A Submerged Prehistoric Human Occupation Site in Apalachee Bay, Florida Brian S

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2006 Site Formation Processes and Activity Areas at Ontolo (8JE1577): A Submerged Prehistoric Human Occupation Site in Apalachee Bay, Florida Brian S. Marks

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THE FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES

SITE FORMATION PROCESSES AND ACTIVITY AREAS AT ONTOLO (8JE1577): A

SUBMERGED PREHISTORIC HUMAN OCCUPATION SITE IN APALACHEE BAY,

FLORIDA

BRIAN S. MARKS

A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Anthropology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Awarded: Spring Semester, 2006

The members of the Committee approve the dissertation of Brian S. Marks defended on March 1, 2006

______Rochelle Marrinan Professor Directing Dissertation

______Joseph Donoghue Outside Committee Member

______Glen Doran Committee Member

______William Parkinson Committee Member

Approved:

______Dean Falk, Chair, Department of Anthropology

The Office of Graduate Studies has verified and approved the above named committee members.

This dissertation is dedicated to my grandfather, Stanley L. Marks (1907-2005) and my grandmother Alice M. Haugsted (1929-2006).

iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank my wife, Nancy, and my parents Terry and Steve Mendenhall and Leonard Marks for their continued emotional and moral support during this four-year endeavor. I would also like to thank Dr. Rochelle Marrinan for her help in making this dissertation a quality document. Thanks go the rest of my dissertation committee, Drs. Glen Doran, William Parkinson, and Joseph Donoghue for their suggestions on how to further refine this dissertation. An honorable mention goes to Dr. Michael Faught who made sure I became a scholar and helped guide me through the initial stages of the dissertation. To my darling sister Amy, who was inadvertently left out of the acknowledgments in my thesis, here is your own private sentence of thanks. To the rest of my family, Josh, Becky, Roz, Gert, Regina, Stanley, and Alice, thank you for your continued encouragement. I would like to give photo credit to Norma Garcia-Huerta for the majority of the underwater photos, used in this dissertation. I would like to thank all of my good friends, Fred, CJ, Bob, Andy, Lori, and Nancy who kept me pointed in the right direction and kept telling me that there is light at the end of the tunnel. Lastly I would like to acknowledge everybody who assisted me in my research at the site through underwater work(Rachel Horlings, Ron Grayson, Amy Gusick, Meredith Marten, Pete Kriz, Ana Bakare, Norma Garcia-Huerta, Camila Tobon, Melanie Damour-Horrell, Masahiro Kamiya, Bert Ho, Dr. Cheryl Ward, Burak Arcan, Doug Lewis, Lori Jacobs, Carrie Bell, Dr. Roger Smith,and Dr. Della Scott-Ireton. Funding came from the Florida Division of Historical Resources (Special Category Grant) and National Science Foundation. Surface support involved Joe Latvis, Guy Hepp, Captain Steve Wilson. Laboratory assistance was provided by Joan Gardner-Day, as well as Academic Diving Program, Department of Anthropology, Edward Ball Marine Laboratory, Current Meter Research Facility, Center for Oceanographic and Atmospheric Prediction Studies, Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Institute, all at Florida State University, and the Florida Geological Survey and Florida Bureau of Archaeological Research.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of Tables ...... vii List of Figures...... ix Abstract...... xiii

1. INTRODUCTION ...... 1

Southeastern Paleoindian and Archaic Culture ...... 4 Submerged Prehistoric Sites...... 4

2. ARCHAEOLOGICAL BACKGROUND ...... 10

Diagnostic Tools...... 10 Populating the New World ...... 12 Paleoindians in Florida ...... 14 Underwater Archaeology...... 19 Trends in Lithic Assemblages ...... 23 Conclusion...... 26

3. GEOLOGICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS...... 27

Karst Geology...... 27 Florida Rivers ...... 29 Sea-level rise ...... 32 Sediments ...... 37 Palynology...... 38 Faunal Remains ...... 41 Staining Characteristics ...... 44 Conclusion...... 52

4. FIELD RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ...... 53

Surveying...... 54 Technology Used in Underwater Archaeology ...... 55 Locational Control...... 56 Methodology for Locating Submerged Sites...... 57 Previous Research in Apalachee Bay ...... 58 Research at Ontolo ...... 61 Conclusion...... 68

v 5. GEOARCHAEOLOGICAL AND SITE FORMATION PROCESSES...... 69

Temporal Considerations...... 69 Cultural Considerations ...... 71 Sea Level Effects on Underwater Sites ...... 73 Bioturbation...... 77 Anthropogenic Considerations ...... 79 Oceanographic Considerations...... 79 Conclusion...... 91

6. ARTIFACT ANALYSIS ...... 92

Debitage Typology ...... 93 Marine Growth ...... 96 Cortex Coverage...... 97 Faunal Analysis ...... 99 Conservation...... 101 Conclusion...... 103

7. ACTIVITY AREAS...... 104

Extraction and Maintenance Sites ...... 105 A Mathematical Index ...... 107 ISFI for Intra-site Analysis...... 107 Determining Activity Areas...... 112 Conclusion...... 113

8. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE CONSIDERATIONS...... 114

Future Research at Ontolo ...... 116 Future Research in Apalachee Bay...... 117 Final Thoughts...... 118

APPENDIX A...... 119

APPENDIX B ...... 124

APPENDIX C ...... 177

APPENDIX D...... 184

APPENDIX E ...... 190

REFERENCES CITED...... 199

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH ...... 216

LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1: Projectile points/diagnostic artifacts recovered at Ontolo. Dates from Bullen (1975), Justice (1987), Schroeder (2002)...... 12

Table 3.1: Staining characteristics for Ontolo artifacts...... 45

Table 3.2: Description of staining categories, percent coverage, and value...... 46

Table 3.3: Staining characteristics of Ontolo artifacts using updated method...... 46

Table 3.4: Munsell color characterization before and after immersion in oxalic acid...... 50

Table 4.1: Weight (g) and dimensions (mm) for artifacts placed at Ontolo to study storm effects...... 68

Table 4.2: Location of each group of modern lithics...... 68

Table 5.1: The numbers of tropical storms and hurricanes to pass near Ontolo...... 81

Table 5.2: Items used in flume experiment, their dimensions (units in mm), and distance moved (units in cm) during the four “dropping artifact trial”. Note: CSF refers to Corey Shape Factor described below...... 84

Table 5.3: Modern lithics placed at Ontolo to determine movement during storm events (dimensions and distance in cm)...... 86

Table 6.1: Distribution of artifacts and organic remains recovered from Ontolo for each year and for each collection strategy...... 92

Table 6.2: Debitage typology at Ontolo...... 95

Table 6.3: Marine growth coverage on artifacts from different collection strategies...... 96

Table 6.4: Percent of cortex coverage for the entire artifact...... 97

Table 6.5: Percent of cortex coverage for the dorsal surface of the artifact...... 98

vii Table 6.6: Cortex coverage by debitage type...... 99

Table 6.7: Dorsal cortex coverage by debitage type...... 99

Table 6.8: Desalination progression for faux artifacts...... 102

Table 7.1: Artifact mass statistics...... 106

Table A.1: Hurricanes that passed near Ontolo (1851-2005)...... 120

Table B.1: Analysis of all items collected at Ontolo...... 125

viii

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1: Ontolo and J&J Hunt (map shows edge of Florida’s continental shelf)...... 2

Figure 2.1: Projectile points/diagnostic artifacts recovered from Ontolo 2001-2004. Table 2.1 below lists the identification for each item (left to right, top to bottom)...... 11

Figure 2.2: Geohydraulic regions in Florida (from Dunbar 1991:189)...... 18

Figure 2.3: Location of selected early and inundated submerged sites in Florida...... 22

Figure 3.1: Lakes suitable for pollen studies in the Southeast (Watts et al. 1992:1057)...... 39

Figure 3.2: Pollen diagram from uppermost 1 m of sediment from Camel Lake. The shaded exaggeration is 5X (from Watts et al. 1992:1060)...... 40

Figure 3.3: Artifacts put into the scanning electron microscope for elemental analysis...... 49

Figure 3.4: Broken artifact put into scanning electron microscope for elemental analysis of the interior and exterior surfaces...... 49

Figure 3.5: Artifacts before immersion in oxalic acid (obverse)...... 51

Figure 3.6: Artifacts before immersion in oxalic acid (reverse)...... 51

Figure 3.7: Artifacts after immersion in oxalic acid (obverse)...... 51

Figure 3.8: Artifacts after immersion in oxalic acid (obverse)...... 51

Figure 4.1: Marine Sonic Technology side-scan sonar towfish. (Photo by Norma Garcia.)...... 56

Figure 4.2: Benthos Chirp II sub-bottom towfish. (Photo by Norma Garcia.) ...... 56

Figure 4.3: Map of archaeological locations within Apalachee Bay (Marks 2002)...... 59

Figure 4.4: Ontolo’s datum of concrete blocks (Photo by Norma Garcia)...... 63

Figure 4.5: Side-scan sonar tracklines of Ontolo on July 16, 2002...... 64

ix Figure 4.6: Side-scan sonar tracklines of Ontolo on July 17, 2002 ...... 64

Figure 4.7: Divers hand-fanning a collection unit. (Photo by Norma Garcia.) ...... 65

Figure 4.8: Side-scan and sub-bottom tracklines of Ontolo on July 15, 2003...... 65

Figure 4.9: Wooden base of BSCM deployed at Ontolo...... 66

Figure 5.1: Some of the sea-life observed at Ontolo, from top left: hermit crab, starfish, goby (burrowing fish), bat ray, urchin (with projectile point on its spines), a conch, a snail, and a queen conch. (Photos by Norma Garcia.) ...... 78

Figure 5.2: Hjulström Diagram (modified from Press and Siever 1986)...... 80

Figure 5.3: Number of tropical storms near Ontolo per five-year period 1851-2005...... 82

Figure 5.4: Number of hurricanes near Ontolo per five-year period 1851-2005...... 83

Figure 5.5: Stone crab typical to Ontolo (photo from Zeiller 1974:169)...... 86

Figure 5.6: “Faux artifacts” recovered at Ontolo. Note the similar coloring to stone crab...... 86

Figure 5.7: Marine Buoy 42036 (National Data Buoy Center 2005)...... 89

Figure 5.8: Logarithmic scale of mass of artifacts collected at Ontolo and faux artifacts (black dots represent faux artifacts recovered...... 90

Figure 7.1: Kriging map of lithic counts from all collections and isolated finds, based on artifacts in a 15 m radius...... 109

Figure 7.2: Kriging map of lithic counts from surface collection and excavation units, based on artifacts in a 15 m radius...... 109

Figure 7.3: Kriging map of lithic counts from surface collection and isolated finds, based on artifacts in a 15 m radius...... 110

Figure 7.4: Kriging map of lithic counts from surface collection, based on artifacts in a 15 m radius...... 110

Figure 7.5: Kriging map of ISFI values from all collections...... 111

Figure 7.6: Kriging map of ISFI values from surface collections and excavation units...... 111

Figure 7.7: Kriging map of ISFI Values from surface collections and isolated finds...... 112

Figure 7.8: Kriging map of ISFI values from surface collections...... 112

x Figure C.1: Artifacts put into the scanning electron microscope for elemental analysis (Figure 6.2)...... 178

Figure C.2: Broken artifact put into scanning electron microscope for elemental analysis of the interior and exterior surfaces (Figure 6.3)...... 178

Figure C.3: Elemental analysis via energy dispersive spectroscopy for Object 1...... 179

Figure C.4: Elemental analysis via energy dispersive spectroscopy for Object 2...... 180

Figure C.5: Elemental analysis via energy dispersive spectroscopy for Object 3...... 181

Figure C.6: Elemental analysis via energy dispersive spectroscopy for Object 4...... 182

Figure C.7: Elemental analysis via energy dispersive spectroscopy for Object 5...... 183

Figure D.1: Side-scan sonar tracklines of Ontolo on July 16, 2002 (Figure 4.5)...... 185

Figure D.2: Side-scan sonar tracklines of Ontolo on July 17, 2002 (Figure 4.6) ...... 185

Figure D.3: Side-scan and sub-bottom tracklines of Ontolo on July 15, 2003 (Figure 4.8)...... 185

Figure D.4: Side scan image from July 16, 2002...... 186

Figure D.5: Side scan image from July 17, 2002...... 187

Figure D.6: Side scan image from July 15, 2003...... 188

Figure D.7: Sub-bottom image from July 15, 2003 (river channel outlined in red)...... 189

Figure E.1: Kriging map of lithic counts from all collections and isolated finds, based on artifacts in a 15 m radius...... 191

Figure E.2: Kriging map of lithic counts from surface collection and excavation units, based on artifacts in a 15 m radius...... 192

Figure E.3: Kriging map of lithic counts from surface collection and isolated finds, based on artifacts in a 15 m radius...... 193

Figure E.4: Kriging map of lithic counts from surface collection, based on artifacts in a 15 m radius...... 194

Figure E.5: Kriging map of ISFI values from all collections...... 195

Figure E.6: Kriging map of ISFI values from surface collection and excavation units...... 196

xi Figure E.7: Kriging map of ISFI Values from surface collection and isolated finds...... 197

Figure E.8: Kriging map of ISFI values from surface collection...... 198

xii

ABSTRACT

This dissertation focuses on Ontolo (8JE1577), a submerged prehistoric site in Apalachee Bay and the site formation processes at that site. Submerged sites must be considered in our efforts to understand the lifeways and challenges faced by the earliest inhabitants in Florida and the Southeast, approximately 12,500 years ago. Terrestrial sites only represent a portion of the potential number of Paleoindian sites in Florida. A more representative grasp of site distribution is required to develop models of Paleoindian settlement patterns, subsistence adaptations, and social organization. Paleoindian sites currently near the coast were over 150 km inland when initially occupied. Submerged sites are protected against looting, construction, and terrestrial bioturbation, presenting archaeologists with a more complete picture of life in the past.

The ocean floor is a dynamic environment, however, and artifacts may be redistributed across a site. Understanding post depositional site transformations allows archaeologists to evaluate the quality of the data recovered from a site. At the end of the Last Glacial Maximum, 20,000 years ago, worldwide sea levels were 130 m lower than today, leaving large areas of the continental shelf exposed. Florida was twice its modern size at this time because of the shallow shelf on the western side of the state. Sea levels were 40 m lower when humans (Paleoindians) first arrived around 13,000 years ago. Although sea level had been rising, Florida was still 75 percent larger than today. Sea level continued to rise until approximately 6,000 years ago, inundating all prehistoric settlements on the continental shelf.

Apalachee Bay is a low energy region of the Gulf of Mexico and most hurricanes do not impact the area. No category 3 hurricane has passed within 250 km of Ontolo since 1851. Storm waves from distant storms can impact the area, but the preceding storm surge reduces the effects on the ocean bottom. Using wave data from hurricanes, testing in a flume, and on-site experiments, I show that only the smallest artifacts at Ontolo are affected by storm events. These

xiii artifacts are further protected by the many rock outcrops that jut out of the sand throughout the site. In fact, the most detrimental factor to site integrity at Ontolo appears to be the sea urchins. These creatures pick up debris off the ocean floor to decorate/camouflage themselves and move about the site.

In an effort to identify activity areas within the site, the movement of artifacts was considered. To compensate for the oceanographic and biological movement of artifacts, I averaged all artifacts within 15 m of each of the 121 surface collection units at Ontolo. Activity areas within the site, based on definitions from Binford (1980), Binford and Binford (1969) and Tankersley (1998), were identified using the Improved Site Function Index I created for my Master’s thesis (Marks 2002). This formula factors in tool-to-debitage ratios, core-to-debitage ratios, cortical debitage-to-non-cortical debitage ratios, and average mass to determine if an area was utilized more for extraction of lithic resources or as a habitation area where tools were produced. Although Ontolo may be characterized as an occupation area, a potential lithic quarry lies 500 m distant and the sea floor in the site area contains considerable lithic debris. Ontolo is not contextually sound and any assessment of activity areas may be adversely affected. That said, the clustering of artifacts to form possible activity areas should not be discounted.

The methodology utilized in my research is intended to provide a template for future research in submerged prehistoric archaeology. This dissertation also provides a critical review of site transformations as they apply to site structure and artifacts at Ontolo. The location of Ontolo and similar sites should not preclude them from archaeological consideration. This research shows that submerged prehistoric sites have the potential to contain valuable data about the earliest inhabitants in North America.

xiv

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

This study examines the formational and transformational processes operating on underwater archaeological sites in Apalachee Bay using geological, topographic, and oceanographic data. This dissertation is focused on a 12,500-year old site submerged on the continental shelf off Northwest Florida. Discovered approximately 9 km offshore in 4-5 m of water in 2001, Ontolo (8JE1577) is the largest submerged prehistoric human occupation site in Apalachee Bay and has yielded nearly 1,350 lithic artifacts, some of which are diagnostic tools dating to the Late Pleistocene. One of the most critical issues related to submerged sites is the preservation of context. As with terrestrial sites, the nature of post-depositional transformations must be addressed in order to evaluate the quality of the data. Are these submerged sites merely accumulations of cultural materials much changed and transported by the dynamics of the ocean environment? Does primary context remain or, failing that standard, are there ways to evaluate altered contexts that provide usable data – data that can inform us about cultural behavior?

The primary goal for this research is to determine the forces that cause artifact movement at Ontolo. These forces consist of currents, storm driven waves, as well as biological factors. To fully understand these forces, I performed laboratory testing using a flume and consulted historical hurricane records. I also conducted on-site experiments involving current meters and the placement of modern artifacts. The secondary goal for this dissertation is to attempt to determine possible activity areas after factoring artifact movement. The evaluation of activity areas is achieved by applying data from the artifacts recovered at Ontolo and the Improved Site Function Index (Marks 2002) for intra-site analysis. The fact that artifacts move along the ocean

1 bottom should not preclude the possibility that data reflective of intra-site can be extrapolated. Clustering of artifacts within the site may reveal potentially useful data.

Ontolo and J&J Hunt

Figure 1.1: Ontolo and J&J Hunt (map shows edge of Florida’s continental shelf).

The submerged continental shelf beneath the Gulf of Mexico, particularly Florida’s Apalachee Bay, is significant in the study of Paleoindians, Florida’s first inhabitants. Recent work offshore by Faught (2004a) clearly demonstrated the importance of submerged landmasses for understanding Paleoindian occupation. Geoenvironmental modeling has provided insights regarding rates of submergence and permits a better understanding of where we might seek evidence of early occupations. In these scenarios, Florida was approximately twice its current size at the end of the Last Glacial Maximum, and by 13,000 years ago when humans first arrived, approximately 75 percent larger than its current size. Because sea level was some 35 m lower than today, the majority of sites between 13,000 and 7,000 years old lie underwater.

Ontolo’s offshore location protects the site from looting and development common to terrestrial sites and thereby increases its importance. Ontolo can provide a more complete collection of artifacts from an early archaeological context and serve as a template for future research on sites in deeper water, which may contain information about the initial occupants in

2 the New World. The extent to which rising sea levels and oceanographic processes have reworked or deflated site components at Ontolo is of significant concern. At Ontolo, the nature of deflation is unclear because there is no sorting by size among lithic artifacts. This question is important to understanding the integrity of Ontolo, since it is my intention to evaluate the distribution of recovered lithic artifacts preliminary to proposing the presence or location of activity areas.

As a submerged site, Ontolo can make significant contributions to our understanding of early human occupation. Fewer than 40 prehistoric underwater sites have been identified in the entire Gulf of Mexico, and only six have undergone more than two investigative dives. Ontolo is one of only two prehistoric underwater archaeological sites with repeated investigations in Apalachee Bay. The other site, J&J Hunt (8JE740), lies approximately 2 km north of Ontolo (Faught 2004a). A literature search reveals that the work performed in the Gulf of Mexico is one of the most extensive in the United States (Dunbar 1997; Faught 2004a; Flemming 1994). How many other prehistoric sites remain undiscovered offshore New World coastlines is unknown.

Research methodologies at the two Apalachee Bay sites, J&J Hunt and Ontolo, represent the state of the art in offshore prehistoric archaeology. Since these sites are the only two Paleoindian sites in a marine setting where repeated survey and investigation have been conducted in the United States, our findings present significant methodological contributions to the study of submerged prehistoric archaeology. J&J Hunt was the first site to receive such study beginning 1986 and continuing from 1998 to 2002. Investigations at Ontolo have had the added advantage of refinement from experiences at J&J Hunt.

Of the sites currently identified in Apalachee Bay, Ontolo produced the densest collection of lithic artifacts. The entire 14,000-m2 area of Ontolo has undergone intensive systematic surface collections, as well as 13 hand-fanned collection units, and 20 “posthole” tests. During surface collections, archaeologists recovered artifacts from the upper 2 cm in a 1 m x 1 m grid every 10 m. This methodology has resulted in the recovery of over 1300 lithic artifacts and over 250 fragments of faunal remains. The faunal remains are mainly fossilized mammal bone fragments but also include shark teeth and oyster shells. A number of wood samples compose

3 the extent of floral materials. Among the lithic artifacts, there are 19 diagnostic artifacts consisting of one Hendrix Scraper (10,000 rcybp-radiocarbon years before present), a Suwannee projectile point (10,500 rcybp), a Kirk Serrated projectile point (8500-7500 rcybp), several Wacissa projectile points (7500-5000 rcybp), and other projectile points from the Middle Archaic (Bullen 1975, Justice 1987, Marks and Faught 2003). These diagnostic artifacts are indicative of Late Paleoindian and Early to Middle Archaic cultures.

Southeastern Paleoindian and Archaic Culture The initial human occupation of the Southeastern United States likely occurred 15,000 years ago (Anderson et al. 1996:3), although the first unequivocal occupation occurred at ca. 13,500 years ago (Anderson et al. 1996:9). Paleoindians, or Clovis people, were the first humans in Florida. As of yet, there has been no archaeological evidence for human occupation in Florida prior to the Paleoindians. The Paleoindian period, with Early, Middle, and Late sub-periods, began approximately 13,500 years ago. At approximately 11,500 years ago, Archaic culture had developed from the Paleoindian culture (Milanich 1994:59). The Archaic period lasted until approximately 4,000 years ago and is also divided into three stages: Early, Middle, and Late. Archaic assemblages overlay Paleoindian material in Florida. Cultural changes from Paleoindian to Archaic did not occur abruptly, but were gradual resulting in multiple components at archaeological sites. As Early Archaic people adjusted to the changing environment, they moved to locales that became more suitable as the water table rose and different food resources were available. This scenario explains why Paleoindians did not inhabit later sites used by Early Archaic cultures (Milanich 1994:61-69).

Submerged Prehistoric Sites Human occupation of the now-submerged portion of Florida’s continental shelf began when humans first arrived in Florida and lasted until the time of sea level stabilization approximately 7,000 years ago. Classification of the earliest cultural groups in Florida is determined through formal tools of chipped stone assemblages and projectile point types. The introduction of ceramics into the Southeast during the Late Archaic occurs at roughly the same time as sea level stabilization, thus we can expect any site found offshore to be older than the Late Archaic (Faught 1996:258). As a large, shallow, sediment starved, low energy coastal area,

4 Apalachee Bay of Northwest Florida has high potential for submerged site discovery. Because a high density of Paleoindian and Early Archaic sites on land near this coastal zone has been demonstrated (Dunbar 1991; Dunbar et al. 1992; Faught 1996), it is likely that sites extended onto today’s continental shelf when it was exposed, improving the chances of identifying submerged sites offshore. The Aucilla River drainage has produced the highest percentage of Clovis points in Florida (39 percent) from its diagnostic Paleoindian point assemblage (Dunbar, Webb, Faught, Anuskiewicz, and Stright 1989:475; Faught 1996). Therefore, the drowned channels of the Aucilla River in Apalachee Bay should provide a greater potential to locate Clovis points than other areas.

An unequivocal piece of evidence for early colonization of Northwestern Florida is the presence of Early Paleoindian Classic Clovis fluted points and other flat or concave Paleoindian lanceolates such as Simpson and Suwannee points (Anderson et al. 1996; Bullen 1975; Faught 1996; Justice 1987; Milanich 1994). The latter group is more abundant in the area, but is also less well dated. Clovis points have been located in the same stratigraphic layer as diagnostic Suwannee points, demonstrating the potential for the Suwannee projectile points to be associated with a similar age, around 12,500 years ago (Faught 1996:259). This finding implies that Paleoindians occupied Ontolo while other diagnostic projectile points suggest that later cultures occupied the site through to the Archaic period.

Sea-level rise Twelve thousand years ago, Florida had a different environment than the one that attracts so many tourists today. Due to lowered sea levels, Florida’s land mass was much larger at the end of the Pleistocene – nearly double its current size. The landscape was also much drier then, and paleo-environmental evidence suggests that inland rivers, lakes, springs, marshes, and wet prairies were all but nonexistent (Faught 1996; Watts et al. 1992). During the rise in sea level, coastal ecosystems received the impact of this transgressive phase along the Atlantic and Gulf coasts. In general, erosional forces of waves and currents tore apart the upper portions of relict shoreline features, scattering and erasing most evidence of human occupation on the now- submerged continental shelf (Bloom 1983:46). The Atlantic coast, a high-energy coastline, has received significant impacts from these forces. It is clear, however, that conditions on this

5 portion of the Gulf coast, where submerged sites have been identified (Smith 1986), were less destructive.

Sea-level rise resulted in a reduction of usable land available to coastal occupants. According to Dorsey (1997:13-14), the landward shift of the Floridian shoreline was approximately 1 to 2 km every 50 years during the first meltwater pulse (12,000 – 10,000 rcybp). The meltwater pulses before and after the Younger Dryas were times when sea-level rise was much greater then other times. Stright (1995) computed the average slope of the North American continental shelf and found that the Pacific Ocean shelf is 6.5 times steeper than the shelf in the Gulf of Mexico. The shallow condition of the slope of the Gulf coast reduced the time that coastal sites spent within the high impact surf zone. The direct impact of waves greatly affects site integrity while in the surf zone. Therefore the reduced time that Gulf of Mexico sites spent in the surf zone suggests that they will have better integrity than sites in other areas.

The effects of sea level change on human and animal populations are more drastic where the continental shelf has shallow slope (Waters 1992:263). Rising sea level systematically reduced the usable land and resources available to Paleoindians, increasing competition among the human inhabitants as well as the other regional animals. Resources available to one group may not have been available to the next generation. Competition and reduction in resources also may have stimulated technological advancement and cultural change.

Site Formation Processes By examining the site formation processes from terrestrial, inundated, and submerged sites, it is possible to hypothesize about changes at Ontolo over the last 13,000 years. During the rise in sea level, the area was subjected to changing environmental conditions. When Paleoindians first occupied Ontolo, the site was nearly 45 m above sea level and over 60 km inland. As sea level rose, the environment at the site changed to a coastal wetland, then a salt marsh, then an estuarine environment, then a tidal area, until it was completely submerged around 7,000 years ago. The actual dates of environmental change are difficult to assess because the mechanisms for change are not completely understood. However, these changes occurred just prior to inundation by rising sea level. Researchers must understand these environmental

6 changes and their effects to determine the conditions at the site and the pace of environmental change. This information is critical to understanding the nature of the cultural context of artifacts recovered from the site.

Site integrity investigations at Ontolo have utilized oceanographic current meters, historic hurricane records, meteorological data, and on-site artifact dispersal experiments. These experiments indicate that the artifact distribution at Ontolo has changed since the site became submerged, but indicate that the integrity of the site was only slightly compromised. An exact reconstruction of Pleistocene Ontolo is impossible, but my investigations have demonstrated that only a hurricane event could produce waves with enough energy to move artifacts. The historical records show that Apalachee Bay is a low energy coastline that is infrequently affected by tropical storms and hurricanes. While my investigations show that there is artifact movement at Ontolo, I have developed a method for considering this movement in the determination of activity areas within the site.

Lithics Early hunter-gatherer sites appear as two different site types: maintenance or extraction sites (Binford and Binford 1969). Binford (1980:9) calls maintenance sites residential base camps or habitation sites. They are central nodes of activity where group members return to sleep and where the majority of processing, manufacturing, and maintenance activities occur. Binford’s (1980) term “locations,” or special purpose sites, refers to sites where only extractive tasks occur and which are similar to the extraction sites discussed in Binford and Binford (1969). These extractive sites are prevalent in hunting and gathering cultures. The artifacts recovered from the initial survey of Ontolo identified it as a habitation site. The work at the site since 2002 has yielded artifacts with better provenience data, allowing for intra-site analysis. In my Master’s thesis (Marks 2002), I used several factors including cortex, tools, cores, and artifact size to determine site function.

The analysis of lithic artifacts can help to determine the function of sites and activity areas within a site. Divers recovered only lithic artifacts and faunal remains at Ontolo, indicating that the site probably dates prior to 5,000 years ago. These artifacts were analyzed for size,

7 weight, staining characteristics, amount of marine growth, and cortex coverage, as well as being separated into debitage groups based on the Sullivan and Rozen (1985) typology. This typology separates lithic debitage into different categories based on the presence or absence of attributes relating to flint knapping: platform, bulb of percussion, and distal end (end opposite the striking platform), or whether the lithic artifact is a tool. The features of size and cortex coverage lead to information about site usage, as well as providing an understanding of the reduction process.

Submerged sites have the potential to make significant contributions to our knowledge of Paleoindian and Archaic cultures in the Southeast. This research domain is only beginning to be explored. Although sites like Ontolo can provide previously unavailable information about lithic technology, early cultures, and provide models for future offshore site investigations, the transformational processes occurring in underwater archaeological sites must be understood to assess the reliability of the data. Oceanographic processes affecting the movement of cultural materials, principally lithics and faunal remains, must also be understood. This study of site formation processes at Ontolo is a necessary first step. Lithic artifacts recovered from Ontolo will provide more information about what activities were occurring at the site and within the site. As one of the most productive submerged sites in the Gulf of Mexico, perhaps the entire New World, Ontolo contains information not available from terrestrial sites. Looters and construction on land have reduced the integrity of many sites, but Ontolo is relatively protected. This site can serve as a template for understanding how submerged sites evolve during changing environments and rising sea levels.

The following chapters develop data on site formational processes as they have affected Ontolo and the determination of possible activity areas within the site. Chapter 2 discusses the peopling of the New World and sets Ontolo in the context of Florida archaeology. The chapter also discusses the development of the discipline of underwater archaeology and methodologies available for use in this challenging environment. Chapter 2 ends with a discussion of trends in lithic assemblages as a basis for determining activity areas.

Chapter 3 discusses the environmental conditions of northwest Florida during the Pleistocene based on palynology and faunal remains recovered from deep cores in lake and

8 archaeological sites, respectively. Other geological conditions discussed in this chapter include the nature of the karstic geology in northwest Florida, the associated karstic river systems within that portion of the state, and the relationship that water table and karst formations have with lithic resources. An examination of artifact staining is included this chapter in an attempt to determine past environmental conditions at Ontolo. Chapter 3 deals also with the sea-level rise following the Last Glacial Maximum.

Chapter 4 discusses the field research methodology utilized in this dissertation, including how sites have been located in Apalachee Bay, the technology used for this research, previous research in Apalachee Bay since 1979, and the research performed at the Ontolo site. The research discussed at Ontolo includes a description of the initial investigative dives, remote sensing, surface collection units, hand fan excavation units, small excavation units, and the collection of isolated finds. The chapter also discusses experiments that involved placing current meters at the site as well as “faux” artifacts to study the effects of storm events.

Chapter 5 discusses the geoarchaeology and site formation processes at Ontolo. The bulk of the chapter deals with the natural factors affecting site formation, specifically change in sea level, bioturbation, anthropogenic factors, as well as the oceanographic factors of tidal currents, wave action, and hurricane events. Within the oceanographic factors section, the results from experiments with the current meters and faux artifacts are discussed.

Chapter 6 presents the methodology and results of the artifact analysis. Average size, weight, and the general percentages of cortex coverage and debitage type across the entire site are presented and discussed. The chapter ends with a discussion of conservation of the artifacts. Chapter 7 of this dissertation utilizes definitions in chapter 2 and the results mentioned in chapter 6 to discuss the possibility of identifying activity areas within Ontolo. Combining artifacts within 15 m of a given location to account for artifact movement and using the Improved Site Function Index, I will make assumptions about what activities may have occurred in certain areas of the site. Chapter 8 offers a summary of the findings as well as considerations for future research at Ontolo and Apalachee Bay.

CHAPTER 2

ARCHAEOLOGICAL BACKGROUND

The submerged prehistoric human occupation site Ontolo (8JE1577) is an archaeological site with Paleoindian and Archaic components. This age assessment is based on the presence of Suwannee projectile points, Wacissa projectile points and other Archaic stemmed projectile points (Bullen 1975; Dunbar personal communication 2005; Justice 1987; Schroeder 2002). The initial survey investigations at Ontolo determined that the site was a base camp from an analysis of debitage and tools recovered from the site (Marks 2002). Paleoindians, the initial occupants of the New World, were the cultural group who occupied Ontolo beginning 12,500 years ago.

Diagnostic Tools Diagnostic tools are currently the only means of assigning cultural affiliation to Ontolo. The bifacial tools include 19 diagnostic projectile points/knives, including one recovered during excavation, and one recovered from the spines of a sea urchin (See Figure 5.1). A diagnostic Hendrix scraper (Faught in press; Hornum, et al. 1995; Purdy 1981:18-20) was also discovered among the unifacial tools. James Dunbar (personal communication 3/14/05), Michael Faught (personal communication 9/18/03), and David Thulman (personal communication 3/21/05) as well as texts by Ripley Bullen (1975), Noel Justice (1987), and Lloyd Schroeder (2002) assisted in the identification of all diagnostic artifacts. These diagnostic artifacts currently provide the only dating for Ontolo prior to submersion 7000 years ago. Figure 2.1 illustrates all 19 diagnostic artifacts, and Table 2.1 lists the artifact name and age designation. Several of the points were unfinished, preforms, or broken. Several points had no characteristics of any specific projectile point type; however, the style of the base provides a general association with early cultural groups.

Figure 2.1: Projectile points/diagnostic artifacts recovered from Ontolo 2001-2004. Table 2.1 below lists the identification for each item (left to right, top to bottom).

11 Table 2.1: Projectile points/diagnostic artifacts recovered at Ontolo. Dates from Bullen (1975), Justice (1987), Schroeder (2002).

Row Column Point Age period (rcybp) 1 1 Hendrix scraper 12,000-10,000 1 2 Suwannee 12,000-10,000 1 3 Paleoindian Preform 12,000-10,000 1 4 Bolen Stemmed (reworked & ruined) 10,000-8500 2 1 Kirk Corner Notch 8500-7500 2 2 Hamilton/Kirk like 8500-7500 2 3 Hamilton 8500-7500 24 Hamilton 8500-7500 2 5 Hamilton (base) 8500-7500 3 1 Sumter 8500-7500 32 Wacissa (un-finished) 8500-7500 33 Wacissa 8500-7500 34 Wacissa 8500-7500 35 Thonatassousa 8500-7500 4 1 Archaic Stemmed (missing stem) 7500-5000 4 2 Archaic Stemmed 7500-5000 43 Archaic stemmed 7500-5000 4 4 Archaic Stemmed 7500-5000 45 Unknown

Populating the New World Human occupation of the Americas has been extremely brief, considering the more than 200,000 year history of human existence. Although there are some archaeological sites with equivocal evidence suggesting earlier occupations, most archaeologists agree that the initial occupation occurred no earlier than 20,000 calendar years ago. The earliest Native Americans are hypothesized to have crossed the exposed Beringian land bridge during lowered sea levels near the end of the last ice age (ca. 25,000 – 30,000 calendar years ago). At this time, Alaska was partially glacier free, but glacial ice completely covered Canada until approximately 14,000 calendar years ago, thereby blocking passage into the southern portions of North America and beyond. Several archaeological sites challenge this hypothesis, among them the Monte Verde site in southern Chile, which has dates contemporary with the opening of the ice free corridor (Meltzer et al. 1997; Tuross and Dillehay 1995). Monte Verde is currently one of the oldest sites in the New World. It seems odd that the first occupants of the New World would travel over 13,000 km from the Bering Straits to the southern tip of South America in a few hundred years. Beaton (1991:222) believes that rapidly moving colonizing groups could reach the southern tip

12 of South America from Alaska in only a few generations, but they would have crossed thousands of miles of uncharted territory with no perceptions of what lay in their path. Several researchers have modeled the potential migration routes Paleoindians used to inhabit the New World in such a short period (Anderson and Gillam 2000; Steel et al. 1998).

The need to locate and return to sources of high quality stone may have shaped migration pathways on the landscape. Anderson and Gillam (2000) note how lithic resources had a binding effect on Paleoindian populations. As stated above, the initial groups of Paleoindians could not have known that there was 13,000 km of land to the south and 7500 km to the east when they crossed the land bridge into Alaska. The initial inhabitants could not know of the 40 million km2 of unexplored land that lay beyond the land bridge, nor could they know how many rivers, lakes, mountains, or plains would be in their path. Using these geologic barriers, Anderson and Gillam (2000:47) assume that movement occurred in relation to minimum cost instead of minimum distance. Anderson (1996) has also explored the notion that the need to maintain information and mating systems influenced Paleoindian movement.

An additional hypothesis states that Paleoindians originated in Europe instead of Asia (see Fiedel 2000; Haynes 1980; 1982; Stanford 1991). As of 1998, there were nearly three times as many projectile points representative of the earliest New World cultures east of the Mississippi River than west of it (Anderson and Faught 1998). Following a model that the area of initial occupation would have the highest concentration of early projectile points, Clovis people entered the New World from the East. A contrary perspective states that today’s increased population east of the Mississippi River results in an increased number of archaeologists, more archaeological surveys, and therefore more Paleoindian projectile points recovered in the eastern US than the western US (Schaefer 2006). Some researchers suggest a resemblance between Paleoindian and Solutrean bifaces (Fiedel 2000; Stanford 1991). If this resemblance were more than superficial, it would imply a migration into Eastern North America from Europe. The Solutrean culture produced leaf-shaped bifaces using techniques that Clovis cultures appear to have replicated. However, the Solutrean culture was prevalent on the Iberian Peninsula approximately 19,000 years ago, about 6000 years prior to the appearance of Clovis (Fiedel 2000:43; Stanford 1991). Although the quality of Clovis and Paleoindian lithic

13 technologies rivals the best stonework of the European Upper Paleolithic, the main difference is that Old World toolkits rarely contained bifaces (a tool with both faces formed to a single edge) and are primarily composed of retouched blades (tools with long narrow edges) (Andrefsky 2001). The American Paleoindian toolkit consisted mainly of bifacially chipped points that are often compared to Mousterian bifaces from Europe (Fiedel 2000:41). The abundance of lithic material in the New World might explain the lack of retouched blades among these toolkits. Paleoindian and Clovis peoples had access to virgin quarries while human groups in the Old World had to compete with their hominid ancestors utilizing the same quarry sites for a half- million years or more.

There is little doubt that the debate about Clovis origins and migration patterns in North America will continue for many years. Native Americans exhibit wide linguistic and biological variability suggesting that either they arrived earlier than currently accepted or they originated from different areas. There is adequate evidence of later migrations across the Bering Sea by the Nunamiut around 8000 years ago (Dumond 1987:47), implying possible migrations prior to exposure of the Bearing land bridge. There is also evidence that Lagenaria bottle gourds floated over from Africa suggesting a possible migration from that direction (Lathrap 1977; Newsom 2002). Other researchers have performed experiments with drifting rafts in the South Pacific, thus implying a migration from that part of the world (e.g., Heyerdahl 1950, though he traveled in the opposite direction). While some of these migrations may have been of only a few people, they could have contributed genetic and possibly linguistic diversity to existing tribes.

Paleoindians in Florida The first unequivocal occupation in the Southeast occurred at approximately 13,000 years ago, although the initial human occupation likely occurred as early as 18,000 years ago (Anderson et al. 1996:3-9). The Clovis toolkit in the Southeast consists of side scrapers, end scrapers, concave scrapers, unifacial knives, flake knives, gravers, and burins in such forms as awls and punches. The later Paleoindian tool kits added fluted bifaces, hafted scrapers, gravers, spokeshaves, adzes, denticulates, and several other tool forms. This culture typically constructed their tools on large primary flakes, bifacial thinning flakes, and blade flakes (Haynes 1980). Anderson et al. (1996:6) proposed that Paleoindians carried these artifacts from place to place

14 and reused them until they broke or were worn out. Paleoindian social organization likely consisted of small groups of hunters and gatherers migrating seasonally to obtain chert, food, and fresh water. They may have set up base camps near areas of fresh water, and sent out collecting parties to obtain needed resources nearby. Anderson and Hanson (1988) propose that larger gatherings occurred at regular intervals for feasting, marriage alliances, and the exchange of information.

As of yet, there has been no archaeological evidence for human occupation in Florida prior to the Clovis culture. When people first arrived in Florida 13,000 years ago, the environment was much drier and the state was nearly twice its current size due to lowered sea levels. Pleistocene hunters and gatherers who lived in Florida did so in colder and drier conditions than today. Pollen records show that pine forests dominated the landscape until 14,000 rcybp when oak and hickory tree species emerged abruptly. During the Younger Dryas (11,000 – 10,000 rcybp), wetter conditions and pine trees prevailed (Watts et al. 1992). Drier conditions followed this wet period with a return of forests dominated by oak and hickory tree species. Although Paleoindians appear to have hunted and utilized megafauna, other Pleistocene fauna and flora were plentiful in the area suggesting additional resources (Dunbar 1991). More information about palynology follows in the next chapter.

The landscape of Florida differed in area as well as climate. The buildup of glacial ice over the previous 100,000 years greatly reduced sea level. At the end of the last ice age (ca. 22,000 years ago), worldwide sea levels were approximately 130 m below mean sea level (below MSL). Sea level in the western Gulf of Mexico was approximately 90 m below MSL. Glacial melting and sea-level rise occurred in two major pulses, one at ca. 12,000 rcybp, and another at ca. 9,500 rcybp (Balsillie and Donoghue 2004; Ruddiman 1987). These melting pulses were interrupted by a worldwide cooling trend at ca. 11,000 rcybp, dubbed the Younger Dryas climatic reversal. During this time, sea level stabilized and the Gulf of Mexico remained at 40 m below MSL (Frazier 1974). Paleoindians occupying Florida’s coastline during the Younger Dryas were as much as 140 km away from the modern coastline, suggesting there was 75 percent more available land than in modern Florida (Faught 2004b; Faught and Donoghue 1997).

15 Researchers have found numerous artifacts that indicate early habitation in Florida. Clovis fluted points, Pleistocene fauna exhibiting possible cut marks, and probocidean ivory fore-shafts represents the evidence of occupation during the Late Pleistocene in North Florida (Anderson and Faught 2000; Dunbar 1991; Dunbar and Wallar 1983; Faught 2004b; Faught in press; Hemmings 1998). Unequivocal evidence of early human presence in northwestern Florida is the occurrence of Early Paleoindian and Classic Clovis fluted points as well as other flat or concave Paleoindian lanceolates such as Simpson and Suwannee points (Anderson et al. 1996; Bullen 1975; Faught 1996; Justice 1987; Milanich 1994). The latter group of projectile points is more abundant in the North Florida area than Clovis, but is also less well dated. Many diagnostic projectile points (Clovis, Suwannee, Simpson, etc.) in Florida from the Paleoindian period do not have the associated radiocarbon dates of later diagnostic artifacts.

The Paleoindian cultural period began approximately 12,500 rcybp and lasted until 10,000 rcybp. Three sub-periods of Early, Middle, and Late divide this cultural period. These three sub-periods correspond to the presence of lanceolate fluted points similar to western Clovis forms followed by fluted and unfluted point forms with broad blades and constricted hafts such as the Cumberland, Suwannee, Simpson, Quad, and Beaver Lake types, and end with resharpened lanceolate corner- and side-notched forms like Dalton, San Patrice, Bolen, and Big Sandy, as well as bone tools (Anderson et al. 1996:7-8; Faught et al. 1994; Milanich 1994:31- 59). Following the Younger Dryas, a new Archaic culture tradition developed from the Paleoindian culture (Milanich 1994:59).

Early Native Americans continued to inhabit the Southeast and Florida after Clovis times (Anderson and Sassaman 1996a; Faught 2004b; Faught in press). Several sites (e.g., Harney Flats and Page/Ladson) contain Late Paleoindian diagnostic artifacts and numerous isolated finds of diagnostic tools support the idea of post-Clovis settlement and continuity. Suwannee points, unfluted, concave-based bifacial points, represent the majority of diagnostic Late-Paleoindian projectile points in Florida (Daniel and Wisenbaker 1987; Dunbar 1991). Accurate radiocarbon dates for Suwannee points in Florida are lacking, but the Dust Cave site in Alabama contained similar lanceolate points with dates between 10,500 and 10,000 rcybp (Anderson and Sassaman 1996a; Driskell 1995; Faught 2004b; Faught in press). Suwannee points represent approximately

16 80 percent of the known diagnostic Paleoindian projectile points found in Florida (terrestrially), with Clovis points representing 15 percent, and Simpson points 5 percent of the total (Dunbar 1991:210; Faught 1996). The Aucilla River basin in the Big Bend area has produced the highest percentage of Clovis points with nearly 40 percent of all Clovis points for the state (Dunbar et al. 1988:475; Faught 1996). Evidence of early occupation extends onto the continental shelf where offshore paleo-channels of the Aucilla River in Apalachee Bay offer the opportunity to identify additional Paleoindian sites.

The social organization of Paleoindian cultures in Florida is largely hypothetical. No evidence of structures (domestic or sacred), no formalized burial pattern, or other information suggests that Paleoindians were anything other than small hunting, gathering, and possibly fishing groups. Through analysis of settlement patterns, site location, and the activities occurring at early sites, researchers attempt to gain some insight into Paleoindian social organization. The settlement patterns of early Florida may correspond to the model of seasonal rounds proposed by Anderson and Hanson (1988) for the Savannah River drainage. It is thought that Paleoindian and Early Archaic groups in the Southeast migrated along natural drainage systems, thus securing water and seasonally available flora, fauna, as well as other natural resources (e.g., chert). The Florida patterns of migration, however, appear to follow the configuration of the karst aquifer rather than fluvial rivers (Faught in press).

