershaftand bearings, thrust bearing, Lake, where her hull was opened and she came propeller, hull planking, ceiling planking and to rest on the bottom where she remains today” deck machinery, alongwith numerous scattered (Anonymous In another article, fittings (Figure 5.28). ‘Thehull, listing to reference is made that the Yellowstone Park port, is 121 ft. 7 in. long from propeller to the Boat Company dismantled it in 1929 forward-most attached hull plank, and the bow (Anonymous In a telephone points due east. 108 Yellowstone National Park Part Chanter

Figure 5.21. Yellowstone Park Company rental boat #78 (YELL Archives photo no.

Figure 5.22. Yellowstone Park Company rental boat #78 (YELL Archives photo no. 29078-2).

109 Part Chapter 5 Yellowstone National Park

Figure 5.23. at the Lake dock, 1889 photo no. 88853).

Figure 5.24. docked, probably at West Thumb, about 1910 (YELL Archives photo no. 40348).

110 Yellowstone National Park Part Chapter 5

Figure 5.25. View southeast of Waters remains on Stevenson Island’s eastern shore. NPS photo by John Brooks.

Figure 5.26. View northeast of C. Waters ’remains. NPS photo by John Brooks.

111 \

\Y-

Figure 5.27. Plan view of E. C. Waters’site Drawing by Jim Bradford and Matt Russell.

113 GLOBE VALVE ASSEMBLY SISTER

STERN

PROPELLER

THRUST BEARING MMNE MOUNT

numbers. by Jim Man Yellowstone National Park Part Chapter 5

The SCRU field team, consisting of two The keel is a vessel’s main centerline archeologists and a photographer, documented structural member, running the length of the the site during a six-day period in August 1996. vessel to provide longitudinal support. wooden This preliminary site assessment employed a vessels it is composed of long timbers, scarfed nondestructive, noninvasive approach; no (joined) together at their ends (Kerchove artifacts were collected and only exposed C. Waters’ keel dimensions are features were documented. The one exception 10 in. sided (width), 11 in. molded (height) and was the capstan, buried in the sand 75 ft. south approximately 117 long. 30 ft. 6 in. of hull, which was exposed by hand fanning the keel’s forward part is exposed, and the the sediments for documentation and forward end is splintered and wornwith an eroded photography and then reburied. The upward slant on its lower face that has removed documentation team established a baseline any evidence of the keel and joint. The along the centerline structure and keel’s end, where it meets thepropeller post, mapped sitefeatures using baseline trilateration or sternpost, is buried, obscuring that joint and and direct measurements. The main features, making it impossible to determine ifthekeel had including E. C. Waters’ hull, remaining an aft extension to the rudder post, or iftherudder propulsion system, and scattered site features was supported by aruddershoe,orskeg. Because were also drawn to scale. Unfortunately, limited the keel is buried here, an exact keel length time for this assessment did not allow complete measurementis impossible. Onehorizontalhook documentation of all site details. For example, scarf is visible in the keel, beginning 18 ft. 6 the many small, portable artifacts located aft of the keel’s forward end. The scarf, which between the vessel frames could not be angles up toward the bow, is 4 ft. 5 in. long completely documented, and other details, such horizontally, 5 ft. 2 in. long diagonally, with a as the hull fasteningpatterns, were documented hook offset of 1%in. The scarf extends over through recording only a representative sample. only three frame pairs, less than the four No wood samples were taken during this recommendedin the following decade noninvasive site assessment. but long enough to meet required specifications of the more HULL REMAINS contemporaneous Register (1908: which stateskeel scarflengthshould At August 1996 lake levels, the be four and one-half times the keel’s sided centerline (keelson andpropeller shaft) was just dimension. To meet this requirement, C. at the lake’s surface. Because of the port Waters’ 10-in.-sided keel required a minimum list, the submerged port side is better preserved scarf length of 3 ft. 9 in. Because longer scarf than the starboard side, which ismostly exposed lengths are stronger than shorter ones, E. above water level. Port-side hull remains are Wuters was built more conservatively in this extant to the turn of the bilge, while the regard than required by contemporary Great starboard-side hull consists of burnt stubs of Lakes practice. There are likely other scarfs along several floors and futtocks or “ribs”), the keel‘s length,but the rest of the keel is buried and a fewhull (outer) and ceiling(inner) planks. and could not be examined. Overall, C. Waters’ preserved lower Other than the splinteredforward end, remains represent opportunityto study the only other keel damage noted was that the turn-of-the-century, high-altitude, western aft end of the forward keel section, below the steamer construction. scarf, wasbroken-off and missing. This damage 117 Part Chapter 5 National Park

is unusual, and there is no evidence of how it iron bushingassemblythat encases it. The stem occurred. Keel rabbets (for securing hull planks) bearing and other features associated with the could not be observed, and no false keel (an sternpost will be described below with the expendableplank placed on the keel bottom to propulsion system. protect the keel) was present on the keel’s C. Waters’ frames are constructed from exposed end. horizontal pairs of timbers that cross the keel None of Waters’stemassembly remain perpendicularly, and are located between the on-site, and nothing related was located in the underlying keel and the overlying keelson surrounding area duringa side scan sonar search. (Figure 5.29). These pairs of timbers, made up The forward-mostwreckage consists ofthe keel, of floors and futtocks, extended from the keel keelson, filler deadwood between the keel and amidships to the turn of the bilge and continued keelson, and outer hull planking. No deadwood up the hull side. The frames on E. Waters’ was present on top of the forward end of the port side are now broken at the turn ofthebilge; main keelson. those on the starboard are broken near the keel. The vessel’s sternpost, or propeller post, is Individual floor and futtock timbers arejoined present and is sided 8 in.and molded 11in. The end to end with butt joints that are staggered so sternpost heel, where it joins the keel, and the that one half of each frame pair overlaps the keel extension or rudder shoe that supports the buttjoints oftheother maximizestrength. rudder post and rudder are buried and were not This paired frame arrangement with staggered observed. The sternpost protrudes 2 ft. in. butt joints is known as “double framing.” above the sediment, to a point just below the E. Waters’ was constructed using propeller shaft, where it is broken off inside the a peculiar combination of the

Figure 5.29. Waters’frames. View aft frames with butt joints in the wreck’s forward port section. The main and sister keelsons overlay the frames in the upper left. Scale = 1foot. NPS photo by Brett Seymour.

118 Yellowstone National Park Part Chapter 5

armmethod throughits midsection(which was Specifications for both the “old system” and the the preferred construction method by the long-and-short-arm framing method were of-the-century), and an older style of framing included in the Rules for the Construction of near the bow and stem. The Wooden Vessels, published annually by the arm method uses two staggered floors of the American Shipmasters’ Association through at same length crossing the keel, so that the long least 1900. Several standard early-twentieth arm of one timber is on the same side of the century ship construction manuals do not even keel as the short armoftheother (Figure 5.30). mention the older framing style (Estep 1918; The first futtock on each side of the vessel Curtis 1919; Desmond indicating joins the floor’s short arm, while the second standardization on the long-and-short-arm futtock butts the long arm. In this way the frame method. No examples of mixing the early futtocks are carried up the vessel’s side. The and later framing styles in a single vessel were older style of framing uses just one floor, located in either historical or archeological centeredover the keel, for one half of the frame literature. pair, with the two first futtocks butt-joined over Forty-eight frame pairs are present in the keel formingthe other half. Second futtocks E. remains (see Figure 5.28); all are attached to either end of the floor and third floors and futtocks measure 5 in. sided and 9 futtocks are attached to the end of each first in.molded,while room and space(distancefrom futtock. This is repeated up thevessel’s the center of one frame pair to the center of the side (Figure 5.30). next) is 24 in. As recorded, Frame Pair is Thepractice of long-and-short-armframing the first square frame, which crosses the keel was introduced before the Civil War and became perpendicularly. Forward of this square frame the preferable construction technique by the were half or cant frames that butted into the 1870s (Record of American Foreign deadwood. Half framesremained perpendicular Shipping The historical shift to to the keel and became increasingly steep as they and-short-arm frame techniques occurred for formed the pointed ship bow, whereas cant several reasons, including availability of frames rotated forward in a radial pattern. material and this framing technique’s superior Because no bow framing remains, there is no strength way to determine if E. C. Waters’builders used half or cant frames. The bow filler deadwood The practice of placing two sets of exhibitsheel notches for the framesandfastener floors across the keel having a long patterns in the outer hull planking indicates and a short arm on sides is of severalhalf or cantframeswere present. In the recent origin, and is consequent upon stem, two half or cant frames and the great difficulty in obtaining first notched into the deadwood are still in place on futtocks of sufficient length, size and the port side and a notch for a third half or cant crook for ships ofthelargest classes. It frame is present. Fastener patterns on the is regarded as a great improvement, starboardstem deadwood indicate at least three inasmuch as it rids the keel of the half or cant frames were used but are no longer range of butts with which it was present. Frame pairs #1-14, as recorded, were covered under the old system . . . constructed using the older framing style, with [Wilson a single floor and the port and starboard first

119 Part Chapter Yellowstone National Park

...... , ... .