The majority of Paleoindian sites are located in areas where the Tertiary karst is exposed or shallowly buried (Figure 2.2). According to Dunbar (1991), more than 70 percent of Paleoindian sites occur within the Tertiary karst region, approximately 17 percent in the marginal region, and only 12 percent exist in the outlying regions. Nearly 80 percent of the diagnostic Paleoindian artifacts were recovered from the Tertiary karst region, while 16 percent were recovered in the marginal region and only 5 percent in the outlying region. In addition to being in the Tertiary karst region, nearly half of the Paleoindian sites onshore are permanently inundated by rivers and marsh areas, almost 25 percent are in flood-prone areas, and less than percent are in fully terrestrial settings (Dunbar and Waller 1992). To date, the karst river valleys of Florida’s Big Bend have produced the largest concentration (over 60 percent) of Clovis/Suwannee sites in Florida (Dunbar 1991:194). These early sites are located near karst

17 features because these areas contained the only accessible fresh water during the Pleistocene, in addition to attracting flora and fauna and providing sources of raw material for stone tools. River channels within the Tertiary karst region form as underground water flow reacts with limestone causing ceiling erosion and collapse. Although Late Paleoindian site assemblages in Florida suggest logistically oriented activities – chert for tools, fresh water, and food resources – there is no evidence of structures or storage pits (Faught in press; Faught and Carter 1998).

Figure 2.2: Geohydraulic regions in Florida (from Dunbar 1991:189).

18 Following the Paleoindian period, archaeologists have assigned the term “Archaic” to cultural manifestations. The Archaic period is divided into three sub periods designated Early, Middle, and Late. It began approximately 10,000 years ago and lasted until approximately 3,000 years ago During this time, the tool kit changed from lanceolate points to stemmed varieties including the Kirk, Wacissa, Hamilton, and Arredondo projectile point styles (Bullen 1975; Justice 1987; Milanich 1994). Archaeological excavation has recovered these projectile points overlying, and sometimes mixed with, Suwannee projectile points (Daniel and Wisenbaker 1987). Associations among these points suggest a “family tree” of modification among traditional technologies and their place in time (Faught in press). Early Archaic period peoples in Florida experienced a population increase as evidenced by numerous sites and isolated artifact finds (Faught 2004b).

Evidence of evolution between Paleoindian and Archaic cultures is seen in changing tool types and site locations. Early Archaic projectile points in Florida and the Southeast typically exhibit side or corner notching. These points, along with several types of bifacial and unifacial tools, have associated radiocarbon dates of 10,000 rcybp but are also correlated with occupations after 8500 rcybp (Driskell 1995; Faught 2004b; Faught in press). Cultural changes from Paleoindian to Archaic did not occur overnight, however, and it seems that there was gradual change between these two cultural horizons, resulting in an overlap of types at archaeological sites. As the Early Archaic people adjusted to the changing environment, they moved to more suitable locales given a rising water table and different food resources. Milanich (1994:61-69) believes these circumstances explain the appearance of Early Archaic sites in areas previously uninhabited by Paleoindians.

Underwater Archaeology Underwater archaeology is a growing field in the study of prehistoric cultures. Marine geologists K. O. Emery and R. L. Edwards (1966), from Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute, were some of the first scientists to consider that evidence of Paleoindian and Archaic sites might exist on the continental shelf. They concluded that Paleoindians occupied the exposed continental shelf during times of lowered sea levels, and proposed that archaeologists could identify, visit, and investigate underwater archaeological features. They also suggested that the

19 continental shelf of the Florida panhandle was ideal for the discovery of submerged prehistoric human occupation sites because the waters are shallow. Another significant condition of the submerged coastline and shelf in this area is that its karst rivers discharge very little sediment thereby increasing the chances of finding underwater archaeological sites.

Although the invention of the self-contained underwater breathing apparatus (SCUBA) stimulated underwater research on ships, serious investigations along continental shelves for submerged prehistoric sites and other submerged terrestrial sites did not begin until the 1980s. These investigations revealed several clusters of nearshore sites including Mesolithic sites in Denmark and Neolithic sites in Israel (Andersen 1983, 1985, 1987; Galili and Weinstein-Evron 1985; Masters and Flemming 1983). In the Unites States, several individuals recovered ground stone artifacts dating to the middle Holocene from the Pacific Ocean near San Diego, California (Hudson 1976; Masters 1983; Masters and Gallegos 1997). In the 1980’s, with support from the United States Minerals Management Service, the effort to identify submerged prehistoric sites in the Gulf of Mexico began (Faught 2004b; Stright 1986). Flemming (1983) lists over thirty prehistoric underwater sites or groups of prehistoric underwater sites in areas around the world, including France, Australia, Tasmania, British Columbia, Puget Sound, Sweden, Brittany, Greece, Denmark, Cape Canaveral, Santa Monica Bay, San Diego, West Florida, Israel, Gibraltar, Italy, Canada, Indonesia, and Britain. In a later manuscript, Flemming (1994) claims the existence of more than 500 submerged human occupation sites, both historic and prehistoric.

The Southeast United States contains several submerged prehistoric human occupation sites from the Paleoindian to Late Archaic period (Dunbar 1997:24-28). There are at least 18 submerged sites in the Chesapeake Bay discovered by clam diggers that unintentionally retrieved artifacts with clam tongs. A shrimp boat crew netted a Clovis point 0.5 km off Ossabaw Sound on the Georgia coast. The Douglas Beach site lies along the east coast of Florida near Ft. Pierce, Florida. This Mid-Archaic site lies in 5 m of water and contained several in-place wooden stakes that dated to 4630 rcybp. In Tampa Bay, Florida, there are several underwater sites with Paleoindian through Mid-Archaic artifacts in association with shell deposits (Dunbar 1997:24- 28). Additional areas within the state of Florida contain evidence for abundant prehistoric populations, especially Paleoindian and Early Archaic remains. Many early sites are located in

20 or near the rivers in the northwest portion of the state. The high numbers of Paleoindian and Early Archaic sites in terrestrial settings increases the probability of locating submerged prehistoric human occupation sites in the nearby Gulf of Mexico. Prehistoric underwater archaeology, and wet site archaeology, is not new to Florida, especially with high profile sites such as Little Salt Spring, Warm Mineral Springs, Windover, and Wakulla Springs (Clausen et al. 1975; Clausen et al. 1979; Doran and Dickel 1988; Yates et al. 2001). Offshore investigations in Apalachee Bay have yielded over 30 archaeological locations, and this portion of the Gulf of Mexico has the potential to provide many more (Faught 2004a, 2004b; Marks 2002). These sites add to our understanding of past human activities in Florida during Paleoindian and Early Archaic times.

Archaeologists have studied several inland underwater archaeological sites in Florida located within sinkholes, springs, peat bogs, and rivers. In southwest Florida, there are the two sinkholes, Warm Mineral Springs and Little Salt Springs, both with evidence of Early Archaic and possible earlier human occupation (Clausen et al. 1975; Clausen et al. 1979). During times of lowered sea levels, the water level in the sinkholes was also lowered as well (Dunbar 1991). At Warm Mineral Springs, archaeologists discovered human burials in solution notches eight meters underwater (Clausen et al. 1975). The Little Salt Springs sinkhole contained evidence of human activity from 8500 rcybp to 6000 rcybp (Clausen et al. 1979). Discovered in a peat bog near Titusville, the Windover site provided excellent organic preservation. This Early to Middle Archaic site contained human remains with intact soft tissue, and brain material, as well as wood, antler, bone, and woven fabrics (Doran 2002; Doran and Dickel 1988). In Northern Florida, near Tallahassee, Wakulla Springs has yielded a variety of artifacts and Pleistocene fauna (Yates et al. 2001). The Aucilla River also contains several archaeological locations within its banks. One of these sites is the Page/Ladson site, located in a sinkhole. The site contains a Paleoindian component at 10 m below sea level and an Early Archaic component at 4 m below sea level (Dunbar 1997:26-29; Dunbar, Webb, Faught, Anuskiewicz, and Stright 1989; Faught 1996; Hemmings 2000).

Human occupation on the continental shelf was possible when Paleoindians first arrived in Florida, and ended at the time of sea level stabilization approximately 6,000 years ago. The

Figure 2.3: Location of selected early and inundated submerged sites in Florida.

introduction of ceramics into the Southeast during the Late Archaic is roughly contemporaneous with sea level stabilization. Therefore, Late Archaic cultures could not occupy any archaeological site discovered offshore and offshore sites should not yield ceramic artifacts (Faught 1996:258). Apalachee Bay of Northwest Florida continues to have a high potential for submerged prehistoric site discovery. This area is a large, shallow, sediment starved, low energy coastal area, and has a high density of terrestrial Paleoindian and Early Archaic sites occurring onshore near this coastal zone (Dunbar 1991; Dunbar et al. 1992; Faught 1996). These factors suggest Paleoindian and Early Archaic occupation occurred during times of lowered sea level, and since there is a lack of sediment discharged by local rivers, sites should be more visible on the ocean floor.

Research in Apalachee Bay resulted in the discovery of more than 30 submerged prehistoric human occupation sites. Of those sites, the J&J Hunt site (8JE740) has undergone the

22 most investigation. First investigated in 1989 by Michael K. Faught and the Minerals Management Service team, the site was revisited in 1992. From 1998 through 2003, field research was conducted by Faught and Florida State University (FSU) Underwater Archaeological Field School students. The site is located approximately 7.5 km offshore, south of the Aucilla River, and approximately 2 km northeast of Ontolo. J&J Hunt has undergone surface collection, mapping, coring, and excavation, yielding over 2000 lithic artifacts, including several diagnostic tools that place the age of the site ca. 10,000 rcybp (Faught 2004a). Faught (2004b:286) also obtained a radiocarbon sample from an in situ tree stump with a date of ca. 7240 ± 100 rcybp, implying terrestrial conditions at that time.

Trends in Lithic Assemblages Early Paleoindians experienced changing environmental conditions and mass extinctions of faunal resources during the terminal Pleistocene. The climate was vastly different compared to the marginal environments described by the last two centuries of hunter and gatherer ethnographies. Tankersley (1998:8) believes that archaeologists should not apply modern ethnographic examples to these early cultures because they would not be comparable to Paleoindian economic systems. Tankersley (1998:8) also states that most early Paleoindian models equate economy with food and fail to operationalize subsistence in terms of survival. To fully examine paleoeconomies, archaeologists need to focus on the processes of production, distribution, consumption, and the exchange of material, not just on what they ate (Tankersley 1998:8).

Ecosystem characteristics generally relate to hunter-gatherer mobility strategies and technological organization (Binford 1980, Shott 1986). Collection strategies evolved in areas containing resources that may be spatially or seasonally inconsistent, while uniform environments tend to support foraging strategies (Anderson and Hanson 1988:264). There are several Paleoindian sites (e.g., the Page/Ladson and Ryan-Harley sites in northern Florida) where the deposit was beneficially located for organic preservation and archaeologists recovered wood, bone, and ivory artifacts (Dunbar 1991; Dunbar and Webb 1996). The majority of Paleoindian artifacts, however, are stone tools because the high-quality siliceous material is more resistant to corrosive environmental conditions than organic remains (Morse et al. 1996).

23 Because nearly all archaeological materials analyzed in this dissertation are lithics, the examination of trends in lithic assemblages is a focal part of my discussion. According to Shott (1986), many of the earlier approaches to stone tool analysis did not consider that structures of lithic assemblages relate to the set of activities in which they are directly employed. Lithic remains are typically all that remain in the archaeological record of Paleoindian sites, and archaeologists must utilize the composition of the stone tool assemblage to determine the function of the site. Tankersley (1998) used ratios of bifacial to unifacial tools, preforms to finished tools, and local to non-local raw materials to distinguish among three different types of sites: food procurement and processing sites, base camps, and stone procurement and tool manufacturing sites. Tankersley’s definitions are similar to Binford’s (1980:9) description of the two distinct archaeological records created by hunter and gather groups: residential base camps and extraction localities. Tankersley’s typology does not include ceremonial sites, burials, tool caches, or any number of limited activity areas; however, this coarse-grained approach does assist in identifying variability among Paleoindian sites.

Tankersley’s and Binford’s definitions of site types are similar. Tankersley’s (1998) definition of a typical base camp shows evidence of extended periods of habitation and domestic activities. Binford’s (1980:9) description of residential base camps states that they serve as hubs for social and subsistence activities. Foraging parties originate from these camps because they are typically located near areas where critical resources like water and raw materials are available (Binford 1980:9). According to Lewis and Sally Binford (1969) and ater Lewis Binford (1980), residential base camps typically exhibit maintenance activities consisting of food processing and tool manufacture. Tankersley’s (1998) other types of sites – stone procurement and tool manufacturing sites – are areas where raw material was obtained and tools were produced and replaced. Food procurement and processing sites are sites that show evidence of food processing activities such as collecting, butchering, scavenging, or food caching. Tankersley’s two definitions are similar to Binford’s (1980:9) description of extraction localities, which are sites occupied for a short period while individuals procure resources. Task groups radiate from a base camp to extraction localities to obtain resources. Groups practicing this strategy can remain at their base camp until resources are depleted, then move their base camp when the cost of traveling to extraction localities is greater than the benefits of remaining at a

24 base camp (Anderson et al. 1996). Research on submerged prehistoric sites in Apalachee Bay has shown that both extraction locations and residential base camps are present (Marks 2002)

Tools recovered from an archaeological location can help determine site function (Binford 1980; Binford and Binford 1969; Marks 2002; Tankersley 1998). Habitation sites yield more tools and tool types of which bifacial and unifacial tools typically represent the later stages of chipped stone reduction (Andrefsky 1998). Some of these tools are diagnostic of specific cultures, especially projectile points and certain scrapers (Binford 1980; Binford and Binford 1969, Marks 2002, Tankersley 1998). Data from Florida indicate that local cultures made formal tools in locations other than quarries (Faught and Carter 1998; Purdy 1981).

Models based on current and past hunter-gatherer groups help to explain trends in Paleoindian social organization. Binford (1980) and Binford and Binford (1969) based their models on living hunting and gathering groups. While the technology is different from the prehistoric technologies of the Southeast, the organizational schemes at this level should be applicable to any hunter and gatherer group because these groups must construct their technologies in response to their present conditions. Other researchers in the Southeast have used these models to show that biotic resource structure influences group size, mobility patterns, and technological organization (Anderson et al. 1996). These studies included the Wallace Reservoir survey in Georgia by O’Steen (1996); Rucker’s Bottom site, also in Georgia, and G.S. Lewis site in South Carolina by Anderson and Hanson (1988); Little Tennessee River valley survey by Davis (1985); Haw River valley states in Tennessee by Claggett and Cable (1982) and Cable (1996); Harney Flats in Florida by Daniel and Wisenbaker (1987, 1989); and the Hardaway site in South Carolina (Daniel 1998, 2001). These sites had a Paleoindian or Archaic component, and all had good-sized lithic collections. Binford’s (1980) models are just several among many using modern hunter and gatherer groups as templates for early social organization. The only other viable method for modeling early hunter and gatherer groups is to utilize information from other contemporary hunter and gatherer groups: the Nunamiut described by Binford (1980) and the Australian aborigines described by Gould et al. (1971). If groups possess similar technological processes, then researchers can assume similarities in social organization, as long as the archaeological record supports these assumptions.

25 Binford (1977) determined that under conditions of low raw material availability, the maintenance of existing tools demanded greater attention and resulted in lowered discard rates. In Binford’s (1977) example of the Nunamuit, these conditions held true during extended trips to procure caribou, but base camps exhibited a higher tool discard rate (Claggett and Cable 1982:87). A simplified version of what Binford is saying would be that the greater the distance to lithic resources, the amount of tool maintenance increases and rate of tool discard decreases. While Nunamuit technology is different from the prehistoric technologies of the Southeast, the organizational principles of Binford’s (1980) scheme should be applicable to any hunter/gatherer technology. At the basic level, these groups must anticipate future conditions and must construct stone tools to suit those conditions (Claggett and Cable 1982:88).

Conclusion In summary, the Aucilla River basin has a multitude of lithic resources and has produced assemblages similar to other Early Holocene assemblages in the Southeast. These assemblages contain high percentages of unmodified flakes as well as expedient blade or situational tools that exhibit unifacial or bifacial wear, indicating brief use for light-duty cutting and scraping (Anderson and Schuldenrein 1983; Smith 1986:15). The high concentration of lithic quarries allowed Pleistocene peoples to decrease tool maintenance and increase their rate of tool discard.

Our current understanding of Paleoindian dispersal in the Western Hemisphere suggests that once the glacial ice had been circumvented – through an ice-free corridor or along the continental margins – they spread rapidly through the Americas. By 12,500 years ago, Paleoindian people inhabited Ontolo. Paleoindian culture is represented by the presence of specific diagnostic artifacts and there is evidence of their presence in Florida near rivers and lithic resources, resources that once were available on what is now the continental shelf. Florida during the Last Glacial Maximum was nearly twice its current size because of the shallow continental shelf in the Gulf of Mexico. Any archaeological site on the continental shelf is now submerged and most likely has been for over 6000 years. Underwater archaeologists have been studying submerged prehistoric human occupation sites for several decades, and research in Apalachee Bay has revealed its potential as a major research area.

CHAPTER 3

GEOLOGICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS

Florida has a geology that is unique throughout most of North America, and it is this geology that makes this area favorable for the presence submerged prehistoric sites. The Big Bend area of north Florida exhibits a developed karst geology, numerous rivers, shallow continental shelf, and a favorable climate. During the terminal Pleistocene, conditions were vastly different. The climate was variable during the Holocene transition and pollen deposited in deep lakes recorded the changes over time. Glacial ice lowered sea levels, exposing large areas of the continental shelf and lowering water tables. The reduction of water tables left rivers a mere trickle of their modern flow. The presence of megafaunal remains in the archaeological record often leads to romanticizing Paleoindian life in the area as bands of hunters roving across the landscape with spears in hand searching for mammoths and mastodons. A variety of other edible fauna were available during the terminal Pleistocene, however, suggesting early Floridians employed a more generalized subsistence strategy. With the lack of available water in the area, animals and Paleoindians would have frequented sinkhole depressions for fresh water or migrated across the exposed shelf to areas where water was easily accessible. These conditions suggest a social organization based on seasonal rounds following resource availability (Anderson 1996).

Karst Geology The primary geological feature of the Florida Big Bend area is karst limestone and its associated formations. This geology provided the initial Floridian inhabitants with drinking water from the springs and raw material for lithic tools (Dunbar et al. 1992). The term “karst” describes the sum of phenomena characterizing regions with exposed carbonate rocks,

27 particularly limestone (LaMoreaux et al. 1997; LeGrand 1973:859). The term “karstification” describes processes resulting in the development of surface and subsurface features distinctive in carbonate or limestone terrains. Subterranean karst features such as caverns and other large openings may develop depending on the presence of soluble rocks, carbonic acid, ample precipitation, openings in rocks, and favorable structural and topographical setting (Beck 1986; LaMoreaux et al. 1997; LeGrand 1973:860-861; Ritter 1986). Karst features form in areas where carbon dioxide-bearing water flows through limestone and portions of the material dissolve into solution (Beck 1986; LeGrand 1973:859-860; Ritter 1986). Karst features contain three types of sediments: marls (clastic muds), peats (decayed plant material), and sand to gravel-sized pieces of quartz and limestone along with similarly sized pieces of bone and various artifacts (Faught and Carter 1998:169).

Tertiary karst underlies almost the entire state of Florida. Within the state there are three main geohydraulic regions based on how close this karst is to the ground surface: the Tertiary karst region, the marginal region, and the outlying region (Dunbar 1991:189-191). These areas were mentioned in the previous chapter in regard to the number of Paleoindian sites within each of these areas (Figure 2.2). The Big Bend area of Florida is located partly in the Tertiary karst region and contains chert-bearing limestone at or near the ground surface. The marginal regions surrounding the Tertiary karst have less than 35 m of clastic sediments overlying the Tertiary karst. The exceptions are sinkholes, river channels, or spring caverns exposing Tertiary karst in marginal regions. The outlying regions lie beyond the marginal regions and cover the Tertiary karst with more than 35 m of clastic sediments. The lithic resources in this area are of low quality and are difficult to locate (Dunbar 1991:188-191).

The Tertiary karst region contains the majority of fresh water springs. Some springs were reliable water sources for animals and humans during drought years and other times of lowered water tables. There are several fresh water springs still flowing on the continental shelf, including, until recently, Ray Hole Springs (Anuskiewicz 1988; Faught 1996:228-229). The areas in and around sinkholes typically hold archaeological remains like sites discovered at Wakulla Springs, Page/Ladson, and Sloth Hole (Dunbar 1991; Dunbar et al. 1992; Faught 1996; Faught and Donoghue 1997:418; Hemmings 2000).

28 The veneer of Pleistocene quartz sediments covering Tertiary age limestone in Central Florida increases in thickness further away from an elevated ridge that runs from the northwest to the southeast across peninsular Florida often referred to as the structural arch (Beck 1986; LeGrand 1973). Solution cavities are frequent within the limestone, but are typically below the water table. Flowing water cannot easily remove the soils of Central Florida, because sand filling solution cavities has reduced the permeability of the limestone. This drop in permeability allows the Floridan Aquifer to store more water (Beck 1986; LaMoreaux et al. 1997; LeGrand 1973:863; Ritter 1986). The Floridan Aquifer lies beneath most of the state of Florida. This aquifer is one of the largest groundwater systems in the United States, holding several trillion gallons of water (Dunbar 1991:195; LaMoreaux et al. 1997:27). During times of lowered sea level, the cavernous nature of the karst terrain caused the water table of the aquifer to lower as well, though not necessarily at an equal rate (Dunbar 1991:194-195). Dunbar et al. (1992:122) and others (e.g., Clausen, et al. 1979; Webb 1974) suggest that during the Terminal Pleistocene, diminished sea levels lowered the water levels of the Floridan Aquifer by more than 26 m in some locations. However, because of its size, the large Floridan Aquifer remained the most reliable source of potable water during the late Pleistocene, discharging from deeper springs in the area (Dunbar 1991:194-195).

Florida Rivers As mentioned above, Tertiary limestone almost completely underlies the state of Florida, but there are areas where the Ocala Uplift has pushed this limestone closer to the surface, amplifying the dissolution of the limestone (Schmidt and Scott 1984). Mature karst develops a well-defined and complex underground channel system, which occurs primarily in the Big Bend area of North Florida, and to a lesser extent throughout the rest of Florida (Schmidt and Scott 1984). In areas where Tertiary limestone approaches the ground surface, numerous sinkholes, channels, and similar openings connect the limestone to the surface. The channel systems provide surface drainage for the Tertiary karst region of Florida. While the majority of these channel systems are subterranean, several well-developed surface channels have formed into river systems (Dunbar et al. 1992:121).

29 The karstic features of rivers flowing into Apalachee Bay allow for increased site discovery. Apalachee Bay is the section of Gulf of Mexico that overlays the northwestern portion of Florida’s Tertiary karstic shelf. Six rivers flow into Apalachee Bay, including the Ochlockonee, St. Marks, East, Aucilla, Pinhook, and Econfina. Most of these rivers are karst rivers and have a very low sediment load. The exceptions are the St. Marks and the Ochlocknee, which have characteristics of both karstic and alluvial rivers and carry a moderate amount of sediment (Dunbar, Webb, Faught, Anuskiewicz, and Stright 1989; Faught and Donoghue 1997:423). The low sediment load of the karstic rivers does not bury or dislocate archaeological deposits like sediment-rich rivers. Although the lack of sediment cover may decrease the preservation of organic archaeological material, it increases the visibility and “findability” of archaeological locations (Dunbar 1988; Dunbar, Webb, Faught, Anuskiewicz, and Stright 1989:26; Faught 1996; Faught and Donoghue 1997:423). Therefore, the ease of site discovery in Apalachee Bay is greater than in the Mississippi delta, for example, because most sites in Apalachee Bay are visible as artifact scatters on the ocean bottom (Banning 2001; Faught 1996). Karstic rivers also lack typical geological features such as deltas and point bars associated with fluvial rivers, but have underground features that lose water during flood stage and discharge water from sinkholes and springs during low river stages. This results in less erosive river currents, increasing the chances of locating submerged prehistoric human occupation sites within these rivers (Dunbar 1988; Dunbar, Webb, Faught, Anuskiewicz, and Stright 1989:26; Faught 1996).

Present day karstic rivers provide models for rivers during Pleistocene times. The Aucilla River formed through the process of karstification, the chemical solution of limestone, and can serve as a modern analog of rivers that flowed across the continental shelf during the Late Pleistocene and Early Holocene. Large portions of the modern Aucilla River flow underground and the river channel is not fully integrated. There are several unusual features of this river including caves, sinkholes, and dry channels. During the last ice age, the modern terrestrial portions of the Aucilla River were more subterranean and its modern day sinkholes and springs were shallow ponds or swamps. These areas provided fresh water for late Pleistocene and early Holocene fauna, and Paleoindians. The margins of the Aucilla River

30 contain chert-bearing limestone, providing Paleoindians and later Native American groups with lithic resources (Dunbar 1988; Dunbar, Webb, Faught, Anuskiewicz, and Stright 1989:26-27).

Paleoindian cultures in North Florida utilized chert outcrops for their lithic tools. Chert is a sedimentary rock made up of microcrystalline quartz. The weathering of the Appalachian Mountains by rain places the quartz into solution. When this silica solution reaches an area of low temperature and a concentration greater than 6 parts per million (ppm), the silicon and oxygen atoms form tetrahedrons. These molecules attach to one another and precipitate out of solution forming the crystalline structure of chert (Luedtke 1992:20). This structure creates a nodule that is the shape of the pocket of rock in which it formed, limestone, in the case of Florida. The process of karstification dissolves the surrounding limestone, exposing chert boulders. The result is a pinnacle of erosion-resistant chert (Luedtke 1992). Chert outcrops in Florida appear as boulder fields in two settings: karst plains or river channels. Archaeologists classified all chert outcrops discovered underwater in the Aucilla River as ancient quarry sites (Dunbar 1996). These underwater quarry sites show that the river channels were dry during earlier times. The Aucilla River contains more underwater sites than any other area in Florida and the greatest number of sites within this river system tends to be around sinkholes and other karst depressions (Dunbar 1988; Dunbar, Webb, Faught, Anuskiewicz, and Stright 1989:27; Faught 1996).

The river’s lithic resources were almost as important to the early Native Americans as the water itself. The Aucilla River contains large amounts of lithic resources on its margins and in its channel. The relationship between the availability of water and chert is important to understanding Florida’s ancient past. According to Dunbar (1991), the availability of lithic and groundwater resources has an inverse relationship controlled by sea level, climate, and geology. When water tables are low, lithic resources are readily available and fresh water is difficult to locate. When water tables rise, the amount of available fresh water increases, but the water inundates chert outcrops, reducing lithic resource accessibility (Dunbar 1991:188).

Throughout Florida, the majority of Paleoindian sites containing diagnostic artifacts are located near karst depressions, which typically are sources of fresh water. The diagnostic

31 artifacts include carved ivory foreshafts, as well as Clovis, Simpson, and Suwannee projectile point/knives (Anderson 1996; Anderson and Sassaman 1996b; Dunbar et al. 1992:124; Milanich 1994). The terrestrial karst area surrounding Apalachee Bay holds Florida’s highest concentration of Paleoindian sites. Faught (1996) and others (Dunbar et al. 1992:124-127) hypothesized that this cluster of Paleoindian sites extended into the waters of Apalachee Bay, and subsequent investigations yielded more than 30 areas containing archaeological material (Faught 2004a, 2004b; Marks 2002). Survivability of submerged prehistoric human occupation sites outside Apalachee Bay is less likely due to the lack of chert resources along the coastal margin. Sediments delivered to the west by the non-karstic Apalachicola River and the semi- karstic Ochlockonee River bury offshore surface karst formations. The areas to the east and west also exhibit fewer archaeological sites terrestrially, which reduces the probability of locating any underwater archaeological sites (Dunbar 1988; Dunbar, Webb, Faught, Anuskiewicz, and Stright 1989:26; Faught 1996).

Sea-level rise Sea-level rise is important in understanding the distribution of archaeological sites within Florida. Rising sea levels, caused by the melting of Wisconsonian glaciers, inundated chert outcrops along the continental shelf and made them inaccessible. As sea level rose, brackish and then marine environments replaced terrestrial environments (Dunbar et al. 1992:120-121). Inland water tables fell during the period of lowered sea level, but when sea levels rose, inland water tables did as well. The result of this rise in water table was the freshwater inundation of karst features and chert outcrops utilized by late Pleistocene and early Holocene Native Americans (Dunbar et al. 1992:120-121).

Worldwide sea level change is referred to as eustatic sea-level change. Tectonic, isostatic, and hydro-isostatic changes cause local or relative changes in sea level. The interactions between eustatic and relative sea-level change create different effects on localized sea level. Dramatic relative sea-level changes can overshadow eustatic changes, resulting in reduced or accentuated local sea-level change. One factor affecting relative sea level is tectonic uplift, which decreases the amount of local sea-level rise and possibly even negates it. A significant uplift will result in a net decrease of local sea level. Subsidence extenuates the effect

32 of eustatic sea-level rise (Dorsey 1997:3-4). The Southeastern section of Florida exhibits a subsidence of only 2 cm per millennium (Toscano and Lundberg 1999:760). According to Dorsey (1997:15), the Gulf Coast of Florida has subsided less than one meter over the last 21,000 years. However, Opdyke et al. (1984) calculated the uplift at only 1.4 cm every millennium which would be less than 3 cm over 20,000 years. Therefore, Florida lies on a relatively tectonically stable platform and has undergone only minor changes in local sea level.

A significant rise in sea level created Apalachee Bay during the late Pleistocene. Changes in sea level greatly affected the nature of the coastline and continental shelf, as well as the populations of animal species, and humans in North Florida (Dunbar et al. 1992; Waters 1992). Continental shelf coring projects have reconstructed the last 40,000 years of sea-level fluctuation. In-place dating of organic remains found within these cores, such as shells, tree stumps, coral reefs, and submerged peats, provide time sequences for local sea level events (Balsillie and Donoghue 2004; Curray 1960; Fairbanks 1989; Fairbridge 1974; Frazier 1974; Nelson and Bray 1970; Otvos 2004; Waters 1992).

During the Wisconsin glaciation, the Laurentide and Cordilleran ice masses reached their maximum extent at 18,000 rcybp (ca. 21,000 years ago) and global sea levels were as much as 130 m below mean sea level (below MSL) (Bloom 1983; Porter 1988; Waters 1992:234). According to relict shore features, the sea level of the western Gulf of Mexico reached its nadir at an estimated depth of 90 m below MSL and in the Caribbean the depth was 120 m below MSL (Donoghue and White 1995; Faught and Donoghue 1997; Kidson 1982, Scholl et al. 1969). Although there is a substantial discrepancy between these depth estimates, the northwest Florida continental shelf is steeper at those depths. The 90, 120, and 160 m isobaths are relatively close together and relict shore features may not be as obvious in the Gulf of Mexico compared to those in the Caribbean (Balsillie and Donoghue 2004; Otvos 2004). While these isobaths are close together, the 90 m isobath is still over 185 km (100 nautical miles) from the modern Big Bend coastline, creating a Florida that was nearly double its modern size. There is no archaeological evidence for human occupation in Florida prior to 13,500 years ago, a date that corresponds to the 90 m isobath. Deeper portions of the continental shelf are far less likely to produce artifacts

33 or sites because we have no evidence to suggest that there were humans in North America to produce sites (Faught 2004b:274).

A bathymetric study by Ballard and Uchupi (1970) discovered relict coastal features 60 m deep on the eastern continental shelf of the Gulf of Mexico. They also discovered less obvious stillstands at 40, 32, and 20 m isobaths. Garrison (1992) also located two sets of shoreline features at the 60 and 40 m isobaths along the southern parts of the western Floridan continental shelf. The data from Apalachee Bay reflects shallower depths than Frazier (1974), Nelson and Bray (1970), or Curray (1960) estimated for the western Gulf of Mexico at similar times. The northwestern Gulf of Mexico contains sediment from the Mississippi River, which has caused subsidence in that portion of the continental shelf. In agreement with these findings are Opdyke et al. (1984) who hypothesized that the northeastern Gulf region has undergone regional isostatic rebound due to the hyper-solution of limestone bedrock during the late Pleistocene (Faught and Donoghue 1997:448). In plain English, the lack of sediment transported by Florida’s karstic rivers and the underlying Tertiary karst plain has caused the northeastern continental shelf to rise relative to the northwestern shelf, thereby creating relatively shallower depths of the relict coastal features.

Based on the pattern of deglaciation, oceanographers believe that sea-level rise occurred in two major pulses. The glaciers began melting 22,000 years ago, and during the first 7000 years of glacial melting, global sea levels rose 5 to 6 m every millennium (Fleming et al. 1998:333). At 14,000 years ago, the first melt-water pulse occurred with rates of sea-level rise averaging 20 m per millennium causing a global sea-level rise from 90 m below MSL to 40 m below MSL in 2500 years (Balsillie and Donoghue 2004; Fleming et al. 1998; Ruddiman 1987). This melt-water pulse inundated a large portion of the continental shelf, but the Younger Dryas climatic reversal interrupted this rapid sea-level rise (Broecker et al. 1988; Fleming et al. 1998:327; Rodbell 2000). This event ceased glacial melting worldwide for 1000 years or more starting at ca. 11,000 rcybp. The shoreline created by this stillstand correlates roughly with the time of the initial human migration into Florida (Faught 2004b:274). This shoreline, dubbed the Younger Dryas, Paleoindian, or Clovis shoreline, exists at the 40 m isobath in the northeast Gulf of Mexico, according to Frazier (1975) and discussed by Faught and Donoghue (1997). This

34 shoreline is as much as 140 km (75 nautical miles) offshore of the Big Bend coast, thus exposing an additional 75 percent of modern Florida’s northwest continental shelf. The area remained exposed until the end of the Younger Dryas at ca. 10,000 rcybp (Faught 2004b:274). The change in Gulf of Mexico sea levels during the Younger Dryas is unclear. During the Younger Dryas, sea levels stabilized or possibly lowered as re-advancing glacial margins restricted the amount of melt water flow into the world’s oceans (Faught 1996:166-168; Faught 2004a:277).

There are three proposed models of deglaciation during the Younger Dryas: 1) a smooth deglaciation model with the most rapid melting focused at 11,000 rcybp; 2) a stabilized model with little or no ice volume loss during the Younger Dryas; and 3) a deglaciation reversal model where significant ice growth occurred from 11,000 to 10,000 rcybp (Balsillie and Donoghue 2004:18; Otvos 2004, Ruddiman 1987). The latter two models are similar in that they both suggest a reduction of glacial melting during the Younger Dryas, the only difference being the presence of ice growth in the third model. Deep-sea sediment core δ18O records corroborate the scenario of stabilization of two separate stages of sea-level rise (Fleming et al. 1998).

At the conclusion of the Younger Dryas (ca. 10,000 rcybp) there was another melt-water pulse that lasted until ca. 9000 rcybp. The melting rate during this pulse was as high as 20 m per millennium, followed by a reduced rate until approximately 6000 rcybp. Ten thousand years ago the shoreline was 20 m below MSL, approximately 50 km seaward of the modern coast. This isobath is approximately 40 km from the J&J Hunt (8JE740) and Ontolo (8JE1577) sites (Faught and Donoghue 1997:443; Marks 2002). Sea level rose nearly 15 m over the next 2000 years, transgressing along the low-slope continental shelf (Balsillie and Donoghue 2004; Fleming et al. 1998:327). Sea level reached near-present levels around 7000 years ago, but oceanographers do not fully understand what sea level did after that time period. Some Gulf of Mexico sea level curves appear to have large fluctuations in sea level during the last 7000 years and have high stands at 5 m above sea level and low stands at 7 m below MSL (Donoghue and White 1995). Other curves have sea level rising gradually with minor fluctuations (0.5 m maximum) over the last 7000 years (Balsillie and Donoghue 2004).

35 Paleoindians would have utilized the land currently inundated by rising sea level. There is limited terrestrial evidence of human occupation in the Big Bend area of Florida between 10,500 and 8000 years ago, perhaps the result of abandonment during the latter stages of sea level transgression, environmental and climatic factors, or an increase in coastal adaptation with sites that are now underwater (Faught 2004b:275; Faught and Carter 1988). Rising sea levels inundated Pleistocene chert outcrops along Florida’s continental shelf, rendering them inaccessible to prehistoric cultures because brackish environments followed by marine environments replaced the terrestrial habitation areas (Dunbar et al. 1992:120-121). The rapid horizontal transgression from the end of the Younger Dryas to 7000 years ago along the Apalachee Bay portion of the continental shelf suggests improved chances for archaeological site preservation between the 40 m and 10 m below MSL (Stright 1995).

Sea-level rise also flooded the river channels incised into the continental shelf, and created estuarine environments (Carter 1988; Mount 1995). Foraminiferal data show that by 16,500 rcybp pluvial conditions began in the Gulf of Mexico and reached their maximum by 13,000 rcybp (Leventer et al. 1982). During this time, the paleo-Mississippi River was discharging as much as six times present levels (Emiliani et al., 1978) and sediment discharge may have been ten times greater (Perlmutter 1985). The Apalachicola River would probably have had a similar increase in discharge and sediment load during these pluvial conditions as would other rivers in the Southeast (Donoghue 1993:199-200). This increased discharge would have incised the river channels more deeply into the continental shelf (Mount 1995). When sea levels rose, inland water tables rose as well as river channel levels, resulting in the freshwater inundation of terrestrial karst features and chert outcrops utilized by late Pleistocene and early Holocene Native Americans (Dunbar et al. 1992:120-121).

Along with sea-level rise and pluvial conditions, there are other factors that make Florida’s Gulf Coast a likely area to recover evidence of Late Pleistocene human activity. The Big Bend of Florida exhibits low tidal fluctuations and has a shallow mantle of clastic sediments, which reduces the erosion of archaeological locations (Faught and Donoghue 1997; Dunbar et al. 1992:123-124; Frazier 1974). Based on diagnostic artifacts, Native Americans occupied sites currently in 4-5 m of water between 12,500 and 8,000 years ago (Faught 2004b; Marks 2002;

36 Marks and Faught 2004). To date, all submerged prehistoric human occupation sites in Apalachee Bay lack evidence of occupation after the estimated time of inundation.

Sediments McBride et al. (1999) created a sedimentary profile for the northeastern Gulf of Mexico based on numerous cores taken from the continental shelf offshore of Alabama and northwest Florida. They found six different facies representing three separate sedimentary environments: marine, estuarine, and terrestrial (coastal). Facies one is from the terrestrial depositional environment of an unknown thickness. This facies is composed of yellowish-burnt orange and gray oxidized clayey quartz sand. Facies two is a less than .2 m thick shell bed from the lower bay shoreface or estuary/bay bottom. Facies three is from the perimeter of the estuary and is composed of a 0.2-2 m thick layer of tan, silty to fine quartz sand. Facies four is the first estuarine depositional layer that is 1-4 m thick, and is composed of dark gray bioturbated clay with some thin shelly sand layers likely from an open bay or central estuarine basin environment. Facies five, a distinct shell bed, is less than one meter thick with some quartz granules and pebbles, as well as pristine shells representative of the lower shoreface. Above this facies is facies six, a marine layer composed of a tan colored fine to coarse quartz sand with scattered shells representative of a shelf environment. The modern sea floor forms the upper portion of facies six, which can be up to 5.5 m thick (McBride et al. 1999:109).

The J&J Hunt (8JE740) site produced a stratigraphic profile to a depth of almost 4 m that was similar to the layers described above by McBride et al. (1999), (Tobón and Pendleton 2002). The first layer, at the bottom of the cores, is a terrestrial layer with dark brown sandy clay. The second layer consists of gray sandy clay with wood fragments indicative of fresh water environments. The third layer is composed of dark gray clayey sand with oyster and other estuarine shellfish. The second layer is often intermixed with the third layer due to the intrusion of tree roots. The fourth layer is a bed of whole shell and dark brown sand between 10 and 50 cm. The fifth is a marine sediment layer with brown-gray coarse-grained sand often with larger shell fragments that is between 10 and 30 cm thick. The sixth and uppermost layer is another marine sediment layer of tan fine-grained sand and small shell fragments and is usually between

37 10 and 20 cm thick. These sedimentary layers surround large dolomite boulders as large as 0.5 cubic meters (Tobón and Pendleton 2002).

Palynology In the late Pleistocene, environmental conditions were changing in Florida in conjunction with deglaciation and sea-level rise. At the time of full glaciation (18,000 rcybp), the pollen record shows pine forests dominating the landscape while oak and hickory were less abundant. Pine forests tend to be representative of a wetter climate, while the oak and hickory species are indicative of a warmer, dryer climate (Watts et al. 1992). Two drier periods followed deglaciation: the first occurred at the end of Pleistocene (14,000-11,000 rcybp) and second during the Hypsithermal (9000-7000 rcybp). The period of the Younger Dryas (11,000-10,000 rcybp) and the period after the Hypsithermal (7000-5000 rcybp) appear to be more moist (Faught and Carter 1998). Palynologists determined the past climates based on concentrations of the pollen from various plant species.

Modeling past environments is biased by a heavy dependence on pollen samples. Floral remains can provide some data about local species, but pollen records encompass a broader, more complete record of past climates and tend to preserve better. Bryant and Hall (1993) list several problems encountered when modeling past environments utilizing palynological study including sampling, processing, counting, preservation, and interpretation. By working diligently with the pollen samples, archaeologists and palynologists can control all of these issues, except preservation. Poor pollen preservation in archaeological sites is dependent on environmental conditions and rapid changes in moisture can cause some pollen types – cypresss, juniper, and cedar in particular – to rupture and fragment. Soils with high oxidation rates preserve oak, pine, and beech pollens better than hazelnut, alder, elm, poplar, maple, willow, and ash. Fungal or bacterial activity, pH, and cultural activities including fires, plowing, and land modification all can have an effect on pollen preservation (Bryant and Hall 1993). Environmental conditions affecting pollen preservation impact the quality of models.

The lack of pollen preservation can reduce a species’ presence in the sample, thereby giving incorrect information about past environmental conditions. Lake muds contain the most

38 complete pollen samples. For Florida, Watts and Stuiver (1980) suggest that pollen-containing lake mud older than 8500 rcybp can only be found in lakes that are at least 20 m deep and controlled by the Floridian aquifer. Many, if not most, modern lakes shallower than 20 m were dry prior to 8500 rcybp and there was no pollen accumulation in the lakebed due to drastically lowered water tables at the end of the Pleistocene. Another problem with modeling past environments involves the lack of coastal data. The 10,000 rcybp coastline was as much as 100 km further out from the modern shoreline (Faught 2004a), and the environment on the coast may have been different from inland areas or the modern coastline. The problem of pollen preservation is not the only constraint affecting models.

Figure 3.1: Lakes suitable for pollen studies in the Southeast (Watts et al. 1992:1057).

Sometimes palynologists locate an area with ideal conditions for pollen preservation such as Camel Lake located in Liberty County, Florida. The Camel Lake pollen record (Watts et al. 1992) indicates that pine pollen decreased from over 80 percent at 14,000 rcybp to less than 20 percent at 11,000 rcybp, indicating a transition from Late Pleistocene to Holocene vegetation and

39 climate. During this time, the co-occurrence of spruce, beech, and hickory in North Florida indicates conditions similar to present day southern Quebec, Canada. Other pollen data from the Page/Ladson Site (8JE591), obtained from a core dating from 10,600-11,800 rcybp, confirmed an abundance of oak, in addition to hickory, elm, sweet gum, hackberry sycamore, American hornbeam, juniper, cypress, and pine. Herb pollen revealed ragweed, grass, goosefoot, compositae, and sedge. The pollen from the core is indicative of a rich deciduous forest and coincides with data from the Camel Lake pollen record (Purdy 1991; Watts and Hansen 1988).

Figure 3.2: Pollen diagram from uppermost 1 m of sediment from Camel Lake. The shaded exaggeration is 5X (from Watts et al. 1992:1060).

At the time of the Younger Dryas (11,000-10,000 rcybp), the pollen record at Camel Lake shows an oscillation back to pine, representing a return to wet conditions coinciding with

40 glacial growth. Following the Younger Dryas, stable oak-hickory vegetational communities characterize the Late Pleistocene/Early Holocene transitional environment for North Florida (Anderson et al. 1996; Faught and Carter 1998; Watts et al. 1992). The onset of modern conditions in Florida begins around 8000-7000 rcybp when the amount of oak and hickory pollens decreased, and pine, swamp, and wetland pollens increased in the Camel Lake sample indicating a return of damp environmental conditions (Faught and Carter 1998:170; Watts et al. 1992). The palynology of North Florida suggests past climatic conditions for the area, and provides archaeologists clues to possible subsistence strategies of early cultures.

Faunal Remains The majority of artifacts recovered from Paleoindian cultures are lithic remains, because they are dense and preserve better than organic remains. The majority of organic remains recovered at archaeological sites come from underwater or wet settings that have an improved preservational environment. Windover (8BR246), a bog site, yielded discoveries thought impossible: 7,000 year-old brain tissue, antler, wood, bone, and woven fabrics (Doran 2002; Doran and Dickel 1988). Little Salt Springs and Warm Mineral Springs in Southwestern Florida yielded wooden artifacts (Clausen et al. 1975, 1979). Warm Mineral Springs also yielded preserved human brains (Royal and Clark 1960). The rivers of northern Florida are widely known as sources of Paleoindian artifacts as well as Pleistocene megafaunal remains (Dunbar et al. 1992:118). The major clustering and general distribution of Paleoindian sites are near chert outcrop locations in the Big Bend (Dunbar and Waller 1983).

Early inhabitants of Florida possessed wide range of food resources, as evidenced by the abundant Pleistocene faunal remains recovered in association with Paleoindian artifacts. During the Younger Dryas there were widespread extinctions of more than 30 large mammal species including Proboscidea (elephants), Equidae (horses), and Camelidae (camels) accompanying the environmental changes in North America (Faught 2004b, Webb 1974). Humans had migrated to the New World approximately 13,000 years ago, prior to the extinction of Pleistocene fauna and there is evidence that Paleoindians exploited these resources in Florida (Anderson et al. 1996). Some of the best evidence of human use of Pleistocene fauna in the Southeast are the ivory and bone tools from Florida freshwater springs, sinkholes, and rivers (Goodyear 1999).

41 At Little Salt Spring (8SO18), a 60-m deep sinkhole located in Sarasota County, archaeologists recovered Clovis and Paleoindian artifacts in association with Pleistocene faunal remains. The earliest, although equivocal, evidence of human occupation at the site comes from an impaled giant tortoise shell found 26 m underwater on a ledge within the sinkhole. The bone from the extinct tortoise was radiocarbon dated to 13,450 ± 190 rcybp, and the sharp stake impaling the tortoise dated to 12,030 ± 200 rcybp (Clausen et al. 1979). While the lack of adequate provenience data has discounted the tortoise’s association with early Paleoindians (Faught in press), the faunal information from the spring still provides archaeologists with evidence of available food resources during the Late Pleistocene. In association with the large tortoise were skeletal elements of extinct box turtle, ground sloth, bison, and mammoth or mastodon as well as modern freshwater turtle, land tortoise, rattlesnake, rabbit, and wood ibis. Paleoindians were hunting white-tailed deer by 10,000 rcybp as evidenced by faunal remains, food refuse, and lithic artifacts in association with drowned hearths on the basin slope of Little Salt Spring (Clausen et al. 1979).

Another archaeological site providing similar information about Late Pleistocene fauna is Warm Mineral Springs (8SO19) in Sarasota County 3 km distant from Little Salt Spring. Many early faunal remains were recovered on a ledge 13 m deep buried in a leaf-bed layer located beneath an algal slime layer and a gray, calcitic mud layer. Vertebrate remains included deer, opossum, squirrel, raccoon, mouse, rabbit, and frog, and plant remains included pine, oak, hickory, and palmetto. A total of 11 radiocarbon dates were obtained from the leaf layer ranging from 8920 ± 190 rcybp to 10,630 ± 210 rcybp with the majority of the dates earlier than 9500 rcybp (Clausen et al. 1975; Purdy 1981).

Several researchers have suggested that preservation is not the only reason these faunal remains occur in wet sites. A Paleoindian Oasis Hypothesis, suggested by Neill (1964), argues that extinct faunal remains and early artifacts are concentrated near sinkhole depressions and low lying areas because they were the only sources of fresh water during lowered water table levels of the terminal Pleistocene. The Oasis Hypothesis was later refined by Dunbar and Waller (1983) and was used to explain the abundance of Pleistocene fauna in and near sinkholes and springs. It may also explain a possible hunting strategy of Paleoindian cultures. Paleoindians

42 and Pleistocene creatures would have obtained water from these areas and some archaeologists believe that humans may have ambushed animals while they were drinking and more vulnerable (Dunbar et al. 1992; Dunbar and Waller 1983; Faught 1996:261; Neill 1964). Utilizing this model to locate early sites, archaeologists and private collectors have recovered Paleoindian artifacts and Pleistocene faunal remains from ancient sinkholes similar to Little Salt and Warm Mineral Springs and the shallow lakes that likely served as watering holes.

The rivers of Florida also contain many examples of Late Pleistocene vertebrate bones and teeth. While the majority of these faunal remains are isolated finds, some are in association with Paleoindian artifacts. Paleoindians modified several Pleistocene bones into tools while still fresh and resilient, i.e. soon after the animal died (Dunbar and Webb 1996). According to Neill (1964:23), fossil ivory is chalky and predisposed to splitting into sheets and is incompatible with the manufacture of tools. This implies a direct interaction between Paleoindian people and megafauna in Florida. Paleoindians may have scavenged the bones, but as evidenced by a Bison antiquus skull with an embedded spear point discovered in the Wacissa River, active hunting of megafauna did occur (Webb et al. 1984).

The Page/Ladson Site (8JE591) is a riverine site containing Pleistocene faunal data. Page/Ladson is actually a sinkhole within the Aucilla River, 15 km inland from the Florida coast. Faunal remains from this site included Pleistocene species of mammoth, mastodon, tapir, llama, sloth, horse, giant armadillo, and giant tortoise in addition to extant species of whitetail deer, alligator, snakes, and catfish (Dunbar, Webb, and Cring 1989). Paleoindians could have utilized all of these animals for subsistence. Another important recovery from Page/Ladson was mastodon digesta (preserved stomach contents), which provided information about the diet of large probocidians (Dunbar et al. 1988; Webb et al. 1992). Radiometric dates on a bone pin fragment and unworked mammoth remains were 10,520 ± 90 rcybp, while associated organic material returned a date of 11,770 ± 90 rcybp. An unbeveled Bolen Plain corner notched projectile point was recovered along with broken adze bits and chert fragment from a dark clayey soil horizon above the mammoth remains that yielded radiocarbon dates of 10,000 ± 120 rcybp to 10,280 ± 110 rcybp (Dunbar, Webb, and Cring 1989; Purdy 1991:162).

43 Pleistocene megafauna clearly factored in Paleoindian subsistence and technology as evidenced by the frequent ivory and megafaunal bone tools discovered in Florida rivers. However, with the multitude of species available to early Paleoindian people, it is doubtful that they specialized exclusively on megafauna. Bettinger (1980) points out that monotypic environments support specialized subsistence strategies, and ecologically diverse areas support generalized foraging strategies (Richerson et al. 1996). As stated above, Floridian environment of the Pleistocene contained abundant resources and therefore could support generalized foragers. The transition from fluted spear points to unfluted spear points during Late Paleoindian times suggests a change in hunting adaptations from big game to smaller animals (Anderson 1990).

Staining Characteristics The color of the artifacts recovered from submerged prehistoric sites may provide clues to the changing environmental conditions that the site experienced during sea-level rise. The chemical alteration of chert creates a patina on the outer surface, which is different depending on the depositional environment. Advanced terrestrial patination results in the outer edge of the chert artifacts becoming white or tan and chalky. Artifacts recovered in Apalachee Bay have been subjected to as many as four different environments: terrestrial and marine, in addition to freshwater and/or brackish. The patina on artifacts may reveal the past environmental history of the item (Dunbar et al. 1992:134). The artifacts recovered from the Aucilla River typically have a dark black stain or a dark-brown “goethite” growth as seen at Page/Ladson (Balsillie et al. in press). Most of the artifacts recovered from Ontolo and other submerged sites in Apalachee Bay have this black stain, but some do not. Artifact color has varied: black, white, gray, brown, yellow, red, pink, or some combination of these colors. To determine the depth of the patina, researchers cut one artifact recovered in 1989 at J&J Hunt (8JE740) in half with a rock saw. The inside of the artifact was white, while the outer 2 mm was black indicating that only the outer rind is penetrated (Faught 1990, 1996).

Prior to 2005, artifact staining was characterized by one of five categories modified from Faught (1996). These categories were U (Unstained – white or light gray), H (Half-stained – not stained, but not unstained either), B (stained – Black or dark gray), M (Mottled – stained black

44 but with areas of brown corrosion), and C (Corroded – covered in brown corrosion). An additional category of N (Not applicable) was used for non-lithic artifacts. Table 3.1 lists the staining trends for the artifacts from Ontolo using this method.

Table 3.1: Staining characteristics for Ontolo artifacts.

Totalavg wt. Surface Collection avg wt. Excavation avg wt. Isolated Finds avg wt. N = 1343 % 13.10 N = 782 % 13.98 N = 508 % 5.69 N = 53 % 71.09 B 607 45.2 9.37 B 392 50.1 9.70 B 195 38.4 3.53 B 20 37.7 59.89 H 384 28.6 17.49 H 199 25.4 20.28 H 165 32.5 5.95 H 20 37.7 84.89 U 221 16.5 7.33 U 93 11.9 8.48 U 124 24.4 5.82 U 4 7.5 27.35 M 122 9.1 28.17 M 94 12.0 23.71 M 19 3.7 23.45 M 9 17.0 84.76

In 2005, I concluded that these categories were insufficient to fully describe the staining characteristics observed on the lithics. The problem was noted when I reviewed data and discovered that I had previously placed many lithic artifacts of near identical color characteristics in different staining categories. Determining the appropriate category for an artifact that had black stain on one portion, but no staining on another was another problematic issue. To remedy these problems, I created a new classification system based on how much of an artifact displayed each one of the ten staining characteristics. The ten characteristics include: black, black-gray, white-gray, white (unstained), brown, red-brown, yellow-brown, yellow, pink, and corroded. The amount of each characteristic an artifact displayed was separated into six categories. The value listed in Table 3.2 is equal to the median coverage percentage for each category and was used to calculate the percentage of each staining characteristic among the artifacts. This value was also used to determine the average weight of artifacts for each staining characteristic. I believe method is still flawed, as an artifact may be 40 percent stained black and 60 percent unstained, and both characteristics would receive the same value of 50 percent. However, this method was far less time consuming and much more practical than mapping each individual artifact to determine the exact amount of staining. Given these drawbacks, the artifact counts among each staining characteristic are higher than they actually are. Table 3.3 shows the amount of the new staining characteristics for artifacts at Ontolo.

45 Table 3.2: Description of staining categories, percent coverage, and value. Category Percent expressed Value (P)resent 5-20% 0.125 (S)ome 20-40% 0.300 (H)alf 40-60% 0.500 (M)ost 60-80% 0.700 (G)reater 80-95% 0.875 (C)overed 95-100% 1.000 Table 3.3: Staining characteristics of Ontolo artifacts using updated method.

Totalavg wt. Surface Collection avg wt. Excavation avg wt. Isolated Finds avg wt. N = 1343 % 13.62 N = 782 % 14.12 N = 508 % 6.41 N = 53 % 69.79 black 247.5 18.4 12.58 bl 157.9 20.2 13.66 bl 80.3 15.8 5.29 bl 9.3 17.5 58.54 black gray 466.3 34.7 10.42 bg 259.9 33.2 11.10 bg 187.7 36.9 4.50 bg 18.7 35.3 60.44 white gray 328.2 24.4 13.01 wg 188.4 24.1 14.06 wg 125.3 24.7 6.11 wg 14.4 27.2 59.45 white 152.2 11.3 15.33 wh 86.5 11.1 17.16 wh 59.1 11.6 7.33 wh 6.6 12.5 62.76 brown 122.1 9.1 20.20 br 69.1 8.8 17.88 br 46.7 9.2 10.53 br 6.3 11.8 118.15 red-brown 69.9 5.2 19.13 rb 43.2 5.5 14.65 rb 22.4 4.4 12.84 rb 4.3 8.1 97.27 yellow-brown 76.0 5.7 13.19 yb 30.5 3.9 14.84 yb 41.8 8.2 6.42 yb 3.7 7.0 76.16 yellow 53.5 4.0 13.83 ye 33.0 4.2 15.23 ye 18.4 3.6 6.28 ye 2.1 4.0 58.63 pink 26.2 2.0 25.84 pi 16.4 2.1 20.23 pi 7.6 1.5 12.62 pi 2.2 4.2 112.35 corroded 18.3 1.4 25.14 co 13.3 1.7 26.34 co 4.2 0.8 17.39 co 0.8 1.5 46.14

Staining characteristics affect the visibility of an artifact and dark stained artifacts are readily visible on the ocean floor. Archaeologists (e.g., Faught 1996; Marks 2002) believe unstained artifacts were buried before inundation and have recently emerged on the surface of the ocean floor through the process of bioturbation. Stained black artifacts are the most visible on the ocean floor and corroded artifacts are the least. In fact, staff instructed field school students to look for “black rocks” to find artifacts at survey areas. Half-stained and half- unstained artifacts and the mottled artifacts stand out against the light brown sand of the ocean floor, but not as well as the black stained artifacts. Unstained artifacts also stand out, but not as distinctly as the other staining characteristics. The corroded artifacts typically take on an ivory or light brown color. The exterior of the artifact is typically pitted and porous and looks similar to the exposed bedrock in the area. The only distinction is the presence of flake scars. Artifacts with this type of staining characteristic are very difficult to observe. Although divers have collected fewer artifacts with low visibility staining characteristics, they have recovered artifacts with all forms of staining characteristics. Artifacts recovered from excavations exhibited less staining than those recovered from surface collections. Of the surface collection artifacts, 11.9

46 percent were unstained using the updated method compared to 24.4 percent of excavation artifacts. The differences between these two groups, using the updated method, is less obvious, though the excavation artifacts still exhibited nearly 5 percent less black staining than surface artifacts and had a greater percentage in the black-gray, white-gray, and white (unstained) categories. This finding could indicate the importance of visibility and divers may have overlooked the lighter-colored and less visible lithics. Another factor may be environmental, as the conditions that cause staining could not affect the buried lithics.

Staining of an artifact may indicate what environmental conditions the chipped stone experienced. Corrosion comes from sitting exposed on the ocean bottom for a long period. Keeley (1980:29) calls this corrosion a white patination caused by the chemical erosion of the stone artifact by agents such as alkaline environments, ultra-violet radiation, and acids released by plants. This results in a granular, porous stone surface, which can exhibit distortion of the original features of the artifact (Claggett and Cable 1985:268). Currently, researchers do not fully understand the environments represented by different staining characteristics.

To better understand the processes that cause the staining, five artifacts were examined with a Japanese Electron Optical Laboratory (JEOL) 5900 digital scanning electron microscope (SEM) and a Princeton Gamma Tech (PGT) energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) machine. The EDS placed a charge into a small segment of the lithic artifact, counted the number of electrons emitted and measured their energy to determine the particular elements in the sample. Each element in the periodic table has its own specific energy level. The EDS is only able to determine the individual elements and not the chemicals or molecules in the sample. Therefore a sample of salt water (H2O and NaCl) would be shown to have the elements of hydrogen, oxygen, sodium, and chlorine.

A representative sample of artifacts was analyzed to determine the chemical composition of the staining. Four of the artifacts (Figure 3.3) exhibited various staining characteristics including black, dark-gray, white-gray, unstained, red-brown, yellow-brown, and yellow. The fifth artifact (Figure 3.4) had been intentionally broken so the EDS could perform elemental analysis on the exterior and interior surfaces of the same artifact. The SEM allowed detailed

47 study of the lithic surface, while the EDS device performed elemental analysis on the surface layer of the artifacts. The SEM was not practical for artifact analysis and served as a focusing device for the EDS. The dominant element was silicon, an expected result, as chert is a sedimentary rock formed from precipitated silica. The graphs generated show the concentrations of elements in each artifact. These are included in Appendix C. The amount of silicon was nine to twenty-nine times greater than the next most dominant elements of oxygen and carbon. These two elements are common in most objects, and expected in the samples. Aluminum appeared in some samples as well, though this could be the result of the 7.5 cm diameter aluminum “pucks” supporting the artifacts in the SEM. Calcium and magnesium appeared in two different samples

taken from a section of cortex. Limestone, which is calcium carbonate (CaCO3), can change into dolomite, which is magnesium carbonate (MgCO3). Therefore, this section of cortex is likely from the limestone wall that formed the pocket surrounding the chert nodule, and part of the limestone had converted to dolomite. Since artifact conservation was performed with distilled water, it is unlikely that any chemicals were added to the artifacts. The conservation process, however, could have removed soluble chemicals from the artifacts.

The unexpected chemical elements found in the chert samples were sulfur and iron. The darker stained portions of the artifacts contained these two elements, while unstained portions did not. Some of the lithic artifacts exhibit a sulfur odor once dry and poorly conserved artifacts may exhibit a yellowish powder on the exterior, but where the sulfur originates is unknown. Possibilities on how sulfur became infused into the chert include sulfur contained in the ocean water in Apalachee Bay exposure to a swampland or marsh environment during the rise in sea level, or sulfur was present in Pleistocene river environments. The chemical composition of the seawater of Apalachee Bay is unknown, but it would seem likely that if sulfur were present, the unstained artifacts would exhibit sulfur in similar amounts as the stained artifacts. This reasoning should hold true for the river water as well. However, buried unstained artifacts may not have taken up any sulfur while the site was in a marsh environment. Still, the large amounts of hydrogen sulfides or sulfur reducing bacteria in salt marshes suggests that this is the more likely scenario for delivering sulfur than from ocean water.

Figure 3.3: Artifacts put into the scanning electron microscope for elemental analysis.

Figure 3.4: Broken artifact put into scanning electron microscope for elemental analysis of the interior and exterior surfaces.

49 Tannic acid may indirectly account for the iron in the black stain. While tannic acid

(C76H52O46) contains no iron, it can bond with iron and create iron tannate (Cronyn 1990). Modern rust inhibitors contain iron tannate and archaeological conservators use the chemical to conserve metals. During rainstorms, the rivers of North Florida turn brown from tannic acid leached from leaves (mainly oak) in the river. Artifacts exposed to tannin-filled river water, particularly leaf beds, may take up tannic acid in their matrix. The soils of the Aucilla River basin contain iron, which reacts with the tannins within the artifacts, turning them black. To test the possibility of a causal relationship between tannic acid and black staining, seven artifacts of various staining characteristics sat for three weeks in a solution of oxalic acid (15 g oxalic acid powder and 250 ml of distilled water). Antique restorers use oxalic acid to remove black iron tannate stains from wooden furniture. Within one week, the rust coloring on one artifact disappeared, and the light gray stripes on another artifact lightened. Figures 3.5 and 3.6 show the artifact staining characteristics before treatment, and Figures 3.7 and 3.8 show the after effects. Table 3.4 displays the Munsell colors characteristics of each artifact before and after the four- week treatment. The removal of the rust coloring and the lightening of the black staining confirm my suspicion that the stain is in fact iron tannate or a very similar compound.

Table 3.4: Munsell color characterization before and after immersion in oxalic acid.

Artifact Munsell Color 1 Munsell Color 2 Munsell Color 3 Munsell Color 4 Munsell Color 5 top left (before) 7.5 YR 2/0 top left (after) 2.5 YR 3/0 2.5 YR 6/0 top mid (before) 7.5 YR 3/0 7.5 YR 4/4 top mid (after) 7.5 YR 4/0 7.5 YR 3/0 7.5 YR 6/0 10 YR 7/0 top right (before) 7.5 YR 4/0 5 YR 4/4 10 YR 6/6 top right (after) 7.5 YR 8/0 7.5 YR 6/0 7.5 YR 4/0 7.5 YR 5/6 lower left (before) 7.5 YR 2/0 7.5 YR 3/0 7.5 YR 8/0 7.5 YR 7/8 5 YR 5/6 lower left (after) 7.5 YR 6/0 7.5 YR 7/0 7.5 YR 8/0 7.5 YR 4/0 lower right (before) 2.5 YR 6/0 2.5 YR 7/0 2.5 YR 4/0 2.5 YR 3/0 2.5 YR 5/6 lower right (after) 7.5 YR 3/0 7.5 YR 5/0 7.5 YR 7/0 2.5 YR 8/0

Figure 3.5: Artifacts before immersion in oxalic Figure 3.6: Artifacts before immersion in oxalic acid (obverse). acid (reverse).

Figure 3.7: Artifacts after immersion in oxalic Figure 3.8: Artifacts after immersion in oxalic acid (obverse). acid (obverse).

51 Conclusion Florida of the Pleistocene was very different from the Florida of today. Most of the continental shelf was exposed, allowing the initial inhabitants to obtain resources available there. As sea level rose, the climate changed as well. The wet climate prior to the Younger Dryas changed to drier conditions during the Younger Dryas and then back to wet conditions at its end. Rising sea level flooded the shelf, inundated the rivers, and increased the water table of the Floridan Aquifer. The karstic geology of North Florida allowed this water to flood the river channels and drown chert quarries, making them inaccessible to Native Americans. Although, many mammal species became extinct at this time, Paleoindian and Early Archaic cultures had a wide variety of available fauna and flora for sustenance.

CHAPTER 4

FIELD RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Archaeological sites on the continental shelf present the opportunity to increase our understanding of the life ways of Florida’s first inhabitants. Specific anthropological questions such as population density, late Pleistocene settlement patterns, and the beginnings of coastal adaptation and exploitation can be addressed. These data are unattainable from inland sites. Offshore sites also add to our understanding of Paleoindian site distribution because archaeologists have previously based their interpretations of Paleoindian site distribution on inland sites. Inland sites may represent only a small proportion of the potential sites in the Paleoindian archaeological record.

Theorizing about site occurrence on the continental shelf is easy, but actually finding and returning to sites on the continental shelf is difficult. The ocean surface is vast and devoid of any topography that might suggest archaeological remains. Even on the ocean bottom, visibility can be minimal and archaeological features difficult to see. Many submerged sites around the world have been located by scientific activities other than archaeology or by accident. Very few examples of submerged sites were identified through direct attempts to locate them until the early 1990s (Faught 1996:196-197).

Site occurrence onshore is the most powerful predictor for discovering underwater sites. Underwater archaeologists study terrestrial features associated with sites onshore and search for similar features underwater. Terrestrial analogs are invaluable in locating underwater sites. In Florida, inland Paleoindian sites cluster near lithic resources and fresh water. Rocky outcrops near drowned river channels and submerged sinkholes provide the highest potential for finding

53 sites in Apalachee Bay (Faught 1996:204; Faught and Donoghue 1997:449). According to Faught (1996), sites discovered through the use of terrestrial analogs are typically quarry-related sites, shell middens, spring sites, estuary sites, and bay margin sites. Quarry sites are extraction areas where early cultures mined lithic resources from chert outcrops. The submerged analog for this type of site includes rocks protruding out of the sandy ocean bottom, typically near the margins of river paleo-channels. The river paleo-channels appear as long linear depressions in the sea floor observable on bathymetric maps (Faught 1996:206). Spring sites were often areas of prehistoric occupation and appear as depressions on the ocean floor. The margins of ancient estuaries and bays occasionally preserve in the bathymetry of the ocean floor and may contain evidence of ancient oyster bars. Shell midden sites are refuse piles near estuaries, bays, lakes, and along river channels that result from of human occupation. These types of sites appear as areas of elevated topography on the ocean floor (Faught 1996:206; Flemming 1994).

Surveying Investigation of underwater archaeological sites is an expensive undertaking, especially when performing extensive surface collection or excavation. The high cost of underwater archaeology offshore includes boat rental, diving gear, safety equipment, and the personnel required to make everything run smoothly. Researchers offset these costs through reconnaissance surveys of the ocean floor using remote-sensing equipment, the initial step in discovering submerged sites. These surveys are a cost effective method to locate potential sites for intensive investigation. However, many potential sites present only as artifact scatters amidst protruding bedrock, and require more thorough surface investigation by archaeological divers. Many scatters may not qualify as sites, but are still important in understanding human activity in the area (Dunbar 1988; Faught 1996; Marks 2002). For research in Apalachee Bay, ten pieces of lithics are necessary to call a survey area a “site” and receive a site number from the Florida Master Site File (FMSF). A survey area with between one and nine lithics is considered an “encounter” and is noted in a survey report but does not receive a number.

Researchers perform most modern surveys, including those performed in Apalachee Bay, in a systematic manner, employing grids or transects. This allows the exact location of any recovery to be easily noted (Banning 2001). Several researchers (e.g., Hoyt et al. 1990; Storck

54 1984) have used a second type, “prospection surveys,” to narrow the search for undocumented Paleoindian sites using the tendency of previously known Paleoindian sites to occur on particular landforms (Banning 2001:4). Surveys in Apalachee Bay have followed similar guidelines by looking for terrestrial analogs that may represent underwater archaeological sites. While these surveys are not statistical, narrowing the search area around river paleo-channels improves the probability of locating a prehistoric underwater site (Faught 1996). Following survey operations, researchers can decide which areas will provide the most information for the time and money available.

Technology Used in Underwater Archaeology Many technological advancements of the last 50 years have greatly improved the science of underwater archaeology. Arguably, the most important invention has been the self-contained underwater breathing apparatus (SCUBA) (Goggin 1960). Scuba equipment and other underwater technology have only improved over the last 60 years assisting researchers in going deeper, staying safer, and accomplishing more. Another improved technology is photography, now using inexpensive digital cameras. With an affordable waterproof housing and a flash strobe, this equipment (priced at approximately $700) has improved our ability to document the underwater world, particularly archaeological sites. Technological advances are not limited to personal diving gear and cameras, but also computer and remote-sensing equipment.

The invention of several types of remote sensing equipment, including side-scan sonar and sub-bottom profilers, has improved our ability to find submerged archaeological remains. A side-scan sonar (Figure 4.1) unit sends high frequency sound waves (100 kHz to 1200 kHz) laterally that reflect off features on the ocean bottom (Fish and Carr 1991). The unit processes the returning sound waves to form an image of the ocean bottom. Objects such as shipwrecks, bridge pilings, and even handguns are “seen” by the side-scan sonar within a wide range (10 m to 1 km). The sonar can also image natural features like rock outcrops, sea grass, and sandy plains. A sub-bottom profiler (Figure 4.2) sends low frequency sound waves (3.5 kHz to 22 kHz) into the ocean floor. The sound waves reflect off changes in stratigraphy or buried objects, allowing researchers to “see” beneath a narrow section of the floor. This remote-sensing device will show buried sinkholes, river channels, and shipwrecks. The images produced by remote sensing

55 equipment do not reveal sites themselves; it is up to the interpreter to identify anomalies by examining the images and for divers to investigate the anomaly to confirm remote sensing interpretations (Faught 1996).

Figure 4.1: Marine Sonic Technology side-scan Figure 4.2: Benthos Chirp II sub-bottom towfish. sonar towfish. (Photo by Norma Garcia.) (Photo by Norma Garcia.)

Locational Control Other technological breakthroughs important for underwater archaeology have been the advances in navigation and locational control. Precise locational control is imperative for archaeological research on the open ocean. Rarely are there stable landmarks on an expanse of sea that would allow researchers to return to a desired location. Currently, modern Global Positioning Systems (GPS) are the most accurate way to relocate a point on the open ocean. A GPS takes information from six to twelve satellites in a geosynchronous orbit around the Earth to obtain a reading on the current location. This military technology, made available to the public, initially had a random error factored into the system called “selective availability.” The federal government turned off selective availability in 2000, bringing the accuracy of even a hand-held GPS unit within one or two meters. Locational accuracy is critical to underwater research, as the

56 accuracy of buoy deployment reduces the amount of time searching for the datum. Using handheld GPS units to relocate the datum at Ontolo, buoy drops frequently have been less than 5 m from the datum. In addition to aiding initial identification of a site, advances in navigation and locational technology make returning to underwater sites easier.

Methodology for Locating Submerged Sites Locating archaeological sites in a marine setting follows similar methods for finding sites onshore. Searching for areas that provided Paleoindian peoples with fresh water and lithic resources is a viable method for both terrestrial and offshore environments (Dunbar, Webb, Faught, Anuskiewicz, and Stright 1989). In the ocean, researchers can see ancient water resources in the bathymetric maps as river paleo-channels. Researchers can also use remote sensing equipment to find these channels, as well as sinkholes and/or chert outcrops protruding above the sand. Archaeologists apply this method of searching for chert outcrops in a river channel to identify archaeological sites on the continental shelf. Archaeologists use remote sensing equipment, diver observation from a tow sled, or local informants to locate outcrops. In some cases, the topography of these areas tends to attract fish and other marine life, which in turn attracts sport divers and fishermen. Much of the success during the early years of archaeological research in Apalachee Bay was based on information provided by these informants (Dunbar 1988; Dunbar, et al. 1989:27; Faught 1988b).

The methodology used to locate submerged sites in Apalachee Bay follows the drowned river channels and searches for areas of rock protruding from the sandy bottom (Faught 1996). The rocky areas of limestone outcrops typically contain embedded chert, a valuable resource for the stone tools used by Native Americans (Dunbar et al. 1992, Faught 1996). After locating a potential archaeological site, and deploying divers, the easiest method to determine the extent and layout of a site is with a surface survey. Studying the location of surface features and the collection or recording of surface artifacts helps to create a simplified map of the site (Faught 1996; Banning 2001).

Archaeologists have always used surface collection of artifacts as a quick and easy way to assess the cultural period and extent of a site prior to excavation. Currently, surface survey

57 has become a substitute for excavation in offshore research, not just a preliminary step. The cost and logistic difficulties in underwater archaeology are greater for excavation than survey investigations (Faught 1996; Latvis and Faught 2000; Marks 2002). The earliest and deepest artifacts are less likely to appear on the surface, however, suggesting that this approach may significantly bias the data (Renfrew and Bahn 2000:92); that the deeper the site, the less representative the surface collection will be. Artifacts recovered from Apalachee Bay are typically located within bedrock outcrops, especially in sandy areas surrounded by rocks. These voids likely act as protective barriers and catch basins for these artifacts (Faught and Donoghue 1997:449).

Previous Research in Apalachee Bay Techniques used to locate these rocky outcrops have improved with experience and technology. In 1976, one of the first surveys by professional archaeologists in Apalachee Bay took place. Patricia Logan and James Stoutamire (1976) performed a five-day survey searching for artifacts in Goose Creek Bay. They used fathometer readings and a diver on a tow sled to locate extinct river channels. They performed underwater circle searches out to a distance of 14 m. If an artifact was located, they photographed it in situ, noted its location, and then removed it. To obtain a datum location, they utilized a triangulation method by taking compass bearings from permanent onshore structures. For their efforts, they discovered one site, the Goose Creek Bay site (8WA89), and recovered three pieces of lithic debitage (Logan and Stoutamire 1976).

A later and more successful survey for submerged prehistoric human occupation sites in Apalachee Bay occurred in 1986 directed by Michael Faught of the University of Arizona and James Dunbar of the Florida Bureau of Archaeological Research (BAR). This project also utilized a minimal amount of resources and of technology. Six divers in three small boats surveyed a small section of Apalachee Bay during a three-day period. They used triangulation and LORAN-C (LOng RAnge Navigation – Coastal) data on rocky outcrop locations provided by fishermen to search the ocean bottom with diver tow surveys. With the diver tow surveys, a diver wearing scuba gear holds onto a tow sled and the boat pulls the diver at low speeds. This individual looked for rocky outcrops protruding through the sand on the ocean bottom (Dunbar et al. 1992; Faught 1988; Faught 1996). Once the diver observed an outcrop, he/she released the

58 tow sled, descended to the bottom, and tested the outcrop for chert. The test involved breaking off a section of the limestone with a hammer and observing if there was any chert embedded within the rock. If the diver observed chert, the diver and a buddy surveyed the outcrop for archaeological material. The divers collected any lithic artifacts or faunal remains observed (Dunbar et al. 1992; Faught 1988a; Faught 1996). This activity resulted in the identification of four new sites for the FMSF: Gray Mare Rock (8JE652), Two-Flake Site (8JE654), Econfina Channel Site (8TA139), and Peter’s Rock (8WA276) (Dunbar et al. 1992:130; Faught 1988b:5; Faught 1996). Other investigations that same year led to the discovery of an archaeological site near Ray Hole Springs 32 km offshore in Apalachee Bay. The site at this sinkhole lies in 12 m of water and yielded several pieces of lithic debitage. Research at this site included mapping, surveying, and dredging (Anuskiewicz 1988; Anuskiewicz and Dunbar 1993).

Figure 4.3: Map of archaeological locations within Apalachee Bay (Marks 2002).

59 In 1988, Faught and Dunbar returned to the Econfina Channel site for five days of continued investigation. They performed hand fan surveys to determine artifact densities and excavated four 1x1-m test units with an induction dredge and 0.25-in (6-mm) screens (Faught 1988b:6; Faught 1996). The majority of the stone artifacts recovered at the Econfina Channel site were reduction and quarry waste with very few tools or retouched specimens (Dunbar et al. 1992:134). After testing the site, they spent an additional day surveying for other underwater sites. Utilizing similar methods from 1986, they located two new sites: the Stallings site (8TA148) and the Fitch Site (8JE739) (Faught 1988a; Faught 1988b:12).

The following year in 1989, Faught and Dunbar again returned to Apalachee Bay to continue investigations at the Fitch Site. They performed over 200 linear meters of artifact collection, and excavated two 1x1-m test units with an induction dredge. They also spent several days searching for new locations (Faught 1990:9). They surveyed a total of nine linear miles and discovered six new locations, one of which was the J&J Hunt site (8JE740). The other five locations yielded few artifacts and did not receive a site number from the FSMF. The initial dives at J&J hunt site yielded over 100 pieces of chipped stone (Faught 1990:19-20). Investigations continued there in 1991 with additional survey of the area, as well as excavation and mapping projects in 1992. Many of the artifacts recovered from J&J Hunt were tools and small lithic waste, leading Faught (1996:424) to believe this was a multi-use habitation site exhibiting maintenance activities.

During the summer of 1998, Florida State University (FSU) held its first Field School in Underwater Archaeology in conjunction with the Paleo-Aucilla Prehistory Project. Staff and students performed controlled surface collection, mapping, and excavation at J&J Hunt. During later field schools in 1999, 2000, and 2001, work continued at J&J Hunt, as did the search for additional sites (Faught and Latvis 2000; Latvis and Faught 2001; Tobón and Pendleton 2002). The field school survey crews began utilizing remote sensing equipment (Marine Sonic Technology 600 kHz side-scan sonar) to obtain images of the sea floor, instead of using a diver on a tow sled, and GPS to fix site location. The sonar unit towed behind the boat over and around the paleo-channels “viewed” a much wider area than possible with a towed diver. With the side-scan sonar, sound waves emitted and received covered up to a 200 m swath and

60 produced a map of the sea floor. The images were examined for rocky areas protruding from the sand, a typical characteristic of prehistoric archaeological sites in Apalachee Bay (Faught and Latvis 2000; Latvis and Faught 2001; Tobón and Pendleton 2002).

In 1999, under the direction of Thadra Palmer, staff and students investigated 23 targets and identified eight areas that contained artifacts, four of which received site numbers from the FMSF. The four sites identified in 1999 are: 8JE1549, 8JE1550, 8JE1551, and 8JE1552 (Faught and Latvis 2000). The following summer, Palmer led a new team to investigate possible submerged sites not tested in 1999. This crew investigated 17 targets and encountered eight areas containing artifacts, three of which received site numbers from the FMSF. These three sites are 8JE1557, 8JE1558, and 8JE1559 (Latvis and Faught 2001).

During the summer of 2001, I investigated targets revealed by side-scan sonar survey earlier that year. This crew and four field school students and myself were only able to investigate eight targets, but we encountered seven areas containing artifacts, six of which received site numbers from the FMSF. These six sites are: 8JE1574, 8JE1575 (The Wilson Site), 8JE1576, 8JE1577 (Ontolo), 8JE1578, and 8JE1579, (Marks 2002; Tobón and Pendleton 2002).

All totaled, field school operations have investigated 48 targets, encountered 25 areas with artifacts, and registered 13 with FMSF. Ontolo had the most numerous artifact count of any site encountered during survey operations in Apalachee Bay yielding 483 artifacts and faunal remains in 5.6 diver-hours underwater. This site accounts for nearly 36 percent of all artifacts found during all survey investigations (Tobón and Pendleton 2002). Ontolo was the seventh area surveyed in 2001, and Ontolo is Apalachee word for seven (Nicholas Hopkins, personal communication; Kimball 1987; Sylestine et al. 1993).

Research at Ontolo The survey operations in 2001 consisted of an archaeological crew of five plus Steve Wilson, the captain of R/V Seminole, a 48 ft (15 m) research vessel out of FSU’s Edward Ball Marine Laboratory at Turkey Bayou (FSUML). Archaeologists spent the initial survey dives at Ontolo searching for lithic remains in the area. Prior to beginning investigation at Ontolo, diver

61 search methodology involved searching for lithics in the general area around the buoy anchor and then investigation in cardinal directions from that point. Divers collected artifacts in each direction until they reached the extent of the outcrop, as determined by the presence of a sea grass bed, the absence of limestone rocks visible on the surface, or 50 m, the extent of the measuring tapes. This methodology was adequate on sites with low numbers of artifacts (n= <20). Only eight sites of the 48 survey areas contained more than 20 artifacts and survey operations during 2001 explored four of those eight sites. Prior to 2001, the collection methodology was adequate, but at Ontolo, the numbers of artifacts required a modification of this approach.

At Ontolo, there is a lack of provenience control for the 450 lithic artifacts recovered in 2001. The initial survey artifacts were provenienced in quadrants out to 50 m and a fifth area designated within two meters of the datum. The lack of provenience data for these artifacts renders them relatively useless for intra-site analysis. The only exception is the six isolated finds recovered from the site, all of which have an exact location within the site. Although there have been no survey operations in the Gulf of Mexico by FSU since 2001, future investigators should continue to survey in the cardinal directions, but should collect artifacts in five or ten meter increments to increase the provenience control.

Archaeologists returned to Ontolo aboard the R/V Seminole in 2002 during the summer research session of FSU’s Program in Underwater Archaeology. The original datum could not be located, so a new datum was emplaced and its position recorded with a handheld GPS unit. They accomplished this task by placing the unit within two zip-top plastic bags on a 1x1 m piece of Styrofoam anchored with a short anchor line directly above the datum. In addition to the rebar and PVC marker tag, the crew marked the datum with four cinder blocks aligned north to south (Figure 4.4) to allow for easier relocation. The crew of six archaeologists performed stratigraphic random sampling at Ontolo over a four-day period. The divers collected from 1x1 m squares every 10 m along the cardinal directions. They also went beyond 50 m from the datum to the west and south because the extent of the rocky outcrop had not been reached. The site extended 46 m to the north, 47 m to the east, 64 m to the south, and 73 m to the west. A sandy plain with no rocks marked the western extent of Ontolo and no artifacts were observed

62 beyond 73 m. Seagrass marked the outer margins on the other three sides of the site. Three 50 m transects to the south and two transects to the north were extended off the western line, and investigated as described above. In addition to controlled surface collections, divers also collected any diagnostic or unique artifacts observed. If a diver recovered an isolated find, they noted its exact position within one centimeter. They also noted the exact position of any diagnostic artifacts within a collection unit as well. Ontolo did not undergo any subsurface testing during the 2002 field season.

Figure 4.4: Ontolo’s datum of concrete blocks (Photo by Norma Garcia).

The 2002 field crew also performed a detailed side scan sonar survey of Ontolo with approximately 39 km of tracklines using the Marine Sonic Technology 600 Khz side-scan sonar covering a swath of 100 m (50 m on each side) for a total area of 3.9 km2 (Figure 4.5 and 4.6). The crew performed side-scan survey over two days, and there was some overlap between the two days. Additional overlap occurred while running tracklines to ensure complete coverage of the site. The resulting side scan images (Appendix D) provide a map of the ocean bottom around Ontolo. Since areas of rock outcrop, seagrass, and sand have different sonar signatures, the images also provide some information about depth within and outside of Ontolo.

In 2003, another crew of six remained aboard the Seminole for two days to further explore Ontolo. The crew continued stratified random sampling along the surface of Ontolo.

Figure 4.5: Side-scan sonar tracklines of Ontolo on Figure 4.6: Side-scan sonar tracklines of Ontolo on July 16, 2002. July 17, 2002

They completed a 100x100-m grid, sampling a 1x1-m unit every 10 m for a total of 121 surface- collection units in 2002 and 2003. Several units along the east-west baseline were collected several times, and the extra collections are not included in the above total of units investigated. After completing the surface collection grid, divers placed two hand-fan units near Ontolo’s main datum. Hand-fan units are excavation units in which divers remove the sediment by vigorously waving or fanning their hand (Figure 4.7). The process is effective in areas with loose sediment and a mild current to maintain water visibility. The two hand-fan units were 50- 75 cm to a side and excavated to a depth of 40-50 cm. The smaller of the two units yielded 64 lithic artifacts (37 from the upper 25 cm and 27 from the lower 25 cm), while the larger unit yielded 105 lithic artifacts (95 from the upper 20 cm, and 10 from the lower 20 cm). Prior to leaving Ontolo, an additional 15 km of side-scan tracklines were performed at a swath of 40 m (20 m on each side), for an additional 0.06 km2 area covered (Figure 4.8). The sonar images produced during this field season should have provided greater detail, but the images were of poorer quality due to problems with the side-scan equipment. Unlike previous side-scan surveys of Ontolo, the boat did not perform the tracklines in the traditional “mowing the lawn” pattern because the autopilot feature aboard the Seminole, which allows the captain to maintain a straight and steady course, was also not functioning properly.

Figure 4.7: Divers hand-fanning a collection unit. (Photo by Norma Garcia.)

Figure 4.8: Side-scan and sub-bottom tracklines of Ontolo on July 15, 2003.

In 2003, the crew performed a sub-bottom profile survey concurrently with the side scan survey. The sub-bottom profiler unit used for this survey was a Benthos Chirp II Sub-bottom Profiler with a Datasonics CAP-6600 Chirp II Acoustic Profiling System (processor and transceiver). This dual frequency sonar system produces high-resolution profiles of both the shallow and deep sub-bottom layers. The images reveal Ontolo’s location relative to river paleo- channels. Figure D.7 shows channel features (outlined in red) to the east and west of Ontolo. Additional examination of the sub-bottom record indicates possible sinkhole features and rocky substrate in the area.

65 During FSU’s spring break of March 2004, a team of archaeologists went to Ontolo for a one-day project and accomplished two tasks: placing an oceanographic current meter and excavating several hand fan units on the site. The team excavated thirteen 50x50-cm hand-fan units to a maximum depth of 50 cm. The oceanographic current meter was a burst sampling current meter (BSCM) from the Current Meter Research Facility at FSU. The current meter determined the speed of currents during storm events as well as currents created during the diurnal tidal cycle. The BSCM was a 20-year-old deep-water model designed to operate at depths between 1000 and 6000 m. Modifications of the current meter to operate in shallow water (4-5 m) included the addition of a wooden base and cables attached from the top of the meter anchored to the ocean floor with small sand screws.

Figure 4.9: Wooden base of BSCM deployed at Ontolo.

A second 2004 expedition to Ontolo occurred eight weeks later in May. During this trip, archaeologists performed surface collection along the western margins. Surface collections were performed every ten meters along 50 m transects to the north and south starting from 60, 70, and 80 m west of the main datum. All artifacts recovered along the transect starting at 80 m west were collected and their exact position along that transect was recorded. In addition to surface collection, the research team placed 24 small excavation units using an airlift dredge every 10 m in a 40-m square centered on the main datum. I constructed the airlift dredge using a Brownie

66 Third Lung floating compressor that pumped air to a 2.5 m long, 4 in (10 cm) diameter thick walled PVC pipe. Air, being lighter than water, rises, and as it rises, it expands. This process creates an area of low pressure at the bottom of the pipe and therefore, suction, bringing 1 sediment and artifacts to the top of the pipe. A mesh bag with /8-in (3 mm) holes placed at the end of the pipe contained the dredged material. The crew sorted this material aboard the Seminole and recovered all lithic and bone material. The excavation units were only 4 in (10 cm) in diameter, and divers excavated in 20-cm levels to a maximum depth of 40 cm. At the end of the two-day project, the crew recovered the current meter deployed earlier that spring. The current meter had fallen over during a storm three weeks prior, because the base was too small and the sand screws were not long enough. The current meter, however, still collected useful data until recovery. Divers also relocated the original datum at a bearing of 51° (northeast) 2.56 m from the main concrete block datum.

In June of 2004, researchers placed another current meter at Ontolo. The staff at the Current Meter Research Facility affixed an improved base to the current meter and divers attached the whole unit to the ocean bottom with a 3 ft sand anchor. They anchored the ends of the base to the ocean bottom with rebar stakes, and attached the ends to the top of the current meter with small cables. Another team of divers recovered this current meter nearly 12 weeks later and found it to be upright. During the twelve-week interlude, two tropical cyclones passed within 150 km of Ontolo. Barnacles had affixed themselves to the rotor that measured current speed, however, and the unit obtained no data from these storms. The BSCM recorded useful data for approximately six weeks before the barnacles completely fouled the rotor. These two trips were one-day operations and divers did not collect artifacts.

In May of 2005, I placed some modern, or “faux,” lithics at Ontolo to study the effects of storm currents on the artifacts distribution. I placed four groups of nine lithics in various sub- environments within 6 m of the main datum. The artifacts were pink and orange in color with a painted white dot with the group and artifact number written on it in permanent ink. Divers placed the lithics around a datum in a cross pattern along the cardinal directions 15 cm apart from each other. Table 4.1 shows the weight and dimensions of each lithic. Table 4.2 shows the location of the datum of each group. After five months, divers recovered only seven of these

67 lithics in October of 2005. The remaining artifacts could not be located. Further explanation of this experiment is discussed in a later chapter.

Table 4.1: Weight (g) and dimensions (mm) for artifacts placed at Ontolo to study storm effects.

Type/ 1234 Group Mass Length Width Height Mass Length Width Height Mass Length Width Height Mass Length Width Height 1 23.41 64.62 39.44 13.39 23.33 59.43 33.11 15.90 23.18 54.64 37.82 15.15 36.34 65.82 37.22 22.33 2 11.70 61.13 47.30 6.37 4.77 42.05 35.87 4.38 8.32 51.91 31.13 6.25 7.18 45.62 40.32 5.03 3 10.92 40.75 33.20 12.41 10.63 36.11 19.22 10.36 14.50 42.22 35.16 10.05 10.01 43.82 27.65 12.16 4 15.43 45.19 32.06 13.30 18.98 50.80 42.99 10.35 19.68 51.89 33.19 15.22 7.82 52.47 27.53 5.56 5 9.12 57.09 25.99 7.31 15.88 61.07 26.73 11.58 27.90 71.71 31.80 13.26 33.11 86.39 31.98 20.22 6 49.64 66.78 56.67 18.44 48.24 63.91 46.18 20.07 34.15 62.49 46.39 14.71 32.46 57.77 46.44 16.65 7 2.39 30.10 18.24 5.45 2.68 28.18 18.87 6.28 3.31 25.81 19.14 10.10 3.50 30.16 20.35 14.31 8 1.36 36.20 18.68 2.41 1.76 23.72 20.02 4.83 0.99 27.32 19.61 2.98 1.42 30.27 16.60 4.20 9 12.24 38.40 25.32 12.54 10.38 42.03 28.80 12.04 5.70 45.13 28.24 9.61 6.71 36.08 21.24 15.69

Table 4.2: Location of each group of modern lithics

Group Bearing from datum Distance (m) Environment 1 280 3 sandy 2300 6low rocks 310 5low rocks 490 4sandy

Conclusion The methodology and technology used to search for submerged prehistoric human occupation sites has improved since the mid 1970’s. Research in Apalachee Bay has resulted in the identification of over 30 underwater sites within 16 km of the coast, in state-controlled waters. Archaeological research at Ontolo has involved surface collection, hand fan excavation, and airlift “posthole” testing. Remote sensing at Ontolo has revealed the proximity of river paleo-channels to the site as well as producing a digital map of the site. Other research has involved using oceanographic current meters to measure tidal currents and placing modern lithics to measure the effects of storm driven waves on the site.