Figure 5.30. Different styles of framing a wooden vessel. Drawing by Matt Russell.

120 Yellowstone National Park Part Chapter 5

futtocksbutting under the keelson. Each and fastened through, the floors into the keel, was fastenedhorizontallyto its mated floor with tying the main centerline structures togetherinto fasteners, creatingtheframepair, a solid unit. Waters has a main keelson These 14 frame pairs are constructed with the and two sister keelsons, the latter being slightly floors forward of the futtocks. Waters’ smaller timbers flanking the main keelson on midship section (frame pairs is either side. The forward end of the main keelson constructed using the long-and-short-arm is broken and splintered, but is the same length method, with two staggered floors. Near the as the keel, suggesting it is almost fully intact. stem, framepairs (the last square frame) With the exception of the port revert back to the older style of framing, with a (the outer hull plank closest to the keel), which single floor and two first futtocks butted under extends another 1 ft. 6 in. forward of the keelson the keelson,though in these the floors are aftof and keel, the structure is the the futtocks. The last two frame pairs forward-most articulated hull structure. are either half or cant frames, which are outer hull plank extends further forward on the mortised into the stem filler deadwood. These port side, but it is loose and not fastened to other frames are perpendicular tothe keel,but it could timbers. The main keelson extends aft to the not be determinedif they are half or cant frames. stempost. Its total length is 116ft. 4 in., and its Only first futtocks are present on C. Wafers’ dimensions are 11 in. sided and 10 in. molded. starboard side due to the vessel listing to port Like the keel, a single horizontal scarf is visible when it burned (manyfuttocksshowed evidence on the main keelson, beginning 30 ft. 8 in. aft of buming on their top ends). There is probably of its forward-most end. Because the main also deterioration from ice, water, wave impact keelson is flanked on both sides by sister and vandalism. Severalport-side frame pairs’ keelsons, no details of this scarf could be second futtocks are present. observed. It be determined scarf All frame pairs have two limber holes, each is angling forward or aft, or what type of scarf hole offset 9%in. centerline, allowing for it is. Because the keel and both sister keelsons bilge water drainage down the vessel length to used hook scarfs, however, it is reasonable to the pump wells. The limber holes are roughly expect the builder used this scarf when rectangular, 1 in. high, and varying between 3 assembling the main keelson. Given the main and 4 in. long. Amidships, beneath the engine keelson length, at least one additional scarf mounts, 14additional floors are present, creating would be expected, probably hidden by the a solid block of athwartship supports that add engine bed aft of midship. strengthto the vessel’s spaces, which Waters’ sister keelsons flank the main bore the combined weight of engines and boilers keelson, but are slightly shorter. The port sister (Figure 5.31). Space for two other floors is keelson appearsto be complete, its forward end present in the mount’s forward section, but the cut straight 10ft. 1 in. aft of the main keelson’s floors are missing. They may have been forward end,just forward of Frame Pair In purposefully omitted to allowbilge water to pass the stern, the port sister keelson ends 13 ft. 11 fromone side of the vessel to the other. in. forward of the main keelson’s aft end. This Typical of late-nineteenth and gives the port sisterkeelson a total length of twentieth century wooden ship construction, 2 in.;both sisterkeelsons measure 10in. sided Waterswas built with multiple keelsons. and 8 in. molded. The starboard sister keelson’s Keelsons are fore-and-aft centerline timbers forward end is broken off 8 ft. 7 in. aft of the extendingthe vessel’s length, located ontop of, port sisterkeelson’s end. The starboard 121 I I

012345

FEET

Figure 5.31. Plan and elevation of engine bed and thrust bearing showing additional frames to support engine weight. Drawing by Jim Bradford.

123 Yellowstone National Park Part Chapter 5

sister keelson ends in the same place as the port evidence of fasteners. Portions of three bilge sister, giving it a total length of 83 8 in. The strakes (thick planks) are in place on the aft ends of sisterkeelsons taper from their starboard side. Bilge strakes are thick timbers full sided dimension of 10in. to 2%in. overthe at the turn of the bilge that add additional aft 2 8 in. Theport sisterkeelson was notched longitudinal hull support. On this vessel these over the frames from the engine bed forward. strakes are 5%in. wide x 4%in. thick, made of The notches are in. deep at the engine bed multiple lengths joined with plain and get progressively deeper moving forward scarfs, and fastened to the with %- or so they are notched 5% in. over Frame Pair #l. in.-diameter clinch bolts. Like the keel and main keelson, each sister In addition to the frames, main keelson and keelson has a single visible horizontal hook sister keelsons described above, the enginebed scarf. The scarfs are offset by several feet, are or foundation incorporates several other slightlydifferentlengths, and anglein opposite elements (see Figure 5.28 and 5.31) to directions. The port sisterkeelson scarfbegins strengthenthe hull in the machineryspaces. As 32 ft. 1%in. aft of the port sister keelson’s mentioned above, additional floorswere placed forward end and is 5 ft. 10% in. long betweenthe regularly spaced frames, creating a horizontally. Its nibs (ends) are in., the hook nearly solid block of timbers under the engine is 1 in.,and it angles up towards the bow. The bed. The added floors starboardsisterkeelson scarf begins ft. 4%in. vary between 3 in. and 7 in. Two timbers forward of the port sister keelson scarf, is 5 ft. measuring 12ft. 6 in. long, 1ft. 1in. sided, and 2 in. long horizontally, has 1 nibs and hook, 10 in. molded were placed outside each sister and angles up towards the stern. Most likely, keelson to help support the engine. Because the slight offset and opposite angles were the molded dimension of the sister keelsons is intentionallydesigned to increasethe centerline 2 in. less than the main keelson and the engine structural strength. As with the main keelson, bed timbers, a cover board was though no other scarfs arevisible in either sister fastened over each sister keelson, between the keelson, it is likelythey arepresent and probably main keelson and the outside timber, making a obscured by the engine bed. flush surface to fasten the engine bed frames. Both outer hull and ceiling planking are The engine bed frames are three transverse present across the site. The vessel’s timbers fastened to the platform with four to outer hull planking is 3 in. thick and 7 to 11 in. seven %-in.-diameterfasteners plus three to four wide, depending on where tapering is required threaded bolts that also secured by the hull form. The or first the engineto the three timbers. Thebed frames hull plank butting the keel, is 4 to 5 in. thick. vary intheir sided dimensions; the aft is Hull plank lengths vary, but the longest one sided ft., the middle timber is sided 1 ft. 1 in., measured, a starboard hull plank, is 30 ft. 1 in. and the forward timber is sided 1ft. 4%in. They long. Hull planking is attached to each frame are all 5 ft.4 in. long and measure 10in. molded. with two or three %-in.-square spikes. Ceiling, The timbers are shaped to accept the underside or interior, planking, 2 in. thick and 10to in. of the engine and allow clearanceto the engine wide, is fastened to each frame with two %-in.- crankshaft. diameter spikes. The starboard limber board In addition to the intact hull bottom and (longitudinalplanks lying atop the floors) butts associated features, there aremany scatteredhull the starboard sister keelson and isfastened with planks, ceiling planks, bilge stringers, and spikes, but the port limber board shows no frames across the lake bottom to the north, east 125 Part 11, Chapter 5 Yellowstone National Park

and southeast of Waters. Most of these expansion engine, and 2) the steam turbine, are included on the site map (see Figure 5.27). which became more widespread and eventually Severalof the scattered timbers show evidence eclipsed the reciprocating engine (Gardiner of burning. A complete, systematic survey of 1994:152-154). As with the introduction of the areasbeyond the main wreck concentration was compound engine 50 years earlier and the triple not conducted. expansion engine 30 years earlier, the most technologically advanced machinery was PROPULSION SYSTEM AND RELATED initiallyonly used in the most profitable trades, FEATURES such as in Atlantic passenger steamers. It unlikely Waferscarried the most modern As noted in Chapter 3, the engine and boiler steam engine available. were salvaged from sometimeafter As asserted by Haines (personal abandonment on Stevenson Island. The boiler communication there is no question was used for many years to heat the Lake Hotel Waterswould have been equipped with a and later sold for scrap; there is no record of cylindrical,or Scotch, boiler. The Scotch boiler what happened to the engine. Historical was developedduringthe 1860sand was a great research did not locate any specifications on improvement over the firebox boiler, which engine or boiler types and sizes, other than a used many flat surfaces, because it could note that the boiler was a Scotch-type marine withstand much greater steampressures. Scotch boiler (Aubrey Haines, personal boilers were fitted in ships until the communication 1996). Although Waters twentieth century (Gardiner 1993:106-107). was built for use in a unique environment, Although there is no historical documentation reasonable speculation can be made about the on Waters’ steam engine, configuration of engine and boiler based on parallels from the bed framesand the size of the thrust bearing contemporary vessels. indicate either acompound engine (most likely), The first compound reciprocating steam or a double simple engine, of about 80-100 hp engines were developed during the 1850s and was used in combination with a single Scotch saw widespread service beginning in the 1860s boiler (Ian Ablett, personal communication (Gardiner The idea of 1999). compounding, in which high pressure steam The only evidence remaining of C. entered a small, high pressure cylinder and was Waters’ engine is the wooden engine bed and then recycled to a larger, lower pressure cylinder the bolts that secured the engine to the bed. The before being vented or condensed, greatly boiler is represented by four iron or steel saddles improvedmarine steam engine This (Figures5.32and 5.33) that supported the boiler idea was improved upon even further with the and served to distribute the concentratedweight triple expansion engine, which added a third of the boiler and its water over a larger area cylinder to the basic compound design. Triple through the main keelson and other wooden expansion engines were first developed during members of the hull. These four saddles are the 1870s and becamepopular during the 1880s scattered in the generaldebriswithinthe vessel’s and 1890s; they continued to be built well into hull, a pattern most likely the result of salvage the twentieth century. At the turn of the century activity. Each saddle is triangular with one marine steam technology branched into two concave side to accept the rounded boiler shell, distinct lines: the reciprocating engine, which and is notched on one edge for mounting in the reached its pinnacle with the quadruple hull. There is no evidence of direct fastening 126 Yellowstone National Park Part Chapter 5