CHAPTER 5

GEOARCHAEOLOGICAL AND SITE FORMATION PROCESSES

Various formation processes affect archaeological sites over time, and underwater archaeological sites are subject to a different set than terrestrial sites (Schiffer 1996). Archaeologists must consider several temporal issues, cultural behaviors, and natural factors to fully understand the validity of data recovered from archaeological sites, especially submerged sites. The temporal issues at submerged sites involve a dating method using a combination of diagnostic artifacts and sea-level rise. Cultural behaviors affecting submerged sites include the cultural group occupying the site, the type of materials used for tool making, the processing of subsistence material, the length of occupation, the size of the group occupying the site, and the general nature of the site. Natural factors include effects of sea-level rise on submerged archaeological sites, oceanographic processes, bioturbation from sea creatures, and sedimentation from rivers, in addition to the formational processes that occur in terrestrial settings prior to submersion. Underwater archaeological sites may provide a more complete artifact assemblage than terrestrial sites of similar age because the ocean may protect them from a number of destructive human activities (Schiffer 1996).

Temporal Considerations Understanding the temporal issues associated with data recovered from archaeological sites on the continental shelf is important for understanding early settlement in Florida. These temporal issues include the notion that depth below sea level serves as a terminus ante quem for the minimum age of underwater sites and diagnostic projectile points/knives serve as cultural markers of various occupations. As discussed above, there has been a 130-m rise in global sea level over the last 20,000 years, and at ca. 12,000 years ago sea level was 40 m below MSL. The

69 shoreline was as far as 140 km from the modern Floridian Gulf of Mexico (Ballard and Uchupi 1970; Balsillie and Donoghue 2004; Faught and Donoghue 1997). This depth contour and temporal period coincide with the emergence of Clovis technology across North America, represented by fluted lanceolate projectile points/knives such as the Clovis points (Faught 2004). Prior to the Younger Dryas, the projectile point types in Florida were Late-Paleoindian style unfluted lanceolates of Suwannee, Simpson, Quad, and Greenbriar varieties.

As stated in the previous chapter, during the Younger Dryas climatic interval (11,000 rcybp to 10,000 rcybp) there was a sudden reduction of glacial melting. Researchers do not fully understand the effects this reduction had on sea level. By the end of the Younger Dryas, the projectile point types of Early Archaic culture were early-notched points of Bolen, Big Sandy, and Taylor varieties (Bullen 1975; Faught 2004a; Justice 1987). Following the Younger Dryas, a second melt-water pulse began and sea level reached 25 m below MSL at ca. 9500 rcybp. More corner notched projectile points like the Palmer and Kirk types appeared toward the end of the Early Archaic, and these styles continued through the Middle Archaic. Archaic stemmed projectile points defined the Late Archaic cultural period, and at this time sea level had risen to within 1-2 m of modern levels (Balsillie and Donoghue 2004, Faught 2004a).

This sequence of sea-level rise and projectile point typology provides a date range for archaeological sites on Florida’s Gulf continental shelf. Any data recovered from sites deeper than 50 m would have to be 12,500 years old at minimum (Balsillie and Donoghue 2004). The Ontolo Site (8JE1577), for example is in 4-5 m of water, indicating a minimum age of 6000 rcybp. Ontolo revealed several diagnostic artifacts including a Suwannee projectile point (10,500 rcybp), a Late Paleoindian point, and a Hendrix Scraper (10,000 rcybp) from the Late Paleoindian to Early Archaic time range (Goodwin et al. 1996; Purdy 1981:18-20) placing the earliest verifiable date of the site at 10,500 rcybp. Other diagnostic artifacts, including Wacissa, Sumter, and other Archaic Stemmed projectile points, indicate multiple occupations at Ontolo. The temporal aspects of sea-level rise and diagnostic artifacts provide an earliest and latest verifiable date at underwater archaeological sites.

70 Cultural Considerations Cultural behaviors considered when assessing the validity of the data recovered from sites on the continental shelf include the different kinds of cultural occupations, processing of lithic material, and processing of subsistence material. It is possible that numerous cultural occupations could have occurred at a given site, from Paleoindian to Middle Archaic cultures. By the Late Archaic period in Florida, around 6000 years ago., sea level had stabilized to within 1 or 2 m of modern sea levels (Balsillie and Donoghue 2004; Milanich 1994:85). Therefore, Late Archaic artifacts, including early ceramics, should not be found in offshore settings, assuming that fiber-tempered pottery is not older than ca. 4500 years ago. Artifacts from that cultural period found offshore arrived there either by boat or by coastal erosion. Diagnostic projectile points and scrapers determine the presence of distinctive culture groups at submerged prehistoric human occupation sites.

Other methods for determining the cultural affiliation of groups who once occupied a submerged site involve recovering artifacts from intact sediments in association with datable material. Most artifacts recovered from offshore sites in Apalachee Bay are from sea-floor surface collections, however, and none of the artifacts recovered from subsurface investigations was from intact sediments (Faught 2004b). Lacking artifacts from intact sediments, archaeologists cannot assign the data collected from a submerged site to a specific culture or period. The exceptions to this rule are the diagnostic artifacts, which are the only items to have an associated time period. The depth of a site provides a terminus ante quem and, therefore, a cultural affiliation. In this situation, temporal and cultural considerations are one and the same. For example, with sites deeper than 50 m, the depth of the site implies an age older than 10,500 rcybp but no known cultures resided in Florida at that time (Balsillie and Donoghue 2004:16; Milanich 1994). Any artifacts recovered at a depth of 50 m would suggest an occupation of Florida earlier than expected. The data from Ontolo and other sites closer to shore provide information on site formation over time and the activities occurring from initial occupation to submersion. Studying these sites may lead to a better understanding of how to locate and interpret earlier sites in deeper water.

71 Archaeologists must also consider the processes by which cultures produce artifacts. Most artifacts recovered from the Middle Archaic and earlier are stone tools and lithic debitage (Milanich 1994). Native Americans procured lithic resources from chert outcrops in two settings: boulder fields on the karst plain and in river channels. The Aucilla River contains significant lithic resources on its margins and in the river channel itself (Dunbar et al. 1992). After obtaining the chert and removing large sections of cortex, Native Americans transported the material to habitation sites where tools were produced. Tools include diagnostic artifacts such as Hendrix Scrapers as well as Clovis, Simpson, Suwannee, Bolen, Kirk, and Wacissa projectile points/knives (Anderson 1996; Dunbar et al. 1992; Justice 1987; Milanich 1994). Chert outcrops and artifacts with large mass, high cortex, and a decreased tool-to-debitage ratio would characterize a lithic quarry. By contrast, a habitation site would have artifacts with a lower mass, less cortex, and an increased tool-to-debitage ratio (Anderson et al. 1996; Andrefsky 1998; Binford 1980; Binford and Binford 1969; Gould et al. 1971; Purdy 1981). These two activities are identifiable among sites on the continental shelf (Marks 2002). In addition, understanding where early Floridians acquired and processed stone tools assists the discovery process since one can follow terrestrial analogs onto the continental shelf.

How cultures procured and processed subsistence materials is a third cultural behavior that requires consideration to better understand the validity of data from the continental shelf. There is little evidence implying that Middle Archaic and earlier cultures were anything other than hunters and gatherers (Milanich 1994). Data from offshore can show what resources were utilized and when. Coastal sites in Florida do not appear in the terrestrial archaeological record until 5,000 – 6,000 years ago, which coincides with the stabilization of sea level (Faught 1996, Balsillie and Donoghue 2004, Donoghue and White 1995). Prehistoric coastal occupations typically present themselves as shell middens and when discovered on the continental shelf would suggest coastal adaptation prior to 6,000 years ago. Evidence of an oyster shell midden recovered from 4 m of water at the J&J Hunt Site (8JE740) implies a coastal adaptation several thousand years earlier than terrestrial sites (Faught 1996, 2004a; Latvis and Faught 2002).

Oysters live in brackish environments, though they can survive in periods of full salinity or no salinity (Burrell et al. 1984). Therefore, oyster bars would have formed near Ontolo soon

72 after submersion by rising sea levels. Piles of disarticulated shell suggest processing of the mollusks by early cultures. Mounds of disarticulated oyster shell recovered farther offshore would imply earlier marine resource adaptation. Other faunal remains recovered offshore are more difficult to associate with the lithic materials in the area. Unless archaeologists find lithics embedded in bone or recover faunal remains with lithic materials from intact sediments, they can make no direct association. However, the possibility of associated material may exist farther offshore as the deeper depth provides more protection against heavy storms.

Temporal considerations at Ontolo include dating techniques from diagnostic artifacts and the terminus ante quem provided by sea-level rise. Early cultures used local chert quarries to obtain material for the construction of diagnostic artifacts. The availability of the chert was directly related to the availability of fresh water. As water tables rose, they inundated the chert quarries in the karstic rivers. A final cultural consideration for Ontolo and other submerged prehistoric sites is early evidence of coastal adaptation.

Sea Level Effects on Underwater Sites Changing sea levels and the resulting environmental change, sedimentation from rivers, ocean currents, and bioturbation are the natural factors for consideration in the evaluation of data recovered from submerged archaeological sites. Given the shallow gradient of the Gulf of Mexico, a small rise in sea level translates into extensive horizontal encroachment of the sea, perhaps more than a kilometer of encroachment for every meter of sea-level rise. From 9500 rcybp to 5500 rcybp, sea level rose 40 m (Balsillie and Donoghue 2004), an average of 10 m of rise in sea level and 10 km encroachment every millennium. This rise translates into approximately 10 m of horizontal encroachment every year and 300 m every 30-year generation. Encroachment required coastal dwelling groups to be continuously migrating inland. This, in turn, probably increased population pressure and competition among Paleoindian peoples and animals for local resources (Waters 1992:263).

Holding everything else constant, an increase in sea level reduces the usable land and resources available to Paleoindians. The reduced area would have increased competition among the inhabitants as well as the regional animals. This lack of resources may have stimulated

73 technological advancement. The effects of sea level on human and animal populations are more drastic where the continental shelf has shallow slope (Waters 1992:263). By comparing the coastlines of Northern California and the Florida Gulf coast, the difference is obvious. At Monterey, Carmel, Bodega Bay, and much of the Northern California coastline, depths of 10-15 m are easily obtainable by venturing 100-200 m away from the beach. In Apalachee Bay in the northeastern corner of the Gulf of Mexico, depths greater than five meters are rarely found within 7,000 or 8,000 m of the shoreline. Assuming the shelf slope remain constant to a depth of 50 m, a 5-m rise in sea level would transgress 100-m inland for Northern California, and would transgress 7,000 to 8,000 m inland for Florida. The same amount of sea-level rise inundates fifty times more area on the Gulf coast of Florida than on the California coast, which should protect the sites somewhat. According to Dorsey (1997:13-14) the landward shift of the Floridian shoreline was approximately 1 to 2 km every 50 years during the first melt-water pulse. Stright (1995) computed the average slope of North American continental shelves in the Pacific, Atlantic, and Gulf of Mexico at 0.52, 0.25, and 0.08 percent respectively. The continental shelf in the Pacific Ocean is 6.5 times steeper than the shelf in the Gulf of Mexico.

Evidence from offshore samples studied by Balsillie and Donoghue (2004:12-15) shows that sea level rose from 7 m to 3 m below MSL in approximately 800 years, though onshore samples (e.g., high stands, beach ridges, etc.) show a similar rise in sea level in half the time. As discussed above and according to offshore evidence, sea level in the Gulf of Mexico reached 3 m below MSL by approximately 5500 years ago and gradually increased, reaching modern levels several hundred years ago. The onshore evidence shows that sea level reached modern levels approximately 6000 years ago, but underwent fluctuations of 2-3 m above and below that level over the next 2000 years, and after 4000 years ago, oceanographers do not believe sea level has been lower than 1 m below MSL. The 7 m contour in this area of Apalachee Bay is approximately 16.5 km at its closest point to shore, creating a slope of 0.05 percent. As sea level rose from 7 m to 3 m below MSL, the coastline transgressed over 8 km inland. Therefore, Ontolo, a 100-m wide site resting at 4.5 m below sea level, would have been a terrestrial site 200 m from the beach, passed completely through the surf zone, and then been 200 m offshore in less than 50 years. During this time, the surf zone likely had little wave action. In this scenario,

74 Ontolo spent less than 10 years in the surf zone. However, following inundation, the fluctuation in sea level placed the site within 2 or 3 m of sea level during most of that time.

The continental shelf undergoes various geological changes with large fluctuations in sea level. Erosion of the continental shelf occurs when sea level is low, and deposition occurs when sea level is high. When sea level falls, the shoreline retreats seaward or regresses. Relict shorelines form on the continental shelf as sea level undergoes regression (Waters 1992:268- 269). Sea level regression lowers the base level of rivers and leads to an increase in a river’s average slope. A steeper slope increases a stream’s power, causing rivers to incise the continental shelf more. As sea-level rises, river channels flood and form estuarine environments at their mouths (Mount 1995:142-143). Survey operations target these paleo-channels visible in bathymetric maps to search for submerged prehistoric human occupation sites (Faught 1996). Karst rivers respond differently than alluvial rivers. Karst rivers do not incise a channel in the traditional sense of fluvial rivers; rather they form when collapsed features connect joints and solution notches in the bedrock. These features are visible on bathymetric maps, however, and are similar to the incised channels of fluvial rivers. The process of karstification occurred on the continental shelf prior to 6000 years ago (Dunbar 1991; Faught 1996; LeGrand 1973). As mentioned above, the low sediment load of North Florida’s karstic rivers do not bury or dislocate archaeological locations as sediment rich rivers can. Although the lack of sedimentation may retard organic preservation, it increases the visibility and findability of archaeological locations (Faught and Donoghue 1997:423; Dunbar, Webb, Faught, Anuskiewicz, and Stright 1989:26; Dunbar 1988; Faught 1996; Marks 2002).

In general, as sea level rose, coastal ecosystems transgressed inland, subjecting archaeological sites on the continental shelf to a variety of environmental conditions over time. Rising water tables coinciding with rising sea level, especially along river margins, would be the first change. Rising water tables and encroaching sea eventually changed the area to a salt marsh similar to those bordering most of Florida’s Big Bend today (Williams et al. 1999). The site eventually entered the littoral or tidal zone, and then became a submerged site. This changing environment, the effect of waves, tides, and ocean currents are detrimental to the preservation of archaeological sites. The coastal ecosystems followed this transgression sequence up the

75 Atlantic coast, where the force of waves and currents tore apart the upper portions of relict shoreline features scattering and erasing most evidence of human occupation on the now submerged continental shelf (Bloom 1983:46). The shallow Gulf coast softened these effects, however, preserving many submerged sites (Smith 1986).

Rapid sea-level rise provides better preservation conditions for archaeological sites. The faster sea-level rises, the less time a site spends in the tidal zone, and thereby causes a reduction in shoreline erosion. Rapid shoreline transgression may have resulted in an unstable coastal environment, however, that was unsuitable for human occupation on the coast. Thus, archaeological sites of long duration are less likely to occur in areas that experienced rapid sea- level rise, but those that do remain generally have better preservation conditions (Stright 1995:141-143). The slope of the continental shelf also plays a role in the preservation of sites. On a gently sloping shelf, archaeological sites spend less time in the surf zone than sites on steeper shelves. The continental shelf in the Gulf of Mexico has a very gentle slope, thereby increasing the preservation of the archaeological sites it holds. The artifacts collected from archaeological sites in Apalachee Bay show no rounding from sustained wave action, rolling in surf, or fluvial action implying a rapid submersion and reduced time spent in the surf zone (Faught 2004b). As stated above, there was a 10-m annual sea-level encroachment for four millennia following the Younger Dryas., implying that a location 25 m inland would be 25 m offshore in 5 years. This case occurs where the slope is 1:1000 (Balsillie and Donoghue 2004); however, this figure indicates the decreased amount of time that Gulf Coast archaeological sites would have spent in the surf zone. The slope of the continental shelf at Ontolo is even shallower. Because the site is further than 9 km offshore in 4.6 m (15 ft) of water, it would have spent even less time in the surf zone than described above.

Following submersion, sedimentation from the rivers may bury organic material and create an environment of improved preservation over once-terrestrial sites (Ruppé 1988), though this does not hold true for sites in Apalachee Bay. The time spent in the water reduces tree root penetration into deeper sediments compared to similar-aged terrestrial sites. The potential for intact stratigraphic layers, which contain sediment with datable material in association with lithic material or diagnostic artifacts is thereby increased. The presence of diagnostic artifacts is

76 important in Florida sites since there are few stratigraphic where Paleoindian are artifacts with associated radiocarbon dates (Goodyear 1999). One exception is the Page/Ladson site where a Paleoindian unfluted lanceolate point has an associated date of 12,420 ± 80 rcybp (Dunbar and Hemmings 2004). However, this style of point was not recovered at Ontolo.

Prior to submergence, Ontolo experienced changes that are common to most terrestrial archaeological sites. Archaeologists have a relative understanding of the effects that 5000-7000 years of human occupation and bioturbation have on a terrestrial site. However, as Ontolo became a near coastal site and after submergence, a different set of site formation processes affected the site. Storm waves impacted the sites while it was in a beach setting, and after ca. 6500 years ago, Ontolo passed through the surf zone and became an underwater site (Balsillie and Donoghue 2004:14). As sea-level rise submerged Ontolo, surf zone and tidal effects impacted the site. The net consequences of coastal geomorphology were low at Ontolo for two reasons. First, the Apalachee Bay coastline is classified as a zero energy coast and the average wave height is extremely low (Balsillie 1999a:2; Pethick 1996; Tanner 1960). Second, it is possible that Ontolo spent very little time in the surf zone. Lithic artifacts have maintained sharp edges and show no evidence of rolling or tumbling. After time spent in the high-energy littoral zone, the site moved offshore and oceanographic factors influenced changes in its formational processes.

Bioturbation Submerged sites undergo terrestrial bioturbation prior to submersion and experience oceanographic bioturbation following submersion. While submerged sites on the Gulf of Mexico continental shelf are no longer subjected to the bioturbation of tree roots and burrowing animals, the sites were subjected to those conditions prior to their submersion. Submergence greatly reduces the effect of terrestrial bioturbation on sites compared to terrestrial sites of similar age, however, once submerged, sites are subjected to oceanographic bioturbation from burrowing stone crabs, fish, and lateral movement from sea urchins. As urchins move across the ocean floor, they will decorate/camouflage themselves with small, loose items on the sea floor, including shells and lithic debitage, and in one instance a projectile point.

Ontolo was subjected to post submersion bioturbation and oceanographic effects. Bioturbation, as discussed above, included burrowing sea creatures, fashion conscious urchins, and other sea life displacing the artifacts from their original location. It is not clear to what extent bioturbation has affected the artifact distribution at Ontolo. The high artifact concentration at the site increases the potential for sea life/artifact encounter. Urchins, starfish, conch, and flatfish have a high probability of encountering lithic artifacts as they move across the site. Divers have recovered more than 1 percent of Ontolo’s artifacts (n=14) from urchins, including one projectile point. Divers also have recorded crabs and burrowing fish excavating lithics from their holes as well as a startled bat ray affecting artifacts with its wings.

78 Bioturbation affects the integrity of any archaeological site. The movement of artifacts by plants and animals changes the original deposition pattern created by the initial occupants. Such discrepancies can affect archaeologists’ interpretations of the site and researchers must compensate for these effects to make accurate assessments of the archaeological history.

Anthropogenic Considerations Until recently, humans played a very minor role in the site formation processes at Ontolo once the site became submerged. I assume that prior to the discovery of Ontolo in 2001, the only human interaction with the site was from an occasional boat anchor or crab trap. A boat anchor dragged across the ocean floor would displace artifacts until it gains enough purchase to stabilize the boat. During research expeditions, the crew observed crab fishermen in the vicinity of Ontolo, but did not observe any crab trap remains. The effect of crab fishing would be limited to possible artifact dragging during the trap recovery process.

Submerged sites have several advantages over terrestrial sites, ignoring the difficulty in locating and investigating them. Aside from a reduced amount of terrestrial bioturbation, submerged sites are generally protected from collectors/looters, early industrialization, and agriculture. Collectors/looters have scavenged many terrestrial sites, but submerged sites are often too difficult for the average person to access. The building of cities and roads also reduces the integrity of terrestrial sites because there was little legislation prior to 1978 when the Cultural Heritage Act was enacted requiring archaeological monitoring during construction. Submerged archaeological sites, therefore, have increased potential to contain a more representative collection of artifacts than terrestrial sites. A complete collection of artifacts improves the interpretation of the site and improves our understanding of past activities at that site.

Oceanographic Considerations Oceanographic effects at Ontolo are limited to tidal currents and wave action. Several on-site and laboratory experiments were performed to determine the affects of these conditions on the context at Ontolo. The initial experiment attempted to determine the nature of water currents at Ontolo using oceanographic current meters placed on site. The data from these meters were recreated in a flume and additional experiments in the flume were performed to

79 determine the maximum current at which an assemblage of artifacts would remain stationary. To study the effects of waves at Ontolo, the frequency of large storm events occurring near the site was investigated. Data from hurricanes and tropical storms were accessed (National Oceanographic Atmospheric Administration 2005) and wave heights were determined. In addition to the wave height data, the near-bottom velocity created by these waves was calculated and the effects on the artifacts were determined. Modern lithics were employed at Ontolo prior to any of the major storms of 2005 and recovered after major storms had passed to determine actual movement of artifacts. It should be noted that the calculations for artifact movement utilized the Hjulström diagram. This diagram is used to determine the current required to move spherical quartz particles in a river setting. While the chert artifacts have a similar density to quartz, they are not spherical nor are they in a river. To estimate the size of artifact moved, the particle diameter from the Hjulström diagram (Figure 5.2) was used to calculate the mass of artifact moved.

Figure 5.2: Hjulström Diagram (modified from Press and Siever 1986).

80 Data acquired from oceanographic current meters indicate that tidal currents in Apalachee Bay frequently reach velocities of 7 cm/s (0.25 km/hr) at 5 m deep, but ebb and flow with the tidal cycle. According to the Hjulström diagram, this velocity is well below the 20 cm/s (0.72 km/hr) required for entrainment of the smallest sand particles. During a localized thunderstorm, currents reached velocities of 30 cm/s (1.08 km/hr), but these speeds will only entrain very coarse sand particles less than 2 mm in diameter (Press and Siever 1986). The BSCM did not record data at the 5 m depth during a tropical storm or hurricane because barnacles had formed on the rotor, but large waves caused by hurricanes are known to move large amounts of sediment, enough to expose or bury shipwrecks.

Although the waves created by hurricanes are the most damaging natural effects to a shallow archaeological site like Ontolo, Apalachee Bay is frequently spared the brunt of large storms. As of October 2005, the integrity of Ontolo was intact after Tropical Storms Bonnie, Frances, and Jeanne of 2004 passed within 75 km of the site. Based on tracking data from the National Hurricane Center (2005), Ontolo was less than 25 km from the eye of Tropical Strom Frances, which had sustained wind speeds of 80 kph (50 mph). The hurricane records show that between 1851, the extent of the hurricane records, and 2005 the central eye of 32 hurricanes and 100 tropical storms passed within 250 km of Ontolo. However, only four hurricanes passed within 75 km and none within 25 km. The effect of storm bands associated with hurricanes are unknown, and undeterminable since the distance of hurricane and tropical storm force winds from the eye wall, however, are different for each storm and those data are not readily available. A full set of hurricane data is provided in Appendix A.

Table 5.1: The numbers of tropical storms and hurricanes to pass near Ontolo.

Distance from Ontolo Tropical Storms Hurricanes Max Wind (kph) Max Wind (mph) 250 km 91 27 177 110 150 km 55 18 177 110 75 km 17 4 129 80 25 km 4 0 89 55

81 Tropical Storms Near Ontolo

250 km 150 km 75 km 25 km

Number of Storms of Number 3

0 1851-1855 1856-1860 1861-1865 1866-1870 1871-1875 1876-1880 1881-1885 1886-1890 1891-1895 1896-1900 1901-1905 1906-1910 1911-1915 1916-1920 1921-1925 1926-1930 1931-1935 1936-1940 1941-1945 1946-1950 1951-1955 1956-1960 1961-1965 1966-1970 1971-1975 1976-1980 1981-1985 1986-1990 1991-1995 1996-2000 2001-2005 Five Year Period

Figure 5.3: Number of tropical storms near Ontolo per five-year period 1851-2005.

The geology of Apalachee Bay and the northeastern Gulf tends to cause tropical storms and hurricanes to move south or west of the area. The continental shelf is shallow and is not conducive to storm development, but large storms can create large waves and storm surge that can move sediment and smaller lithics. Prior to 3500 years ago, there was a reduction in hurricane activity for northwest Florida, but during the period between 3500 and 1000 years ago the area experienced increased hurricane activity (Liu and Fearn 2000). Liu and Fearn (2000) tested geological cores from Western Lake outside of Pensacola, Florida and based on evidence of beach sand in the cores determined that 11 of the 12 known category 4 and 5 hurricanes struck the Florida Panhandle between 3500 and 1000 years ago. The Neolithic cooling trend that moved the jet stream south caused this increase in hurricane activity, and pushed the Bermuda High south, sending hurricanes into the Gulf of Mexico instead of along the Atlantic coast. The annual chance of hurricane landfall in this area was approximately five times greater during this

82 Hurricanes Near Ontolo

250 km 150 km 75 km 25 km

Number of Hurricanes of Number 1

Figure 5.4: Number of hurricanes near Ontolo per five-year period 1851-2005.

period of hyperactivity (Liu and Fearn 2000). (Note: Liu and Fearn published this article prior to the extremely active 2004 and 2005 hurricane seasons.) It is my opinion that the shallow continental shelf of Apalachee Bay, which extends beyond the 40 m contour, limits the effects of hurricanes at Ontolo and the Big Bend area.

To determine the effect of large tropical storms on the artifacts distribution of Ontolo several experimental approaches were tried. One experiment involved using a flume, a device that produces water flow, at the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Institute at FSU. I placed artifacts and faunal remains of varying sizes in the flume containing sandy sediment on the bottom. The current within the flume was increased steadily to a velocity of approximately 3 m/s (>10km/h). According to the Hjulström diagram, this current should erode grain sizes 1.5 cm in diameter and entrain objects with a 10 cm diameter, but only one object in the flume moved. A 4-cm oyster

83 shell flipped over once as it moved approximately 15 cm down the flume and then remained stationary, and became buried by sand. As shown in Table 5.2, the items placed in the flume were much smaller than 10 cm in diameter. The largest artifact had a length of 7.3 cm, and a spherical object with identical volume of 21 cc would have a diameter of 3.4 cm. The other items would have had a spherical diameter less than 1.5 cm. Chert consists of siliceous material and the density of chert and quartz sand used in the Hjulström diagram should be near equal. This current, therefore, should have entrained all items in the flume and eroded most of the items. As the current within the flume gained speed, the artifacts received a light covering of sand, possibly increasing the surface tension. The overall flat shape of the artifacts may have also decreased the ability move the items.

In an experiment to try to overcome the surface tension, I dropped artifacts into 20 cm deep water moving at approximately 0.5 m/s (1.8 km/h) from just above the water surface to determine how far a current would entrain the items. This current was much slower than the 3m/s, but can erode grain sizes of 0.1 cm and 0.2 cm and entrain grain sizes less than 4 cm. I dropped the artifacts four times, having the four largest cross sections parallel to the water surface. As shown in Table 5.2, the smallest oyster shell progressed downstream the farthest at 76 cm and the largest artifact moved the least at 10 cm down stream. The cross section that entered the water did not appear to have an effect, as the items would tumble in the water column. Once a specimen landed on the bottom, it rolled a few times, settled, and became covered by sand.

Material Mass Length Width Height CSF vol (cc) density distance moved (cm) lithic 49.96 72.93 57.68 13.11 0.202 21.0 2.38 43 10 23 41 lithic 1.30 24.87 14.91 4.22 0.219 0.5 2.60 23 34 15 30 lithic 0.82 24.25 11.97 4.48 0.263 0.5 1.64 30 10 15 38 lithic 0.57 23.18 11.07 2.12 0.132 0.3 1.90 43 56 43 38 lithic 0.41 15.82 10.61 2.89 0.223 0.2 2.05 30 28 43 53 lithic 0.22 12.79 9.83 2.27 0.202 0.2 1.47 41 28 61 46 lithic 0.04 8.75 5.18 1.33 0.198 0.05 0.80 76 46 71 66 shell 15.55 62.92 36.71 11.19 0.233 6.0 2.59 18 17 10 25 shell 2.37 36.59 26.32 3.27 0.105 0.7 3.39 28 30 23 56 bone 0.54 13.35 10.54 4.82 0.406 0.5 1.08 28 17 23 56

84 The final flume experiment occurred as a mistake with the equipment. The artifacts were resting on the bottom of the flume with a current of approximately 0.3 m/s and the operator (Marks) pressed the “start” button of the larger flume pump. While the button was not depressed long enough to fully engage the pump, a wave formed. The wave velocity was not measurable, but several artifacts became entrained for several centimeters. Steady currents, even at high speed, may have little to no effect on flat artifacts, but storm-generated waves may create enough sheer stress at the ocean bottom to move artifacts. These waves appear to be the major catalyst for site formation (or destruction) processes at an underwater site.

As mentioned above, modern lithics were placed in specific locations at Ontolo. After five months, four of which were during hurricane season, the research crew only recovered seven of 36 lithics, and at one group could not relocate any faux artifacts. The disappearance of lithics could be accounted by several explanations: the smaller lithics could have been moved out of the search area by wave motion, the movement of sediment may have buried the lithics deeper than the expected 1-2 cm, the lithics may have moved into a hole or crab den underneath a large rock, the lithics may have been used for decoration/camouflage by urchins and carried beyond the 2-m radius search area. One additional possibility suggested by the director of the Florida State University Edward Ball Marine Lab, Dr. John Hitron (personal communication, 2005), is that the items were consumed by fish. While this last hypothesis seems farfetched, the pink and dark orange coloring of the lithics is similar to the stone crabs on the site, and during recovery dives, pieces of crab shell were often momentarily mistaken for small lithics. Figures 5.5 and 5.6 show a stone crab typical to Ontolo and the recovered “faux artifacts,” and the colors are very similar to each other. According to Dr. Hitron, fish can eat small crabs and other shellfish in a single bite. While the above factors do not prove the lithic-eating fish hypothesis, they do show that there may be some truth behind it.

The divers discovered the recovered lithics either just under the surface sand or partially sticking out of the sand. Table 5.3 shows the lithics recovered, their dimensions, direction of movement, and distance of movement. Differences in compass readings may account for the movement of the two lithics recovered less than 6 cm away from their original position, as their distance from the pin did not change. The other lithics displayed movement between 23 and 40

Figure 5.5: Stone crab typical to Ontolo (photo Figure 5.6: “Faux artifacts” recovered at Ontolo. from Zeiller 1974:169). Note the similar coloring to stone crab.

cm, and this movement cannot be accounted for by compass variation. The same effects that caused the smaller lithics to disappear could have caused the movement of the larger lithics. The sub-environment also appeared to have an effect on recovery efforts. Divers could not relocate lithics placed in a sandy area with no nearby rocks, but they relocated four lithics from an area surrounded by rocks. This area may have acted as a shelter for artifacts, thereby limiting their movement. It is possible that the un-relocated lithics are in crab dens under nearby rocks. During the relocation dives, divers observed a pile of approximately 10 to 15 artifacts next to the main datum at Ontolo, suggesting that the datum acts as a barrier to movement. (Note: This pile of artifacts appeared to be the result of natural forces, not by sport divers. Also, due to permitting constraints, the artifacts were not collected).

Table 5.3: Modern lithics placed at Ontolo to determine movement during storm events (dimensions and distance in cm).

Original Recovered Moved Group Artifact Mass Length Width Height Bearing Distance Bearing Distance Bearing Distance 2418.98 50.80 42.99 10.35 180 30 90 10 18 31.6 2515.88 61.07 26.73 11.58 270 15 220 36 195 29.1 3 1 23.18 54.64 37.82 15.15 0 30 50 23 125 23.6 3 2 8.32 51.91 31.13 6.25 90 30 140 41 186 32.0 3 5 27.90 71.71 31.80 13.26 0 15 30 53 41 39.7 3 6 34.15 62.49 46.39 14.71 90 15 110 15 188 5.5 4 4 7.82 52.47 27.53 5.56 180 30 190 30 272 5.2

86 Biological, rather than physical, factors can explain some movement by the pile of artifacts by the datum if there were only a few artifacts, but not in these numbers. The average conditions at Ontolo have little effect on the site’s formation; therefore the most drastic changes in site formation would occur during large hurricane events. As stated above, most storms do not directly impact Apalachee Bay, but in 2005, there were 14 hurricanes and 27 named storms, the most in recorded history. Only Hurricane Dennis had any significant effect on Apalachee Bay (National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration 2005), striking west Florida in early July over 275 km from Ontolo. The storm produced significant waves and storm surge sufficient to cause major damage along the Big Bend coastline. Businesses along the St. Marks River less than 20 km northwest of Ontolo, experienced storm flooding of approximately 10 ft (3 m) above sea level and had water above the doors of buildings. Dennis, in combination with 1.0 m high tide and 1.3 m of storm surge added 2.3 m of water height on top of Ontolo on July 10, 2005 at 1800 hrs (Center for Oceanographic and Atmospheric Prediction Studies 2005). Other data for the area around Ontolo during Hurricane Dennis includes maximum wave height at 3.1 m above mean sea level with a wave period (the time it takes for tops of two waves to pass through the same location) between 7 and 10.7 seconds that occurred concurrently with maximum storm surge (Master Environmental Library: 2005).

To determine the maximum effect this wave height had on the ocean bottom at Ontolo, we must assume maximum wave height, with maximum wave period, shallowest water depth, and that artifacts are spherical particles resting on a flat plane. Using these data, the near-bottom orbital velocity can be determined using an online wave calculator (Dalrymple 2005; formula also available in Open University 1989:37). Assuming that the depth at Ontolo was 12 ft (3.66 m), the wave height was 3.1 m, and the wave period was 10.7 s, the near-bottom orbital velocity was 2.46 m/s. According to the Hjulström diagram, this velocity should erode particles with diameters less than 1 cm or a mass less than 1.5 g. Of the artifacts placed in May 2005, only two were smaller than 1.5 g.

The scenario described above is a worst-case scenario and several real factors reduce the orbital velocity and associated effects. First, a diver recorded the 3.66 m depth at Ontolo during an extreme low tide, and even if the wave struck during an extreme low tide, there was an

87 additional 1.3 m of storm surge providing additional protection of the ocean bottom. Second, the median artifact weight of all surface artifacts recovered from Ontolo is 4.0 g and over 70 percent of surface artifacts weighed more than 1.5 g. Third, the majority of the lithic artifacts were relatively thin and no artifacts were spherical in shape. Some artifacts had a higher Corey shape factor (Corey shape factor [CSF] is determined by dividing the smallest increment of measure by the square root of the product of the other two measurements: i.e., a cube has a CSF value of 1 and a piece of paper is 0) than others, but none was spherical. Objects that are less spherical present less surface area for currents to push. Lastly, surface artifacts are not resting on a flat surface and are often similar to icebergs with only a small portion exposed above the sand. Therefore, the artifacts at Ontolo do not perform like the spherical sand particles used in the Hjulström diagram and would require increased water velocities to move. Considering the increased depth of 6.8 m (average depth at Ontolo of 4.5 m, plus 1.3 m of storm surge and an additional 1 m for high tide), a recalculation of the near-bottom orbital velocity results in a velocity of 1.83 m/s, a speed that would erode spherical particles less than 0.5 cm in diameter or a mass less than 0.2 g. Less than 8 percent of Ontolo’s recovered artifacts have a mass this low; therefore, based on this model, the storm would have little effect on the movement of artifacts.

However, artifact movement occurred at Ontolo, as evidenced by the pile at the datum. To better understand the potential for redistribution of artifacts at Ontolo during storm events, I calculated the near-bottom orbital velocity of theoretical waves at varying depths. One important factor in this study is maximum wave height, as deeper water can support larger waves. The McCowan formula (McCowan 1894, cited in Balsillie 1999b) is a simplified formula for determining the maximum wave height for a given depth by multiplying depth by 0.78. Therefore, during a high tide, depth at Ontolo might reach 18 ft (5.5 m) and the maximum wave height would be 4.3 m. Larger waves will break or will have broken at that depth. Assuming a period of 20 sec. for this wave, the near bottom orbital velocity would be 2.8 m/s, which would erode spherical particles with a diameter of approximately 1.5 cm or over 4.6 g. This wave action would be detrimental to Ontolo as over half of its surface artifacts weigh less than 4.6 g.

The assumed wave period, however, is greater than the largest dominant period for the area. According to the marine buoy (Figure 5.7) 100 nm (~200 km) east of Tampa, FL and the

88 same distance south of Ontolo, the longest wave period during the 2005 hurricane season was 12.5 s during Hurricane Katrina in late August 2005 (National Data Buoy Center 2005), and as waves move into shallower water, the period remains constant (Open University 1989). However, a 4.3 m wave with a 12.5 s period still produces a near-bottom orbital velocity of 2.73 m/s, which would move spherical particles over 3 g. The storm surge typically associated with hurricane events would also protect the artifacts at Ontolo by increasing water depth at the site and thereby reducing the near-bottom orbital wave velocity. While rare, these waves do occur in the shallow waters of Apalachee Bay and would have an effect on the lithic debris on the ocean floor as evidenced by the pile of artifacts by the datum. A current moving lithics southward would deposit them next to the cinderblocks of the datum, and these blocks prevent currents from moving lithics northward.

Figure 5.7: Marine Buoy 42036 (National Data Buoy Center 2005).

Another unknown effect of large waves on site formation is the directionality of the waves. Waves generally produce a forward and backward motion in the water column as they pass over a specific point. This motion would tend to return any artifact close to its original location. However, the group of artifacts at the datum was piled against the northwest corner of the datum, implying that the artifacts moved to the southeast. This direction seems counter- intuitive, as waves from offshore would be heading north or northeast, and there is no

89 discernable slope at Ontolo causing artifacts to move “downhill.” The lack of sorting at Ontolo also implies that wave directionality must be different during each storm.

The individual mass of the faux artifacts recovered were generally larger than the average mass of those placed at Ontolo. The mass of artifacts recovered, however, were not grouped together (Figure 5.8) suggesting that their disappearance was not entirely influenced by oceanographic processes. The faux artifacts also had a larger average mass than the actual artifacts collected at Ontolo by approximately 2 g. This implies that the majority of artifacts at Ontolo experience movement, however, forces that caused the faux artifact to move and disappear are clear. According to wave calculations, only the smallest of artifacts should move, and if the faux artifacts are in fact being eaten by fish, then no inferences about artifact movement can be made confidently with this experiment.

Artifact Mass

faux artifacts actual artifacts

1000.00

100.00

10.00 Mass (g)

1.00 1 53 105 157 209 261 313 365 417 469 521 573 625 677 729 781 833 885 937 989 1041 1093 1145 1197 1249 1301

0.10

Figure 5.8: Logarithmic scale of mass of artifacts collected at Ontolo and faux artifacts (black dots represent faux artifacts recovered.

90 Wave action obviously has an effect on the formation of Ontolo, but the artifacts show little evidence of frequent movement. The edges are still sharp, and the artifacts do not sort across Ontolo by size. Another factor that protects the artifacts from moving large distances is the rocky topography of the ocean bottom. The rocks apparently provide barriers similar to the concrete-blocks that artifacts are not likely to pass. A higher concentration of artifacts in sandy areas surrounded by rocks was observed. Areas with sea grass yielded the fewest artifacts, as either the result of wave action or the urchins which frequent that area. While site integrity is not pristine, I believe the site has maintained a general integrity, as most artifacts could not have moved long distances.

The redistribution of artifacts can make it difficult to determine the cultural periods at a site or the number of sites within an area. Such movement can also alter intra-site concentrations that might be informative about specific cultural activities. However, the presence of diagnostic artifacts indicates that Ontolo has evidence of human occupation between 12,500 and 7,000 years ago. It is unknown whether multiple sites are represented at Ontolo, though there is only one general concentration of artifacts implying a single site. Continuous occupation at Ontolo is not likely during the entire 5,500 years, but the site either was a base camp during seasonal rounds or was a habitation site reoccupied every few years.

Conclusion Several different natural processes have occurred during the last 12,000 years to affect site formation at Ontolo. These processes include both terrestrial and marine bioturbation, sea- level rise, changing environments, waves in the surf zone, and waves generated by tropical storms and hurricanes. The effects of terrestrial bioturbation are less at Ontolo than at terrestrial sites of the same age because Ontolo has been submerged for the last 7,000 years. The presence of sharp edges on most artifacts suggests that energy level at Ontolo was low compared to other coastlines (e.g. Pacific coasts). Although marine organisms can bring artifacts to the surface or move them laterally across the site, these effects appear to be minimal compared to storm waves. Waves generated from large storms can move artifacts as large as 5 g at Ontolo, but these large waves are rare in Apalachee Bay. Although there is definite artifact movement at Ontolo, the overall effects on site integrity do not seem drastic enough to nullify detailed analysis.

CHAPTER 6

ARTIFACT ANALYSIS

Between 2001 and 2004, investigations at the Ontolo site recovered 1,343 lithic artifacts, 147 faunal specimens, 16 wood fragments, 80 rock samples, 94 shell samples, two sediment samples, six small pieces of iron rust flakes, and the primer end of 0.50-caliber shell. Table 6.1 shows the distribution of artifacts recovered from each of the four years of research, as well as the type of operation: surface collection (SC), subsurface investigation (EX), and isolated finds (IF). As mentioned before, the initial 441 lithic artifacts recovered from Ontolo in 2001 lack any provenience other than the 50 m transect of origin. Thirty-five lithic artifacts and three faunal specimens were recovered within 2 m of the original datum. With the exception of six isolated find artifacts, my intra-site analysis will not use the 2001 artifacts. A complete table of the raw data is provided in Appendix B

Table 6.1: Distribution of artifacts and organic remains recovered from Ontolo for each year and for each collection strategy.

Lithics Faunal Shell Year SC EX IF Total SC EX IF Total SC EX IF Total 2001 435 0 6 441 21 0 0 21 0 0 2 2 2002 139 0 29 168 18 0 2 20 11 0 0 11 2003 197 170 9 376 38 16 0 54 17 44 0 61 2004 11 338 9 358 3 49 0 52 1 19 0 20 Total 782 508 53 1343 80 65 2 147 29 63 2 94

92 Each lithic artifact collected was examined for size, weight, debitage type, marine growth coverage, cortex coverage, and staining characteristics. Its size was measured on a general basis of length, width, and height but rounded up to the nearest centimeter. While this did not provide exact dimensions, it allowed for the general size of the artifacts to be classified quickly. The mass of the artifact has proven to be a better determinant of size. In an earlier study, I have shown that the overall dimensions of an artifact are directly proportional to its mass (Marks 2002).

Debitage Typology The initial lithic category of artifact analysis is debitage. This typology can be the most difficult to determine because many attributes have been hidden by marine growth and/or erased by artifact corrosion. The goal of debitage analysis is to better understand the processes of tool production within a prehistoric society by studying the debris formed from lithic reduction (Andrefsky 1998). Most flakes formed in this process are unusable by-products, but some are usable tools (Odell 2000). Carr and Bradbury (2000:125) discuss several problems in lithic analysis common to the Southeastern United States: many reports only provided general lithic information, gave uncritical acceptance of analytical methods, lacked integration of flake debris into stone tool data, and failed to integrate the lithic data with other material classes. They believe these shortcomings stem from the lack of trained lithic specialists. The lithic analysis in many reports consisted only of counts of formal tool types and flake debris. Lithic debris is informative because flakes retain evidence of their removal stage and they are typically the most abundant chipped stone artifacts found at an archaeological location (Andrefsky 1998; Carr and Bradbury 2000:121).

There are several ways to analyze chipped stone debitage. One way is the triple-cortex typology (Andrefsky 1998; Rosenthal 1978), an interpretive method that utilizes four categories: primary, secondary, and tertiary flakes, as well as a shatter category. Decreasing amounts of cortex on an artifact distinguish among the four categories. Primary flakes tend to have the most cortex and tertiary flakes have the least. The theory behind this analytical method reflects a specific sequence of flake removal: flint knappers remove primary flakes prior to secondary flakes, and remove secondary flakes before tertiary flakes. The shatter category encompasses

93 very small debitage with no cortex and few distinguishing features. One problem with this method is that different material types have different flaking patterns, core size, reduction intensity, and functional factors (Sullivan and Rozen 1985:756-758). Another problem is the replicability of analysis because different researchers have different ideas about the criteria for primary, secondary, and tertiary flakes (Andrefsky 1998; Sullivan and Rozen 1985). Flint knapping experiments have also shown that the triple-cortex method is not a reliable method for classifying flake debris (Bradbury and Carr 1995, 1999:105).

Sullivan and Rozen (1985) developed an approach to lithic analysis that is a non- interpretive, more objective, and replicable method. They use this method as a way to sort debitage, not as a behavioral proxy; archaeologists can only interpret behavior from the results of the sorting. They utilize three dimensions of variability: the presence or absence of single interior surface (the part of the flake previously attached to the core), the point of applied force, and margin features (Sullivan and Rozen 1985). Features such as ripple marks or force lines signify a discernible single interior surface. The point of applied force refers to the bulb of percussion and striking platform, while the margin features refer to the distal end of the artifact, away from the bulb of percussion. If no single interior surface is discernible, the debitage is considered shatter or debris. If a single interior surface is discernible and the bulb of percussion is not, the debitage is categorized as a flake fragment. If the bulb of percussion is present and the distal end is not intact, the debitage is categorized as a broken flake. If the distal end is intact and the bulb of percussion is present, then the debitage is categorized as a complete flake (Sullivan and Rozen 1985:758-760).

I am using the Sullivan and Rozen (1985) typology for debitage analysis, with minor modifications, to analyze the debitage and artifacts. An artifact or object could fall into one of ten categories consisting of flake, broken flake, flake fragment, shatter, bifacial tools, unifacial tools, expedient tools, and cores, as well as faunal and “other” objects. These categories were used to help determine if activity areas could be identified at Ontolo. The first four categories follow Sullivan and Rozen’s (1985) typology and use the presence or absence of three characteristics: the platform, the bulb of percussion, and the distal end. Artifacts placed in the bifacial tool or unifacial tool category could be flakes as well, but have undergone additional

94 modification to make them into tools. A unifacial tool has several small or retouched flakes removed from one face forming a steep cutting edge, while a bifacial tool has these flakes removed from both faces (Inizan et al. 1999). Flake tools with no retouching are identified only by virtue of having one or more edges that exhibit use wear (Read and Russell 1996:665), and these tools are listed as expedient tools in addition to their original Sullivan and Rozen (1985) classification. A core is a section of lithic material that has had flakes removed from one or more sides. Cores typically do not have distal ends or bulbs of percussion and are typically blocky artifacts (Inizan et al. 1999). The two categories of fauna and “other” contain the remainder of objects recovered. The faunal category includes fossilized shark teeth, dugong ribs, turtle carapace, shell, fish bones, as well as any floral sample of charcoal, wood, or similar substance located on the ocean bottom. Artifacts that did not fall into any one of the previous nine categories received the “other” designation. These artifacts include rock samples, the one historic artifact, and sediment samples. Table 6.2 displays the distribution of debitage typology at Ontolo.

Table 6.2: Debitage typology at Ontolo. Totalavg wt. Surface Collection avg wt. Excavation avg wt. Isolated Finds avg wt. N = 1343 % 13.10 N = 782 % 13.98 N = 508 % 5.69 N = 53 % 71.09 Flake 497 37.0 13.55 FL 299 38.2 12.12 FL 183 36.0 9.86 FL 15 28.3 87.09 Broken Flake 150 11.2 5.27 BF 79 10.1 7.77 BF 70 13.8 2.47 BF 1 1.9 4.10 Flake Frag 487 36.3 4.81 FF 267 34.1 6.47 FF 217 42.7 2.41 FF 3 5.7 30.37 Shatter 96 7.1 5.17 SH 71 9.1 6.50 SH 25 4.9 1.39 SH 0 0.0 0.00 Bifacial tool 56 4.2 52.06 BT 21 2.7 58.61 BT 8 1.6 37.70 BT 27 50.9 51.21 Unifacial Tool 45 3.4 63.50 UT 37 4.7 64.11 UT 3 0.6 12.47 UT 5 9.4 89.62 Expedient Tool 33 2.5 10.26 ET 17 2.2 8.31 ET 12 2.4 5.69 ET 4 7.5 32.25 Core 12 0.9 72.33 CO 8 1.0 39.89 CO 2 0.4 6.65 CO 2 3.8 267.75 N = 346 % avg wt. N = 182 % avg wt. N = 156 % avg wt. N = 8 % avg wt. Other 89 5.3 17.05 OT 62 6.4 12.79 OT 26 3.9 22.78 OT 1 1.6 132.10 Fauna 257 15.2 10.48 FA 120 12.4 11.64 FA 130 19.6 3.90 FA 7 11.5 112.90

The percentages listed for the lithic artifacts are derived from the total number of lithic artifacts. The percentage is over 100 percent due to the double counting of artifacts classified as expedient tools. The percentages of non-lithic artifacts are out of the total number of recovered objects. The highest percentage of bifacial tools were recovered as isolated finds, however,

95 artifacts recovered as isolated finds are the ones that catch the archaeologist’s eye, typically projectile points and other tools. There appears to be no correlation with type of lithic debitage and weight, though cores and formal tools tend to have more mass than other debitage types. Among the expedient tools, twice as many were constructed on flakes (N=22) compared to broken flakes (N=4) and flake fragments (N=7) combined.

Marine Growth Bioturbation can bring previously buried artifacts to the surface. Once exposed on the ocean floor, they provide a stable platform for encrusting sea creatures to set up residence. One hypothesis suggests that the percentage of marine growth coverage indicates the length of time artifacts have been exposed on the ocean bottom. This hypothesis was discarded when the faux artifacts from Ontolo displayed approximately 25 percent coverage after only five months on the bottom. The more marine growth coverage, the more the artifact blends into the ocean bottom, however, making it less visible. Instead of determining the exact percentage of marine growth coverage, five categories were created to aid in statistical analysis. The five categories were: 1) Absent coverage (less than 5%), 2) Low coverage (5% to 35%), 3) Half coverage (35% to 65%), 4). Mostly covered (65 to 95%), and 5) completely covered (more than 95%). An additional category of NA (Not applicable) was used for non-lithic artifacts. Table 6.3 displays the number artifacts that exhibited various amounts of marine coverage. No lithic artifacts exhibited complete coverage by marine organisms and the following table does not list that category. The lithics placed at Ontolo for the artifact moving experiment developed low amount of marine coverage during their five-month submersion according to the above scale.

Table 6.3: Marine growth coverage on artifacts from different collection strategies.

Totalavg wt. Surface Collection avg wt. Excavation avg wt. Isolated Finds avg wt. N = 1343 % 13.10 N = 782 % 13.99 N = 508 % 5.69 N = 53 % 69.94 A 915 68.1 3.50 A 465 59.5 7.33 A 435 85.6 2.35 A 15 28.3 29.25 L 419 31.2 33.27 L 310 39.6 28.28 L 72 14.2 25.88 L 37 69.8 89.01 H 8 0.6 53.94 H 6 0.8 53.55 H 1 0.2 2.00 H 1 1.9 9.30 M 1 0.1 19.70 M 1 0.1 19.70 M 0 0.0 0.00 M 0 0.0 0.00

96 A correlation between artifact size and marine growth coverage was observed in that the larger artifacts tended to have more marine growth coverage. This may have been a function of their increased surface area, which makes it easier for marine organisms to adhere. Artifacts recovered during surface collection also exhibited more marine growth coverage than artifacts recovered from excavation. This finding was expected, since the majority of encrusting organisms do not live underground. It is probable that marine growth present on the excavated artifacts occurred prior to burial. Another explanation for the lack of marine growth coverage may be relative size; artifacts recovered during excavation were smaller than artifacts from surface collections.

Cortex Coverage The percent of cortex coverage indicates the amount of reduction an artifact has undergone from the original lithic material, and is fundamental to reduction analysis like the triple-cortex typology mentioned above since more cortex occurs on artifacts formed early in the reduction sequence (Andrefsky 1998). As with marine growth coverage, greater cortex coverage decreases artifact visibility. Instead of determining the exact percentage of cortex coverage on the entire artifact, five categories were created to aid in statistical analysis. The five categories are: 1) Absent coverage (less than 5%), 2) Low coverage (5% to 35%), 3) Half coverage (35% to 65%), 4) Mostly covered (65 to 95%), and 5) Completely covered (more than 95%). Table 6.4 displays the trends in cortex coverage at Ontolo.

Table 6.4: Percent of cortex coverage for the entire artifact.

Totalavg wt. Surface Collection avg wt. Excavation avg wt. Isolated Finds avg wt. N = 1343 % 13.10 N = 782 % 13.98 N = 508 % 5.69 N = 53 % 71.09 A 991 73.8 7.36 A 578 73.9 8.05 A 373 73.4 2.90 A 40 75.5 38.96 L 280 20.8 26.42 L 170 21.7 29.21 L 100 19.7 12.64 L 10 18.9 116.67 H 62 4.6 43.40 H 29 3.7 41.78 H 30 5.9 14.54 H 3 5.7 347.57 M 10 0.7 21.19 M 5 0.6 21.22 M 5 1.0 21.16 M 0 0.0 0.00

A secondary analysis of cortex coverage was performed on the exterior or dorsal surface of the artifacts. The outer surface received the same classification schemes as the above cortex

97 coverage study. For example, if cortex completely covers the dorsal surface, the initial classification would show half cortex coverage, while the secondary analysis would show full cortex coverage. Table 6.5 shows the trends in dorsal cortex coverage. As was seen with marine coverage, there is a correlation between artifact size and cortex coverage. Larger artifacts tended to have more cortex coverage. The lack of small artifacts with cortical coverage may be a factor of visibility. The cortical material is, essentially, rock, and divers may not collect an artifact with only the dorsal side visible, as it appears to be a rock. However, in their eagerness to find archaeological material during surface collection, divers tend to turn over any rock within the collection unit to verify that it is not an artifact.

Table 6.5: Percent of cortex coverage for the dorsal surface of the artifact.

Totalavg wt. Surface Collection avg wt. Excavation avg wt. Isolated Finds avg wt. N = 1343 % 13.10 N = 782 % 13.98 N = 508 % 5.69 N = 53 % 71.09 A 991 73.8 7.36 A 578 73.9 8.05 A 373 73.4 2.90 A 40 75.5 38.96 L 227 16.9 26.64 L 130 16.6 29.91 L 89 17.5 11.10 L 8 15.1 146.41 H 52 3.9 38.55 H 33 4.2 27.86 H 15 3.0 17.84 H 4 7.5 204.45 M 45 3.4 28.26 M 27 3.5 27.44 M 17 3.3 18.28 M 1 1.9 220.30 C 28 2.1 34.82 C 14 1.8 52.51 C 14 2.8 17.13 C 0 0.0 0.00

These categories proved to be useful in requesting the past activities at the site. Cortex was analyzed to determine the amount of reduction taking place at a location. The lack of cortical material on the Ontolo artifacts implies that they formed during the later stages of the reduction sequence. Tables 6.6 and 6.7 displays the relationship between cortex coverage and debitage type. The proportion of all debitage types in each cortex coverage category, with the exception of shatter and cores, were comparable to the overall proportions. Shatter debitage had a disproportionately high number of half covered and mostly covered artifacts while cores had disproportionately high numbers in low coverage artifacts and extremely low numbers of artifacts with no cortical material. This is not surprising, since the removal of flakes from cores eliminates cortex. Cortex coverage is significant because it indicates the stage of artifact reduction, important evidence in determining cultural activity areas at Ontolo.

98 Table 6.6: Cortex coverage by debitage type.

Cortex Total lithics of % cortex of % avg wt. Flake lithics of % cortex of % avg wt. Brokenflake lithics of % cortex of % avg wt. Flake Fragment lithics of % cortex of % avg wt. Shatter lithics of % cortex of % avg wt. Total 1343 100 100 13.1 497 37.0 N/A 13.55 150 11.2 N/A 5.27 487 36.3 N/A 4.81 96 7.1 N/A 5.17 A 991 N/A 73.8 7.36 352 70.8 35.5 7.05 114 76.0 11.5 3.62 379 77.8 38.2 2.71 68 70.8 6.9 3.06 L 280 N/A 20.8 26.42 113 22.7 40.4 20.90 31 20.7 11.1 11.15 91 18.7 32.5 13.03 12 12.5 4.3 11.83 H 62 N/A 4.6 43.40 28 5.6 45.2 55.37 5 3.3 8.1 6.56 16 3.3 25.8 7.36 11 11.5 17.7 3.95 M 10 N/A 0.7 21.19 4 0.8 40.0 24.53 0 0.0 0.0 0.00 1 0.2 10.0 10.90 5 5.2 50.0 20.58

Cortex Bifacial Tool % of lithics cortex of % avg wt. tool Unifacial % of lithics cortex of % avg wt. tool Expedient % of lithics cortex of % avg wt. Core % of lithics cortex of % avg wt. Total 56 4.2 N/A 52.06 45 3.4 N/A 63.50 33 2.5 N/A 10.26 12 0.9 N/A 72.33 A 44 78.6 4.4 31.49 31 68.9 3.1 41.44 28 84.8 2.8 10.68 3 25.0 0.3 164.97 L 12 21.4 4.3 127.48 13 28.9 4.6 86.16 5 15.2 1.8 7.92 8 66.7 2.9 89.00 H 0 0.0 0.0 0.00 1 2.2 1.6 489.10 0 0.0 0.0 0.00 1 8.3 1.6 213.20 M 0 0.0 0.0 0.00 0 0.0 0.0 0.00 0 0.0 0.0 0.00 0 0.0 0.0 0.00

Table 6.7: Dorsal cortex coverage by debitage type.

Dorsal cortex Total lithics% of cortex of % avg wt. Flake lithics% of cortex of % avg wt. Brokenflake lithics% of cortex of % avg wt. Fragment Flake lithics% of cortex of % avg wt. Shatter lithics% of cortex of % avg wt. Total 1343 100 100 13.1 497 37 N/A 13.55 150 11.2 N/A 5.27 487 36.3 N/A 4.81 96 7.1 N/A 5.17 A 991 N/A 73.8 7.36 352 70.8 35.5 7.05 114 76.0 11.5 3.62 379 77.8 38.2 2.71 68 70.8 6.9 3.06 L 227 N/A 16.9 26.64 93 18.7 41.0 18.96 23 15.3 10.1 10.92 73 15.0 32.2 12.19 9 9.4 4.0 9.20 H 52 N/A 3.9 38.55 21 4.2 40.4 61.40 7 4.7 13.5 9.06 17 3.5 32.7 9.21 3 3.1 5.8 7.77 M 45 N/A 3.4 28.26 25 5.0 55.6 38.14 4 2.7 8.9 12.60 10 2.1 22.2 21.77 6 6.3 13.3 8.37 C 28 N/A 2.1 34.82 6 1.2 21.4 41.33 2 1.3 7.1 6.70 8 1.6 28.6 6.21 10 10.4 35.7 13.19

Dorsal cortex Bifacial Tool Bifacial lithics of % cortex of % avg wt. tool Unifacial lithics of % cortex of % avg wt. Expedient tool lithics of % cortex of % avg wt. Core lithics of % cortex of % avg wt. Total 56 4.2 N/A 52.06 45 3.4 N/A 63.50 33 2.5 N/A 10.26 12 0.9 N/A 72.33 A 44 78.6 4.4 31.49 31 68.9 3.1 41.44 28 84.8 2.8 10.68 3 25.0 0.3 164.97 L 10 17.9 4.4 135.44 10 22.2 4.4 78.04 4 12.1 1.8 8.73 9 75.0 4.0 102.80 H 1 1.8 1.9 132.40 3 6.7 5.8 113.23 1 3.0 1.9 4.70 0 0.0 0.0 0.00 M 0 0.0 0.0 0.00 0 0.0 0.0 0.00 0 0.0 0.0 0.00 0 0.0 0.0 0.00 C 1 1.8 3.6 42.90 1 2.2 3.6 489.10 0 0.0 0.0 0.00 0 0.0 0.0 0.00

Faunal Analysis The fauna recovered from Ontolo consists of 147 fossilized bone fragments and 94 shell fragments. Most of the bone fragments are fossilized and nearly all are stained black like the

99 lithic debitage. Dugong ribs, mammal long bone fragments, tapir teeth, proboscidean ivory, turtle carapace, unidentifiable pieces of bone, and shark teeth (which are post sea-level stabilization) comprise the vertebrate assemblage. The shell fragments can help to determine past environments at Ontolo. Oyster beds can only form in brackish water (Burrell et al. 1984), therefore, the presence of oysters at Ontolo dates to a time when the area was partially inundated by the ocean but still receiving fresh water from the Aucilla River. Along with the shells of the eastern oyster, there were other species recovered including the half-naked penshell, snails, Pennsylvania lucine, buttercup lucine, elegant docinia, and calico clam.

Although there were no obvious cut marks on any of the faunal remains, certain assumptions can be made regarding the food resources available to the occupants at Ontolo. The remains of terrestrial mammals suggest that there were several species present in the area. The presence of mammoth ivory and some of the larger long bones show that megafauna were in the area, but clear evidence for hunting or butchering is not present. Ontolo is not unique in the presence of faunal remains since most of the other sites in Apalachee Bay also contain fossilized mammal bones.

The faunal remains from the marine animals are more difficult to interpret. Although it is possible that paleo-fishermen caught sharks when Ontolo was a coastal habitation, and the same holds true for the turtle carapace, assuming the turtle carapace is that of a sea turtle. It is possible that the carapace is from a land or fresh water species, however, the shark teeth and the turtle carapace most likely arrived at Ontolo after 7000 years ago when sea levels stabilized. The dugong is the Pleistocene ancestor of the manatee and may have been living in the rivers or ocean near Ontolo. The bones may also be from the Early Pleistocene and eroded out of the limestone prior to human occupation.

The remains of shell suggest that oysters were available when conditions at Ontolo were coastal or near-coastal. However, the oyster remains observed may be the result of natural deposits when Ontolo was submerged in a brackish setting. Although no evidence of a shell midden has been observed like the one at J&J Hunt, the hand fan unit that yielded nearly 100 pieces of debitage also contained more than 35 fragments of oyster shell. Therefore it is possible

100 that the later occupants of Ontolo utilized oyster in their subsistence strategy. The other species of shell are from a high or full salinity environment and were likely deposited after the site was submerged.

Conservation After removal from the ocean, the artifacts were immediately placed in fresh water (preferably distilled) to remove impregnated salts from the artifacts. If an artifact dries without desalination, salt crystals will expand and alter the artifact (Cronyn 1996). While iron artifacts undergo this process in a more obvious fashion, chipped stone artifacts exhibit a lesser amount of chemical alteration. Chert recovered from offshore investigations in the late 1980s was subjected to minimal conservation. The artifacts were sprayed with fresh water from an outdoor hose, dried, placed in bags, and stored. When I re-examined these artifacts in 2001 for my Master’s thesis, many samples smelled sulfurous, exuded a sulfur-like residue, and the exterior portion of the artifact had a chalky texture.

During the 2001 field school, the survey team placed the Ontolo artifacts in fresh tap water for several months to remove salts. All artifacts soaked in the same holding tank, though all artifacts from the same provenience designation remained in their bag. Conservators left the bags opened to allow water to encounter the artifacts. They tested the water in the tank for salinity on a weekly basis. They also removed, and replaced the water at similar intervals.

The salinity of seawater is over 3500 parts per million (ppm), which is three times the maximum limit of the Oakton TDSTestr30 and 40 salinity tester used to test salinity. Conservators added tap water with a salinity of 215-225 ppm to the tank, and the salinity rose over time as the salts leached out of the artifacts. When the salt concentration of the holding tank maintained 250-300 ppm after several days of immersion, the conservator replaced the tap water with de-ionized or distilled water with a salinity level between 0.5 ppm and 5.3 ppm. When the holding tank maintained a salinity of less than 70 ppm, the conservator removed artifacts from the holding tank and allowed them to dry before labeling and placing the artifacts in bags for storage. Professional conservator, Joan Gardner (personal communication 2002), determined that 70 ppm was an acceptable level of salinity for artifact removal.

101 After consulting Howie (1992), this conservation protocol was inadequate for proper conservation of chert artifacts. Different sized artifacts have a tendency to retain more salts and therefore require more time in the fresh water bath. All artifacts recovered in 2002 and later underwent a more meticulous conservation regimen. Conservators placed each provenience designation of artifacts into its own non-reactive container and monitored them individually. They tested the salinity with the same Oakton TDS tester as before, noted salinity levels, and changed the distilled water weekly. At times, there were more groups of artifacts than available containers. The groups not undergoing individual conservation remained in a holding tank of fresh water changed bi-weekly. Some of the smaller artifacts reached a salinity level below 50 ppm in one week, while the larger artifacts took as long as 26 weeks. If any algal growth appeared in the container or on the artifacts, the conservator washed them by hand using tap water, and added a small amount of isopropyl alcohol (10-20 ml) to kill the algae.

As discussed above, the modern lithics placed in the ocean for five months provide a control for salt uptake over time. The material for these lithics came from a terrestrial source and when placed in 200 ml of distilled water for one week a 23.6 g lithic had a salinity level of 10 ppm. The conservator placed the seven recovered lithics in identical containers with 200 ml of the same distilled water to determine salt concentrations. Table 6.8 displays the progression of salinity change for each lithic. Because these items released their salts at a more rapid pace than the actual artifacts, it is likely that the salts did not fully penetrate the chert matrix during the five-month submersion.

Table 6.8: Desalination progression for faux artifacts.

Group Artifact Mass 10/5 10/12 10/21 10/28 11/4 11/11 11/18 2418.98 in over 157.0 28.2 21.3 19.6 2515.88 in over 425.0 40.9 27.8 29.5 17.8 3 1 23.18 in over 109.0 22.7 15.8 3 2 8.32 in over 120.0 12.9 10.1 3 5 27.90 in over 247.0 22.1 10.7 3 6 34.15 in over 124.0 23.8 16.9 4 4 7.82 in over 196.0 20.0 13.0

102 Conclusion Artifacts from Ontolo received a variety of analytical measures, including size, debitage type, cortex coverage, marine growth coverage, staining, and conservation. I modified several analysis techniques to overcome perceived deficiencies and discrepancies. The use of advanced technology in analyzing artifact staining provided insight regarding the source of the black stain on most of Ontolo’s artifacts. Tannic acid bonding with iron caused the black stain, and probably the rust colored stains as well. Ontolo research also resulted in the improvement of lithic conservation.

103

CHAPTER 7

ACTIVITY AREAS

Submersion of Ontolo 7000 years ago has restricted looting at the site and may have resulted in a more intact artifact assemblage compared to terrestrial sites of similar size and age. This provides an improved data set for intra-site analysis. In this dissertation, I shall utilize the Improved Site Function Index (Marks 2002) on the Ontolo lithic assemblage as the basis for a study of intra-site analysis. The purpose of this study is to determine if activity areas can be identified within the site. There are obstacles involved with this research. One problem involves artifact movement, a subject that has been discussed throughout this dissertation. I have demonstrated that the artifacts at Ontolo are not static on the ocean floor, though there are several factors that restrict artifact movement and therefore facilitate this study. These factors include infrequent wave action powerful enough to move the artifacts, the cyclical movement of the waves, and the rocky outcrops throughout the site that restrict artifact movement in some parts of the site to a limited area. Nonetheless, questions about the validity of context remain and compromise any discussion of activity areas. However, I believe that there is utility in evaluating the data and determining if clustering exists. This analysis is included as a test to determine what sorts of “activity clusters” might be present while fully acknowledging the potential for contextual problems

The analytical methodology follows research by Binford (1980), Binford and Binford (1969), and Gould et al. (1971), who noted that lithic extraction areas (quarries) have been observed to contain an artifact assemblage with higher percentages of cortical coverage, greater concentrations of cores, lower concentrations of formalized tools, and typically have an increased average mass than lithic artifacts recovered from residential or habitation areas

104 (Anderson et al. 1996). Using these assumptions, I shall consider the Ontolo data and attempt to identify areas that represent resource extraction, habitation, and potential trash areas. The information gained from submerged prehistoric human occupation sites provides archaeologists with an improved understanding of settlement patterns within the Southeast. As the assemblage in underwater sites tends to have all of the tools and “pretty” artifacts normally removed by collectors, these sites may exhibit a clearer picture of activities within that site.

Data from Florida sites show that Native Americans created formal tools away from quarry locations (Purdy 1981). Non-quarry/habitation sites tend to have an increased number of projectile points, fine lithic debitage, and thermally altered material. The inventory of tools at Ontolo includes 18 diagnostic projectile points, and one diagnostic scraper, as well as non- diagnostic scrapers, drills, adzes, and several expedient tools. The projectile points from Ontolo span a wide range of cultural time periods, represented by a Late Paleoindian Suwannee projectile point dating to 10,500 rcybp and stemmed point varieties dating to the Middle/Late Archaic (8000-5000 rcybp) (Bullen 1975; Marks and Faught 2003). This implies multiple occupations at Ontolo over a long span of time.

Extraction and Maintenance Sites By examining the artifacts from an archaeological site, researchers can form a general hypothesis about past activities. Although there can be many different functions for an archaeological site, three types of sites are discussed here: sites with an extended occupation exhibiting evidence of maintenance activities, sites with evidence of extraction activities (Binford 1980; Binford and Binford 1969) and quarry-related base camps (Daniel 1998). Evidence of other types of sites such as kill sites or plant-processing sites is difficult to find due to the survivability of faunal material (Cotterell and Kamminga 1987:675).

Archaeologists can determine past activities from artifact size, amount of cortex coverage, core-to-debitage ratios, and tool-to-debitage ratios. Artifact size can be used to determine various production stages (Andrefsky 2001). A study by Morrow (1997:56) found that early stages of reduction produced higher proportions of debitage weight in the large groups than did the later stages of lithic reduction. The later lithic reduction stages produced relatively

105 higher proportions of debitage weight in smaller size groups (Andrefsky 2001). Table 7.1 displays the average mass, median mass, standard deviation, maximum mass, and minimum mass for all groups of artifacts. In all cases the standard deviation is greater than the average, which implies data points far outside the normal range (Samuels and Whitmer 1999). There were several artifacts with extremely high weights causing a skewed distribution. These overly heavy artifacts skew the standard deviation, but they represent the easiest artifacts to recognize on the ocean bottom because they are so large and obvious.

The percentage of artifacts exhibiting cortex coverage is an important factor in determining whether a site was a maintenance site or an extraction site. Daniel and Wisenbaker (1987, 1989) and Daniel (1998) propose that a site with a high number of artifacts exhibiting cortex coverage implies earlier stages of manufacture (Andrefsky 1998). I (Marks 2002) tested and confirmed this theory for sites in Apalachee Bay.

Table 7.1: Artifact mass statistics.

Total Surface Collection Excavation Isolated Finds all w/o 2001 all w/o 2001 all all N = 1343 908 782 346 508 53 average (g) 13.10 11.35 13.99 10.51 5.69 69.98 median (g) 2.40 1.70 3.50 2.75 1.15 25.60 st dev. (g) 41.70 38.72 38.95 24.71 18.30 121.11 max (g) 609.20 609.20 489.10 211.60 189.80 609.20 min (g) 0.001 0.001 0.05 0.05 0.001 1.90

Another important factor in the determination of site type is the presence of cores and tools. Core reduction is the earliest stage of lithic manufacture (Andrefsky 1998). According to Binford (1980), Gould et al. (1971), and Purdy (1981), cores are more prevalent at quarry sites, or what Binford and Binford (1969) would classify as extraction sites. Cores are less common at residential sites or maintenance areas (Gould et al. 1971; Purdy 1981). The final factor in this simple determination of site function is the presence of tools (Binford 1980; Binford and Binford 1969). Bifacial and unifacial tools typically represent the later stages in chipped stone reduction

106 (Andrefsky 1998). Archaeologists tend to recover more tools and more varieties of tools at habitation sites (Binford 1980; Binford and Binford 1969).

A Mathematical Index One problem that arises with using the four variables of mass, cortex coverage, tool ratios, and core ratios, is that one site may fall into different site function categories depending on the criteria considered. I (Marks 2002) created a mathematical index to better classify sites as extraction or maintenance sites using all four variables. Improved Site Function Index = (R% + C% - T%)(m) 100 This mathematical index is the Improved Site Function Index (ISFI). ISFI is an indicator of site function, as higher values are more likely to be extraction sites and the lower values are more likely to be habitation sites. In my thesis, I (Marks 2002) determined that sites with ISFI values less than 2.00 would be habitation sites, sites with a value over 30.00 would be extraction sites, and sites with a value between 2.00 and 30.00 would be quarry-related base camps.

ISFI for Intra-site Analysis The use of ISFI for intra-site analysis within Ontolo follows similar set of procedures as inter-site analysis as described by Marks (2002), but the formula is applied to areas within a site. All lithic artifacts within each provenience area are grouped together and considered akin to a site within a site. The average artifact weight, along with core ratios, tool ratios, and lithics with cortex coverage were determined for each provenience designation of artifacts from Ontolo to calculate an ISFI value. Geographical information systems (GIS) software plotted these values for interpolation of values between proveniences areas and creates maps showing where respective values are theoretically located.

Additional considerations were factored before creating the most accurate map of ISFI values. These include issues with the artifacts recovered during the initial survey in 2001 that lack provenience, excavation artifacts, surface collection units yielding a low number of artifacts, and isolated find artifacts. To overcome the first of these issues, the 2001 artifacts were omitted from this study, with the exception of the six isolated find artifacts with exact locations. The

107 omission of the 2001 artifacts left 908 artifacts for this study. The second issue of excavation artifacts caused problems due to the high concentrations of artifacts in areas where excavation took place. At Ontolo, excavations occurred in the central 1600 m2 of the site. As stated above, the excavated artifacts also show a trend of lower artifact weight, which may skew the ISFI calculations for areas with excavated artifacts compared to only using surface collection artifacts. To solve this issue, separate calculations were performed, with and without excavated artifacts.

The last two issues involve isolated find artifacts and surface collection units with null values. These issues are slightly more problematic because these artifacts have detailed provenience data, but their low artifact numbers create ISFI values that may not be representative of the area. This is especially true of isolated find artifacts because they are typically tools, cores, or other artifacts that stood out from the average piece of debitage on the ocean bottom. For example, a large bifacial tool with no cortex will yield a large negative ISFI value. To overcome bias created from isolated finds artifacts, separate calculations were performed, with and without isolated find artifacts. In addition, to overcome the low numbers of artifacts within a given surface collection unit, all artifacts within 15 m of each collection unit were grouped together. Grouping all artifacts within a 15 m radius encompasses the six surrounding units and allows for a smoother representation of an area utilizing the ISFI calculations. A grid with a point every 10 m was also created to produce a cleaner map, and created a central point for the 15 m radius grouping. The grid extended 50 m in the cardinal directions from the main datum, creating a 100 m X 100 m square. All artifacts outside of the grid that were within 15 m of an interior point were included in the ISFI calculations. Another advantage to calculating all artifacts within a 15 m radius is that it also incorporates potential artifact movement.

GIS software performed the interpolation of ISFI values between the points. To create a surface for the ISFI values, the GIS software performed an ordinary kriging interpolation among each point and its 12 nearest neighbors and used a spherical semivariogram model. The kriging method factors the distance between points along with the value to determine the value between the points. For example, if point A=0 and point B=10, then point C, which is half way between the points, would be 5, and point D, which is ¾ of the way from A to B, would be 7.5. The semivariogram model utilized during kriging interpolation involves geostatistical methods based

108 on the statistical relationship among the measured points and assumes a spherical plane similar to the Earth’s surface.

A total of eight kriging interpolation maps models were created, two each from four groups. The two interpolation maps from each group consist of lithic distributions within the grid based all artifacts within 15 m of a given point and a map of ISFI values based on those artifact attributes. The four groups consist of ISFI calculations using all lithic artifacts recovered from Ontolo (with the exception of the 2001 artifacts), all artifacts recovered from surface collection units and excavation units (no isolated find artifacts), all artifacts recovered from the ground surface (no excavation artifacts), and artifacts recovered from only surface collection units. All interpolation maps are displayed in full-page format in Appendix E.

Figure 7.1: Kriging map of lithic counts from all Figure 7.2: Kriging map of lithic counts from collections and isolated finds, based on artifacts in surface collection and excavation units, based on a 15 m radius. artifacts in a 15 m radius.

109

Figure 7.3: Kriging map of lithic counts from Figure 7.4: Kriging map of lithic counts from surface collection and isolated finds, based on surface collection, based on artifacts in a 15 m artifacts in a 15 m radius. radius.

The interpolation maps of artifact distribution show a general concentration of artifacts just to the west of the main datum of Ontolo (Figures 7.1-7.4). The concentration appears in all four groups, though is accentuated in the two groups containing excavation artifacts. Not only were excavation artifacts located in the central 1600 m2 of the site, they account for nearly 56 percent of the entire sample utilized for this analysis, thereby causing a large concentration of artifacts near the center of the site. The interpolation maps including isolated finds, did not show as well defined artifact concentrations as maps without the isolated finds. All maps displayed a low number of artifacts in the northwest and southeast sections, areas with a null artifact count.

The interpolation maps of ISFI values indicate the possibility of several different activity areas (Figures 7.5-7.8). The maps including excavation artifacts have a trend of lower ISFI

110 values than maps without excavation artifacts. This is expected as excavation artifacts had, on average, 60 percent smaller average mass than surface collection artifacts. Interpolation maps including isolated find artifacts displayed with areas of highly negative ISFI values (-75 compared to –6). Isolated finds are typically large tools with little, if any, cortex that can produce large negative ISFI values, especially in areas with few other artifacts. As the maps show, a single large isolated find artifact caused the southern edge of Ontolo to have a large negative ISFI value. This 579.1 g bifacial tool with low cortex recovered from the southern edge of the site produced an ISFI value of –463.28 on its own. When joined with the three other artifacts 15 m away, they generate the largest negative ISFI value at Ontolo of -75.8. Units with few artifacts tend to generate extreme ISFI values, both positive and negative.

Figure 7.5: Kriging map of ISFI values from all Figure 7.6: Kriging map of ISFI values from collections. surface collections and excavation units.

111

Figure 7.7: Kriging map of ISFI Values from Figure 7.8: Kriging map of ISFI values from surface collections and isolated finds. surface collections.

Determining Activity Areas As stated above, ISFI values less than 2.0 imply a residential area, but Marks (2002) did not encounter negative numbers in inter-site analysis and did not discuss the ramifications. Negative numbers imply high tool concentrations with little if any cortex coverage. The larger the overall size of the tools, the more negative the ISFI values will be. As seen in Figures 7.5 through 7.8, the negative values are located on the southern edge of the site and in the northwest corner. These negatives are the result of large tools with little, if any cortex coverage, possibly implying a discarded tool at the periphery of Ontolo.

No area within Ontolo generated ISFI values over 30 that would indicate a lithic extraction area, implying that the occupants obtained no lithic resources at Ontolo. According to

112 Marks (2002), the areas with values between 2.0 and 30.0 indicating quarry-related base camps are located in the northeast corner of the site, in the middle of the southwest quadrant, and in a small area in the middle of western edge of Ontolo. The values in these areas are less than 10, and all but a 150-m2 area on the eastern edge express values less than 5. The classification of quarry-related base camp is not practical in intra-site analysis; therefore these values likely imply areas where the initial stages of tool manufacture occurred. The remainder of the site generated values between 0 and 2 implying habitation areas, or tool maintenance areas. The area NNW of the datum in all ISFI interpolation maps is the area with the lowest positive ISFI values. This area has no cores, one tool, and only four artifacts with cortex coverage, resulting in several null ISFI values, and therefore low overall ISFI values for the area. The concentration of artifacts to the west of Ontolo’s datum that produced ISFI values between 3.0 and 5.0 suggests and area with increased cortex coverage and mass. This area also had the largest concentration of faunal remains. These factors suggest that this was a depositional area or midden accumulation area.

Conclusion The determination of activity areas within Ontolo uses the same formula that Marks (2002) created to determine the function of sites. This formula calculates the ratios of artifacts exhibiting cortex, cores, and tools, along with average artifact mass and the larger the value, the more like the site or area is a quarry site. Marks (2002) determined that Ontolo was a habitation site. When the formula was applied to intra-site analysis of Ontolo, several different activity areas appeared. The assessment of activity areas at Ontolo is not definitive, however, due to artifact movement. Artifact movement was factored into the calculations by averaging all artifacts within 15 m of each surface collection unit. Due to the back and forth movement of waves at the bottom and the rocky outcrops that restrict artifact movement, it is not believed that artifacts moved more than 15 m. However, there are clusters of artifacts that may indicate the presence of activity areas and this information should not be dismissed out of hand because there may be question about the validity of the context at Ontolo. The information regarding these clusters requires further study to fully understand the cultural processes, if any, at Ontolo.

113

CHAPTER 8

CONCLUSION AND FUTURE CONSIDERATIONS

Prehistoric archaeology, conducted underwater, can produce data significant to our understanding of Paleoindian cultures and site distributions in the Southeastern United States. This dissertation focused on the evaluation of site formation processes at Ontolo and the resulting site integrity. The location of Ontolo within Apalachee Bay has protected the site from major storms that strike Florida nearly every year. These storms can cause the greatest change in artifact distribution at Ontolo even over a very brief period of time. However, the geology of the area reduces the maximum wave height, thereby reducing the near-bottom orbital velocity, and decreasing the overall effect hurricanes have and have had on this site. The shallow slope, rapid sea-level rise, and low energy coastline of Apalachee Bay provided Ontolo protection while the site was transgressing through the surf zone approximately 7000 years ago. The lithic debris still maintains sharp edges and is not sorted by size, suggesting that there has been very little rolling and tumbling. All of the above factors imply that Ontolo is relatively intact since it became submerged.

I believe that the primary context of the artifacts at Ontolo has been changed, however, not as drastically as if the site had been on land or submerged in an area subjected to more frequent hurricane impacts. Unlike archaeological sites in plow zones, the smaller artifacts undergo more movement from oceanographic processes (Shott 1995). The larger artifacts are more stable and have a better context than the smaller artifacts, because the cyclical motion of waves may move small artifacts back and forth over the same location. Also unlike plow zones, the topography of Ontolo consists of many rocks sticking out of the sand that act as barriers to artifact movement.

114 Experiments in site integrity at Ontolo involved oceanographic current meters, flume experiments, analysis of hurricane records, calculation of wave effects, and on-site artifact movement projects. These data indicate that following submersion Ontolo has been unaffected by all but the largest waves. However, waves associated with hurricane events are accompanied by storm surge that adds depth to the site, thereby providing additional protection. The studies show that marine life has a greater effect on site integrity than wave action, particularly sea urchins.

Additional experiments at Ontolo included determining the cause of the black stain on many artifacts. Using a scanning electron microscope with an elemental analysis device and oxalic acid, I determined that the black stain is the result of iron leaching out of the soil and bonding with tannic acid. The resulting iron tannate stains the outer rind of the artifacts black. The staining occurred while the artifacts were exposed to oak leaves in a river or estuarine environment, prior to inundation by the ocean. I also improved the process of conserving the lithic artifacts recovered from submerged sites. Salts embedded within the stone artifacts will adversely affect the artifact if not properly conserved. Each provenience should be placed in a distilled water bath that is changed weekly until the salinity level stays under 40 ppm for three to four weeks. After this salinity level is reached, the artifacts should be removed, allowed to air dry for about a week, and then stored appropriately by provenience.

The final part of this dissertation examined the possibility of determining activity areas within Ontolo. Formulas normally utilized for determining the function for an entire site were applied to artifact distributions within Ontolo. The ISFI formula by Marks (2002) revealed areas of tool manufacture, possible trash middens, and areas of little activity. The interpolation maps of cortex coverage, tool ratios, and average mass were consistent with the ISFI interpolations. The area with the greatest concentration of lithics also had the greatest concentration of bifacial flakes, cortical flakes, and faunal remains as well as increased ISFI values. These suggest that this area was an activity area where lithic reduction occurred resulting in a concentration of debris, suggesting a midden or other depositional/refuse area. While there are contextual problems with this analysis, the clustering of artifacts with similar attributes should not be discounted.

115 Future Research at Ontolo The current directions of research in the Department of Anthropology at Florida State University suggest that future research at Ontolo is not likely to be supported. However, Ontolo requires study at the same level that J&J Hunt (8JE740) received to develop other features of the site. The experiment of placing modern lithics on the site to determine their movement should be repeated, next time with material that does not resemble local sea life. Lithics used in the repeated experiment should be dark in color and less likely to attract the attention of fish. Dark blues or greens would be similar enough to the lithics on site, but should be different enough for researchers to notice them during recovery. Erecting barriers 2-3 m around the study area might prevent the lithics from falling into crab dens, though it would not prevent the removal by urchins and would probably compromise currents around and within the site. Another option would be to conduct this experiment in an area with no other artifacts (i.e., not an archaeological site). This way, large groups of faux artifacts could be placed in various locations throughout the area and research regarding deflation could be examined as well.

The current meter study requires more data as well. Deploying a current meter just prior to a potential hurricane strike could provide data on the bottom velocities produced by these storms and confirm the near-bottom orbital velocities produced by the theoretical waves discussed in this dissertation. Another area for current meter study would be within the nearby paleo-channel features. Researchers at the Econfina Channel Site mentioned that the tidal current within the paleo-channel was greater than outside the channel 4 m away (Faught 2003 personal communication). Two current meters, deployed simultaneously, could prove or disprove this observation.

The quickest and easiest way to map Ontolo was through remote sensing. Multiple remote sensing passes have shown the general composition of the site, and revealed the presence of two paleo-channels to the east and west of the site. Although there has been near complete coverage of Ontolo by side-scan sonar, problems with the equipment have left some areas of the site poorly imaged. To improve the images, I recommend revisiting Ontolo with a 1200-kHz side-scan sonar to completely re-map the site. The higher kilohertz values allow for improved detail. To obtain the best map of Ontolo, the range of the side scan should be set at 25 m, and

116 there should be at least 100 percent overlap. The area surveyed should be a square that is 500 m from the main datum in all directions to insure complete coverage. When a mosaic is created from the images, they should be laid out so that the sound shadows are facing the same direction to decrease confusion at the sand-seagrass interface during interpretation. The sub-bottom record should be repeated as well, and can be performed at the same time as the side-scan sonar survey. The spacing interval recommended for the side scan survey is adequate to increase the sub-bottom coverage. To improve the interpolation of the sub-bottom data, software that factors vessel speed into the analysis should be utilized.

Ontolo also requires detailed underwater mapping similar to the mapping project at J&J Hunt in 2000 and 2001 (Arbuthnot 2002). This mapping project recorded the rock-sand interface in extreme detail and measured the depth of sand to bedrock in an effort to locate suitable areas for excavation. During J&J Hunt’s mapping project, divers mapped each square meter at one- tenth scale, and those images were then re-drawn to one-fifth of that scale. Ontolo’s mapping project does not require the same level of detail, and I suggest that divers map the site at one- twentieth scale. They should note areas of sandy plain, exposed bedrock, sea grass, and concentrations of artifacts in areas outside of the surface collection units. Some recording could be accomplished with digital video.

A major need during future research at Ontolo is excavation. The limited amount of subsurface testing performed to date yielded no intact sediments. The high concentration of artifacts on the western side of the site may yield intact sediments containing diagnostic tools and datable material. The recovery of diagnostic tools from intact sediments is a critical need in submerged sites. In addition to demonstrating greater contextual integrity in submerged sites, it would provide a definitive time line for Florida projectile points. Excavations may also yield artifacts in direct association with Pleistocene fauna, further providing dates for projectile points.

Future Research in Apalachee Bay Outside of Ontolo, the entire Apalachee Bay requires additional research. There are several targets in side-scan records acquired in 2001 (Tobón and Pendleton 2002) that should be investigated. To find the earliest submerged prehistoric human occupation sites, survey

117 operations must push beyond state controlled waters out to the 40 m contour. The use of remote sensing equipment and an established methodology for offshore research is now in place and will work in deeper waters. The major constraint to working in deeper water, however, is the reduction of dive time. To maintain safety protocols, divers would be limited to 20-minute dives at the 33 m depth and could only perform two dives a day. If special diving gasses with decreased nitrogen and/or increased oxygen were used, however, diving times could be increased. Remote operated vehicles could be utilized to perform the initial surveys with divers following to perform ground truthing. However, I would urge that another shallow site be investigated prior to working further offshore. Mistakes were made during the research at Ontolo and by working at another site, the methodology could be further refined.

Sites at a depth of 40 m or more are relatively protected from archaeological looting. Any site discovered at that depth has the potential to provide a look at the earliest occupants in Florida. Deep sites have the potential to be the most intact archaeological sites in the New World. These sites are deep enough to receive little storm impact and they are older having been submerged during the second melt-water pulse (10,000 – 9000 rcybp). In theory, deeper sites would have rapidly transgressed from terrestrial settings to 10 m deep in less than 1000 years (Balsillie and Donoghue 2004). The drawback for these sites, however, is the potentially short period between occupation and submersion. This brief time frame reduced the amount of activity and therefore the number of possible artifacts, reducing their visibility and therefore the chances of locating a site. Low probability, vessel and crew expenses, and decreased dive time may mitigate against attracting funding support for future research, however, as the potential for knowledge gain may appear too unpredictable.

Final Thoughts The work at Ontolo shows that the archaeology of submerged sites is valuable to the general understanding of Paleoindian and Early Archaic lifeways in Florida and the Southeast. The research at Ontolo shows that the integrity of submerged sites in Apalachee Bay, although compromised, can be used in meaningful ways. Sites in deeper water may evidence better preservation and better site integrity, but the work at Ontolo can serve as a template for future research as it moves further offshore.

118

APPENDIX A

TROPICAL STORMS THAT HAVE PASSED NEAR ONTOLO BETWEEN 1851 AND 2004.

Data acquired from the National Hurricane Center 2006 http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/tracks1851to2004_atl.txt.