of the boiler to the saddles, indicating metal strapsor stays with turnbuckles may have used to secure the boiler to the vessel. With the exception engineand boiler, the rest of C. Wafers’propulsion system is intact within the wreck (Figure 5.34). This includesthe thrust bearing; propeller shaft with two shaft bearings, the after bulkhead box and gland, a single shaft coupling, and the stern tube with stuffing box and gland; an 0 1 adjustable stern bearing assembly; and the propeller. Total lengthfrom crankshaftcoupling forward of the thrust bearing to the aft end of Figure 5.32. Side and end views of boiler propeller hub is 37 ft. 10%in. saddle. Drawing by Jim Bradford. E. thrust bearing (Figures5.31 and 5.35) is a multiple-collar block developed during the 1850s and in near-universal use by the later part of the nineteenthcentury (Gardiner 1993:100). The purpose of the thrust bearing, or thrust block, is “to receive and to transmit to

Figure 5.33. Boiler saddle. Scale 1 foot. NPS photo by Brett Seymour.

127 Part Chapter 5 Yellowstone National Park

the ship the thrust produced along the line of shafting by the revolution of the screw” The thrust bearing is generally positioned near the forward end ofthepropeller shaft, just aft of the engine, and consists of a block with removable cap. The shaft, at this part of the drive train, is composed of a number of collars while the thrust bearing has a correspondingsetof internal collars; inthis case, six thrust collars separated by five horseshoe bearings. When the thrust of the propeller is transferred up the propeller shaft, the shaft collars press upon eitherthe forward or aft faces of the thrust bearing collars, depending onwhich directionthe vessel is going. In either direction, the screw tends to force the shaft slightly forward or aft, but that pressure is taken by the block and, through the strong support on which it is fixed, transferred to the hull. Adjustment ofthethrust block is made with Figure 5.34. View west of Waters large set screws on eitherside ofthe block, while the forward end has a shaft coupling to accept propulsion system. The engine bed is in Waters’ the foreground, the thrust bearing is in the the engine crankshaft. thrust middle foreground and the propeller shaft bearing measures 3 ft. 4% in. long x 2 ft. 2 in. and the propeller is in the background. NPS wide, and is I ft. 6 in. high. It is mounted on a photo by John Brooks. pillow, or plwnmer, block solidly attached to

Figure 5.35. Sta side of thrust bearing. NPS photo by Jim Bradford.

128 Yellowstone National Park Part Chapter 5

the main and sister keelsons; the pillow block shaft sections between the thrust bearing and measures 4 ft. long, 2 ft. 10% in. wide, and 10 the propeller. Flanges are forged to the end of in. high. each shaft and bolted together with 1-in.- Waters’ propeller shaft is intact aft of diameter bolts. The aft flange has a 10-in.- the thrust hearing (see Figure 5.34). The diameter neck, 5% in. long, that steps down to forward part of the propeller shaft,or lineshaft, the 6-in. diameter propeller shaft. Three feet is 6 in. in diameter and articulates with an aft of the coupling is the second shaft bearing in.-diameter stem tube in which the aft part of (see Figures 5.37 and 5.38). the propeller shaft,or tail shaft, spun. Typically, Three feet aft of the second shaft bearing is propeller shafts are hollow, with internal the stuffing box and gland on the forward end diameter about half the diameter. The of the stem tube. The stem tube stuffing box tail shaft within the stem tube is usually larger (Figure 5.39) consists of a flared end of the stem in diameter than the line shaft, about the same tube with a square flange formerly bolted to size as the crankshaft attached to the engine. In deadwood through which the stern tube this case, the tail shaft, where it exits the stem presumably passed. The gland is a circular tube and stem post, is 7% in. in diameter flanged tube inserted into the stuffing box and in. larger than the line shaft) and tapers aft compressed against a fibrous material to make through the propeller hub, or boss. the seal watertight and Lewis There are two shaft bearings on Waters’ see Paasch 118). propeller shaft (Figures 5.36 and 5.37). Their The stem bearing and bushing assembly is purpose is to supportthe weight ofthe shaft and located outboard between the sternpost and provide lubrication through the oil boxes atop propeller, where the propeller shaft exits the the cap covering. They rest on wooden blocks sternpost (Figures 5.40 and 5.41). It consistsof called pedestals, which are securedto the main a vertical plate bolted to either side of the keelson. sternpost and a two-piece iron casting that Located midway between the two shaft clamps over the propeller shaft and is bolted to bearings,just forward of the shaft coupling, is the stempost. In addition, a wide band, bolted the after bulkhead stuffing box and gland together below the iron casting, wraps around (Figure 5.38). It consists of two flanges of two the latter and bolts togetherabovethe assembly halves each. The upper and lower half of each where a 3 ft. 3 in.-long, threaded, bolt connected flange is clamped around the propeller shaft and through the hom timber. This assembly tied the the two flanges are bolted together, connected shaft, stempost, stern hearing, and hom timber by a liner that surrounds the portion ofthe shaft together and provided stability against vibration between the two flanges. This liner, connected at the propeller shaft’s aft-most end. Similar to the smaller forward flange, serves as the gland assemblies have been documented while the larger aftflangeserves as the archeologically on at Isle Royale box, resulting in a watertight connection bolted National Park (Lenihan and Ottawa to the after bulkhead. This featuredid not carry in Red Cliff Bay, near Apostle Islands National the weight of the shaft,but provided a watertight Lakeshore (Cooper et al. both in opening through the bulkhead. The bulkhead Lake Superior. created an aft compartment that held the shaft propeller is typical of lake coupling and aft shaft bearing. steamers. It is cast iron with fourblades, though The shaft coupling (see Figure 5.38) is a two blades are broken off about 1 ft. from the typical design and connected the two propeller hub, or boss (Figures 5.41 and 5.42). The two 129 Part Chapter Yellowstone National Park

KEELSON

HULL PLANK

Figure 5.36. Plan, elevation and end view of forward propeller shaft bearing. Drawing by Jim Bradford.

130 Yellowstone National Park Part 11, Chapter 5

Figure 5.37. Top view of propeller shaft bearing. Scale 1 foot. NPS photo by Brett Seymour.

Figure 5.38. View southeast of after bulkhead stuffingbox and gland (left), and propeller coupling (right). NPS photo by Brett Seymour.

131 Part 11. Yellowstone National Park

Figure 5.39. View southwest of forward end of stern tube stuffing box and gland. Note large bolt on top that securedthe shaftto the stern deadwood (now missing) through which it passed. Marked section of scale 6 inches. NPS photo by Brett Seymour. complete blades are elliptical in shape, 3 ft. 8 of an ordinary stop valve as shown in Lyon and in. long x 2 ft. 5in. wide and varying in thickness Hines but is an anglerather than from base to tip. The boss, 1 ft. 2%in. long, is a straight-throughvalve. The intake is through circular in cross-section and has convex sides a feed water pipe fitted in the wooden block on in profile. It has a diameter of in. at each end which the valve is secured. and is 1 ft. 3 in. in diameter in the middle. The E. Waters’ capstan is located 75 ft. south boss and blades are cast as one piece and are of the engine bed, buried in the sand in about keyed to the shaft end and secured with a large 1 ft. of water (Figures 5.46 and 5.47). Before hexagonal, keyed nut. 1995, the capstan was located on the beach about 30 ft. south-southwest of the wreck. During DISARTICULATED MACHINERY AND 1995 visit, the capstan was not located OTHER FEATURES and thought by park rangers to be missing. A depression on the beach marked the location Several features associated with E. C. where park rangers remembered it (Lenihan Waters’ machinery are located within the hull During the present site or near the vessel remains. One of the most documentation, the capstan was found in its prominent is a globe valve mounted in the hull current location, apparently moved by would- bottom on the engine bed’s port side (Figures be looters in a failed attempt to remove it. The 5.43-5.45). This valve was lake water capstan is 1 ft. 3 in. high, 1 ft. 4 in. across the inlet for supplying water to the boiler and drumhead,and its base is 2 2 in. in diameter. auxiliaries. The valve contains all of the features The base plate, spindle,and drumheadare intact, 132 Yellowstone National Park Part Chapter 5

AFT 0 1 2 FORE ELEVATION ELEVATION FEET

Figure 5.40. Plan, starboard elevation, fore and aft views of adjustable stem bearing assembly. Drawing by Jim Bradford.