119 Table A.1: Hurricanes that passed near Ontolo 1851-2004. Maximum wind speed Distance from Ontolo 25 km 75 km 150 km 250 km Date Storm Name mph kph mph kph mph kph mph kph August-1851 NOT NAMED 90 145 100 161 September-1852 NOT NAMED 70 113 October-1852 NOT NAMED 80 129 90 145 60 97 August-1856 NOT NAMED 70 113 90 145 August-1860 NOT NAMED 40 64 October-1867 NOT NAMED 70 113 80 129 80 129 October-1868 NOT NAMED 50 80 50 80 40 64 August-1871 NOT NAMED 60 97 70 113 August-1871 NOT NAMED 40 64 40 64 40 64 50 80 September-1871 NOT NAMED 70 113 70 113 September-1871 NOT NAMED 60 97 60 97 40 64 June-1873 NOT NAMED 40 64 September-1873 NOT NAMED 70 113 September-1873 NOT NAMED 50 80 September-1874 NOT NAMED 70 113 September-1875 NOT NAMED 40 64 50 80 September-1877 NOT NAMED 50 80 60 97 September-1877 NOT NAMED 90 145 100 161 October-1877 NOT NAMED 40 64 40 64 September-1878 NOT NAMED 90 145 October-1878 NOT NAMED 40 64 October-1879 NOT NAMED 50 80 October-1879 NOT NAMED 60 97 August-1880 NOT NAMED 70 113 70 113 60 97 September-1880 NOT NAMED 40 64 50 80 October-1880 NOT NAMED 70 113 August-1881 NOT NAMED 50 80 September-1882 NOT NAMED 80 129 October-1882 NOT NAMED 70 113 August-1885 NOT NAMED 50 80 September-1885 NOT NAMED 50 80 September-1885 NOT NAMED 30 48 30 48 30 48 October-1885 NOT NAMED 50 80 60 97 June-1886 NOT NAMED 80 129 85 137 June-1886 NOT NAMED 70 113 85 137 July-1886 NOT NAMED 70 113 July-1887 NOT NAMED 65 105 October-1887 NOT NAMED 30 48 October-1887 NOT NAMED 40 64 September-1888 NOT NAMED 50 80 45 72 October-1888 NOT NAMED 95 153 June-1889 NOT NAMED 45 72 June-1893 NOT NAMED 50 80 60 97 October-1894 NOT NAMED 85 137 105 169 July-1896 NOT NAMED 85 137

120 Table A.1: Continued. Maximum wind speed Distance from Ontolo 25 km 75 km 150 km 250 km Date Storm Name mph kph mph kph mph kph mph kph September-1896 NOT NAMED 100 161 August-1898 NOT NAMED 70 113 50 80 September-1898 NOT NAMED 90 145 July-1899 NOT NAMED 85 137 85 137 October-1899 NOT NAMED 50 80 October-1900 NOT NAMED 40 64 June-1901 NOT NAMED 35 56 35 56 September-1901 NOT NAMED 40 64 September-1901 NOT NAMED 40 64 June-1902 NOT NAMED 45 72 50 80 50 80 September-1903 NOT NAMED 80 129 80 129 October-1904 NOT NAMED 30 48 June-1906 NOT NAMED 45 72 October-1906 NOT NAMED 40 64 June-1907 NOT NAMED 45 72 50 80 September-1907 NOT NAMED 40 64 45 72 June-1909 NOT NAMED 35 56 30 48 35 56 25 40 October-1910 NOT NAMED 50 80 August-1911 NOT NAMED 70 113 October-1911 NOT NAMED 30 48 July-1912 NOT NAMED 30 48 45 72 September-1912 NOT NAMED 60 97 70 113 September-1914 NOT NAMED 35 56 July-1915 NOT NAMED 45 72 August-1915 NOT NAMED 75 121 80 129 September-1916 NOT NAMED 25 40 20 32 30 48 September-1917 NOT NAMED 30 48 September-1920 NOT NAMED 55 89 October-1921 NOT NAMED 85 137 September-1924 NOT NAMED 55 89 65 105 September-1924 NOT NAMED 45 72 50 80 July-1926 NOT NAMED 50 80 60 97 September-1926 NOT NAMED 110 177 August-1928 NOT NAMED 35 56 35 56 50 80 August-1928 NOT NAMED 45 72 50 80 September-1928 NOT NAMED 80 129 September-1929 NOT NAMED 65 105 85 137 August-1930 NOT NAMED 35 56 August-1932 NOT NAMED 70 113 September-1932 NOT NAMED 45 72 August-1933 NOT NAMED 40 64 40 64 40 64 August-1933 NOT NAMED 45 72 45 72 50 80 July-1934 NOT NAMED 40 64 August-1935 NOT NAMED 75 121 80 129 85 137 October-1935 NOT NAMED 25 40 July-1936 NOT NAMED 80 129

121 Table A.1: Continued. Maximum wind speed Distance from Ontolo 25 km 75 km 150 km 250 km Date Storm Name mph kph mph kph mph kph mph kph August-1936 NOT NAMED 30 48 35 56 40 64 July-1937 NOT NAMED 40 64 August-1937 NOT NAMED 30 48 35 56 45 72 September-1937 NOT NAMED 35 56 40 64 October-1938 NOT NAMED 50 80 August-1939 NOT NAMED 70 113 60 97 August-1940 NOT NAMED 40 64 October-1941 NOT NAMED 60 97 75 121 80 129 October-1941 NOT NAMED 40 64 45 72 October-1944 NOT NAMED 60 97 June-1945 NOT NAMED 95 153 September-1945 NOT NAMED 35 56 September-1945 NOT NAMED 65 105 October-1946 NOT NAMED 50 80 October-1946 NOT NAMED 25 40 September-1947 NOT NAMED 40 64 September-1947 NOT NAMED 50 80 50 80 October-1947 NOT NAMED 30 48 35 56 October-1947 NOT NAMED 50 80 July-1948 NOT NAMED 35 56 August-1949 NOT NAMED 55 89 45 72 September-1950 EASY 100 161 110 177 October-1950 KING 50 80 60 97 October-1950 LOVE 35 56 60 97 May-1953 ALICE 60 97 September-1953 NOT NAMED 50 80 60 97 September-1953 FLORENCE 60 97 70 113 September-1956 FLOSSY 40 64 65 105 June-1957 NOT NAMED 35 56 35 56 September-1957 DEBBIE 35 56 July-1960 BRENDA 30 48 September-1960 FLORENCE 15 24 June-1964 NOT NAMED 35 56 August-1964 DORA 55 89 70 113 90 145 95 153 September-1964 HILDA 35 56 40 64 June-1965 NOT NAMED 45 72 June-1966 ALMA 80 129 85 137 50 80 June-1968 ABBY 50 80 October-1968 GLADYS 70 113 September-1969 SUBTROP 1 30 48 October-1969 JENNY 25 40 May-1970 ALMA 25 40 25 40 July-1970 BECKY 30 48 40 64 May-1972 ALPHA 30 48 30 48 30 48 June-1972 AGNES 45 72 75 121 September-1975 ELOISE 110 177

122 Table A.1: Continued. Maximum wind speed Distance from Ontolo 25 km 75 km 150 km 250 km Date Storm Name mph kph mph kph mph kph mph kph May-1976 SUBTROP 1 40 64 40 64 September-1976 SUBTROP 3 25 40 June-1982 SUBTROP 1 50 80 September-1984 ISIDORE 45 72 August-1985 ELENA 110 177 110 177 October-1985 ISABEL 30 48 November-1985 KATE 80 129 85 137 August-1986 CHARLEY 10 16 10 16 10 16 August-1987 NOT NAMED 15 24 15 24 15 24 15 24 October-1990 MARCO 30 48 40 64 June-1991 ANA 20 32 June-1994 ALBERTO 45 72 August-1994 BERYL 50 80 45 72 June-1995 ALLISON 60 97 60 97 July-1995 ERIN 65 105 70 113 August-1995 JERRY 25 40 30 48 30 48 October-1996 JOSEPHINE 60 97 45 72 August-1998 EARL 45 72 70 113 September-1998 GEORGES 25 40 25 40 30 48 September-2000 GORDON 60 97 65 105 September-2000 HELENE 25 40 August-2001 BARRY 60 97 September-2002 EDOUARD 25 40 September-2003 HENRI 50 80 August-2004 BONNIE 30 48 45 72 August-2004 FRANCES 50 80 55 89 55 89 September-2004 JEANNE 40 64 45 72 55 89

123

APPENDIX B

RESULTS OF ANALYSIS OF OBJECTS RECOVERED AT ONTOLO

This appendix represents the raw data for this dissertation. The key for this appendix is as follows:

PD = Provenience Designation

FS = Field Specimen Number Collection Type 1 = Chipped Stone SC = Surface Collection 2 = Faunal Remains IF = Isolated Find 3 = Wood HF = Hand Fan Excavation Unit 4 = Rock Sample EX = Excavation Unit (Airlift) 5 = Shell Sample 6 = Historic Artifact

Marine Coverage Cortex Coverage A = Absent coverage (<5%) A = Absent coverage (<5%) L = Low coverage (5-35%) L = Low coverage (5-35%) H = Half coverage (35-65%) H = Half coverage (35-65%) M = Mostly covered (65-95%) M = Mostly covered (65-95%) C = Completely covered (>95%) C = Completely covered (>95%) N = Not Applicable N = Not Applicable

Staining Characteristics Staining Color Characteristics U = Unstained Blank = Absent (0-5%) H = Half black-stained and half unstained P = Present (5-20%) B = Black stained S = Some (20-40%) M = Mottled – stained with brown corrosion H = Half (40-60%) C = Totally corroded M = Most (60-80%) N = Not Applicable G = Greater (80-95%) C = Covered (95-100%)

Note: For locations with a direction listed instead of a number, that object was collected along a 50 m transect in that direction and no other provenience was recorded.

124 Table B.1: Analysis of all items collected at Ontolo. Year PD FS Count Weight (g) Easting Northing Collection type Length (mm) Width (mm) Thickness (mm) Flake Broken Flake Frag Flake Shatter Bifacial tool Unifacial Tool Expedient Tool Core Other Fauna Coverage Marine Cortex Cortex Dorsal Staining Black Black-gray White-gray White Brown Red-brown Yellow-brown Yellow Pink Corroded 2001 2020S 1 1 9.2 West 500 SC 43 40 6 1 L L L B M S P P 2001 2020S 1 2 6.9 West 500 SC 40 37 5 1 L L L M S P P P S 2001 2020S 1 4 11.9 West 500 SC 55 39 10 1 ALLHSHSPP 2001 2020S 1 5 11.3 West 500 SC 48 27 10 1 LLLBMSP 2001 2020S 1 6 9.0 West 500 SC 47 30 7 1 LLLHPPHPPP 2001 2020S 1 7 11.1 West 500 SC 48 37 8 1 A L L H SPSP 2001 2020S 1 8 14.8 West 500 SC 49 34 11 1 A L H B PSSP S 2001 2020S 1 9 11.1 West 500 SC 52 29 9 1 LLLBPSSS 2001 2020S 1 10 12.2 West 500 SC 51 33 11 1 LLLBHSP 2001 2020S 1 11 7.8 West 500 SC 50 28 7 1 LLLUPPG 2001 2020S 1 12 6.8 West 500 SC 36 28 5 1 L L L B G P 2001 2020S 1 13 7.1 West 500 SC 40 35 6 1 A L H B P P P H S 2001 2020S 1 14 5.6 West 500 SC 51 23 5 1 A L L H P P S S 2001 2020S 1 15 7.1 West 500 SC 49 25 7 1 LAABHSSPP 2001 2020S 1 16 3.7 West 500 SC 51 20 5 1 AAAB SSPP P 2001 2020S 1 17 6.2 West 500 SC 44 27 6 1 LAABHPPPPS 2001 2020S 1 18 7.5 West 500 SC 49 30 7 1 AAABSHSP 2001 2020S 1 19 7.9 West 500 SC 55 24 7 1 LAAB SSSP 2001 2020S 1 20 10.7 West 500 SC 49 35 12 1 ALLHPPGP 2001 2020S 1 21 6.3 West 500 SC 44 30 6 1 LAABSSPS 2001 2020S 1 22 11.5 West 500 SC 40 24 13 1 L H C B P P H P 2001 2020S 1 23 4.0 West 500 SC 34 28 6 1 AAABPPPPS 2001 2020S 1 24 6.7 West 500 SC 36 26 8 1 A A A B S P P P P 2001 2020S 1 25 7.8 West 500 SC 47 26 7 1 ALLB SSPSP 2001 2020S 1 26 4.3 West 500 SC 29 27 6 1 AAABPGP 2001 2020S 1 27 12.0 West 500 SC 28 23 15 1 AAAB SSPP 2001 2020S 1 28 5.2 West 500 SC 50 26 4 1 ALLBHSP 2001 2020S 1 29 4.2 West 500 SC 38 28 7 1 LAABHPPP 2001 2020S 1 30 9.7 West 500 SC 34 31 15 1 LAAB SSPP P 2001 2020S 1 31 4.6 West 500 SC 41 28 5 1 LAAB PSSP S P 2001 2020S 1 32 4.3 West 500 SC 40 26 6 1 AAAU SMP 2001 2020S 1 33 6.3 West 500 SC 38 31 6 1 LLHB PPSPP PS

125 Table B.1: Continued. Year PD FS Count Weight (g) Easting Northing Collection type Length (mm) Width (mm) Thickness (mm) Flake Broken Flake Frag Flake Shatter Bifacial tool Unifacial Tool Expedient Tool Core Other Fauna Coverage Marine Cortex Cortex Dorsal Staining Black Black-gray White-gray White Brown Red-brown Yellow-brown Yellow Pink Corroded 2001 2020S 1 34 6.8 West 500 SC 33 30 7 1 L A A B H P P 2001 2020S 1 35 7.0 West 500 SC 42 25 9 1 AAAHPSSPP 2001 2020S 1 36 3.2 West 500 SC 40 18 4 1 AAAU P SH 2001 2020S 1 37 2.3 West 500 SC 38 21 4 1 AAAHP SHP P 2001 2020S 1 38 3.8 West 500 SC 42 24 5 1 AAAMPHS 2001 2020S 1 39 1.6 West 500 SC 35 27 3 1 AAABHH 2001 2020S 1 40 4.0 West 500 SC 31 20 19 1 L L L B S S S 2001 2020S 1 41 3.4 West 500 SC 34 20 7 1 LAAHPSHPP 2001 2020S 1 42 13.2 West 500 SC 31 27 18 1 LAABPSHPP 2001 2020S 1 43 3.1 West 500 SC 51 21 4 1 L A A H P H P P P 2001 2020S 1 44 3.6 West 500 SC 43 24 4 1 LAABGPP 2001 2020S 1 45 5.3 West 500 SC 34 24 9 1 AAAH HH 2001 2020S 1 46 3.8 West 500 SC 27 23 5 1 A A A B SPPS 2001 2020S 1 47 2.3 West 500 SC 26 16 9 1 AAABPG 2001 2020S 1 48 5.2 West 500 SC 35 24 5 1 L A A B H P P S P 2001 2020S 1 49 4.7 West 500 SC 37 29 6 1 AAABHPPSP 2001 2020S 1 50 3.7 West 500 SC 38 22 6 1 AAAB SSPPP P 2001 2020S 1 51 8.6 West 500 SC 32 22 12 1 L A A B P P P H S 2001 2020S 1 52 6.9 West 500 SC 34 27 4 1 L A A H P P H P 2001 2020S 1 53 3.6 West 500 SC 28 19 7 1 AAABMSP 2001 2020S 1 54 1.7 West 500 SC 31 14 3 1 L A A B S S S S 2001 2020S 1 55 3.4 West 500 SC 25 24 6 1 AAAB PSSP 2001 2020S 1 56 1.7 West 500 SC 24 23 3 1 A A A B C P 2001 2020S 1 57 2.0 West 500 SC 27 19 6 1 AAAU HS P 2001 2020S 1 58 1.1 West 500 SC 28 15 4 1 AAAH S S P S 2001 2020S 1 59 1.5 West 500 SC 23 20 3 1 AAAH PG 2001 2020S 1 60 0.6 West 500 SC 20 13 3 1 AAABPSSS 2001 2020S 1 61 1.1 West 500 SC 21 20 3 1 A A A B PSSP S 2001 2020S 1 62 1.3 West 500 SC 26 15 3 1 AAABPSHP 2001 2020S 1 63 1.6 West 500 SC 22 21 3 1 LAAB SSPP 2001 2020S 1 64 1.2 West 500 SC 24 20 3 1 L A A M S S S P 2001 2020S 1 65 0.9 West 500 SC 24 12 4 1 AAABSSS 2001 2020S 1 66 0.9 West 500 SC 21 15 4 1 A A A B G P

126 Table B.1: Continued. Year PD FS Count Weight (g) Easting Northing Collection type Length (mm) Width (mm) Thickness (mm) Flake Broken Flake Frag Flake Shatter Bifacial tool Unifacial Tool Expedient Tool Core Other Fauna Coverage Marine Cortex Cortex Dorsal Staining Black Black-gray White-gray White Brown Red-brown Yellow-brown Yellow Pink Corroded 2001 2020S 1 67 1.3 West 500 SC 29 24 5 1 AAABPSSS 2001 2020S 1 68 0.4 West 500 SC 16 11 3 1 A A A B C 2001 2020S 1 69 1.3 West 500 SC 22 19 4 1 AAAHPHS 2001 2020S 1 70 0.6 West 500 SC 15 15 2 1 A A A B SSSS 2001 2020S 1 71 6.7 West 500 SC 38 26 7 1 L A A B S H P P 2001 2020S 1 72 4.3 West 500 SC 36 27 6 1 LAABSSPS 2001 2020S 1 73 4.8 West 500 SC 37 29 6 1 A A A M PSPS H 2001 2020S 1 74 5.0 West 500 SC 44 26 6 1 AAAMC 2001 2020S 1 75 4.2 West 500 SC 30 28 16 1 AAAHSSSP P P 2001 2020S 1 76 2.5 West 500 SC 28 26 4 1 AAAHP P HS 2001 2020S 1 77 2.7 West 500 SC 31 21 4 1 L A A H P G P 2001 2020S 1 78 4.4 West 500 SC 40 29 5 1 LAAHPPSHP 2001 2020S 1 79 4.3 West 500 SC 35 21 6 1 L A A B H PPPS 2001 2020S 1 80 2.2 West 500 SC 35 24 3 1 LAAM PSSP P 2001 2020S 1 81 3.4 West 500 SC 34 21 4 1 AAAU SM 2001 2020S 1 82 2.1 West 500 SC 33 21 4 1 AAAU HH 2001 2020S 1 83 6.5 West 500 SC 32 21 9 1 AAABPPMPP 2001 2020S 1 84 3.3 West 500 SC 28 18 7 1 L A A B P G P 2001 2020S 1 85 2.7 West 500 SC 25 25 6 1 LAAU PSSPS 2001 2020S 1 86 3.8 West 500 SC 25 23 7 1 LLLBSHSP 2001 2020S 1 87 1.1 West 500 SC 29 20 3 1 A A A B G P 2001 2020S 1 88 4.4 West 500 SC 37 26 6 1 LAAHSMPP 2001 2020S 1 89 1.8 West 500 SC 31 21 3 1 L L L B H H 2001 2020S 1 90 8.0 West 500 SC 37 30 7 1 LAAHPPGP 2001 2020S 1 91 2.0 West 500 SC 32 19 3 1 AAAHPHS P 2001 2020S 1 92 3.6 West 500 SC 30 21 7 1 AAAHPGP 2001 2020S 1 93 1.7 West 500 SC 30 21 4 1 L A A M M PPPP 2001 2020S 1 94 2.9 West 500 SC 28 22 3 1 AAABHHP 2001 2020S 1 95 1.9 West 500 SC 26 25 4 1 AAAHPSSP PP 2001 2020S 1 96 2.0 West 500 SC 31 15 5 1 A A A B S M P 2001 2020S 1 97 3.6 West 500 SC 33 22 7 1 AAABMSP 2001 2020S 1 98 3.0 West 500 SC 26 18 6 1 A A A B PPSS P 2001 2020S 1 99 2.3 West 500 SC 26 25 4 1 A A A B SSPPP

127 Table B.1: Continued. Year PD FS Count Weight (g) Easting Northing Collection type Length (mm) Width (mm) Thickness (mm) Flake Broken Flake Frag Flake Shatter Bifacial tool Unifacial Tool Expedient Tool Core Other Fauna Coverage Marine Cortex Cortex Dorsal Staining Black Black-gray White-gray White Brown Red-brown Yellow-brown Yellow Pink Corroded 2001 2020S 1 100 1.5 West 500 SC 27 18 3 1 AAAH GP 2001 2020S 1 101 2.8 West 500 SC 33 21 5 1 AAABMS 2001 2020S 1 102 1.3 West 500 SC 25 15 4 1 AAABC 2001 2020S 1 103 1.3 West 500 SC 21 19 3 1 A A A B H H P 2001 2020S 1 104 1.9 West 500 SC 33 21 3 1 AAAUMS P P P 2001 2020S 1 105 3.3 West 500 SC 24 23 6 1 AAAH S HS 2001 2020S 1 106 2.0 West 500 SC 24 21 6 1 AAAH H S P 2001 2020S 1 107 3.3 West 500 SC 28 21 5 1 AAAHS SH 2001 2020S 1 108 0.7 West 500 SC 16 15 3 1 A A A B P H P H 2001 2020S 1 109 2.8 West 500 SC 22 22 8 1 LAABSSSPP 2001 2020S 1 110 1.7 West 500 SC 27 15 6 1 L A A B SSSS 2001 2020S 1 111 1.3 West 500 SC 25 15 4 1 AAABMSP 2001 2020S 1 113 1.5 West 500 SC 13 13 5 1 LAAU PPSS S 2001 2020S 1 114 1.4 West 500 SC 30 23 3 1 L A A H SPPS P 2001 2020S 1 115 0.7 West 500 SC 15 14 5 1 A A A B P P P H P 2001 2020S 1 116 3.2 West 500 SC 23 17 8 1 A A A B S H H 2001 2020S 1 117 3.3 West 500 SC 27 20 8 1 AAAHP S S 2001 2020S 1 118 0.5 West 500 SC 20 17 4 1 AAAHSG S 2001 2020S 1 119 0.6 West 500 SC 23 11 2 1 A A A B M S 2001 2020S 1 120 1.4 West 500 SC 23 19 3 1 L A A B H H 2001 2020S 1 121 1.6 West 500 SC 19 17 6 1 AAABHPPPP 2001 2020S 1 122 2.7 West 500 SC 30 18 6 1 AAABPHH 2001 2020S 1 123 1.7 West 500 SC 24 15 5 1 A L L B P G P 2001 2020S 1 124 2.9 West 500 SC 25 18 9 1 AAAHPHHP 2001 2020S 1 125 1.0 West 500 SC 22 17 4 1 AAAU HH 2001 2020S 1 126 4.0 West 500 SC 35 20 8 1 AAAM SPPP S 2001 2020S 1 127 0.7 West 500 SC 23 15 3 1 AAABHPP 2001 2020S 1 128 0.2 West 500 SC 13 10 2 1 A A A B P S H P 2001 2020S 4 3 11.8 West 500 SC 41 35 10 1 NNNN 2001 2020S 4 112 1.4 West 500 SC 23 21 3 1 NNNN 2001 2020M 1 1 75.7 West 500 SC 65 47 25 1 L L L H S H P P 2001 2020M 1 2 59.9 West 500 SC 70 52 25 1 LLHH SSPP P 2001 2020M 1 3 52.6 West 500 SC 68 41 20 1 L L L M P S S P P

128 Table B.1: Continued. Year PD FS Count Weight (g) Easting Northing Collection type Length (mm) Width (mm) Thickness (mm) Flake Broken Flake Frag Flake Shatter Bifacial tool Unifacial Tool Expedient Tool Core Other Fauna Coverage Marine Cortex Cortex Dorsal Staining Black Black-gray White-gray White Brown Red-brown Yellow-brown Yellow Pink Corroded 2001 2020M 1 4 19.9 West 500 SC 70 41 9 1 ALLHPSHP 2001 2020M 1 5 21.1 West 500 SC 60 30 15 1 L L L M S S P P P 2001 2020M 1 6 50.7 West 500 SC 72 54 14 1 LLLBPSPPPP 2001 2020M 1 7 19.7 West 500 SC 83 31 10 1 LLLUGPP 2001 2020M 1 8 12.6 West 500 SC 44 35 8 1 LLLUSSSS 2001 2020M 1 9 7.6 West 500 SC 52 43 6 1 A L L B H H 2001 2020M 1 10 14.3 West 500 SC 63 27 10 1 LLHMPPSS 2001 2020M 1 11 25.6 West 500 SC 60 39 14 1 LAAH SSPP 2001 2020M 1 12 22.5 West 500 SC 68 37 9 1 LAABSMP 2001 2020M 1 13 39.3 West 500 SC 72 50 11 1 LAABPPSSPP 2001 2020M 1 14 15.7 West 500 SC 69 34 10 1 L A A B PPSPP P P 2001 2020M 1 15 22.5 West 500 SC 48 44 13 1 LAAMSSPP 2001 2020M 1 16 21.6 West 500 SC 63 40 12 1 LAABSHPP 2001 2020M 1 17 17.8 West 500 SC 54 35 9 1 HAAB SSPP 2001 2020M 1 18 32.2 West 500 SC 55 36 27 1 LLMBPPSM 2001 2020M 1 19 12.3 West 500 SC 43 38 9 1 AAABHPSP 2001 2020M 1 20 19.4 West 500 SC 57 43 10 1 LAAMPSPPP 2001 2020M 1 21 32.2 West 500 SC 71 27 21 1 L A A H P P H S P 2001 2020M 1 22 12.9 West 500 SC 51 41 8 1 L A A H P P H P 2001 2020M 1 23 28.9 West 500 SC 50 43 20 1 L H C B SSPP P 2001 2020M 1 24 28.7 West 500 SC 53 39 21 1 LAAMPPSPP 2001 2020M 1 25 13.0 West 500 SC 54 38 8 1 LAABMPP 2001 2020M 1 26 25.7 West 500 SC 66 37 12 1 LAAH PPSPP 2001 2020M 1 27 35.4 West 500 SC 50 19 14 1 AHCMPPPPSP 2001 2020L 1 1 121.3 West 500 SC 85 46 36 1 L L L B G P P 2001 2020L 1 2 223.1 West 500 SC 117 111 39 1 LHCMPPM 2001 2020L 1 3 208.4 West 500 SC 116 68 39 1 LLLH SPSP P 2001 2020L 1 4 461.7 West 500 SC 96 80 39 1 L A A B P S M P P P 2001 2020L 1 5 142.9 West 500 SC 114 61 28 1 HAAM PSSS S P 2001 2020 2 1 31.4 West 500 SC 87 20 14 1 NNNN 2001 2020 2 1 2.0 West 500 SC 27 14 7 1 NNNN 2001 2020 2 2 29.6 West 500 SC 50 20 16 1 NNNN 2001 2020 2 3 4.0 West 500 SC 28 14 9 1 NNNN

129 Table B.1: Continued. Year PD FS Count Weight (g) Easting Northing Collection type Length (mm) Width (mm) Thickness (mm) Flake Broken Flake Frag Flake Shatter Bifacial tool Unifacial Tool Expedient Tool Core Other Fauna Coverage Marine Cortex Cortex Dorsal Staining Black Black-gray White-gray White Brown Red-brown Yellow-brown Yellow Pink Corroded 2001 2020 2 4 5.2 West 500 SC 32 16 7 1 NNNN 2001 2020 2 5 4.5 West 500 SC 25 22 6 1 NNNN 2001 2020 2 6 3.0 West 500 SC 20 14 10 1 NNNN 2001 2020 2 7 15.7 West 500 SC 62 23 9 1 NNNN 2001 2021 1 1 8.8 West 500 SC 36 33 8 1 AAAH HP S 2001 2021 1 2 7.4 West 500 SC 35 28 8 1 AAAH P S S 2001 2022S 1 1 5.9 500 North SC 48 22 5 1 L A A H SSSP 2001 2022S 1 2 21.1 500 North SC 51 45 13 1 LHCBMS 2001 2022S 1 3 15.3 500 North SC 50 41 9 1 LLHHPSMPP 2001 2022S 1 4 19.1 500 North SC 72 31 26 1 L L L M H P P P P P 2001 2022S 1 5 24.0 500 North SC 48 30 21 1 L L L B SSSPPP 2001 2022S 1 6 9.4 500 North SC 48 34 8 1 LLLMHSPS 2001 2022S 1 7 14.3 500 North SC 45 32 11 1 LLLH PSSP P S 2001 2022S 1 8 15.8 500 North SC 34 29 20 1 L L L H S S P PPPPP 2001 2022S 1 9 13.6 500 North SC 41 32 10 1 LLLB SSSPP 2001 2022S 1 10 8.0 500 North SC 48 26 6 1 ALLU PPSSPPPP 2001 2022S 1 11 12.7 500 North SC 47 29 10 1 L A A B S M 2001 2022S 1 12 9.0 500 North SC 51 30 6 1 LAABSHPP 2001 2022S 1 13 3.9 500 North SC 55 20 3 1 LAAHSHS 2001 2022S 1 14 6.0 500 North SC 36 25 6 1 LAAHPHH 2001 2022S 1 15 6.3 500 North SC 29 28 6 1 AAAUP S P S S 2001 2022S 1 16 7.1 500 North SC 36 29 9 1 LAAMPPPHPS 2001 2022S 1 17 7.0 500 North SC 36 23 10 1 L A A M P M P S 2001 2022S 1 18 11.0 500 North SC 43 30 7 1 AAAUC 2001 2022S 1 19 2.2 500 North SC 39 20 4 1 AAAUPSPPP SP 2001 2022S 1 20 8.9 500 North SC 36 26 11 1 A L L M P H S P P 2001 2022S 1 21 2.3 500 North SC 27 25 3 1 AAAUS PM 2001 2022S 1 22 5.6 500 North SC 31 20 11 1 A H C M S P P H P S 2001 2022S 1 23 2.0 500 North SC 30 18 5 1 A A A B S H P S 2001 2022S 1 24 3.8 500 North SC 36 21 5 1 A A A B S S S 2001 2022S 1 25 5.5 500 North SC 28 26 9 1 AAAHPMP S 2001 2022S 1 26 8.0 500 North SC 34 33 9 1 L A A B SPPPS S P 2001 2022S 1 27 3.0 500 North SC 29 23 5 1 L A A M H S S P

130 Table B.1: Continued. Year PD FS Count Weight (g) Easting Northing Collection type Length (mm) Width (mm) Thickness (mm) Flake Broken Flake Frag Flake Shatter Bifacial tool Unifacial Tool Expedient Tool Core Other Fauna Coverage Marine Cortex Cortex Dorsal Staining Black Black-gray White-gray White Brown Red-brown Yellow-brown Yellow Pink Corroded 2001 2022S 1 28 2.4 500 North SC 30 25 4 1 AAABGP 2001 2022S 1 29 2.7 500 North SC 30 25 5 1 LLHMSSS 2001 2022S 1 30 2.2 500 North SC 31 21 4 1 L A A B S P S P P S 2001 2022S 1 31 2.3 500 North SC 25 25 4 1 LAABSHSP 2001 2022S 1 32 2.5 500 North SC 26 19 6 1 L A A B S P S S P P P 2001 2022S 1 33 2.5 500 North SC 35 17 4 1 AAABMSP 2001 2022S 1 34 1.3 500 North SC 35 11 3 1 A A A B M P P 2001 2022S 1 35 1.8 500 North SC 22 21 4 1 A A A B SPPSP 2001 2022S 1 36 0.5 500 North SC 15 14 3 1 A A A B SSSPP 2001 2022S 1 37 3.6 500 North SC 32 23 7 1 AAABGP 2001 2022S 1 38 1.1 500 North SC 28 14 4 1 A A A B M S P 2001 2022S 1 39 0.5 500 North SC 16 14 2 1 A A A B S H S P P 2001 2022S 1 40 5.1 500 North SC 30 20 8 1 L A A B PSSS P 2001 2022S 1 41 1.6 500 North SC 30 14 6 1 A A A B H H 2001 2022S 1 42 1.8 500 North SC 22 20 4 1 A L L B H S P 2001 2022S 1 43 0.7 500 North SC 23 14 3 1 L A A B G P P 2001 2022S 1 44 1.1 500 North SC 24 19 4 1 L A A B G S 2001 2022S 1 45 1.4 500 North SC 21 18 4 1 A A A B S P H 2001 2022S 1 46 1.2 500 North SC 21 11 2 1 L A A B S S H P P 2001 2022S 1 47 2.0 500 North SC 21 20 6 1 L A A B S S S P P 2001 2022S 1 48 0.5 500 North SC 18 13 2 1 L A A B S S S 2001 2022S 1 49 1.7 500 North SC 28 15 5 1 L A A B S H 2001 2022S 1 50 0.7 500 North SC 20 16 3 1 A A A B G S 2001 2022S 1 51 1.2 500 North SC 18 12 7 1 L A A B H H P 2001 2022S 1 52 0.4 500 North SC 18 11 2 1 A A A B C 2001 2022S 1 53 0.2 500 North SC 14 9 2 1 A A A M P M P P 2001 2022S 1 54 0.6 500 North SC 21 10 4 1 AAABPMPP 2001 2022S 1 55 0.7 500 North SC 19 16 3 1 A A A B M S P 2001 2022S 1 56 0.6 500 North SC 20 14 6 1 AAAH HH 2001 2022S 1 57 0.2 500 North SC 22 13 2 1 A A A B PPSPS 2001 2022S 1 58 1.1 500 North SC 24 15 4 1 A A A B H H 2001 2022S 1 59 0.6 500 North SC 12 11 2 1 AAAUPSSS P 2001 2022S 1 60 1.2 500 North SC 26 16 4 1 A A A B PSSP P

131 Table B.1: Continued. Year PD FS Count Weight (g) Easting Northing Collection type Length (mm) Width (mm) Thickness (mm) Flake Broken Flake Frag Flake Shatter Bifacial tool Unifacial Tool Expedient Tool Core Other Fauna Coverage Marine Cortex Cortex Dorsal Staining Black Black-gray White-gray White Brown Red-brown Yellow-brown Yellow Pink Corroded 2001 2022S 1 61 0.3 500 North SC 17 15 2 1 AAAHG P 2001 2022L 1 1 97.9 500 North SC 103 62 28 1 LLMBSSHPPPP 2001 2022L 1 2 80.8 500 North SC 84 60 20 1 A L L M SSPPPPP S 2001 2022L 1 3 74.0 500 North SC 62 42 22 1 L L L H P S S P P P S 2001 2022L 1 4 42.3 500 North SC 73 32 29 1 L L L H PPSP PPS 2001 2022L 1 5 24.9 500 North SC 69 36 13 1 LAAH PSSSP P 2001 2022L 1 6 33.2 500 North SC 50 42 13 1 L A A B SSPPSP 2001 2022L 1 7 25.9 500 North SC 47 39 13 1 L A A H PSSPP P 2001 2022L 1 8 20.7 500 North SC 66 39 8 1 LAAB SSSPP 2001 2022L 1 10 20.7 500 North SC 72 26 11 1 L A A M H H P 2001 2022L 1 11 20.3 500 North SC 48 36 13 1 LLLMHSPPPP 2001 2022L 4 9 27.3 500 North SC 50 46 11 1 NNNN 2001 2022 2 1 81.4 500 North SC 85 42 17 1 NNNN 2001 2022 2 2 149.3 500 North SC 99 50 43 1 NNNN 2001 2022 2 3 54.6 500 North SC 59 33 22 1 NNNN 2001 2022 2 4 7.1 500 North SC 29 18 11 1 NNNN 2001 2022 2 5 2.1 500 North SC 29 12 4 1 NNNN 2001 2022 7 1 13.3 500 North SC 19 18 10 1 NNNN 2001 2023 1 1 44.0 500 North SC 75 51 15 1 L A A H SPPP PP 2001 2024 1 1 33.0 500 537 IF 73 46 11 1 AAAHMPPPP P 2001 2025S 1 1 18.1 500 South SC 44 37 19 1 L L L B H M 2001 2025S 1 2 20.4 500 South SC 39 38 16 1 LLLB SSPS PP 2001 2025S 1 3 9.5 500 South SC 42 27 9 1 L L L B H S P P P 2001 2025S 1 4 6.6 500 South SC 31 30 8 1 LLMMSSSPPP 2001 2025S 1 5 4.0 500 South SC 49 22 5 1 L A A B SSPS PP 2001 2025S 1 6 9.7 500 South SC 44 29 9 1 A L H B P M PPPP 2001 2025S 1 7 14.6 500 South SC 45 25 19 1 L L H M G P 2001 2025S 1 8 7.0 500 South SC 57 19 7 1 LAAMSSPPS 2001 2025S 1 9 8.7 500 South SC 50 27 8 1 LAAB PSSPPPP P 2001 2025S 1 11 10.4 500 South SC 44 34 9 1 A A A B P M P 2001 2025S 1 12 7.3 500 South SC 33 29 9 1 L A A B H SPPP P P 2001 2025S 1 13 6.1 500 South SC 52 26 4 1 A A A B M S P 2001 2025S 1 14 10.8 500 South SC 42 33 11 1 AAABSMPPP

132 Table B.1: Continued. Year PD FS Count Weight (g) Easting Northing Collection type Length (mm) Width (mm) Thickness (mm) Flake Broken Flake Frag Flake Shatter Bifacial tool Unifacial Tool Expedient Tool Core Other Fauna Coverage Marine Cortex Cortex Dorsal Staining Black Black-gray White-gray White Brown Red-brown Yellow-brown Yellow Pink Corroded 2001 2025S 1 15 15.5 500 South SC 43 39 11 1 A A A M P H M P 2001 2025S 1 16 12.2 500 South SC 45 26 13 1 L L H M S P S 2001 2025S 1 18 7.6 500 South SC 39 30 7 1 LAAH SSSS 2001 2025S 1 19 7.9 500 South SC 38 30 9 1 L L M B G S 2001 2025S 1 20 7.2 500 South SC 41 24 8 1 L A A B S P S P S 2001 2025S 1 22 9.4 500 South SC 35 31 16 1 L A A B PSSPS 2001 2025S 1 23 5.3 500 South SC 29 24 9 1 LAABPMPPPP 2001 2025S 1 24 4.0 500 South SC 30 25 7 1 A A A B M S 2001 2025S 1 25 4.5 500 South SC 37 25 7 1 A L H H P M P P P 2001 2025S 1 26 3.7 500 South SC 25 24 7 1 AAAHPSPSS 2001 2025S 1 27 2.2 500 South SC 35 20 4 1 AAABSMP 2001 2025S 1 28 3.9 500 South SC 29 25 5 1 L A A B P M P 2001 2025S 1 29 1.7 500 South SC 26 23 4 1 AAABMS 2001 2025S 1 30 4.3 500 South SC 37 16 8 1 A A A B S S H 2001 2025S 1 31 2.4 500 South SC 28 19 4 1 AAAHPMS P 2001 2025S 1 32 2.1 500 South SC 29 21 4 1 A A A B SSPPP P 2001 2025S 1 33 2.0 500 South SC 34 23 3 1 AAABSMPP 2001 2025S 1 34 1.9 500 South SC 22 16 6 1 A L H H P M S P 2001 2025S 1 35 2.7 500 South SC 24 22 6 1 A A A B S S S 2001 2025S 1 36 2.2 500 South SC 32 20 5 1 H A A B PPSS SP 2001 2025S 1 37 2.9 500 South SC 35 24 5 1 A A A B P H PPPP P 2001 2025S 1 38 3.1 500 South SC 20 16 8 1 AAAHSMP P 2001 2025S 1 39 1.2 500 South SC 27 18 3 1 A A A B M S P P P 2001 2025S 1 40 1.9 500 South SC 25 16 5 1 ALLBHHP 2001 2025S 1 41 3.3 500 South SC 24 23 7 1 L A A M P M S P 2001 2025S 1 42 1.9 500 South SC 22 21 4 1 A A A B H P H P 2001 2025S 1 43 1.0 500 South SC 21 15 4 1 LAABHPPS 2001 2025S 1 44 0.7 500 South SC 20 19 2 1 A A A B H SPPP P 2001 2025S 1 45 2.4 500 South SC 25 24 5 1 L A A B G S 2001 2025S 1 46 2.4 500 South SC 20 18 7 1 A A A M H H 2001 2025S 1 47 3.2 500 South SC 32 25 6 1 L A A B H P S 2001 2025S 1 48 2.3 500 South SC 32 20 5 1 L A A B SPPSPP PP 2001 2025S 1 49 1.3 500 South SC 27 15 4 1 AAAHP S S P P S

133 Table B.1: Continued. Year PD FS Count Weight (g) Easting Northing Collection type Length (mm) Width (mm) Thickness (mm) Flake Broken Flake Frag Flake Shatter Bifacial tool Unifacial Tool Expedient Tool Core Other Fauna Coverage Marine Cortex Cortex Dorsal Staining Black Black-gray White-gray White Brown Red-brown Yellow-brown Yellow Pink Corroded 2001 2025S 1 50 1.4 500 South SC 19 13 8 1 AAAHP PG 2001 2025S 1 51 0.8 500 South SC 18 12 3 1 A A A B PPPP M 2001 2025S 1 52 1.4 500 South SC 25 12 6 1 A A A B P M P P 2001 2025S 1 53 0.7 500 South SC 21 14 3 1 AAAUSM 2001 2025S 1 54 0.9 500 South SC 21 16 3 1 LAABC 2001 2025S 1 55 0.5 500 South SC 15 11 4 1 A A A B P P M P P 2001 2025S 1 56 1.2 500 South SC 21 17 3 1 A L L B M S 2001 2025S 1 57 1.1 500 South SC 19 15 5 1 A A A B M P S 2001 2025S 1 58 0.8 500 South SC 18 17 4 1 AAAB SSPP P 2001 2025S 1 59 0.6 500 South SC 18 14 3 1 A A A B SSSS 2001 2025S 1 60 1.3 500 South SC 21 18 3 1 AAABPPMP 2001 2025S 1 61 0.6 500 South SC 15 11 3 1 A A A B H P P S 2001 2025S 1 62 0.2 500 South SC 13 10 2 1 AAAU C 2001 2025S 1 63 0.9 500 South SC 18 15 4 1 A A A B H H P 2001 2025S 1 64 1.6 500 South SC 33 15 4 1 AAAMPHSPP 2001 2025S 1 65 0.5 500 South SC 18 11 2 1 AAAHPMS P 2001 2025S 1 66 0.6 500 South SC 21 13 2 1 AAAH P P S S 2001 2025S 1 67 1.1 500 South SC 16 14 4 1 A A A B S S S S 2001 2025S 1 68 0.4 500 South SC 17 17 1 1 AAAU GP 2001 2025S 1 69 0.6 500 South SC 19 11 3 1 A A A B M S P P 2001 2025S 1 70 1.0 500 South SC 27 13 5 1 AAAHS S S P 2001 2025S 1 71 1.2 500 South SC 23 14 5 1 A A A M S S S 2001 2025S 4 10 12.9 500 South SC 44 29 12 1 NNNN 2001 2025S 4 17 5.1 500 South SC 33 30 4 1 NNNN 2001 2025S 4 21 11.5 500 South SC 47 25 11 1 NNNN 2001 2025M 1 1 27.4 500 South SC 78 39 12 1 LLLMSSSPP 2001 2025M 1 2 76.8 500 South SC 67 37 32 1 L L L H PSSSP P 2001 2025M 1 3 19.6 500 South SC 47 43 9 1 A L L B P M P S 2001 2025M 1 4 50.8 500 South SC 84 41 17 1 A L L B P H S S 2001 2025M 1 5 72.1 500 South SC 79 46 20 1 L L L M S S P S P P 2001 2025M 1 6 37.6 500 South SC 49 39 24 1 ALLB SSSPP P 2001 2025M 1 7 21.2 500 South SC 63 37 12 1 L L M H P S S PPPP 2001 2025M 1 8 9.1 500 South SC 48 24 9 1 A L L M S M P P P

134 Table B.1: Continued. Year PD FS Count Weight (g) Easting Northing Collection type Length (mm) Width (mm) Thickness (mm) Flake Broken Flake Frag Flake Shatter Bifacial tool Unifacial Tool Expedient Tool Core Other Fauna Coverage Marine Cortex Cortex Dorsal Staining Black Black-gray White-gray White Brown Red-brown Yellow-brown Yellow Pink Corroded 2001 2025M 1 10 49.9 500 South SC 59 48 15 1 H L L B H PSPP P 2001 2025M 1 11 39.0 500 South SC 62 45 13 1 A A A B PSSPSPPP 2001 2025M 1 13 9.7 500 South SC 56 34 6 1 AAABSMPPP 2001 2025M 1 14 42.9 500 South SC 51 33 14 1 L L L B SSSPPP 2001 2025M 1 16 18.0 500 South SC 63 36 8 1 AAABH PPSP P 2001 2025M 1 17 19.9 500 South SC 51 34 20 1 A L L M SSPSP P 2001 2025M 1 18 16.4 500 South SC 58 49 7 1 AAAUSPSP PP P 2001 2025M 1 19 44.7 500 South SC 70 47 14 1 LLLHHHPP 2001 2025M 1 20 15.8 500 South SC 49 42 10 1 L AAHHP P P P S 2001 2025M 1 21 19.9 500 South SC 72 27 9 1 LAAHSHPPPP 2001 2025M 1 22 19.7 500 South SC 65 35 10 1 A A A B PSSPPP 2001 2025M 1 23 17.0 500 South SC 55 37 10 1 AAAM PPPP HSS 2001 2025M 1 24 20.2 500 South SC 67 38 9 1 LAAH PSSSP P 2001 2025M 1 25 21.0 500 South SC 49 39 14 1 L A A B P S H P P 2001 2025M 1 26 19.5 500 South SC 36 35 19 1 L A A B H H P P 2001 2025M 1 27 31.5 500 South SC 60 44 15 1 LAAUSSPSPPP 2001 2025M 1 28 13.9 500 South SC 41 36 9 1 LAABMSPPP 2001 2025M 1 29 20.5 500 South SC 49 42 11 1 L A A H P P H P S P 2001 2025M 1 30 27.9 500 South SC 67 53 9 1 LLLB SPPPPPPSP 2001 2025M 4 9 21.3 500 South SC 75 41 14 1 NNNN 2001 2025M 4 12 58.3 500 South SC 58 49 17 1 NNNN 2001 2025M 4 15 36.4 500 South SC 67 41 17 1 NNNN 2001 2025L 1 1 196.6 500 South SC 78 70 33 1 L L L M SSPPP S 2001 2025L 1 2 126.0 500 South SC 88 69 27 1 L L L B P M P P P 2001 2025L 1 3 123.7 500 South SC 107 62 23 1 L A A H P M S P P 2001 2025L 1 4 151.5 500 South SC 85 57 30 1 L L L B S H P P P P 2001 2025L 1 5 132.4 500 South SC 30 64 28 1 L L H H SPSPS PP 2001 2025 2 1 10.2 500 South SC 42 16 13 1 NNNN 2001 2025 2 1 5.6 500 South SC 28 14 5 1 NNNN 2001 2025 2 2 0.7 500 South SC 15 9 3 1 NNNN 2001 2025 3 1 1.7 500 South SC 25 12 9 1 NNNN 2001 2025 3 2 1.1 500 South SC 19 9 7 1 NNNN 2001 2025 3 3 1.5 500 South SC 22 10 8 1 NNNN