133 Part Chapter 5 Yellowstone National Park

Figure 5.41. View north, starboard side of adjustable stern bearing assembly (center) and propeller (left). NPS photo by John Brooks.

Figure 5.42. View northeast of propeller. NPS photo by John Brooks.

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1

CEILING PLANK

HULL PLANK

Figure 5.43. Plan view and aft elevation of the globe valve with intake pipes. Drawing by Jim Bradford. 135 Part Chapter 5 Yellowstone National Park

Figure 5.44. View aft along port midships showing feed water intake piping (foreground) and globe valve (background). Scale 1 foot. NPS photo by Brett Seymour.

Figure 5.45. Close-up view of globe valve. NPS photo by Brett Seymour.

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but thebarrel is missing. The capstan is geared, indicating it was probably operated with an auxiliary steam engine. Seven davits are present within the Waters’wreck (Figures 5.48 and 5.49). Davits are small derricks of various designs used for hoistingboats, ladders, loads, They areoften made of forged ingot steel bent to shape, steel tubing, or built-up welded shapes (Kerchove All seven are steel tubing, welded at the bend. A davit collar bolted to the deck secured each base, and each davit was braced below the bend. Figure 3.6 shows three sets of davits holding lifeboats on C. Waters’ port side in about 1906. Three flat iron or steel brackets are present on the wreck, all loose and not in their original 0 1 location (see Figures 5.28 and 5.49). These brackets are made from %-in.flat iron or steel FOOT in a modified L-shape, with a diagonal brace connecting the arm and leg. A base plate measuring 10in. long, 4 in. wide, and in.thick Figure 5.46. Scale drawing of Waters is attached to the bottom of the leg. A 1-in.- capstan. Drawing by Matt Russell. diameter tab projects through the plate, which

Figure 5.47. Partially buried capstan. Scale 1 foot. NPS photo by Brett Seymour.

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Various lengths of 1-in.-diameteriron or steel rod are scattered across the site. All are bent, and two exhibit particular attributes. One segment, 7%ft. long, has the rod curved around to form a symmetrical handle (Figure while the opposite end has a steel plate attached. The plate measures 6 in. x 10 in. x 1/16 in. and, on the opposite side of the attached rod, has a 1 in.-square nut welded to the plate as reinforcement. Its purpose is unknown but it appears to have been a long handle. The second piece was intentionally bent into a hook at one end and has an“eye” on the other endthrough which an “eye” from a second segment of rod is joined, giving both pieces an articulated connection. Its function is unknown but it could have served as a connecting rod of some kind. Numerous segments and fragments of iron pipe are scattered throughout the wreck. Lengths vary from a few inches up to 8 ft.; most are threaded. Diameters include in., 1 in., 012 1% in., 2 in., 2%in., 2% in., 3 in., 3%in. and 6 FEET in. Many examples of pipe tees, elbows and plugs are also scattered around the hull. Many pipes are corroded through their walls. Most were probably part of the main and auxiliary Figure 5.48. Scale drawing of life boat davit and support bracket showing their steam systems, and several are still attached to relative positions in securing a life boat. the globe valve described above. Drawing by Jim Bradford. Thirteen small iron or steel plates are located within the wreck, most concentrated in two clustersjust forward of the engine bed. Each allowed the bracket to swivel on the base plate. plate (Figure measures 3 ft. 2% in. long A similar tab is also present on the top of the x 11 in. wide x in. thick. Two holes bracket. The plates were secured to the vessel are present on each plate’s centerlinenear each with 3-in. lag bolts. Holes drilled through the end and were used to either fastentheplate arms arenot identicallyplaced in each piece but or lift it. The tops are patterned with uniform areprobably evidence of where wooden chocks squares raised from the plate’s surface, two were attached. These brackets were supports squares per inch. These provided traction on for the lifeboats (see Figure 3.6) when stowed. the plate’s surface. On the underside, each plate They were rigged so as to swing against the has eight cabin and out of the way when the lifeboats were tabs, four along each side. Thesetabs may have hoisted or lowered. served as small legsupon which the plates rested

138 YellowstoneNational Park Part Chapter 5

Figure 5.49. Davit (left) and support bracket (right) within C. Waters'wreckage. NPS photo by Brett Seymour.

Figure 5.50. Metal rod handle wedged between frames on the port side of the bilge. Scale = 1 foot. NPS photo by Brett Seymour. 139 Part 5 Yellowstone National Park

or, more likely, secured the plates from observed. One is a small cabinet door hinge, movement once installed. These plates were one is a brass keyhole plate, and the third is part probably flooring around the engine or boiler. of a door lock jamb. All would have been A single large iron or steel sheet is present located in E. Waters’pilothouse or cabins. forward of the engine bed (see Figure These are onlythe most noteworthy of the many although it is not secured in its original location. artifacts on the site. The sheet is 7 ft. 5%in. long, 2 wide and A variety of fasteners is located across the in. thick. It is notched on one end and three %- wreck. These range from small wire nails to in.-square holes are present along one end, each hull spikes and clinch pins. Many items with a 1-in.-long square nail in place. Two %- described abovewere fastenedto the vessel with in.-square holes arepresent along each side, with common nails, screws and bolts. Numerous an additional hole on one side, nails are present along the keelsons and appear while the fourth side has a crudely cut %-in.- to mark locations where blocks of wood diameter hole near the edge with a 1-in.- supports were, or are, located. These are diameter bent steel rod through it. Function is common nails varying in size from 2d to unknown, but it may have been a heat shield on Equipment bases, brackets and braces were top of the keelsons, below the boiler. fastened with 1-in.-square nails and various A single,uniquely shaped, iron or steel brace sized carriage bolts and lag screws. Smaller is also located within the wreckage (Figure wooden members and pairs were fastened 5.5 b). It is roughly V-shaped and twisted to with %-in. pins, while hull planking was accommodate whatever it secured with %-in. x fastened with %-in.-square spikes. The larger 4-in. carriage bolts. is very similarto the boat wooden elements of the vessel were fastened davit braces (Figure but is shaped to fit a with and 1-in.-diameter fasteners, some wooden board rather than a metal pole. Its threaded to receive nuts to secure metal association is unknown. components. Three examples of iron or steel strapping are present; one at the wreck’s stern (Figure ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION a second in shallow water about ft. south of the wreck’s bow, and the third on shore The Waters site is unique not only in about 200 ft. southeast of the All are at YELL, but to the entire National Park System. least 6 in. wide and in. thick, and partially No other high-altitudelake passenger steamer as buried in the sand. The one on shore is square large as Waters is known to exist in any in shape, the one near the stern is about 12 ft. other park waters. Smallerpassenger vessels still long and L-shaped, while the third is long with exist, in use and as archeological sites, in Glacier a one end curved into around. None are in their National Park (see Russell 1997) and possibly original location, and their functions are other mountain parks. By studying the unknown. Waters ’ site, archeologists have a unique Many small, portable artifacts are located opportunity to learn about tourist economy between E. Waters’frames, including two developmentin the world’s first national park. pieces of 1-in.-thick glass (Figure 5.53). Small After documentation of Waters,several sliversof windowpane glass were also noted on aspects of the material remains offer the the site, probably from the cabin windows. to studybehavior associated with the Three small pieces of hardware were also lake tourist trade. Analysis of Watersgives

140 Yellowstone National Park Part Chapter

I U a

. b 1 2 C FEET

Figure 5.51. and profile views of flat metal plate (a), brace (b) and boat davit brace (c). Drawing by Jim Bradford.

141 Part Chapter 5 Yellowstone National Park

Figure 5.52. Iron or steel strap near Waters stern. Scale = 1foot. NPS photo by Brett Seymour.

Figure 5.53. Thick glass fragments between frames. Scale 1 foot. NPS photo by Brett Seymour.