135 Table B.1: Continued. Year PD FS Count Weight (g) Easting Northing Collection type Length (mm) Width (mm) Thickness (mm) Flake Broken Flake Frag Flake Shatter Bifacial tool Unifacial Tool Expedient Tool Core Other Fauna Coverage Marine Cortex Cortex Dorsal Staining Black Black-gray White-gray White Brown Red-brown Yellow-brown Yellow Pink Corroded 2001 2025 3 4 0.05 500 South SC 6 5 2 1 NNNN 2001 2025 3 5 0.2 500 South SC 10 9 4 1 NNNN 2001 2025 3 6 0.2 500 South SC 12 8 5 1 NNNN 2001 2025 3 7 0.05 500 South SC 6 4 3 1 NNNN 2001 2026 1 1 41.8 500 South SC 58 48 17 1 L A A H SSSP P 2001 2027S 1 1 15.9 2m of datum SC 56 28 13 1 L L L B SSSP 2001 2027S 1 2 18.1 2m of datum SC 52 24 11 1 AAAU HHP 2001 2027S 1 3 7.1 2m of datum SC 39 33 9 1 A A A M P G P 2001 2027S 1 4 11.6 2m of datum SC 34 30 8 1 LLLU SSSP P 2001 2027S 1 5 4.0 2m of datum SC 38 31 5 1 LAABMPP 2001 2027S 1 6 6.6 2m of datum SC 33 29 7 1 AAAUP P SH 2001 2027S 1 7 5.4 2m of datum SC 29 21 11 1 L A A B H S P 2001 2027S 1 8 4.7 2m of datum SC 34 31 9 1 AAAH HS P S 2001 2027S 1 9 4.1 2m of datum SC 41 23 6 1 L L L M H H P 2001 2027S 1 10 1.6 2m of datum SC 42 14 4 1 AAABPGP 2001 2027S 1 11 1.9 2m of datum SC 28 17 5 1 A A A B S M P 2001 2027S 1 12 1.7 2m of datum SC 22 18 6 1 AAAH P G 2001 2027S 1 13 1.7 2m of datum SC 23 18 3 1 AAAUHS S P 2001 2027S 1 14 0.2 2m of datum SC 11 10 2 1 A A A B P S P P S 2001 2027S 1 15 0.3 2m of datum SC 15 10 2 1 AAAU 2001 2027M 1 1 35.2 2m of datum SC 33 38 13 1 A A A M PSSPS PP 2001 2027M 1 2 7.2 2m of datum SC 40 34 7 1 LAAH PSPSP 2001 2027M 1 3 8.0 2m of datum SC 51 34 7 1 AAAUS S P HP P 2001 2027M 1 4 2.6 2m of datum SC 35 20 3 1 ALLHMSP 2001 2027M 1 5 1.6 2m of datum SC 23 16 5 1 AAAUPHSPPPP 2001 2027M 1 6 0.5 2m of datum SC 20 16 2 1 A A A B P S S S 2001 2027M 1 7 0.6 2m of datum SC 29 10 2 1 A A A B P P H H P 2001 2027M 1 8 2.5 2m of datum SC 28 24 4 1 AAAHSSSPP P 2001 2027M 1 9 2.8 2m of datum SC 24 26 6 1 AAAUP PHS 2001 2027M 1 10 0.8 2m of datum SC 22 18 2 1 ALLHSPHS 2001 2027M 1 11 1.1 2m of datum SC 26 18 6 1 AAAU H S P P 2001 2027M 1 12 0.5 2m of datum SC 19 11 3 1 L A A B P S S P 2001 2027M 1 13 1.8 2m of datum SC 28 22 5 1 AAAH H P S

136 Table B.1: Continued. Year PD FS Count Weight (g) Easting Northing Collection type Length (mm) Width (mm) Thickness (mm) Flake Broken Flake Frag Flake Shatter Bifacial tool Unifacial Tool Expedient Tool Core Other Fauna Coverage Marine Cortex Cortex Dorsal Staining Black Black-gray White-gray White Brown Red-brown Yellow-brown Yellow Pink Corroded 2001 2027M 1 14 0.9 2m of datum SC 20 16 3 1 A A A B H H 2001 2027L 1 1 199.5 2m of datum SC 105 63 44 1 H L L H P M P P 2001 2027L 1 2 75.3 2m of datum SC 67 63 24 1 L A A H S P H S P 2001 2027L 1 3 66.7 2m of datum SC 64 56 17 1 L L L B S S P S P 2001 2027L 1 4 24.2 2m of datum SC 48 42 15 1 L L L H S H P P 2001 2027XL 1 1 489.1 2m of datum SC 167 83 34 1 L H C M P H P S 2001 2027XL 1 2 423.0 2m of datum SC 125 78 50 1 L L L H M S P 2001 2027 2 1 44.9 2m of datum SC 63 35 13 1 NNNN 2001 2027 2 2 0.7 2m of datum SC 18 13 4 1 NNNN 2001 2027 2 3 0.4 2m of datum SC 9 7 6 1 NNNN 2001 2028S 1 1 16.0 East 500 SC 40 32 14 1 L A A B SSPS 2001 2028S 1 2 10.1 East 500 SC 40 30 8 1 LAAHSHPP 2001 2028S 1 3 16.3 East 500 SC 51 28 13 1 L A A H S H P P P 2001 2028S 1 4 27.4 East 500 SC 45 22 12 1 L A A B P H H 2001 2028S 1 5 7.5 East 500 SC 33 30 10 1 A L L H H H P 2001 2028S 1 6 9.7 East 500 SC 47 33 7 1 AAAHPMS P P 2001 2028S 1 7 7.2 East 500 SC 56 24 15 1 L L L M S H P S 2001 2028S 1 8 15.6 East 500 SC 36 28 12 1 L A A M SSSP 2001 2028S 1 9 11.2 East 500 SC 49 29 8 1 L A A B SSPPS P 2001 2028S 1 10 11.8 East 500 SC 43 27 7 1 LLLB SSSP 2001 2028S 1 11 9.2 East 500 SC 40 33 8 1 L A A B P H P P S 2001 2028S 1 12 3.5 East 500 SC 40 23 5 1 L A A B M S P 2001 2028S 1 13 5.6 East 500 SC 37 24 10 1 L A A M P M P S 2001 2028S 1 14 7.7 East 500 SC 20 19 19 1 A L L M H H P P 2001 2028S 1 15 4.0 East 500 SC 33 22 7 1 L AAUHS P S 2001 2028S 1 16 5.5 East 500 SC 40 30 6 1 AAAH SG 2001 2028S 1 17 2.5 East 500 SC 29 28 5 1 A A A M P H H P 2001 2028S 1 18 4.0 East 500 SC 34 14 5 1 L A A H P G 2001 2028S 1 19 2.9 East 500 SC 33 23 4 1 A A A B SSSPP P 2001 2028S 1 20 6.1 East 500 SC 44 29 5 1 AAAB PSSP PS 2001 2028S 1 21 1.9 East 500 SC 22 19 6 1 A L L B P H S S P 2001 2028S 1 22 2.8 East 500 SC 42 17 4 1 LAAHPSM 2001 2028S 1 23 2.4 East 500 SC 30 25 4 1 AAAU HH

137 Table B.1: Continued. Year PD FS Count Weight (g) Easting Northing Collection type Length (mm) Width (mm) Thickness (mm) Flake Broken Flake Frag Flake Shatter Bifacial tool Unifacial Tool Expedient Tool Core Other Fauna Coverage Marine Cortex Cortex Dorsal Staining Black Black-gray White-gray White Brown Red-brown Yellow-brown Yellow Pink Corroded 2001 2028S 1 24 0.4 East 500 SC 31 20 8 1 ALLBSSPHP 2001 2028S 1 25 2.0 East 500 SC 36 22 3 1 AAAHGP P 2001 2028S 1 26 3.5 East 500 SC 31 24 8 1 A L L H S H S P 2001 2028S 1 27 4.0 East 500 SC 30 25 5 1 A A A B S S S P 2001 2028S 1 28 2.3 East 500 SC 31 27 4 1 AAABPPMPPP 2001 2028S 1 29 4.6 East 500 SC 29 18 7 1 AAAUPHHP P 2001 2028S 1 30 9.8 East 500 SC 36 21 11 1 A L L M G S 2001 2028S 1 31 2.0 East 500 SC 23 18 3 1 A A A B P S M 2001 2028S 1 32 2.2 East 500 SC 31 28 3 1 A A A B P M PPPP 2001 2028S 1 33 2.4 East 500 SC 28 19 5 1 AAAHS S S P 2001 2028S 1 34 0.9 East 500 SC 22 15 4 1 A A A B P S S S 2001 2028S 1 35 0.9 East 500 SC 25 14 3 1 A A A B P S S H P 2001 2028S 1 36 1.8 East 500 SC 30 20 3 1 AAABSM 2001 2028S 1 37 3.0 East 500 SC 45 17 3 1 A A A B PSSS P 2001 2028S 1 38 3.2 East 500 SC 39 23 5 1 L A A B SSSPPPP P 2001 2028S 1 39 2.9 East 500 SC 26 18 8 1 AAAUSSPPS 2001 2028S 1 40 5.8 East 500 SC 42 24 9 1 LAAM SSSPPP 2001 2028S 1 41 1.4 East 500 SC 23 15 4 1 A A A B P S S S P 2001 2028S 1 42 0.9 East 500 SC 18 15 4 1 L AAHHH 2001 2028S 1 43 1.7 East 500 SC 22 20 4 1 A A A B M P P P S 2001 2028S 1 44 1.5 East 500 SC 33 12 5 1 AAAHSSPPP 2001 2028S 1 45 2.1 East 500 SC 24 19 4 1 A A A M SSSS 2001 2028S 1 46 1.0 East 500 SC 21 16 3 1 A A A B P S P H 2001 2028S 1 47 1.2 East 500 SC 25 15 3 1 AAABPHSP 2001 2028S 1 48 3.8 East 500 SC 37 25 5 1 AAAHP PHP P P 2001 2028S 1 49 1.1 East 500 SC 30 12 4 1 A A A B P M P P 2001 2028S 1 50 0.8 East 500 SC 29 23 8 1 AAAUMS P 2001 2028S 1 51 0.2 East 500 SC 13 8 2 1 AAABMSP 2001 2028S 1 52 0.6 East 500 SC 14 11 4 1 A A A B H S S 2001 2028S 1 53 0.6 East 500 SC 14 12 3 1 A A A B P P M P 2001 2028S 1 54 0.6 East 500 SC 22 9 2 1 AAAUM P S P 2001 2028S 1 55 0.7 East 500 SC 24 13 2 1 AAAU S S S P 2001 2028S 1 56 1.1 East 500 SC 18 15 3 1 AAAUSMP

138 Table B.1: Continued. Year PD FS Count Weight (g) Easting Northing Collection type Length (mm) Width (mm) Thickness (mm) Flake Broken Flake Frag Flake Shatter Bifacial tool Unifacial Tool Expedient Tool Core Other Fauna Coverage Marine Cortex Cortex Dorsal Staining Black Black-gray White-gray White Brown Red-brown Yellow-brown Yellow Pink Corroded 2001 2028S 1 57 0.5 East 500 SC 15 12 3 1 A A A B P M S P 2001 2028S 1 58 0.5 East 500 SC 14 14 3 1 A A A B G P 2001 2028S 1 59 0.5 East 500 SC 20 12 3 1 AAABGP 2001 2028L 1 1 192.4 East 500 SC 92 72 36 1 L L L U PPPSSPPPP 2001 2028L 1 2 110.6 East 500 SC 102 58 28 1 L L H H SSSS 2001 2028L 1 3 101.5 East 500 SC 59 47 42 1 L A A B SSSPP P 2001 2028L 1 4 47.7 East 500 SC 73 55 17 1 L A A U P P M S P P 2001 2028L 1 5 24.9 East 500 SC 52 34 18 1 L A A B H S S P 2001 2028L 1 6 26.9 East 500 SC 54 42 13 1 L L L H P S SSPPP 2001 2028L 1 7 20.7 East 500 SC 49 45 15 1 LLLMSSSPPP 2001 2028L 1 8 12.0 East 500 SC 56 30 8 1 AAABSSPPPSPP 2001 2028 2 1 70.1 East 500 SC 82 30 18 1 NNNN 2001 2028 2 2 1.4 East 500 SC 16 8 7 1 NNNN 2001 2028 3 1 25.6 East 500 SC 39 34 18 1 NNNN 2001 2028 3 2 0.6 East 500 SC 15 8 5 1 NNNN 2001 2029 1 1 28.2 512 500 IF 75 35 10 1 AAAHPHS P 2001 2030 1 1 68.3 505 500 IF 95 49 15 1 A A A B P M P P 2001 2035 1 1 10.8 526 485 IF 48 29 6 1 AAAUPPSS P 2001 2036 1 1 14.1 506.4 503.7 IF 49 41 10 1 L A A H P P M P P P 2001 2037 1 1 50.2 506.4 503.7 IF 73 58 15 1 LLLHPPHS PPPP 2001 2037 5 1 6.7 506.4 503.7 IF 23 15 8 1 NNNN 2001 2037 5 2 1.5 506.4 503.7 IF 40 23 3 1 NNNN 2002 3000 1 1 146.7 491.3 495 SC 120 70 30 1 L A A H P P H S P 2002 3000 1 2 13.0 491.3 495 SC 80 30 10 1 1 L A A H PSSPPPPP 2002 3001 1 1 30.8 500 510 SC 70 40 20 1 LLLBPHSPPP 2002 3001 1 2 10.5 500 510 SC 40 30 20 1 L L L M P P S SPPP 2002 3001 1 3 0.8 500 510 SC 20 20 10 1 A A A B S S S 2002 3001 1 4 0.5 500 510 SC 20 20 10 1 AAAH HH P 2002 3002 5 1 11.2 500 510 SC 40 40 10 1 NNNN 2002 3003 1 1 21.1 500 520 SC 50 40 20 1 L L H M P S P S P P 2002 3003 1 2 9.5 500 520 SC 40 40 10 1 LLHMPPH PSPP 2002 3003 1 3 5.9 500 520 SC 50 30 10 1 A A A B P M S P 2002 3003 1 4 3.0 500 520 SC 30 30 10 1 LHHMHHPP

139 Table B.1: Continued. Year PD FS Count Weight (g) Easting Northing Collection type Length (mm) Width (mm) Thickness (mm) Flake Broken Flake Frag Flake Shatter Bifacial tool Unifacial Tool Expedient Tool Core Other Fauna Coverage Marine Cortex Cortex Dorsal Staining Black Black-gray White-gray White Brown Red-brown Yellow-brown Yellow Pink Corroded 2002 3003 1 5 1.5 500 520 SC 20 20 10 1 A L L H P S S S 2002 3003 1 6 0.6 500 520 SC 20 20 10 1 AAABPMSP 2002 3004 2 1 1.2 500 520 SC 10 10 10 1 NNNN 2002 3004 4 1 11.9 500 520 SC 50 20 20 1 NNNN 2002 3004 4 2 3.2 500 520 SC 40 20 10 1 NNNN 2002 3004 4 1 1.2 500 520 SC 20 10 10 1 NNNN 2002 3005 1 1 7.9 500 530 SC 40 40 10 1 AAAHPHHP P 2002 3005 1 2 0.5 500 530 SC 20 10 10 1 A A A B H P P H P P P 2002 3006 2 1 1.4 500 530 SC 20 10 10 1 NNNN 2002 3007 1 1 1.6 500 540 SC 30 30 10 1 L A A B G P 2002 3007 1 2 0.4 500 540 SC 20 20 10 1 AAAHHS P S 2002 3008 2 1 15.5 500 540 SC 60 30 10 1 NNNN 2002 3008 5 1 1.2 500 540 SC 30 20 10 1 NNNN 2002 3009 1 1 1.5 499 491 SC 30 20 10 1 L A A B P H S P P 2002 3010 4 1 18.2 499 491 SC 60 40 10 1 NNNN 2002 3010 5 1 12.4 499 491 SC 50 30 30 1 NNNN 2002 3010 5 2 2.8 499 491 SC 30 30 10 1 NNNN 2002 3011 1 1 5.8 499 471 SC 40 40 10 1 LAABHPPPP 2002 3011 1 2 0.4 499 471 SC 20 10 10 1 L A A B C 2002 3012 5 1 13.0 499 471 SC 130 60 20 1 NNNN 2002 3013 4 1 1.1 499 451 SC 20 10 10 1 NNNN 2002 3014 1 1 6.5 500.8 449.05 IF 50 20 10 1 L A A M SPSPSPP 2002 3015 1 1 18.9 500 455.5 IF 60 40 20 1 A A A M P S P PPSS 2002 3016 1 1 22.3 498.65 468.3 IF 70 40 10 1 L A A B S P S H P 2002 3017 1 1 55.3 501.56 470.25 IF 100 40 20 1 LAABSHPPP 2002 3018 1 1 62.2 500.2 496.95 IF 60 40 30 1 L L L H PSSS P 2002 3019 1 1 6.2 490 500 SC 40 40 10 1 LLLHPHSP 2002 3019 1 2 4.4 490 500 SC 40 20 10 1 L A A H M P P 2002 3019 1 3 4.2 490 500 SC 30 30 10 1 LAAM SSPP P P 2002 3019 1 4 1.5 490 500 SC 30 20 10 1 LLLBHSP 2002 3019 1 5 0.6 490 500 SC 20 20 10 1 AAAH C 2002 3019 1 6 0.3 490 500 SC 20 10 10 1 A L L B PSSS 2002 3019 1 7 0.1 490 500 SC 10 10 10 1 AAAU SG

140 Table B.1: Continued. Year PD FS Count Weight (g) Easting Northing Collection type Length (mm) Width (mm) Thickness (mm) Flake Broken Flake Frag Flake Shatter Bifacial tool Unifacial Tool Expedient Tool Core Other Fauna Coverage Marine Cortex Cortex Dorsal Staining Black Black-gray White-gray White Brown Red-brown Yellow-brown Yellow Pink Corroded 2002 3019 3 1 0.05 490 500 SC 20 10 10 1 NNNN 2002 3020 2 1 12.4 490 500 SC 40 30 20 1 NNNN 2002 3020 2 2 11.2 490 500 SC 40 30 10 1 NNNN 2002 3020 2 3 1.2 490 500 SC 20 10 10 1 NNNN 2002 3021 1 1 6.9 480 500 SC 40 30 10 1 LLLHPSSP 2002 3021 1 2 5.3 480 500 SC 40 30 10 1 LAAH PPSSS 2002 3021 1 4 1.1 480 500 SC 20 20 10 1 L A A H H H P 2002 3021 1 5 0.4 480 500 SC 20 20 10 1 AAAH MP P 2002 3021 1 6 0.4 480 500 SC 20 10 10 1 AAABGP 2002 3021 4 3 1.5 480 500 SC 20 10 10 1 NNNN 2002 3021 7 1 1.0 480 500 SC 30 20 10 1 NNNN 2002 3021 7 2 1.0 480 500 SC 20 10 10 1 NNNN 2002 3021 7 3 1.0 480 500 SC 10 10 10 1 NNNN 2002 3021 7 4 1.0 480 500 SC 10 10 10 1 NNNN 2002 3021 7 5 1.0 480 500 SC 10 10 10 1 NNNN 2002 3021 7 6 1.0 480 500 SC 10 10 10 1 NNNN 2002 3022 2 1 0.3 480 500 SC 10 10 10 1 NNNN 2002 3023 1 1 10.1 470 500 SC 70 20 10 1 LAAH PSPSPPP 2002 3023 1 2 3.8 470 500 SC 30 30 10 1 L A A B P M P P 2002 3024 1 1 0.5 460 500 SC 30 10 10 1 A A A B P M P 2002 3025 1 1 9.7 440 500 SC 40 30 20 1 A L L H SSSPP P 2002 3026 1 1 21.5 430 500 SC 70 30 20 1 1 L A A B P H P P P S 2002 3026 1 2 0.05 430 500 SC 10 10 10 1 A A A B C 2002 3026 4 3 0.05 430 500 SC 10 10 10 1 NNNN 2002 3028 1 1 86.9 510 500 SC 90 50 30 1 LAAHPPSHPPP 2002 3028 1 2 24.2 510 500 SC 40 30 30 1 L A A C P H S P S 2002 3028 1 3 4.9 510 500 SC 40 30 10 1 AAABPHPP 2002 3028 1 4 1.9 510 500 SC 30 20 10 1 AAABPPPPPPH 2002 3029 5 1 11.0 510 500 SC 60 30 20 1 NNNN 2002 3030 1 1 12.4 520 500 SC 40 30 20 1 L H C B P PPSSP 2002 3031 2 1 0.5 520 500 SC 10 10 10 1 NNNN 2002 3032 1 1 12.6 530 500 SC 60 40 10 1 LAABHSSP 2002 3033 1 1 151.8 540 500 SC 100 60 40 1 L A A H S S S S

141 Table B.1: Continued. Year PD FS Count Weight (g) Easting Northing Collection type Length (mm) Width (mm) Thickness (mm) Flake Broken Flake Frag Flake Shatter Bifacial tool Unifacial Tool Expedient Tool Core Other Fauna Coverage Marine Cortex Cortex Dorsal Staining Black Black-gray White-gray White Brown Red-brown Yellow-brown Yellow Pink Corroded 2002 3033 1 2 0.7 550 500 SC 30 20 10 1 A A A B P S P S S 2002 3034 1 1 76.6 499.79 437 IF 80 60 20 1 1 AAAU S S S P 2002 3035 1 1 58.2 468.34 487.75 IF 90 60 20 1 L A A M SPPSPSP 2002 3036 1 1 124.1 538.85 499.85 IF 100 80 30 1 LAABSPSSPP 2002 3037 1 1 15.6 482 500.17 IF 50 40 10 1 L A A H SSSPP 2002 3038 1 1 10.5 504.5 500.2 IF 70 30 10 1 A A A B M P S 2002 3039 1 1 14.8 484.3 500.6 IF 60 40 10 1 LAAUPSSPS 2002 3040 1 1 322.3 510.2 501.9 IF 140 70 60 1 L A A M SSPSPP 2002 3041 1 1 42.8 483.2 503.8 IF 90 40 20 1 L A A B S M P P P 2002 3042 1 1 39.0 480 510 SC 50 50 20 1 AAAUP P PMP P 2002 3042 1 2 26.1 480 510 SC 40 40 30 1 L L L C P P M S 2002 3042 1 3 14.8 480 510 SC 40 30 20 1 L A A B P S PSSPP 2002 3042 1 4 11.8 480 510 SC 50 40 20 1 L L L C SPPPSPP S 2002 3042 1 5 11.0 480 510 SC 40 40 10 1 LHMBHPPSP 2002 3042 1 6 3.3 480 510 SC 30 30 10 1 A A A B S P S H P 2002 3042 1 7 1.4 480 510 SC 30 20 10 1 A H M H P S S S 2002 3042 1 8 1.0 480 510 SC 30 20 10 1 AAABHPPS 2002 3042 1 9 0.1 480 510 SC 20 10 10 1 A A A B S S S S 2002 3042 1 10 0.1 480 510 SC 10 10 10 1 AAAU MS 2002 3042 1 11 0.1 480 510 SC 10 10 10 1 A A A B P H S S 2002 3043 1 1 0.5 480 520 SC 20 20 10 1 A A A M H S S 2002 3043 1 2 0.1 480 520 SC 20 10 10 1 A A A M PSPP S 2002 3043 1 3 0.1 480 520 SC 10 10 10 1 A A A B P S H 2002 3043 1 4 0.05 480 520 SC 10 10 10 1 AAAU C 2002 3043 1 5 0.05 480 520 SC 10 10 10 1 AAAU SG 2002 3044 2 1 2.4 480 530 SC 40 10 10 1 NNNN 2002 3045 1 1 0.9 480 550 SC 30 20 10 1 A A A B PPSS S 2002 3046 1 1 49.3 489 490 SC 90 50 20 1 LLMHHPSPS 2002 3046 1 2 47.7 489 490 SC 60 40 20 1 L L L M P P S P H P P 2002 3046 1 3 23.4 489 490 SC 80 70 10 1 LLHH PSSPPSP P 2002 3046 1 5 16.5 489 490 SC 50 30 20 1 1 L L L H S P P P H 2002 3046 1 6 7.5 489 490 SC 50 20 10 1 L L L H P M P 2002 3046 1 7 2.1 489 490 SC 30 20 10 1 L A A B C

142 Table B.1: Continued. Year PD FS Count Weight (g) Easting Northing Collection type Length (mm) Width (mm) Thickness (mm) Flake Broken Flake Frag Flake Shatter Bifacial tool Unifacial Tool Expedient Tool Core Other Fauna Coverage Marine Cortex Cortex Dorsal Staining Black Black-gray White-gray White Brown Red-brown Yellow-brown Yellow Pink Corroded 2002 3046 1 8 1.9 489 490 SC 40 30 10 1 AAABPSPSP 2002 3046 1 9 1.5 489 490 SC 20 20 10 1 A A A B P P P M P 2002 3046 1 10 1.3 489 490 SC 20 20 10 1 AAAH HH 2002 3046 1 11 0.7 489 490 SC 20 10 10 1 A A A B M S 2002 3046 1 12 0.4 489 490 SC 20 10 10 1 AAAU P PM 2002 3046 4 4 20.1 489 490 SC 70 50 10 1 NNNN 2002 3047 3 1 13.4 489 490 SC 50 30 20 1 NNNN 2002 3047 3 2 0.2 489 490 SC 10 10 10 1 NNNN 2002 3047 3 3 0.1 489 490 SC 10 10 10 1 NNNN 2002 3047 5 1 4.7 489 490 SC 50 30 10 1 NNNN 2002 3048 1 1 91.2 490 480 SC 70 60 30 1 L M C M S S P 2002 3048 1 2 30.3 490 480 SC 50 50 20 1 L L L B S P S S 2002 3048 1 3 13.8 490 480 SC 60 40 10 1 LLHMPP PSSS 2002 3048 1 4 11.6 490 480 SC 50 40 20 1 LLHHSPPS 2002 3048 1 5 6.2 490 480 SC 30 30 20 1 A L L U C 2002 3048 1 6 6.1 490 480 SC 40 30 10 1 LAABPSSP 2002 3048 1 7 5.8 490 480 SC 50 30 10 1 LHMBPMPP 2002 3048 1 8 4.9 490 480 SC 30 30 10 1 LAABPSSPS 2002 3048 1 9 3.3 490 480 SC 60 20 10 1 AAABSSPSP 2002 3048 1 10 1.4 490 480 SC 30 20 10 1 1 A A A B PPSPSSP 2002 3048 1 11 0.6 490 480 SC 20 20 10 1 A A A M PSPP SP 2002 3048 1 12 0.5 490 480 SC 20 20 10 1 A A A B S P P M 2002 3048 1 13 0.4 490 480 SC 20 20 10 1 AAABMH 2002 3048 1 14 0.2 490 480 SC 20 20 10 1 AAAHPSSS 2002 3048 1 15 0.2 490 480 SC 20 10 10 1 AAAU PG 2002 3049 2 1 8.8 490 480 SC 50 30 10 1 NNNN 2002 3049 2 2 0.4 490 480 SC 10 10 10 1 NNNN 2002 3049 4 1 1.1 490 480 SC 20 20 10 1 NNNN 2002 3050 1 1 169.9 489 470 SC 80 80 40 1 LHMHPM PPPPP 2002 3050 1 2 78.4 489 470 SC 100 60 30 1 LLLH PSSPPPP S 2002 3050 1 3 23.2 489 470 SC 40 30 30 1 LLLM SSPP PPP 2002 3050 1 4 20.8 489 470 SC 80 40 20 1 AAAHPSSPSPP P 2002 3050 1 5 5.0 489 470 SC 40 30 10 1 AAABSSP PPPP

143 Table B.1: Continued. Year PD FS Count Weight (g) Easting Northing Collection type Length (mm) Width (mm) Thickness (mm) Flake Broken Flake Frag Flake Shatter Bifacial tool Unifacial Tool Expedient Tool Core Other Fauna Coverage Marine Cortex Cortex Dorsal Staining Black Black-gray White-gray White Brown Red-brown Yellow-brown Yellow Pink Corroded 2002 3050 1 6 3.1 489 470 SC 30 30 10 1 AAAU P SM 2002 3050 1 7 1.8 489 470 SC 30 20 10 1 AAAH P S P P H 2002 3050 1 8 0.9 489 470 SC 30 20 10 1 A H M H P P S P P P 2002 3050 1 9 0.8 489 470 SC 20 20 10 1 A A A B M P P 2002 3050 1 10 0.7 489 470 SC 20 20 10 1 AAAHP HP P P H 2002 3050 1 11 0.3 489 470 SC 20 10 10 1 A A A B P S P P 2002 3051 1 2 1.6 489 460 SC 30 20 10 1 LLLH PSSS P 2002 3051 1 3 0.6 489 460 SC 10 10 10 1 A A A B P H S P 2002 3051 1 4 0.4 489 460 SC 20 10 10 1 AAAH GP 2002 3051 1 5 0.4 489 460 SC 20 20 10 1 AAAHPHHP 2002 3051 4 1 34.1 489 460 SC 50 40 30 1 NNNN 2002 3051 4 6 0.2 489 460 SC 20 20 10 1 NNNN 2002 3052 1 1 8.3 489 450 SC 40 30 20 1 LAAB SSSPPP P 2002 3053 5 1 2.3 489 450 SC 30 20 10 1 NNNN 2002 3053 5 2 1.2 489 450 SC 20 20 10 1 NNNN 2002 3054 1 1 69.8 470 490 SC 70 60 20 1 L A A B P M P P P P 2002 3054 1 2 56.0 470 490 SC 70 40 30 1 L L L B S M P P P 2002 3054 1 3 26.8 470 490 SC 60 50 10 1 L A A U S S S P 2002 3054 1 4 22.3 470 490 SC 80 40 20 1 LAAHHPPP 2002 3054 1 5 11.7 470 490 SC 50 30 20 1 1 L L L B SSSP 2002 3054 1 6 9.5 470 490 SC 60 20 10 1 ALLBSSP PPPPP 2002 3054 1 7 8.6 470 490 SC 50 30 10 1 AAAHPMS 2002 3054 1 8 6.6 470 490 SC 40 30 10 1 1 A A A B SSPP PP 2002 3054 1 9 4.1 470 490 SC 40 30 10 1 AAAHPSSPPS P 2002 3054 1 10 4.2 470 490 SC 60 20 10 1 1 AAAHP S S S P 2002 3054 1 11 2.9 470 490 SC 30 30 10 1 A A A B S M P 2002 3054 1 13 1.1 470 490 SC 30 20 10 1 A A A B M S P 2002 3054 1 14 1.0 470 490 SC 30 20 10 1 AAABH SPPP 2002 3054 1 15 0.2 470 490 SC 20 10 10 1 AAAU S S S S 2002 3054 1 16 0.1 470 490 SC 10 10 10 1 A A A B P S S S 2002 3054 2 12 2.0 470 490 SC 20 20 10 1 NNNN 2002 3055 2 1 57.9 470 490 SC 80 30 20 1 NNNN 2002 3055 2 2 49.0 470 490 SC 70 40 20 1 NNNN

144 Table B.1: Continued. Year PD FS Count Weight (g) Easting Northing Collection type Length (mm) Width (mm) Thickness (mm) Flake Broken Flake Frag Flake Shatter Bifacial tool Unifacial Tool Expedient Tool Core Other Fauna Coverage Marine Cortex Cortex Dorsal Staining Black Black-gray White-gray White Brown Red-brown Yellow-brown Yellow Pink Corroded 2002 3055 2 3 30.3 470 490 SC 70 40 20 1 NNNN 2002 3055 2 4 19.7 470 490 SC 60 20 20 1 NNNN 2002 3055 2 5 3.6 470 490 SC 40 10 10 1 NNNN 2002 3056 1 1 23.3 470 480 SC 70 40 20 1 LAABPMPPPP 2002 3056 1 2 5.3 470 480 SC 40 30 10 1 AAAH PSPPS S 2002 3056 1 3 4.5 470 480 SC 40 30 10 1 ALLBPH PPSP 2002 3056 1 4 4.3 470 480 SC 30 20 10 1 A L M B SPPS S 2002 3056 1 5 2.7 470 480 SC 30 20 10 1 A L H B P P S S S 2002 3056 1 6 0.05 470 480 SC 10 10 10 1 A A A B C 2002 3057 2 1 0.4 470 480 SC 20 10 10 1 NNNN 2002 3058 1 1 4.1 450 490 SC 40 30 10 1 LAAM SPPPSP P 2002 3059 1 1 3.0 450 480 SC 30 20 10 1 A L L B SSPS P 2002 3060 1 1 6.9 450 460 SC 40 20 10 1 L A A H S S S 2002 3060 1 2 4.2 450 460 SC 50 30 10 1 LAAH PSSSPP P 2002 3060 1 3 2.6 450 460 SC 30 30 10 1 AAAU PGP 2002 3060 1 4 0.2 450 460 SC 10 10 10 1 A A A B H H 2002 3061 1 1 579.1 496.6 450 IF 110 110 70 1 L L L H P H PSSPPPP 2002 3062 1 1 5.1 449.9 451 IF 40 30 10 1 LAAM PPSSPSPPP 2002 3063 4 1 132.1 501.82 451.3 IF 120 60 30 1 NNNN 2002 3064 1 1 9.2 490 464.8 IF 40 30 10 1 L A A B PPPPPPSSP 2002 3065 1 1 5.4 449.3 467.8 IF 50 20 10 1 L A A B P M P 2002 3066 1 1 4.1 449 468 IF 40 30 10 1 A A A B P H PPPPP P 2002 3067 1 1 50.5 491.3 482 IF 70 60 20 1 L A A B P M PPPPP 2002 3068 1 1 19.1 484 498.52 IF 70 40 20 1 L A A H S S P P S 2002 3068 1 2 13.7 484 498.52 IF 60 30 10 1 A A A B S S S P 2002 3069 1 1 45.2 466 485.5 IF 90 50 20 1 L A A H H SSSP 2002 3070 2 1 124.2 500 488 IF 110 40 20 1 NNNN 2002 3071 1 1 18.7 469.62 490.2 IF 60 50 10 1 1 L A A B S M P P P 2002 3071 1 2 8.8 469.62 490.2 IF 40 40 10 1 A A A B S S S 2002 3072 1 1 116.1 466.45 483.55 IF 100 50 30 1 A L L H S H PPPPP P 2002 3073 2 1 220.3 480.8 499.43 IF 140 110 30 1 NNNN 2002 3074 1 1 10.1 460.3 510.4 IF 40 30 10 1 L A A B SSSPPPP 2002 3075 1 1 35.1 463.3 520 IF 90 40 20 1 L A A M PSSPPPPPP

145 Table B.1: Continued. Year PD FS Count Weight (g) Easting Northing Collection type Length (mm) Width (mm) Thickness (mm) Flake Broken Flake Frag Flake Shatter Bifacial tool Unifacial Tool Expedient Tool Core Other Fauna Coverage Marine Cortex Cortex Dorsal Staining Black Black-gray White-gray White Brown Red-brown Yellow-brown Yellow Pink Corroded 2002 3076 1 1 220.3 480.22 526.6 IF 140 110 30 1 LHMHPHHPPP 2002 3077 1 1 8.8 479.06 526.6 IF 40 30 10 1 L A A B S S S 2002 3078 1 1 21.0 499 501 SC 90 30 20 1 1 L A A H P H H P 2002 3078 1 2 13.1 499 501 SC 60 40 10 1 L L L B PSSP P 2002 3078 1 3 10.6 499 501 SC 40 30 20 1 A L L U S M P 2002 3078 1 4 8.9 499 501 SC 50 40 10 1 LAAHHH PPPP 2002 3078 1 5 1.3 499 501 SC 30 20 10 1 A L L H SPSS P 2002 3078 1 6 0.8 499 501 SC 20 20 10 1 AAAB SSSP P 2002 3078 1 7 0.6 499 501 SC 20 10 10 1 L A A B P P S M 2002 3078 1 8 0.5 499 501 SC 30 20 10 1 AAAH HH 2002 3079 3 1 1.4 499 501 SC 40 10 10 1 NNNN 2002 3079 5 1 13.0 501 499 SC 80 50 10 1 NNNN 2002 3079 5 2 0.2 501 499 SC 20 20 10 1 NNNN 2003 3000 5 1 2.9 450 540 SC 30 30 10 1 NNNN 2003 3001 5 1 1.4 450 530 SC 40 20 10 1 NNNN 2003 3002 5 1 0.6 450 510 SC 60 40 20 1 NNNN 2003 3003 1 1 27.2 450 500 SC 40 40 20 1 L L M H SSPSPP 2003 3003 1 2 21.4 450 500 SC 50 20 20 1 L L M B S S P S P 2003 3004 1 1 40.4 460 450 SC 70 40 30 1 L L L H P H S P P 2003 3004 1 2 9.1 460 450 SC 50 50 10 1 1 AAAUPSPP PS 2003 3004 1 3 7.9 460 450 SC 40 40 10 1 HAABHSPP 2003 3005 1 1 6.9 460 470 SC 50 40 10 1 AAABSHSP 2003 3006 4 1 25.9 460 470 SC 50 40 30 1 NNNN 2003 3007 1 1 19.6 460 480 SC 60 50 10 1 L L L U SSSS 2003 3007 1 2 7.7 460 480 SC 40 30 10 1 1 A A A B S M P 2003 3007 1 3 5.5 460 480 SC 40 40 10 1 LMMBSSPSP 2003 3007 1 4 1.8 460 480 SC 20 20 10 1 AAAHM S 2003 3007 1 5 1.1 460 480 SC 30 20 10 1 AAAH HH 2003 3008 2 1 19.4 460 499 SC 40 30 20 1 NNNN 2003 3008 2 2 5.1 460 499 SC 40 20 10 1 NNNN 2003 3008 2 3 1.6 460 499 SC 20 20 10 1 NNNN 2003 3009 1 1 15.9 460.2 466.05 IF 60 40 10 1 1 A A A B S S S 2003 3010 1 1 154.4 480 470 SC 130 60 40 1 L L M H M S

146 Table B.1: Continued. Year PD FS Count Weight (g) Easting Northing Collection type Length (mm) Width (mm) Thickness (mm) Flake Broken Flake Frag Flake Shatter Bifacial tool Unifacial Tool Expedient Tool Core Other Fauna Coverage Marine Cortex Cortex Dorsal Staining Black Black-gray White-gray White Brown Red-brown Yellow-brown Yellow Pink Corroded 2003 3010 1 2 112.3 480 470 SC 80 70 30 1 LAAHH SPPPPP 2003 3010 1 3 1.0 480 470 SC 30 20 10 1 A L L H 2003 3011 1 1 0.7 480 480 SC 20 20 10 1 AAAHSSPS P 2003 3011 1 2 1.0 480 480 SC 30 10 10 1 A L L M S P S S P P S 2003 3011 1 3 0.8 480 480 SC 20 20 10 1 AAAHSSSP P 2003 3012 4 1 11.0 480 480 SC 50 30 20 1 NNNN 2003 3012 4 2 6.4 480 480 SC 30 20 20 1 NNNN 2003 3012 4 3 1.7 480 480 SC 20 20 10 1 NNNN 2003 3013 1 1 101.2 480 490 SC 60 60 40 1 L L L B S S S P 2003 3013 1 2 33.2 480 490 SC 80 50 20 1 LLLUSSSPS 2003 3013 1 3 19.7 480 490 SC 50 40 20 1 MAAUPSSSPP 2003 3013 1 4 13.0 480 490 SC 50 40 10 1 ALLUPSHPSH 2003 3013 1 5 7.6 480 490 SC 40 30 10 1 AAAU P S P P P 2003 3013 1 6 7.3 480 490 SC 40 40 10 1 LAAHHSPP 2003 3013 1 7 4.3 480 490 SC 40 40 10 1 LAAUSSPP 2003 3013 1 8 4.0 480 490 SC 40 20 10 1 AAAHSSPP S 2003 3013 1 9 3.6 480 490 SC 40 20 10 1 A M M B H H P 2003 3013 1 10 2.8 480 490 SC 30 30 10 1 AAAHSMP P 2003 3013 1 11 2.3 480 490 SC 40 30 10 1 AAAH HS P 2003 3013 1 12 2.2 480 490 SC 30 30 10 1 AAAHPMP P 2003 3013 1 13 2.1 480 490 SC 30 20 10 1 LLHHH PPSP P P 2003 3013 1 14 1.8 480 490 SC 30 20 10 1 ALLUPSSPSP 2003 3013 1 15 1.5 480 490 SC 20 20 10 1 A A A B P H H 2003 3013 1 16 1.4 480 490 SC 30 20 10 1 AAAU GP 2003 3013 1 17 1.2 480 490 SC 30 20 10 1 AAABM PPPP 2003 3013 1 18 1.0 480 490 SC 20 20 10 1 A A A B SSSPP 2003 3013 1 19 1.1 480 490 SC 30 20 10 1 AAAHPHP S 2003 3013 1 20 0.8 480 490 SC 20 20 10 1 A A A B SSSPPP 2003 3013 1 21 0.7 480 490 SC 20 20 10 1 AAAU PM P 2003 3013 1 22 0.7 480 490 SC 20 20 10 1 A A A M P SPSSP 2003 3013 1 23 0.6 480 490 SC 20 20 10 1 A A A B PPSPPSSP 2003 3013 1 24 0.4 480 490 SC 20 20 10 1 A A A B M H 2003 3013 1 25 0.4 480 490 SC 20 10 10 1 AAAMPPPSSSP

147 Table B.1: Continued. Year PD FS Count Weight (g) Easting Northing Collection type Length (mm) Width (mm) Thickness (mm) Flake Broken Flake Frag Flake Shatter Bifacial tool Unifacial Tool Expedient Tool Core Other Fauna Coverage Marine Cortex Cortex Dorsal Staining Black Black-gray White-gray White Brown Red-brown Yellow-brown Yellow Pink Corroded 2003 3013 1 26 0.4 480 490 SC 20 10 10 1 AAAHPHHP 2003 3013 1 27 0.3 480 490 SC 20 10 10 1 AAABSMP 2003 3013 1 28 0.2 480 490 SC 20 10 10 1 AAAU HH P P 2003 3014 2 1 16.9 480 490 SC 40 30 20 1 NNNN 2003 3014 2 2 8.2 480 490 SC 40 30 10 1 NNNN 2003 3014 2 3 5.4 480 490 SC 30 20 10 1 NNNN 2003 3014 2 4 6.4 480 490 SC 50 20 10 1 NNNN 2003 3014 2 5 1.6 480 490 SC 20 20 10 1 NNNN 2003 3014 2 6 1.3 480 490 SC 20 20 10 1 NNNN 2003 3014 2 7 1.3 480 490 SC 20 10 10 1 NNNN 2003 3015 1 1 211.6 480 499 SC 100 70 50 1 L A A H PPSPPPPPS 2003 3015 1 2 7.4 480 499 SC 40 30 10 1 1 L A A H SPSP PS 2003 3015 1 3 6.0 480 499 SC 40 30 10 1 A L L H P H P P P 2003 3015 1 4 4.3 480 499 SC 30 30 10 1 1 AAAU PHHP P P 2003 3015 1 5 3.1 480 499 SC 40 30 10 1 L A A H P H H P 2003 3015 1 6 2.6 480 499 SC 50 20 10 1 1 AAAH HH P P 2003 3015 1 7 1.9 480 499 SC 30 20 10 1 L A A U P P S S S 2003 3015 1 8 1.8 480 499 SC 30 20 10 1 AAAHS P P S P S 2003 3015 1 9 1.7 480 499 SC 30 30 10 1 A L L U P S P S S 2003 3015 1 10 1.5 480 499 SC 20 20 10 1 AAAH HH 2003 3015 1 11 1.2 480 499 SC 30 20 10 1 AAAMSHPSPP 2003 3015 1 13 0.7 480 499 SC 20 20 10 1 A A A B P S M P 2003 3015 1 14 0.6 480 499 SC 30 20 10 1 AAAU S S P P S 2003 3015 1 15 0.6 480 499 SC 20 20 10 1 A A A B C 2003 3015 1 16 0.6 480 499 SC 20 20 10 1 AAAH SSPS P 2003 3015 1 17 0.3 480 499 SC 20 10 10 1 AAAB SSSP 2003 3015 2 12 0.7 480 499 SC 20 10 10 1 NNNN 2003 3016 2 1 32.4 480 499 SC 70 30 20 1 NNNN 2003 3016 2 2 14.4 480 499 SC 40 30 20 1 NNNN 2003 3016 2 3 9.4 480 499 SC 30 30 10 1 NNNN 2003 3017 2 1 0.2 480 499 SC 20 10 10 1 NNNN 2003 3018 4 1 17.7 480 499 SC 50 50 20 1 NNNN 2003 3019 1 1 22.9 480 499 SC 70 40 20 1 L A A M P S P H P P