142 Yellowstone National Park Part Chapter 5

insight into such diverse topics as vernacular wreck. Typically, in coastal and Great Lake versus traditional ship construction techniques environments, if the engines and boilers are and maritime salvage activity. accessible enough to be salvaged, then other Hullconstructionismostly typical high-cost, reusable items such as the thrust hulled steamer construction. Scantlings, scarfs, bearing are also removed. This is the case on machinery, and general construction style is several sites documented in Lake Superior, for comparable to contemporary Great Lakes example the Monarch wreck at Isle Royale practices. odd stembearingarrangement National Park (Lenihan When the has corollariesin the Great Lakes. E. Wafers’ engine and boilers are inaccessible, such as on mixed-style of framing, however, is an anomaly; Isle Royale’s Glenlyon, then the thrust bearing no analogous examples were located in the is also left in place. On E. Wafers,however, historicalorarcheologicalliterature. Theobvious even though the engine and boilers were question, then, is why did the builders use this removed and the thrust bearing was easily Bythe it had accessible, it was not salvaged. This reflects been clearly demonstratedthat the the unique environment that in which the arm method provided greaterhull strength steamer operated. The engine and boiler were than the older framing style because it eliminated easily put to use: the boiler was butted keel. Yet Wafers’ used to heat the Lake Hotel, and although it is builders created an unusual hybrid of the two unknown where the engine was used, it could framing styles. A functional explanation can be easilyhave been used locally, for example, in a dismissed mixing framing styles is not a better lumber mill. The thrust bearing, on the other way to build a ship. So a cultural explanation hand, had no other use than on another screw needs to be addressed. It could indicate multiple steamer. In the Great Lakes or coastal locations, builders: one who directed the project during an object like a thrust bearing could easily be construction, and a different one involved sold for reuse. This was not the case in in bow and stem framing. Another possibility is Yellowstone. that the bow and stemtimbers were reused from Documentation of Wafersand other some other shipbuildmg project, and brought to sites in Yellowstone Lake give researchers a Yellowstone Lake prefabricated for use in tangible link to Yellowstone’s C. Waters. The unusual framing then, century tourist trade. Few maritime material mayreflect recycling and reuse behavior. The real remainsare left in thepark representing the new surprise, however, in spite of the framing hybrid, century’s burgeoning tourist economy, and severalof those, such as the West Thumb docks, is that the vessel is as well-constructed as it is. the Lake Hotel docks, the small boats off the Many small details, such as the keel and keelson Lake Hotel, and Waters,are submerged horizontal hook scarfs, indicate a seaworthyvessel YellowstoneLake. Analysis of these important constructedby competent shipbuilders. At 8,000 archeological remains provides insight into ft. above sea level in the Wyoming mountains, aspects of these commercial enterprises not more evidenceof expedience was expected, which recorded in the historical record. Baseline was not the case. documentation of archeological resources Salvage activity on E. C. Waterswas similar allows researchers to pose particular questions to typical salvage practice in the Great Lakes, relatingto Yellowstone Lake’s maritime history but differed in one notable way: although the and creates the opportunity to study a little- engineand boiler were recycled and reused,the documented facet of economic vessel’s thrust bearing was left in place on the development as a tourist destination. I 43 . Part Chapter 6 Yellowstone National Park

CHAPTER 6

Conclusions and Recommendations

The 1996 SCRU Yellowstone National Park and library. Other complementary regional Submerged Resources Survey expanded the records and thosein Aubrey Haines’ possession initial 1995 submerged site reconnaissance were not examined. However, researchers were requested by park management. In 1996, park ableto obtain sufficient information to describe staff prioritized particular areas in and around cultural resources located during fieldwork and Yellowstone Lake for SCRU to examine with evaluate their potential significance. remote sensing and direct observation to Some study produced negative evidence. determine how many and what kind of cultural For example, we did not locate the reported resources were present, their condition, and stagecoach parts near Pumice Point or what concerns for their protection and submerged features associated with the Little management shouldbe considered. The second Thumb Creek facilities. Limited material investigation accomplished variable evidence in some areas, such as the Lake Hotel documentation levels of these areas, and dock area and West Thumb Geyser Basin, variable results were obtained. For example, suggests a very efficient effort at removing archeological sites along the lakeshore were buildings, docks, etc. from those locales. photographically documented, small watercraft Additional archival research and oral history were locatedon the lake bottom and drawn, and collection with former and present park Watersand the West Thumb dock remains employeeswould likelyaugment thehistoryand were recorded to a high level of detail in observations presented in this report. photographs and measured drawings. Confirmation of the lake steamer The 1996 investigations were designed to fate is one of the most questions. Data accomplish a great deal of fieldwork in a very from the remote sensing survey suggest Zillah short time; consequently,park archival research is not on the lake bottom, at least in theprimary was necessarily limited. Investigatorswere not area identified by local lore. Additional able to completely tracemany of the intriguing historical research is necessary before leads located within park archives, photographs continuing a search for its remains. Little is

145 Yellowstone National Park Part Chapter 6

known about the lake vessel Jean and more diving public on Yellowstone Lake submerged research is required here, too. More is known cultural resources and in response to a diveclub about Waters, a vessel that may have never proposal to search for remains of Given carried a paying passenger on the lake. these concerns, and this study’s results, the The West Thumb Geyser Basin dock following management recommendations are remainsare unquestionably an archeological site suggested: that has significant association with park 1. Diving visitors are on the increase in most development, particularly regarding lake parks containing divable waters. The park transportation and tourism. These remains, one should present a higher park dive management of the earliest lake docks, represent a lakeshore profile to accommodategrowing diver interest, tourist destination second only to the Lake Hotel including the option of diving on submerged dock. The Lake Hotel docks present very little cultural resources in the lake, but cultural archeological evidence of its past. The West resource preservation must be stressed. Specific Thumb Geyser Basin dock remains should be interpretive devices including pamphlets, preserved and protected, and they may offer an brochures, permitting and exhibitshave proved interpretive potential for both land and diving useful in other areas. visitors. Documentation produced by SCRU 2. Park diversshould monitor the condition during these investigations should be useful to of small craft and other cultural features off the park management in forming any decisions Lake Hotel to assess diving visitor impact and required about the long-term development and general natural deterioration rates of these preservation of this resource. resources. Should diver impact be observed, Waters’ remains, along with the Lake diving these resources can be curtailed or boathouse, are the most obvious surviving redirected to other areas. cultural resources associated with Yellowstone 3. Monitoring the West Thumb dock Lake boating history. The wreckage is a remains for signs of deterioration from visitor destination for current lake boat tours, as well access should also be done, for the same as pleasure boaters and fishermen. Site reasons. documentation resulting from this study can 4. The E off Stevenson serve interpretive purposes and as a baseline Island should be both monitored and regularly against which evaluation of future impact can patrolled to determine and minimize visitor be measured. Interpretation and monitoring of impact to this important archeological site. this site is warranted. Documentation generated by this study can be used as baseline information for a monitoring RECOMMENDATIONS program. 5. The West Thumb dock remains, the steam Based on information and results presented launch examined in 1995 and the small boats in the preceding chapters, the following located in 1996 shouldbe officially recorded as management and research recommendations are archeological sites and given sitenumbers, like offered. Lake dock and C. Waters. In addition, the steam launch and smallboats should be recorded MANAGEMENT in detail. 6. Sites determined to be eligible should be This study was, in part, initiated by park nominated to the National Register of Historic management’s concern about effects of the Places. Although individual sites such as the 146 Part Chapter 6 Yellowstone National Park

historic dock remains and small boats may not Waters’ engine, which may still be extant. be eligible individually, nominating all the Comparative analyses among C. maritime archeological sites as district,thematic and other lake tour boats of the or possibly cultural landscape listings should northwestern United States are important to be considered. understanding the regional archeological Currently, there appears to be no need for significance of this poorly documented facet of restrictions for divers or boaters to these Western history. Historical research is also resources,but a systematic monitoring program important for interpretivepurposes. should be initiated and maintained to make 3. D also requires further informed management decisions should they research. Other than a few archival become necessary through loss of resource photographs, no informationwas found on this integrity. vessel, which had a lake history as long as Very little is known about this vessel, FUTURE RESEARCH which may also be in the lake. 4. A definitive history of the lake docks is This initial study of Yellowstone Lake important to Yellowstone Lake interpretation. submerged cultural resources revealed many Historical documents indicate several docks discrepancies in the current and historical were proposed, some were constructed and literature about the resources and pointed out expanded. However, very few material remains many areas where information about the attest to this aspect of lake history. resources is lacking. The following 5. Lake fisheries facilities should be recommendations address this issue. researched. As with the dock facilities, fisheries 1. Personnel conduct research on have an importantplace in lake history, but little history. There are many discrepancies is known about them. in the vessel’s early history, and its final 6. National Park Serviceremoval of earlier disposition needs to be confirmed. Zilluh, as lake facilities should be documented, including the lake’s first tourist steamer, is a primary fisheries, docks, marine railway, etc. Based on historical subject for the park, and more lack of archeological evidence observed in complete information is needed to accurately historically developed areas, NPS efforts were interpret this subject. An accurate history is apparently extremely effective. Records and important to decide whether to expend oral histories should be researched to complete additional resources to locate this site. this gap in lake history. 2. Like, Zilluh, Watersneeds further Much of the information discussed above historical research. Its construction by the canbe foundin various archives and collections. Pacific Launch Company in Tacoma is poorly Historical research conducted as part of this documented. An attempt should be made to report has indicated somerepositoriesthat may locate construction plans, which could clarify be productive: theYellowstone Park discrepancies between reported vessel archives at Mammoth; Aubrey personal dimensions and those observed on site. Another files located in Tucson, Arizona; the Haynes question is why was this vessel anchored off photographic collection at the Montana Stevenson Island unused for so many years after Historical Society; Museum of the Rockies its was removed from the park archives;the Northern Pacific Railroad archives and his assets sold to Billy Hofer? Historical atthe Minnesota History Center in Paul; and research may reveal the final disposition of perhaps the Pacific Launch Company archives 147 . Yellowstone National Park Part Chapter 6

in Tacoma, Washington. Other leads should be resources, particularly those along its shores; sought to acquire additional information on human history associated with the lake; and, these issues. particularly, a history of exploration, 7. One research domain that may prove exploitation and tourism of this unique lake r particularly fruitfulregarding aboriginal sitesis resource within a park full of unique resources. how Yellowstone Lake sites and life ways were It provides results of investigations in areas affected by changing lake levels and the length around the lake, provides documentation of of human occupation around the lake. cultural resources encountered,compiles some This report provides background of the history of those resources, and provides information relating to the creation and recommendations for future studies, evolution of Yellowstone Lake; its plant and management, protection and preservation of animal communities; associated natural those cultural resources.

148 References YellowstoneNational Park

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Allen, E. T. and A. L. Day National Park to the Secretary of the 1935 Hot Springs of the Yellowstone Interior. US Government Printing National Park. Carnegie Institution Office, Washington, D.C. of Washington Publication No. 466. Waverly Press, Baltimore. 1896 Annual Report of the Acting Superintendent of the Yellowstone American Shipmasters’ Association National Park to the Secretary of the 1879 Rules for the Constructionof Wooden Interior. US Government Printing Vessels. In Record and Office, Washington, D.C. Foreign Shipping, New York. Anonvmous Anderson, G. S. 1916 Annual Report for Yellowstone 1891 Annual Report of the Superintendent National Park. Ms. on file at of the Yellowstone National Park to Yellowstone National Park archives, the Secretary of the Interior. US Yellowstone. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 1917 Annual Report for Yellowstone National Park. Ms. on file at 1892 Annual Report of the Superintendent Yellowstone National Park archives, of the Yellowstone National Park to Yellowstone. the Secretary of the Interior. US Government Printing Office, 1918 Annual Report for Yellowstone Washington, D.C. National Park. Ms. on file at Yellowstone National Park archives, 1893 Annual Report of the Superintendent Yellowstone. of the Yellowstone National Park to the Secretary of the Interior. US 1976 Boats on Yellowstone Lake. Government Printing Office, CommentaryNewsletter,Yellowstone Washington, D.C. Park Company, Vol. 4, No. 3 (August). 1894 Annual Report of the Acting Superintendent of the Yellowstone 1995 E. C. Waters. Commentary Newsletter, National Park to the Secretary of the Yellowstone Park Company, Vol. 10, Interior. US Government Printing No. 4 (June). Office, Washington, D.C. Bartlett, R. A. 1895 Annual Report of the Acting 1989 Yellowstone:A Wilderness Besieged. Superintendent of the Yellowstone University of Arizona Press, Tucson.

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Baumann, S. 1991 Site Testing Along the North Shoreof 1984 Ground Disturbanceand Construction Yellowstone Lake, Yellowstone Monitoring at site Fishing National Park, Wyoming. onfile, Lake Junction. on file, National National Park Service, Midwest Park Service, Midwest Archeological Archeological Center, Lincoln. Center, Lincoln. 1992 Limited Testing at Sites and Boyd, F. within the Proposed East 1957 The Geology of the Yellowstone Entrance Road Corridor. on file, Rhyolite Plateau. dissertation. National Park Service, Midwest Narvard University, Cambridge. Archeological Center, Lincoln.

Brett, L. M. 1993 A Preliminary Appraisal of 1912 Annual Report of the Acting Archeological Resources Along Superintendent of the Yellowstone Yellowstone Lake, Yellowstone National Park to the Secretary of the National Park, Wyoming. Ms. on file, Interior. US Government Printing National Park Service, Midwest Office, Washington, D.C. Archeological Center, Lincoln.

1913 Annual Report of the Acting 1995 Archeological Inventory and Testing Superintendent of the Yellowstone of Selected Areas for Campground National Park to the Secretary of the Relocation, HUDAT and Lake YPSS Interior. US Government Printing Service StationDevelopment Projects, Office, Washington, D.C. Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming. National Park Service, Midwest 1914 Annual Report of the Acting Archeological Center, Technical Superintendent of the Yellowstone Report No. 34, Lincoln. National Park to the Secretary of the Interior. US Government Printing Cannon, K. P. and P. Phillips Office, Washington, D.C. 1993 Post-Fire Inventory and Evaluation in Yellowstone National Park, 1915 Annual Report of the Acting Wyoming: The 1989 Field Season. Superintendent of the Yellowstone National Park Service, Midwest National Park to the Secretary of the Archeological Center, Technical Interior. US Government Printing Report No. 24, Lincoln. Office, Washington, D.C. Chittenden, H. M. Cannon, K. P. 1924 The Yellowstone National Park: 1990 Report of an Archeological Survey of Historical and Descriptive. the East Entrance Highway, Haynes, Saint Paul. Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming. on file,National Park Christensen, R. Service, Midwest Archeological 1984 Yellowstone Magmatic Evolution: Center, Lincoln. Its Bearing on Understanding

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volume Explosive Volcanism. In Park and Its Relation to National Explosive Volcanism, Inception, Park Policies. NationalPark Service, Evolution, and Hazards, National US Government Printing Office, Academy Press, Studies in Washington, D.C. Geophysics, pp. 84-95. Washington, D.C. Curtis, W. H. The Elements of Wood Ship D. A. Construction. London. “The Place Where Hell Bubbled A History of the First National Park. Daron, S. E. National Park Service Office of Archeological Investigations in the Publications,US Government Printing Bridge Bay Area in Association with Office, Washington, D.C. US West Cable Replacement. Rocky Mountain Region, Archeological D. Project Report, August 4, 1992. Ms. 1948 American Indian Burial Giving on file, National Park Service, Evidence of Antiquity Discovered in Midwest Archeological Center, Yellowstone National Park. Lincoln. Yellowstone Nature Notes Yellowstone National Park, Archeological Investigation along the Wyoming. Reprinted in Plains Power Line Corridor from Lake to Archeological Conference News Bridge Bay in Association with US Letter West Cable Replacement. Rocky Mountain Region, Archeological M. A. Project Report, August 25,1992. Ms. 1994 Archeological Inventory of Lake on file, National Park Service, Butte Overlook Road, Yellowstone Midwest Archeological Center, National Park, Rocky Mountain Lincoln. Region Archeological Project Report, March 9, 1994. Ms. on file, National Archeological Investigations in the Park Service, Midwest Archeological Lake Development Area in Center, Lincoln. Association with US West Cable Replacement. Rocky Mountain Cooper, D. J., M. A. B. A. Rodgers, RegionArcheological Project Report, G T. Smith and G P. Watts, Jr. September 23, 1992. Ms. on file, 1991 By Fire, Storm, and Ice: Underwater National Park Service, Midwest Investigations in the Apostle Islands. Archeological Center, Lincoln. Underwater Archeology Program, Division of History Preservation, Archeological Investigations at the StateHistorical Society of Wisconsin, Lake Post Office Dump Site in Madison. Association with US West Cable Replacement. Rocky Mountain L. C. Region, Archeological Project Report, 1932 Early History of YellowstoneNational September 28, 1992. Ms. on file,

151 Yellowstone National Park References

National Park Service, Midwest Dominick, D. Archeological Center, Lincoln. 1964 The Sheepeater. Annals of Wyoming

Archeological Investigations in the Grant Village Area in Association Edsall, T. A., T. P. Poe, R. T. Nester and C. with US West Cable Replacement. L. Brown Rocky Mountain Region, 1989 Side-Scan Sonar Mapping of Lake Archeological Project Report, June Trout Spawning Habitat in Northern 24, 1992. Ms. on file, National Park Lake Michigan. North American Service, Midwest Archeological Journal of Fisheries Management Center, Lincoln.

1995 Archeological Investigations and Edsall, T., C. L. Brown, G. W. Kennedy Testing for Montana Power Near and T. P. Poe Lake Junction, Yellowstone National 1992 Lake Trout Spawning Habitat in the Park. Rocky Mountain Region Six Fathom Bank-Yankee Reef Lake ArcheologicalProjectReport,January Trout Sanctuary, Lake Huron. Journal 1995. on file, National Park of Great Lakes Research Service, Midwest Archeological 90. Center, Lincoln. Edsall, T., C. L. Brown, G. W. Kennedy Deaver, S. and J. R. P. French 1993 Cultural Resource Monitoring of the 1992 Substrates and Bathymetry Yellowstone National Park 50 kv of Five Historical Lake Trout Transmission Line. Montana Power Spawning Reefs in Near-Shore Waters Company, Butte. on file, of the Great Lakes. Great Lakes National Park Service, Midwest Fishery CommissionTechnical Report Archeological Center, Lincoln. 58. Ann Arbor.

Desmond, C. Edsall, T. A., M. E. Holey, B. A. Manny 1984 Wooden Ship-Building. Rudder and G. W. Kennedy Publishing Co., New York. 1984 1995 An Evaluation of Lake Trout facsimile ed. Vestal P r e s , Reproductive Habitat on Clay Banks Lanham, Maryland. Reef, Northwestern Lake Michigan. Journal of Great Lakes Research 21 Dittl, B. and J. (Supplement 1987 Plain to Fancy: The Story of the Lake Hotel. Roberts Rinehart, Boulder. Edsall, T., W. Kennedy and W. H. Horns Doane, G. C. 1996 Potential Spawning Habitat for Lake 1877 Expedition G.C. Doane, TroutonJulian’sReef, Michigan. 77. Ms. on file,Yellowstone National Journal of Great Lakes Research Park, archives, Yellowstone.

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Estep, H. C. Hague, A. 8 How Wooden Ships are Built. W. W. 1899 Geology of the Yellowstone National Norton, New York. Park. Part US Government Printing Office, Gardiner, (editor) Washington, D.C. 1993 The Advent The Merchant Steamship Before 1900. Conway 1904 Atlas to Accompany Monograph Maritime Press, London. on the Geology of the Yellowstone National Park. US 1994 The Golden of Shipping: The Government Printing Office, Classic Merchant Ship 1900-1960. Conway Maritime Press, London. Washington, D.C.

Good, J. M. and K. L. Pierce Haines, A. L. 1996 Interpretingthe Landscapes of Grand The Yellowstone Story: A History of Teton YellowstoneNational Our First National Park, Volume Recent and Ongoing Geology. Grand The Yellowstone Association Teton Natural History Association, for Natural Science, History Moose, Wyoming. Education, in association with University Press of Colorado. W. 1900 Annual Report of the Acting The Yellowstone Story: A History of Superintendent of the Yellowstone Our First National Park, Volume National Park to the Secretary of the Two. The Yellowstone Association Interior. US Government Printing for Natural Science, History Office, Washington, D.C. Education, in association with Great Lakes Register University Press of Colorado. 1908 Rules and Regulations for the Classification and Building of Metal Harris, M. and Wooden Vessels. Press, 1889 Annual Report of the Superintendent R. R. Connelley Sons, Chicago. of the Yellowstone National Park to the Secretary of the Interior. US Greenhill,B. Government Printing Office, 1988 The Evolution of the Wooden Ship. Washington, D.C. Facts On File. New York. F. V. Gunnerson, J. H. and D. A. Gunnerson 1872 Preliminary Report of the US 1971 Apachean Culture: A Study in Utility Geological Survey of Montana and and Diversity. In Apachean Culture History and Ethnology, edited by K. Portions of Adjacent H. Basso and M. E. Opler, pp. 7-27. Being a Fifth Annual Report of University Anthropological Progress. US Government Printing Papers 21, Tucson. Office, Washington, D.C.

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1873 Sixth Annual Report of the United Johnson, A. M. States Geological Survey of the 1986 Five Small Scale Inventories in Territories for the Year 1872. US Yellowstone National Park. Rocky Government Printing Office, Mountain Region Archeological Washington, D.C. Project Report, December 17, 1986. on file, National Park Service, 1883 Twelfth Annual Report of the United Midwest Archeological Center, States Geological and Geographical Lincoln. Surveyofthe Territories: A Report of Progress for the Year 1878, two parts. 1989 Archeological Inventories for New Part Yellowstone National Park. Housing at Lower Mammoth and Geology-Thermal Grant Village. Rocky Mountain Topography. US Government Printing Region Archeological Project Report, Office, Washington, D.C. June 27, 1989. on file, National Park Service, Midwest Archeological Haynes, J. E. Center. Lincoln. 1946 Haynes Guide: Handbook of Yellowstone National Park. 48th ed. Johnson, A. M. and K. A. Lippencott Haynes, Yellowstone Park and 1989 1988 Post-Fire Archeological Assessment, Yellowstone National Park. on file, National Park Helena Herald Service, Midwest Archeological 1870 November 9. Center, Lincoln.

Hirschmann, F. Johnson, D. E., A. D. Gardner and K. W. 1982 Yellowstone. Graphic Arts Center, Thompson Portland, Oregon. 1993 Assessment of Abandoned Mine Lands in Yellowstone National Park. Hodge, F. W. Rocky Mountain Region 1910 Archeological Project Report, SmithsonianInstitution,Bureau November 11, 1993. on file, of American Ethnology Bulletin 30, National Park Service, Midwest Washington,D.C. Archeological Center, Lincoln.

Hultkrantz, Kerchove, R. de 1961 Shoshones in the Rocky Mountains. 1961 International Maritime Dictionary. Annals of Wyoming ed. Van Reinhold,New York. Hunt, W. J., Jr. 1989 Trip Report, Yellowstone National Lenihan, D. J. Park, June 13 to June 22, 1989. Submerged Cultural Resources on file, National Park Service, Reconnaissance Report, Yellowstone Midwest Archeological Center, National Park 1995. on file, Lincoln. National Park Service, Submerged

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Cultural Resources Unit, Murphy, L. E. (editor) Intermountain Cultural Resources 1984 Submerged Cultural Resources Center, Santa Fe. Survey: Portions of Point Reyes National Seashore and Point Reyes- Trip Report Covering Activities of Islands National Marine SCRU at Yellowstone, August 9-17, Sanctuary, Phase I - Reconnaissance 1995. On file, National Park Service, Survey. Southwest Cultural Resources Submerged Cultural Resources Center Professional Papers No. 1. Center, Santa Fe. National Park Service, Santa Fe.

1996 Field Notes. On file, National Park Murphy, L. E. Service, Submerged Cultural Shipwrecks, Satellites, and Resources Unit, Santa Fe. Computers:An UnderwaterInventory of Our National Parks. Common Lenihan, D. J. (editor) Ground 1. 1987 Submerged Cultural ResourcesStudy: Isle Royale National Park. National 1997b Geographical Information System Park Service, Southwest Cultural (GIS). In Encyclopaedia of Resources Center Professional Papers Underwater and Maritime No. 8. Santa Fe. Archaeology, edited by James P. Delgado, pp. British Livingston Enterprise Museum Press, London. 1885 August 22. Murphy, L. E., T. Leary and A. Williamson Lyon, F. and A. W. Hinds 1995 Standardizing Seabed Classification 1915 Marine and Naval Boilers. United Techniques. Sea Technology States Naval Institute, Annapolis.

Manny, B. A. and T. A. Murphy, L. E. and T. G. Smith 1989 Assessment of Lake Trout spawning 1995 Submerged in the Past: Mapping the Habitat Quality in Central Lake Beguiling Waters of Florida’s Huron by Submarine. Journal of Biscayne and Dry National Great Lakes Research 173. Parks. Geo Info Systems 33. W. A. and A. H. Lewis 1953 Encyclopedia Knowledge. Murphy, L. E. and A. Maritime Press, Cambridge. 1990 Consideration of Remote Sensing Limitations to Submerged Historical Mooney, J. Site Survey. In Underwater 1979 Calendar History of the Kiowa Archaeology Proceedings the Indians. University Conference, edited by Toni L. Press, Washington, D.C. pp. 93-95. Tucson.

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National Park Service National Park to the Secretary of the 1996 Project Scope and Project Design, Interior. US Government Printing Yellowstone National Park. On file, Office, Washington, D.C. June 24,1996,National Park Service, Submerged Resources Unit, Santa Fe. Suoerintendent of the Yellowstone National Park to the Secretary of the Norris, P. W. Interior. US Government Printing 1880 Annual Report of the Superintendent Office, Washington, D.C. of the Yellowstone National Park to the Secretary of the Interior. US Reeve, S. A. Government Printing Office, 1989 Prehistoric Settlements at the Washington, D.C. Yellowstone Lake Outlet, Paasch, H. Yellowstone National Park, 1997 Paasch Illustrated Marine Wyoming. anfile, National Park Dictionary. By the author as From Service, Midwest Archeological Keel to Truck, Center, Lincoln. 1997facsimile ed. Maritime Press, Lyons Buford Publishers, Russell, M. A. New York. 1997 Glacier National Park, Submerged Cultural Resources Assessment. Perry, R. J. National Park Service, Santa Fe. 1980 The Apachean Transition from the Subarctic to the Southwest. Plains Samuelson, A. E. Anthropologist 198 Archaeological Investigations in the Grant Village-West Thumb Area of Pierce, K. L. YellowstoneNational Park, Wyoming. 1979 History and Dynamics of Glaciation Unpublished Master’s thesis, State in Yellowstone National University of New York, Albany. Park Area. Geological Survey Professional Paper 729-F. US Shope, S. M., L. E. Murphy and T. G. Government Printing Office, Smith Washington, D.C. 1995 Found at Sea: Charting Florida’s Sunken Treasures. GPS World Pitcher, J. 1901 Annual Report of the Acting Superintendent of the Yellowstone Smith, T. G. National Park to the of the 1997 Geodesy. In Encyclopaedia of Interior. US Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. Underwater and Maritime Archaeology, edited by James 1902 Annual Report of the Acting Delgado, 166. British Museum Superintendent of the Yellowstone Press, London.

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Taylor, D. C., K. Wood and J. Hoffman Wilson, T. D. 1964 Preliminary Archaeological 1873 An Outline of Ship Building, Investigations in Yellowstone Theoretical and Practical. National Park. on file, National Wiley and Son, New York. Park Service, Midwest Archeological Center, Lincoln. Wright, G. A. 1978 The Shoshonean Migration Problem. Taylor, R. L., J. M. Ashley, W. W. Locke, Plains Anthropologist W. L. Hamilton and J. B. Erickson 1989 Geological Map of Yellowstone Wright, G. A., R and T. Keonig Earth National Park. Department of 1982 A Native American Burial Sciences, Montana State University, Fishing Bridge Peninsula, Bozeman. Park. Wyoming Archaeologist, pp. 2-26. Freeman 1951 The Natural Parks. Alfred A. Yeo, J. New York. 1894 Steam and the Marine Steam-Engine. London. Topping, E. S. 1968 The Chronicles of the Yellowstone. Ross and Haines, Minneapolis. Young, S. B. M. 1897 Annual Report of the Acting Whittlesey,L. H. Superintendent of the Yellowstone 1988 Yellowstone Place Names. Montana National Park to the Secretary of the Historical Society Press, Helena. Interior. US Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. Williams, L. and G. A. Wright 1980 Preliminary Archeological Survey of 1907 Annual Report of the Superintendent the East Shore of Yellowstone Lake. of the Yellowstone National Park to Ms. on file, Department of the Secretary of the Interior. US State University of Government Printing Office, New York, Albany. Washington, D.C.

157 SUBMERGED RESOURCES CENTER REPORT AND PUBLICATION SERIES

The Submerged Cultural Resources Unit was search would most likely be apartof the Phase established in 1980 to conduct research on I report but, in some cases, may be postponed submerged cultural resources throughout the until Phase National Park System with an emphasis on Phase I -Reconnaissance of target areas historic shipwrecks. One of the unit’s primary with remote sensing and visual survey responsibilities is to disseminate the results of techniques to establish location of any research to National Park Servicemanagers, as archeological sites or anomalous features that well as the professional A report maysuggestthe presence ofarcheological sites. series has been initiated in order to fulfill this Phase - Evaluation of archeological responsibility. It has been incorporated into an sites or anomalous features derived from umbrella series entitled Southwest Cultural remote-sensing instruments to confirm their Resources Center and Intermountain Cultural nature, and if possible, their significance. This Resource Centers Professional Papers. The may involve exploratory removal of overburden. following are the categories: SUBMERGEDCULTURAL SUBMERGED CULTURAL RESOURCES STUDY RESOURCES ASSESSMENT A document that discusses, in detail, all known First line document that consists of a brief underwater archeological sites in a given park. literature search, an overview of the maritime This may involvetest excavations. Theintended history and the known or potential underwater audience is managerial and professional, not the sites in the park, and preliminary general public. recommendations for long-term management. It is designed to have immediate application to SUBMERGEDCULTURAL protection and interpretation needs and to become RESOURCES SITE REPORT a source document for a Submerged Cultural Resources Management Plan. Exhaustive documentationof one archeological site which may involve a partial or complete SUBMERGED CULTURAL site excavation. The intended audience is RESOURCES SURVEY primarily professional and incidentally managerial. Although the document may be Comprehensive examination of blocks of park to apark’s interpretive specialists because lands for the purpose of locatingand identifying of its information content, itwould probably not as much of the submerged cultural resources be suitable for general distribution to park base as possible. A comprehensive literature visitors.

159 SUBMERGED CULTURAL 5. Daniel J. Lenihan, Editor. Submerged RESOURCES SPECIAL REPORT CulturalResources Study: Isle Royale National Park, Submerged Cultural Resources Unit, These may be in published or photocopy 1987. Originally published as Southwest format. Included are special commentaries, Cultural Resources Center Professional Papers papers on methodological or technical issues #8. pertinent to underwater archeology, or any miscellaneousreportthatdoesnotappropriately Toni Carrell, Editor. Submerged Cultural fit into one of the other categories. Resources Site Report: Charles Spencer Mining Operation and Paddle Wheel SUBMERGED RESOURCES Steamboat, Glen Canyon National Recreation CENTER Area. Submerged Cultural Resources Unit, PROFESSIONAL REPORTS 1987. Originally published as Southwest Cultural Resources Center Professional Papers 1. Daniel J. Lenihan, Toni L. Carrell, Stephen Fosberg,Larry Murphy, SandraL. and John A. Ware. Final Report of the National 7. James Delgado and Stephen A. reservoir Inundation Study. Two volumes. Submerged Cultural Resources Assessment: Submerged Cultural Resources Unit, 1981. Golden Gate National Recreation Area, the National Marine Sanctuary and 2. Larry E. Murphy, Editor. Submerged Point Reyes National Seashore. Submerged Cultural Resources Survey: Portions of Point Cultural Resources Unit, 1989. Originally Reyes National Seashore and Point Reyes- published as Southwest Cultural Resources Islands National Marine Sanctuary. Center Professional Papers Submerged Cultural Resources Unit, 1984. Originally published as Southwest Cultural 8. C. Patrick Labadie. Submerged Cultural Resources Center Professional Papers Resources Study: Pictured Rocks National Lakeshore. Submerged Cultural Resources 3. Toni Carrell. Submerged CulturalResources Unit, 1989. Originally published as Southwest Inventory: Portions of Point Reyes National Cultural Resources Center Professional Papers Seashore and Point Reyes-Farallon Islands National Marine Sanctuary. Submerged Cultural Resources Unit, 1984. Originally 9. Daniel J. Lenihan, Editor. Submerged published as Southwest Cultural Resources Cultural Resources Study: USS Arizona Center Professional Papers #2. Memorial and Pearl Harbor National Landmark. Submerged Cultural Resources 4. Toni Carrell. Submerged Cultural Resources Unit, 1989. Originally published as Southwest Site Report: Apostle Islands Cultural Resources Center Professional Papers National Lakeshore. Submerged Cultural Resources Unit, 1985. Originally published as Southwest Cultural Resources Center 10. Toni L. Carrell,Editor. Professional Papers #7. Resources Assessment of Micronesia.

160 Submerged Cultural Resources Unit, 1991. 1993. Originally published as Southwest Originally published as Southwest Cultural Cultural Resources Center Professional Papers Resources Center Professional Papers

James Delgado, Daniel J. Lenihan and 14. Don Morris. Channel Islands National Murphy. The Archeology Atomic Park and Channel Islands National Marine Bomb: A Submerged Cultural Resources Sanctuary, Submerged Cultural Resources Assessment of the Sunken Fleet of Operation Assessment. Submerged Cultural Resources Crossroads at Bikini and Kwajalein Atoll Unit, 1996. Originally published as Lagoons, Republic the Marshall Islands. Intermountain Cultural Resource Centers Submerged Cultural Resources Unit, 1991. Professional Papers Originally published as Southwest Cultural Resources Center Professional Papers Larry E. Murphy, Editor. H.L. Site Assessment. Submerged Cultural 12. E. Murphy. Natural Resources Unit, 1998.Originallypublished as Formation Processes of a Multiple-Component Cultural Resources Management Professional Underwater Site in Florida. Submerged Papers Cultural Resources Unit, 1990. Originally published as Southwest Cultural Resources 16. James E. Bradford, Matthew A. Russell, Center Professional Papers Larry E. Murphy and Timothy G. Smith. Yellowstone National Park Submerged 13. Larry Murphy, Editor. Dry Resources Survey. Submerged Resources National Park, Submerged Cultural Resources Center, ResourcesManagement Assessment. Submerged Cultural Resources, Professional Papers

161 Mission: As the Nation's principal conservation agency, the Department of the Interior has responsibility for most of our nationally-owned public lands and natural and cultural resources. This includes fostering wise use of our land and water resources, protecting our fish and wildlife, preserving the environmental and cultural values of our national parks and historical places, and providing for the enjoyment of life through outdoor recreation. The Department assesses our energy and mineral resources and work to assure that their development is in the best interests of all our people. The Department also promotes the goals of the Take Pride in America campaign by encouraging stewardship and citizen responsibility for the public lands and promoting citizen participation in their care. The Department also has a major responsibility for American Indian reservation communities and for people who live in Island Territories under US Administration.

162