148 Table B.1: Continued. Year PD FS Count Weight (g) Easting Northing Collection type Length (mm) Width (mm) Thickness (mm) Flake Broken Flake Frag Flake Shatter Bifacial tool Unifacial Tool Expedient Tool Core Other Fauna Coverage Marine Cortex Cortex Dorsal Staining Black Black-gray White-gray White Brown Red-brown Yellow-brown Yellow Pink Corroded 2003 3020 1 1 53.4 490.2 499.8 IF 100 50 20 1 LLLHPHHPPP 2003 3021 1 1 4.3 470 550 SC 40 20 10 1 AAAHSPSPPSPP 2003 3022 5 1 0.7 470 550 SC 30 30 10 1 NNNN 2003 3022 5 2 1.4 470 550 SC 30 20 20 1 NNNN 2003 3023 4 1 45.1 470 550 SC 60 50 30 1 NNNN 2003 3024 1 1 2.3 470 540 SC 30 20 10 1 AAABMSPP 2003 3024 1 2 0.3 470 540 SC 10 10 10 1 A H C B M P S 2003 3025 1 1 4.1 470 530 SC 40 30 10 1 A A A M S P P M P P 2003 3025 1 2 0.7 470 530 SC 30 20 10 1 A A A B M PPPPP 2003 3026 1 1 34.1 470 520 SC 60 40 20 1 L L H U PSSS P 2003 3026 1 2 9.5 470 520 SC 50 40 10 1 LAAB SSSPPP 2003 3026 1 3 2.3 470 520 SC 40 20 10 1 AAABHSSP 2003 3026 1 4 0.9 470 520 SC 30 20 10 1 AAAUPHSPPP 2003 3026 1 5 0.6 470 520 SC 30 20 10 1 AAABMSPP 2003 3026 1 6 0.2 470 520 SC 10 10 10 1 A A A B S H P S 2003 3027 4 1 4.9 470 520 SC 30 30 20 1 NNNN 2003 3027 4 2 0.7 470 520 SC 20 10 10 1 NNNN 2003 3028 1 1 4.9 470 510 SC 30 30 20 1 AHCU PSPSPP 2003 3028 1 2 3.0 470 510 SC 40 20 10 1 AAAUP S S P P S 2003 3028 1 3 2.5 470 510 SC 40 20 10 1 AAAUPPPSPM 2003 3028 1 5 0.8 470 510 SC 20 20 10 1 AAAU PHP P P 2003 3028 2 4 1.6 470 510 SC 30 20 10 1 NNNN 2003 3029 2 1 8.8 470 510 SC 40 30 10 1 NNNN 2003 3029 2 2 4.1 470 510 SC 30 20 10 1 NNNN 2003 3030 DISCARDED 470 510 2003 3031 1 1 11.3 470 505 IF 50 30 10 1 LAAHPHSPP 2003 3032 1 1 16.5 470 500 SC 70 50 10 1 L L H C P P S S S 2003 3032 1 2 5.9 470 500 SC 60 20 10 1 AAAHPSSPPP 2003 3033 4 1 14.4 470 500 SC 40 40 20 1 NNNN 2003 3034 1 1 9.3 488 500.2 IF 50 30 10 1 HLLB SSSP P 2003 3035 1 1 0.3 490 550 SC 20 10 10 1 A A A B P PSSPP 2003 3036 1 1 31.1 490 537.6 IF 50 50 20 1 LLHBHSSPP 2003 3037 1 1 18.2 490 530 SC 40 30 20 1 L L H B M P P P

149 Table B.1: Continued. Year PD FS Count Weight (g) Easting Northing Collection type Length (mm) Width (mm) Thickness (mm) Flake Broken Flake Frag Flake Shatter Bifacial tool Unifacial Tool Expedient Tool Core Other Fauna Coverage Marine Cortex Cortex Dorsal Staining Black Black-gray White-gray White Brown Red-brown Yellow-brown Yellow Pink Corroded 2003 3037 1 2 3.9 490 530 SC 30 20 10 1 L A A B M SPPP 2003 3037 1 3 3.8 490 530 SC 30 20 10 1 AAAH HSPPP 2003 3037 1 4 3.5 490 530 SC 40 20 10 1 AAAUPSPPSS P 2003 3037 1 5 1.6 490 530 SC 30 20 10 1 LAAM SSPP PP 2003 3037 1 6 0.7 490 530 SC 30 20 10 1 AAAH SSPP S 2003 3037 1 7 0.5 490 530 SC 20 10 10 1 A A A B M P P P 2003 3037 1 8 0.5 490 530 SC 20 10 10 1 AAABPSHP 2003 3037 1 9 0.4 490 530 SC 20 10 10 1 AAAU S S P S 2003 3037 1 10 0.3 490 530 SC 10 10 10 1 AAAH MS 2003 3037 1 11 0.2 490 530 SC 20 10 10 1 A A A B H S P P 2003 3037 1 12 0.3 490 530 SC 20 10 10 1 A A A M P H H P 2003 3037 1 13 0.1 490 530 SC 20 10 10 1 AAAH M P 2003 3038 2 1 1.2 490 530 SC 20 10 10 1 NNNN 2003 3039 1 1 4.3 489 520 SC 40 30 10 1 L H M U P P M S P 2003 3039 1 2 3.4 489 520 SC 40 30 10 1 A A A B P P S PPSPS 2003 3039 1 3 2.1 489 520 SC 40 30 10 1 AAABSSPS 2003 3039 1 4 1.9 489 520 SC 20 20 10 1 AAAU MS 2003 3039 1 5 1.0 489 520 SC 20 20 10 1 AAAHPMS P P 2003 3039 1 6 0.4 489 520 SC 20 10 10 1 AAABPSPHS 2003 3039 1 7 0.2 489 520 SC 20 10 10 1 A A A B PSSSP 2003 3039 1 8 0.2 489 520 SC 20 20 10 1 AAAH HP P H 2003 3039 1 9 0.6 489 520 SC 20 20 10 1 A H M B M P P P P 2003 3040 DISCARDED 489 520 2003 3041 5 1 5.8 489 520 SC 60 40 10 1 NNNN 2003 3042 1 1 79.6 489.3 506.65 IF 70 60 30 1 L A A B P M S P P 2003 3043 1 1 83.8 510.2 527.2 IF 100 50 30 1 L A A H PSSPSP P 2003 3044 1 1 27.8 490 510 SC 80 50 10 1 L A A H S P H PPPPPP 2003 3044 1 2 3.2 490 510 SC 40 30 10 1 A L L U PPSSSP P 2003 3044 1 3 3.2 490 510 SC 30 30 10 1 AAABHHPP 2003 3044 1 4 1.5 490 510 SC 30 20 10 1 AAABPPSPPHP 2003 3044 1 5 0.3 490 510 SC 20 10 10 1 A A A M S P P S S P 2003 3045 2 1 1.3 490 510 SC 40 20 10 1 NNNN 2003 3046 4 1 14.7 490 510 SC 40 40 20 1 NNNN

150 Table B.1: Continued. Year PD FS Count Weight (g) Easting Northing Collection type Length (mm) Width (mm) Thickness (mm) Flake Broken Flake Frag Flake Shatter Bifacial tool Unifacial Tool Expedient Tool Core Other Fauna Coverage Marine Cortex Cortex Dorsal Staining Black Black-gray White-gray White Brown Red-brown Yellow-brown Yellow Pink Corroded 2003 3046 4 2 3.9 490 510 SC 30 30 10 1 NNNN 2003 3047 1 1 22.2 490 500 SC 70 60 10 1 LAAB PSSPPP P 2003 3047 1 2 12.7 490 500 SC 40 40 20 1 LAABPHHP 2003 3047 1 3 7.5 490 500 SC 50 40 10 1 AAAH PSPSSPP 2003 3047 1 4 6.8 490 500 SC 40 40 10 1 LAAB PSSPPP P 2003 3047 1 5 9.1 490 500 SC 40 30 20 1 A L L M S H S P P 2003 3047 1 6 1.2 490 500 SC 30 20 10 1 AAAH P P S S P 2003 3047 1 7 0.9 490 500 SC 30 20 10 1 A A A B SSPS PPP 2003 3047 1 8 0.3 490 500 SC 20 10 10 1 AAAH PPPSSS 2003 3048 2 1 3.4 490 500 SC 30 20 10 1 NNNN 2003 3048 2 2 1.3 490 500 SC 20 20 10 1 NNNN 2003 3049 5 1 10.9 490 500 SC 70 60 20 1 NNNN 2003 3049 5 2 2.5 490 500 SC 40 30 10 1 NNNN 2003 3049 5 3 3.0 490 500 SC 40 30 10 1 NNNN 2003 3050 1 1 17.4 490 500 SC 50 50 10 1 AAAH HP P H P P 2003 3051 1 1 6.0 510 550 SC 40 30 10 1 AAABPHHP 2003 3051 1 2 0.9 510 550 SC 40 20 10 1 AAAU S S S P 2003 3051 1 3 0.8 510 550 SC 20 20 10 1 AAABHHPPP 2003 3051 1 4 0.4 510 550 SC 20 20 10 1 A A A B P S P H P P 2003 3052 2 1 18.7 510 550 SC 50 30 20 1 NNNN 2003 3052 2 2 2.1 510 550 SC 30 20 10 1 NNNN 2003 3053 5 1 14.1 510 550 SC 80 50 20 1 NNNN 2003 3053 5 2 15.7 510 550 SC 70 50 20 1 NNNN 2003 3053 5 3 11.6 510 550 SC 60 40 10 1 NNNN 2003 3053 5 4 5.2 510 550 SC 60 30 10 1 NNNN 2003 3054 1 1 0.3 510 540 SC 20 20 10 1 AAAH HP S 2003 3055 2 1 4.0 510 540 SC 30 20 10 1 NNNN 2003 3056 1 1 53.5 510 530 SC 60 60 20 1 L L H B P H P P P P 2003 3057 4 1 4.1 510 520 SC 30 20 10 1 NNNN 2003 3057 4 2 1.9 510 520 SC 20 20 10 1 NNNN 2003 3058 1 1 2.1 510 510 SC 40 20 10 1 ALLBSMPP 2003 3058 1 2 0.1 510 510 SC 20 10 10 1 AAAU P PM 2003 3059 1 1 21.2 510 500 SC 50 40 20 1 L A A B S H PPPPPP

151 Table B.1: Continued. Year PD FS Count Weight (g) Easting Northing Collection type Length (mm) Width (mm) Thickness (mm) Flake Broken Flake Frag Flake Shatter Bifacial tool Unifacial Tool Expedient Tool Core Other Fauna Coverage Marine Cortex Cortex Dorsal Staining Black Black-gray White-gray White Brown Red-brown Yellow-brown Yellow Pink Corroded 2003 3059 1 2 8.0 510 500 SC 40 30 10 1 AAABMPPPP 2003 3060 4 1 20.3 510 450 SC 80 30 20 1 NNNN 2003 3060 4 2 12.6 510 450 SC 50 30 20 1 NNNN 2003 3061 1 1 1.6 510 460 SC 20 20 10 1 A A A B SPPPS S P 2003 3062 2 1 1.3 510 460 SC 20 10 10 1 NNNN 2003 3063 5 1 7.8 510 460 SC 50 40 10 1 NNNN 2003 3064 4 1 2.5 510 460 SC 20 20 10 1 NNNN 2003 3065 1 1 0.6 510 470 SC 30 20 10 1 AAAH GP P 2003 3066 4 1 3.3 510 470 SC 30 20 10 1 NNNN 2003 3066 4 2 1.8 510 470 SC 20 20 10 1 NNNN 2003 3066 4 3 0.7 510 470 SC 10 10 10 1 NNNN 2003 3067 1 1 12.2 510 480 SC 50 30 20 1 LAAM PSSPPPPS 2003 3067 1 2 3.4 510 480 SC 30 30 10 1 L A A H PSPPSSP P 2003 3067 1 3 3.3 510 480 SC 30 20 10 1 A H H B S P H P P 2003 3067 1 4 1.3 510 480 SC 20 20 10 1 A A A M P S S P S P 2003 3068 1 2 3.4 510 490 SC 40 20 10 1 A M M B SSSP P 2003 3068 1 3 1.4 510 490 SC 30 20 10 1 L A A M P PPSSSP 2003 3069 2 1 26.4 510 490 SC 60 30 20 1 NNNN 2003 3069 2 2 1.0 510 490 SC 20 10 10 1 NNNN 2003 3071 4 1 32.6 510 499 SC 60 40 20 1 NNNN 2003 3071 4 2 13.8 510 499 SC 50 30 20 1 NNNN 2003 3071 4 3 3.6 510 499 SC 40 20 20 1 NNNN 2003 3072 1 1 14.2 511 499 SC 50 40 20 1 L A A H P M P P P 2003 3073 1 1 35.2 520.9 480.3 IF 90 40 20 1 AAAHPHHP P P 2003 3074 2 1 82.4 520 480 SC 90 50 30 1 NNNN 2003 3075 1 1 13.3 520 499 SC 70 40 10 1 LAAMHSSP 2003 3075 1 2 1.4 520 499 SC 30 20 10 1 A A A B H P P P P 2003 3076 4 1 3.8 520 499 SC 20 20 10 1 NNNN 2003 3076 4 2 2.0 520 499 SC 20 20 10 1 NNNN 2003 3077 1 1 1.0 530 490 SC 20 20 10 1 A A A B P M P P 2003 3078 2 1 1.1 530 490 SC 20 10 10 1 NNNN 2003 3079 1 1 5.9 520 550 SC 30 30 10 1 L L H M PSSSPP 2003 3080 1 1 8.0 520 540 SC 40 20 20 1 A L L B P H S P P

152 Table B.1: Continued. Year PD FS Count Weight (g) Easting Northing Collection type Length (mm) Width (mm) Thickness (mm) Flake Broken Flake Frag Flake Shatter Bifacial tool Unifacial Tool Expedient Tool Core Other Fauna Coverage Marine Cortex Cortex Dorsal Staining Black Black-gray White-gray White Brown Red-brown Yellow-brown Yellow Pink Corroded 2003 3080 1 2 6.3 520 540 SC 40 20 10 1 LAABSPSPPP 2003 3080 1 3 0.6 520 540 SC 20 20 10 1 A A A B M S P 2003 3081 4 1 3.0 520 540 SC 30 20 10 1 NNNN 2003 3082 1 1 5.5 520 530 SC 40 30 10 1 LAAUPMPS 2003 3082 1 2 1.3 520 530 SC 30 20 10 1 AAAB SPPSP PP 2003 3083 4 1 2.8 520 530 SC 20 20 20 1 NNNN 2003 3084 1 1 13.6 520 520 SC 50 40 20 1 L H M B P M P P P 2003 3085 1 1 4.0 520 510 SC 40 30 10 1 1 A A A B H S P P P 2003 3085 1 2 1.0 520 510 SC 20 20 10 1 AAABSM 2003 3085 1 3 0.7 520 510 SC 30 20 10 1 AAAH MP P P P 2003 3086 4 1 2.6 520 510 SC 20 20 10 1 NNNN 2003 3087 1 1 13.1 520 500 SC 60 40 20 1 ALLU SSSPP 2003 3088 DISCARDED 520 500 2003 3089 DISCARDED 520 500 2003 3090 1 1 1.5 530 550 SC 30 20 10 1 AAAUPSSSP P 2003 3090 1 2 1.1 530 550 SC 20 20 10 1 A A A B P P M P 2003 3091 2 1 12.2 530 500 SC 30 20 20 1 NNNN 2003 3092 1 1 103.3 530 540 SC 80 50 40 1 L A A B PSSPSP 2003 3092 1 2 16.4 530 540 SC 40 40 20 1 A L H M P P S S S P 2003 3092 1 3 7.9 530 540 SC 40 30 10 1 A L L M PPSPPPSS 2003 3093 2 1 34.4 530 540 SC 70 40 20 1 NNNN 2003 3093 2 2 32.8 530 540 SC 70 50 10 1 NNNN 2003 3094 1 1 14.1 530 530 SC 50 50 10 1 AAAM PPPPSSP P 2003 3094 1 2 8.2 530 530 SC 50 30 10 1 A A A M P H P P P P 2003 3094 1 3 4.8 530 530 SC 30 20 20 1 L A A B P S S PPPP 2003 3095 4 1 80.4 530 530 SC 100 60 30 1 NNNN 2003 3095 4 2 60.8 530 530 SC 80 60 30 1 NNNN 2003 3096 1 1 42.5 530 520 SC 60 50 20 1 L H H B H S P PPPP P 2003 3096 1 2 12.5 530 520 SC 60 30 20 1 L H M B SSPPSPP 2003 3096 1 3 3.0 530 520 SC 30 20 10 1 A L L H H P P P P 2003 3096 1 4 1.1 530 520 SC 30 20 10 1 A A A B PSSP P 2003 3097 2 1 6.6 530 520 SC 30 20 20 1 NNNN 2003 3098 4 1 38.1 530 520 SC 70 50 20 1 NNNN

153 Table B.1: Continued. Year PD FS Count Weight (g) Easting Northing Collection type Length (mm) Width (mm) Thickness (mm) Flake Broken Flake Frag Flake Shatter Bifacial tool Unifacial Tool Expedient Tool Core Other Fauna Coverage Marine Cortex Cortex Dorsal Staining Black Black-gray White-gray White Brown Red-brown Yellow-brown Yellow Pink Corroded 2003 3099 1 1 2.2 530 510 SC 30 30 10 1 AAAU P S S S P 2003 3100 1 1 14.9 530 500 SC 60 30 10 1 L L L U S S P P P P 2003 3100 1 2 11.9 530 500 SC 40 30 20 1 L A A H S M P 2003 3100 1 3 8.4 530 500 SC 50 40 10 1 L L L M S P P P H M 2003 3100 1 4 4.7 530 500 SC 40 20 10 1 1 A L H B SPPPP S P 2003 3100 1 5 3.0 530 500 SC 30 20 10 1 AHHHPHP S 2003 3100 1 6 0.2 530 500 SC 20 10 10 1 A A A B P P P P S S 2003 3101 5 1 15.4 540 460 SC 100 50 20 1 NNNN 2003 3101 5 2 3.4 540 460 SC 40 40 20 1 NNNN 2003 3102 1 1 1.3 540 480 SC 20 20 10 1 A H C B SSSP 2003 3102 1 2 0.4 540 480 SC 20 10 10 1 A A A B S M PPSPP P 2003 3105 2 2 26.4 540 500 SC 70 30 20 1 NNNN 2003 3106 1 1 10.6 550 470 SC 50 50 10 1 A L L U P P S S P 2003 3106 1 2 0.1 550 470 SC 10 10 10 1 A A A B SSSP 2003 3107 5 1 5.6 550 470 SC 50 40 10 1 NNNN 2003 3108 1 1 4.2 550 480 SC 40 30 10 1 1 A A A B H SPPPP P 2003 3109 1 1 118.1 539.85 541.15 IF 140 50 30 1 L A A M PPPPPHP 2003 3110 1 1 1.4 540 540 SC 30 20 10 1 A A A B M S 2003 3110 1 2 1.1 540 540 SC 20 20 10 1 A A A B M S P 2003 3110 1 3 0.4 540 540 SC 20 20 10 1 A A A B SSPPPPP 2003 3110 1 4 0.3 540 540 SC 10 10 10 1 AAAU PHP S 2003 3112 1 1 25.5 540 530 SC 80 50 20 1 LHMBHS PPPP 2003 3112 1 2 2.1 540 530 SC 20 20 10 1 AAABSSPS 2003 3113 2 1 13.4 540 530 SC 40 30 20 1 NNNN 2003 3114 1 1 1.1 540 520 SC 30 20 10 1 A A A B P H P P P 2003 3114 1 2 0.5 540 520 SC 20 20 10 1 A A A B C 2003 3115 2 1 0.4 540 520 SC 10 10 10 1 NNNN 2003 3116 1 1 14.4 540 510 SC 50 30 20 1 LLLBSSP PPPP 2003 3116 1 2 2.4 540 510 SC 30 20 10 1 AMMBPSSP 2003 3117 4 1 10.0 540 510 SC 40 40 20 1 NNNN 2003 3118 1 4 5.8 540 500 SC 40 40 10 1 AAAHPSSPSPP P 2003 3118 1 1 67.7 540 500 SC 70 50 40 1 LHMBPSPSPP 2003 3118 1 2 1.4 540 500 SC 30 20 10 1 1 A A A B S M P P

154 Table B.1: Continued. Year PD FS Count Weight (g) Easting Northing Collection type Length (mm) Width (mm) Thickness (mm) Flake Broken Flake Frag Flake Shatter Bifacial tool Unifacial Tool Expedient Tool Core Other Fauna Coverage Marine Cortex Cortex Dorsal Staining Black Black-gray White-gray White Brown Red-brown Yellow-brown Yellow Pink Corroded 2003 3118 1 3 0.3 540 500 SC 20 10 10 1 A A A B H H 2003 3119 4 1 1.5 540 500 SC 20 20 10 1 NNNN 2003 3120 1 1 609.2 550.15 547.15 IF 170 130 60 1 LHHBPHSSPPP 2003 3121 1 1 1.5 550 540 SC 30 20 10 1 AAAHPHP S P P 2003 3122 4 1 35.2 550 540 SC 50 50 30 1 NNNN 2003 3122 4 2 8.1 550 540 SC 40 20 20 1 NNNN 2003 3123 1 2 0.1 550 530 SC 10 10 10 1 AAAHSSSPP 2003 3124 1 1 15.8 550 520 SC 50 30 20 1 L L H U S M P 2003 3124 1 2 0.3 550 520 SC 20 10 10 1 A A A B H H 2003 3125 1 1 0.05 550 510 SC 10 10 10 1 A A A B C 2003 3126 1 1 116.8 497 499.5 HF 110 60 30 1 LLLUPPSH PPPPP 2003 3126 1 2 57.4 497 499.5 HF 90 50 30 1 LLLMSPSPPS 2003 3126 1 3 4.0 497 499.5 HF 30 30 10 1 A A A B H S S P 2003 3126 1 4 3.5 497 499.5 HF 30 30 10 1 A L L H H H P 2003 3126 1 5 3.3 497 499.5 HF 30 20 10 1 A L L H PSSSP 2003 3126 1 6 3.2 497 499.5 HF 40 20 10 1 AHMBSSSPP 2003 3126 1 7 3.0 497 499.5 HF 40 20 10 1 AAABHSSP 2003 3126 1 8 2.8 497 499.5 HF 40 30 10 1 AHHBPHSPP 2003 3126 1 9 2.7 497 499.5 HF 30 30 10 1 AAAHSSSPP P 2003 3126 1 10 1.6 497 499.5 HF 30 20 10 1 ALLBH PSPPPP 2003 3126 1 11 1.5 497 499.5 HF 30 20 10 1 AAAHSSPSPSP 2003 3126 1 12 1.4 497 499.5 HF 30 30 10 1 AAAHPSPPSPP 2003 3126 1 13 1.4 497 499.5 HF 30 20 10 1 AAAU SHS 2003 3126 1 14 1.2 497 499.5 HF 30 20 10 1 A A A B SSSS 2003 3126 1 15 1.1 497 499.5 HF 30 20 10 1 AAABH PPPP 2003 3126 1 16 1.0 497 499.5 HF 20 20 10 1 ALLBMPPP 2003 3126 1 17 0.9 497 499.5 HF 30 20 10 1 A A A M P P H PSPP 2003 3126 1 18 0.9 497 499.5 HF 20 20 10 1 AAAH MS P 2003 3126 1 19 0.8 497 499.5 HF 20 20 10 1 AAABSHSP 2003 3126 1 20 0.5 497 499.5 HF 20 10 10 1 AAAU HHP 2003 3126 1 21 0.5 497 499.5 HF 20 20 10 1 A L L H P H H P 2003 3126 1 22 0.5 497 499.5 HF 20 20 10 1 A A A B S H P P P 2003 3126 1 23 0.3 497 499.5 HF 20 20 10 1 A A A B P P H P P P

155 Table B.1: Continued. Year PD FS Count Weight (g) Easting Northing Collection type Length (mm) Width (mm) Thickness (mm) Flake Broken Flake Frag Flake Shatter Bifacial tool Unifacial Tool Expedient Tool Core Other Fauna Coverage Marine Cortex Cortex Dorsal Staining Black Black-gray White-gray White Brown Red-brown Yellow-brown Yellow Pink Corroded 2003 3126 1 24 0.3 497 499.5 HF 20 20 10 1 AAAU SH P P P 2003 3126 1 25 0.3 497 499.5 HF 20 10 10 1 A A A B M P P S 2003 3126 1 26 0.4 497 499.5 HF 20 20 10 1 AAAH H S P P 2003 3126 1 27 0.2 497 499.5 HF 20 10 10 1 AAAU PHH 2003 3127 2 1 3.7 497 499.5 HF 30 10 10 1 NNNN 2003 3127 2 2 3.3 497 499.5 HF 40 20 10 1 NNNN 2003 3127 2 3 1.4 497 499.5 HF 20 20 10 1 NNNN 2003 3127 2 4 1.0 497 499.5 HF 20 10 10 1 NNNN 2003 3128 5 1 18.1 497 499.5 HF 80 50 20 1 NNNN 2003 3128 5 2 17.3 497 499.5 HF 70 40 30 1 NNNN 2003 3128 5 3 8.7 497 499.5 HF 60 40 20 1 NNNN 2003 3128 5 4 9.8 497 499.5 HF 60 40 20 1 NNNN 2003 3128 5 5 8.9 497 499.5 HF 70 40 20 1 NNNN 2003 3128 5 6 5.7 497 499.5 HF 50 30 20 1 NNNN 2003 3128 5 7 5.8 497 499.5 HF 60 40 20 1 NNNN 2003 3128 5 8 3.9 497 499.5 HF 50 30 20 1 NNNN 2003 3128 5 9 8.0 497 499.5 HF 60 30 10 1 NNNN 2003 3128 5 10 0.9 497 499.5 HF 30 20 10 1 NNNN 2003 3129 4 1 26.3 497 499.5 HF 50 40 30 1 NNNN 2003 3129 4 2 15.0 497 499.5 HF 30 20 20 1 NNNN 2003 3129 4 3 3.9 497 499.5 HF 30 20 10 1 NNNN 2003 3130 1 1 6.2 497 499.5 HF 30 30 20 1 AAAU HHP 2003 3130 1 2 5.4 497 499.5 HF 40 40 10 1 LAAH PSPSPSP P 2003 3130 1 3 3.2 497 499.5 HF 30 30 10 1 A L L B S M P P 2003 3130 1 4 2.7 497 499.5 HF 30 30 10 1 AAAH GP P 2003 3130 1 5 2.6 497 499.5 HF 40 30 10 1 AAAU H H 2003 3130 1 6 2.7 497 499.5 HF 40 20 10 1 AAAH S MP 2003 3130 1 7 2.4 497 499.5 HF 40 20 10 1 AAAH SHS 2003 3130 1 8 2.5 497 499.5 HF 40 20 10 1 AAAHPHP P P S 2003 3130 1 9 2.4 497 499.5 HF 30 30 10 1 AAAU SSPPPPP 2003 3130 1 10 2.0 497 499.5 HF 30 30 10 1 AAAB SSSPP P 2003 3130 1 11 2.0 497 499.5 HF 30 20 10 1 AAAHPSPPPPS 2003 3130 1 12 1.8 497 499.5 HF 30 20 10 1 AAAU PPPPHHP

156 Table B.1: Continued. Year PD FS Count Weight (g) Easting Northing Collection type Length (mm) Width (mm) Thickness (mm) Flake Broken Flake Frag Flake Shatter Bifacial tool Unifacial Tool Expedient Tool Core Other Fauna Coverage Marine Cortex Cortex Dorsal Staining Black Black-gray White-gray White Brown Red-brown Yellow-brown Yellow Pink Corroded 2003 3130 1 13 1.7 497 499.5 HF 30 20 10 1 AAAUP P PM 2003 3130 1 14 1.6 497 499.5 HF 30 20 10 1 A A A B S S P SPPP 2003 3130 1 15 1.4 497 499.5 HF 20 20 10 1 A A A B H H 2003 3130 1 16 1.5 497 499.5 HF 30 10 10 1 A A A B P G P 2003 3130 1 17 1.2 497 499.5 HF 30 20 10 1 AAAU S S S S P 2003 3130 1 18 1.1 497 499.5 HF 20 20 10 1 A L L H SSSPP 2003 3130 1 19 0.9 497 499.5 HF 20 20 10 1 A A A B SSSPP 2003 3130 1 20 0.7 497 499.5 HF 20 20 10 1 AAAU P S S S 2003 3130 1 21 0.6 497 499.5 HF 20 20 10 1 AAAH S SSSS 2003 3130 1 22 0.5 497 499.5 HF 30 20 10 1 A A A B M P 2003 3130 1 23 0.5 497 499.5 HF 20 20 10 1 A A A B S S H 2003 3130 1 24 0.6 497 499.5 HF 20 20 10 1 AAAH H H 2003 3130 1 25 0.5 497 499.5 HF 20 10 10 1 AAAH H H 2003 3130 1 26 0.5 497 499.5 HF 20 10 10 1 AAAHS S S 2003 3130 1 27 0.5 497 499.5 HF 20 10 10 1 A A A B H H P 2003 3130 1 28 0.4 497 499.5 HF 20 10 10 1 A A A B C P 2003 3130 1 29 0.3 497 499.5 HF 20 10 10 1 AAAU S P PSSP P 2003 3130 1 30 0.4 497 499.5 HF 20 10 10 1 AAABMPP 2003 3130 1 31 0.3 497 499.5 HF 20 10 10 1 AAAHHHP P P 2003 3130 1 32 0.3 497 499.5 HF 20 10 10 1 AAAU S S H 2003 3130 1 33 0.2 497 499.5 HF 10 10 10 1 AAAU MP 2003 3130 1 34 0.2 497 499.5 HF 10 10 10 1 A A A B S S P S P P 2003 3130 1 35 0.2 497 499.5 HF 20 10 10 1 A L L U S S S S 2003 3130 1 36 0.2 497 499.5 HF 10 10 10 1 AAAHS M P 2003 3130 1 37 0.05 497 499.5 HF 10 10 10 1 AAAH MP P P 2003 3131 2 1 2.3 497 499.5 HF 30 10 10 1 NNNN 2003 3131 2 2 0.4 497 499.5 HF 20 10 10 1 NNNN 2003 3131 2 3 0.3 497 499.5 HF 20 10 10 1 NNNN 2003 3132 5 1 12.4 497 499.5 HF 70 70 20 1 NNNN 2003 3132 5 2 10.2 497 499.5 HF 60 40 20 1 NNNN 2003 3132 5 3 2.3 497 499.5 HF 40 30 10 1 NNNN 2003 3132 5 4 5.6 497 499.5 HF 50 40 10 1 NNNN 2003 3132 5 5 2.6 497 499.5 HF 50 30 10 1 NNNN

157 Table B.1: Continued. Year PD FS Count Weight (g) Easting Northing Collection type Length (mm) Width (mm) Thickness (mm) Flake Broken Flake Frag Flake Shatter Bifacial tool Unifacial Tool Expedient Tool Core Other Fauna Coverage Marine Cortex Cortex Dorsal Staining Black Black-gray White-gray White Brown Red-brown Yellow-brown Yellow Pink Corroded 2003 3132 5 6 1.7 497 499.5 HF 40 20 10 1 NNNN 2003 3132 5 7 1.0 497 499.5 HF 40 20 10 1 NNNN 2003 3132 5 8 1.5 497 499.5 HF 40 20 10 1 NNNN 2003 3132 5 9 1.6 497 499.5 HF 40 20 10 1 NNNN 2003 3132 5 10 0.9 497 499.5 HF 30 20 10 1 NNNN 2003 3133 4 1 60.2 497 499.5 HF 60 40 30 1 NNNN 2003 3133 4 2 27.2 497 499.5 HF 50 50 20 1 NNNN 2003 3133 4 3 17.5 497 499.5 HF 40 30 20 1 NNNN 2003 3134 6 1 222.3 497 499.5 HF 0 0 0 1 NNNN 2003 3135 5 1 23.3 497 499.5 HF 90 50 30 1 NNNN 2003 3135 5 2 13.3 497 499.5 HF 70 40 20 1 NNNN 2003 3135 5 3 12.6 497 499.5 HF 80 40 20 1 NNNN 2003 3135 5 4 11.1 497 499.5 HF 60 40 20 1 NNNN 2003 3135 5 5 12.0 497 499.5 HF 80 40 20 1 NNNN 2003 3135 5 6 6.7 497 499.5 HF 70 30 10 1 NNNN 2003 3135 5 7 6.7 497 499.5 HF 60 30 10 1 NNNN 2003 3135 5 8 5.5 497 499.5 HF 40 30 20 1 NNNN 2003 3135 5 9 5.3 497 499.5 HF 50 30 20 1 NNNN 2003 3135 5 10 2.7 497 499.5 HF 40 30 10 1 NNNN 2003 3135 5 11 5.2 497 499.5 HF 50 30 20 1 NNNN 2003 3135 5 12 5.4 497 499.5 HF 50 40 10 1 NNNN 2003 3135 5 13 2.7 497 499.5 HF 30 30 10 1 NNNN 2003 3135 5 14 1.5 497 499.5 HF 30 20 10 1 NNNN 2003 3135 5 15 1.9 497 499.5 HF 40 20 10 1 NNNN 2003 3135 5 16 0.8 497 499.5 HF 30 20 10 1 NNNN 2003 3135 5 17 0.2 497 499.5 HF 30 20 10 1 NNNN 2003 3136 1 1 18.8 492.9 499.25 HF 70 40 20 1 AAAU PMS 2003 3136 1 2 18.4 492.9 499.25 HF 40 40 20 1 ALLUSSPPS 2003 3136 1 3 10.8 492.9 499.25 HF 60 40 10 1 AAAUPSSS P 2003 3136 1 4 5.3 492.9 499.25 HF 40 30 10 1 ALLUPMS 2003 3136 1 5 2.4 492.9 499.25 HF 30 20 10 1 A L H B SSSP P 2003 3136 1 6 2.1 492.9 499.25 HF 30 20 10 1 AAAU PG 2003 3136 1 7 1.6 492.9 499.25 HF 30 20 10 1 AAAU P S S P S

158 Table B.1: Continued. Year PD FS Count Weight (g) Easting Northing Collection type Length (mm) Width (mm) Thickness (mm) Flake Broken Flake Frag Flake Shatter Bifacial tool Unifacial Tool Expedient Tool Core Other Fauna Coverage Marine Cortex Cortex Dorsal Staining Black Black-gray White-gray White Brown Red-brown Yellow-brown Yellow Pink Corroded 2003 3136 1 8 1.2 492.9 499.25 HF 20 20 10 1 AAAU P S S P S 2003 3136 1 9 1.2 492.9 499.25 HF 30 20 10 1 AAAU SMP 2003 3136 1 10 0.9 492.9 499.25 HF 20 20 10 1 AAAU SMP P 2003 3137 5 1 3.2 492.9 499.25 HF 50 30 10 1 NNNN 2003 3137 5 2 1.7 492.9 499.25 HF 30 20 10 1 NNNN 2003 3138 6 1 113.7 492.9 499.25 HF 0 0 0 1 NNNN 2003 3139 5 1 15.8 492.9 499.25 HF 60 60 30 1 NNNN 2003 3139 5 2 9.2 492.9 499.25 HF 70 60 20 1 NNNN 2003 3139 5 3 3.4 492.9 499.25 HF 50 40 20 1 NNNN 2003 3139 5 4 2.2 492.9 499.25 HF 50 40 10 1 NNNN 2003 3139 5 5 5.7 492.9 499.25 HF 50 30 10 1 NNNN 2003 3140 1 1 163.7 492.9 499.25 HF 90 50 40 1 LLHH PPSSPSP P 2003 3140 1 2 120.2 492.9 499.25 HF 90 70 30 1 A L L H H H P 2003 3140 1 3 81.5 492.9 499.25 HF 70 60 30 1 LMMB SSSP PP 2003 3140 1 4 71.9 492.9 499.25 HF 80 60 20 1 L A A U P H PSPP P 2003 3140 1 5 55.1 492.9 499.25 HF 70 50 20 1 AAAU PGP P P 2003 3140 1 6 54.8 492.9 499.25 HF 100 40 20 1 A L L B SSPPS PP 2003 3140 1 7 37.2 492.9 499.25 HF 60 50 20 1 LLHHM PPPP P 2003 3140 1 8 33.3 492.9 499.25 HF 60 40 20 1 L A A B S H P P P 2003 3140 1 9 22.5 492.9 499.25 HF 60 60 10 1 LAAH PSPPPPSS 2003 3140 1 10 17.9 492.9 499.25 HF 50 50 20 1 LLLUPSSSPPP 2003 3140 1 11 17.7 492.9 499.25 HF 60 40 20 1 LLLHHPPPP 2003 3140 1 12 15.7 492.9 499.25 HF 40 40 20 1 LLMUPPHSPP 2003 3140 1 13 13.0 492.9 499.25 HF 80 30 10 1 AAAH MS 2003 3140 1 14 11.8 492.9 499.25 HF 50 30 20 1 A A A B S H P P 2003 3140 1 15 11.0 492.9 499.25 HF 50 40 20 1 1 L A A B S H P P P P 2003 3140 1 16 10.9 492.9 499.25 HF 50 40 10 1 AAAU S S P S P 2003 3140 1 17 10.9 492.9 499.25 HF 50 40 10 1 L M C B M P P 2003 3140 1 18 9.1 492.9 499.25 HF 50 40 10 1 L L L B SSSP 2003 3140 1 19 7.9 492.9 499.25 HF 40 40 10 1 L A A B H H P P 2003 3140 1 20 7.5 492.9 499.25 HF 50 30 10 1 A L L H PPSPHPPP P 2003 3140 1 21 7.3 492.9 499.25 HF 30 30 10 1 AAABSHPPPPP 2003 3140 1 22 5.3 492.9 499.25 HF 40 30 10 1 1 A A A B P M P P P P

159 Table B.1: Continued. Year PD FS Count Weight (g) Easting Northing Collection type Length (mm) Width (mm) Thickness (mm) Flake Broken Flake Frag Flake Shatter Bifacial tool Unifacial Tool Expedient Tool Core Other Fauna Coverage Marine Cortex Cortex Dorsal Staining Black Black-gray White-gray White Brown Red-brown Yellow-brown Yellow Pink Corroded 2003 3140 1 23 4.6 492.9 499.25 HF 30 30 10 1 A L L B SSSPP PP 2003 3140 1 24 4.6 492.9 499.25 HF 40 30 10 1 AAABPHHPP 2003 3140 1 25 4.2 492.9 499.25 HF 40 40 10 1 LAAH SSPSP 2003 3140 1 26 4.3 492.9 499.25 HF 30 20 10 1 ALLH SSPP 2003 3140 1 27 3.9 492.9 499.25 HF 40 30 10 1 AAAH PPPS S P 2003 3140 1 28 3.7 492.9 499.25 HF 40 30 10 1 AAAHSSPSP P 2003 3140 1 29 3.6 492.9 499.25 HF 40 30 10 1 A H C H P H H P 2003 3140 1 30 3.5 492.9 499.25 HF 30 30 10 1 AAAHS P PHS 2003 3140 1 31 3.3 492.9 499.25 HF 30 30 10 1 AAAHPHS P P 2003 3140 1 32 3.3 492.9 499.25 HF 30 30 10 1 A A A B SSPP PS 2003 3140 1 33 3.3 492.9 499.25 HF 40 30 10 1 ALLBPHPSPP 2003 3140 1 34 3.2 492.9 499.25 HF 30 30 10 1 AAAHPSSP P 2003 3140 1 35 3.2 492.9 499.25 HF 30 20 10 1 A A A B S P P P S P 2003 3140 1 36 3.0 492.9 499.25 HF 30 20 10 1 AAAH S S P P 2003 3140 1 37 2.9 492.9 499.25 HF 30 30 10 1 AAABPHPPPP 2003 3140 1 38 2.8 492.9 499.25 HF 30 30 10 1 ALLBSSSPP 2003 3140 1 39 2.8 492.9 499.25 HF 40 30 10 1 1 AAAHPSSP SP 2003 3140 1 40 2.8 492.9 499.25 HF 40 30 10 1 AAAHSSSS 2003 3140 1 41 2.6 492.9 499.25 HF 40 30 10 1 AAAH H P S S 2003 3140 1 42 2.6 492.9 499.25 HF 30 30 10 1 AAAHS PMP 2003 3140 1 43 2.4 492.9 499.25 HF 40 20 10 1 AAAH MP P P 2003 3140 1 44 2.4 492.9 499.25 HF 40 20 10 1 ALLBPH PPPP 2003 3140 1 45 2.2 492.9 499.25 HF 40 20 10 1 LHMHPPPHPP 2003 3140 1 46 2.2 492.9 499.25 HF 30 30 10 1 AAAH MS P P 2003 3140 1 47 2.2 492.9 499.25 HF 30 30 10 1 AAAU MS P 2003 3140 1 48 2.1 492.9 499.25 HF 30 30 10 1 AAAB SSSP 2003 3140 1 49 2.1 492.9 499.25 HF 30 20 10 1 AAAH GP P P 2003 3140 1 50 2.1 492.9 499.25 HF 30 20 10 1 A A A B S M P 2003 3140 1 51 2.1 492.9 499.25 HF 30 30 10 1 AAAH HHP 2003 3140 1 52 2.1 492.9 499.25 HF 30 30 10 1 AAAHPHHP 2003 3140 1 53 2.1 492.9 499.25 HF 30 30 10 1 AAAHPHS P P 2003 3140 1 54 2.0 492.9 499.25 HF 30 20 10 1 A A A B H SPPP 2003 3140 1 55 2.0 492.9 499.25 HF 30 30 10 1 AAAH SHP P

160 Table B.1: Continued. Year PD FS Count Weight (g) Easting Northing Collection type Length (mm) Width (mm) Thickness (mm) Flake Broken Flake Frag Flake Shatter Bifacial tool Unifacial Tool Expedient Tool Core Other Fauna Coverage Marine Cortex Cortex Dorsal Staining Black Black-gray White-gray White Brown Red-brown Yellow-brown Yellow Pink Corroded 2003 3140 1 56 1.8 492.9 499.25 HF 30 30 10 1 AAAUPSSPPPPP 2003 3140 1 57 1.9 492.9 499.25 HF 40 20 10 1 AAAB PSSP PP 2003 3140 1 58 1.9 492.9 499.25 HF 40 20 10 1 ALLHPHPSP 2003 3140 1 59 1.9 492.9 499.25 HF 30 20 10 1 ALLB SPSPPSP 2003 3140 1 60 1.7 492.9 499.25 HF 20 20 10 1 A A A B P M P P 2003 3140 1 61 1.8 492.9 499.25 HF 30 30 10 1 AHMBPMPP 2003 3140 1 62 1.8 492.9 499.25 HF 30 30 10 1 A L L U P M P P P P 2003 3140 1 63 1.8 492.9 499.25 HF 30 20 10 1 AAAH MP P P P 2003 3140 1 64 1.7 492.9 499.25 HF 30 20 10 1 A A A B M P P P 2003 3140 1 65 1.7 492.9 499.25 HF 30 20 10 1 ALLBMPSP 2003 3140 1 66 1.7 492.9 499.25 HF 30 30 10 1 AAABMPSP 2003 3140 1 67 1.7 492.9 499.25 HF 40 20 10 1 AAAHPHHP P 2003 3140 1 68 1.6 492.9 499.25 HF 30 20 10 1 AAAU SM P 2003 3140 1 69 1.6 492.9 499.25 HF 30 20 10 1 A H H B SSSP 2003 3140 1 70 1.6 492.9 499.25 HF 30 30 10 1 A L L H P H S P P 2003 3140 1 71 1.5 492.9 499.25 HF 30 20 10 1 AAAHPMP P P 2003 3140 1 72 1.5 492.9 499.25 HF 30 20 10 1 AAAHP P SH P P P 2003 3140 1 73 1.5 492.9 499.25 HF 30 20 10 1 A L L H PPPPSPSP 2003 3140 1 74 1.3 492.9 499.25 HF 20 20 10 1 ALLH PPPPSSSP 2003 3140 1 75 1.4 492.9 499.25 HF 20 20 10 1 A L L U PSSPPP 2003 3140 1 76 1.3 492.9 499.25 HF 30 20 10 1 A A A B S P P SPSP 2003 3140 1 77 1.1 492.9 499.25 HF 30 20 10 1 A A A B P M P 2003 3140 1 78 0.9 492.9 499.25 HF 30 20 10 1 ALLBMPPSP 2003 3140 1 79 1.0 492.9 499.25 HF 30 20 10 1 A A A B P H P P P P 2003 3140 1 80 1.0 492.9 499.25 HF 20 20 10 1 ALLBPHPSPP 2003 3140 1 81 0.9 492.9 499.25 HF 30 20 10 1 AAAB PSPS SP 2003 3140 1 82 0.8 492.9 499.25 HF 20 20 10 1 A A A B H H P 2003 3140 1 83 0.8 492.9 499.25 HF 20 20 10 1 A A A B P M S P 2003 3140 1 84 0.8 492.9 499.25 HF 30 20 10 1 AAABPMPS 2003 3140 1 85 0.7 492.9 499.25 HF 20 20 10 1 AAAU HHP 2003 3140 1 86 0.7 492.9 499.25 HF 20 20 10 1 AAABPSSSP 2003 3140 1 87 0.7 492.9 499.25 HF 20 20 10 1 AAAUP S S S 2003 3140 1 88 0.6 492.9 499.25 HF 20 20 10 1 AAABSP SPSP

161 Table B.1: Continued. Year PD FS Count Weight (g) Easting Northing Collection type Length (mm) Width (mm) Thickness (mm) Flake Broken Flake Frag Flake Shatter Bifacial tool Unifacial Tool Expedient Tool Core Other Fauna Coverage Marine Cortex Cortex Dorsal Staining Black Black-gray White-gray White Brown Red-brown Yellow-brown Yellow Pink Corroded 2003 3140 1 89 0.6 492.9 499.25 HF 20 20 10 1 AAAH HH 2003 3140 1 90 0.5 492.9 499.25 HF 30 20 10 1 AAAHP S S P P P 2003 3140 1 91 0.4 492.9 499.25 HF 20 20 10 1 AAAHPHS P P 2003 3140 1 92 0.4 492.9 499.25 HF 20 20 10 1 AAAB SSSP 2003 3140 1 93 0.4 492.9 499.25 HF 20 20 10 1 A A A B M S 2003 3140 1 94 0.3 492.9 499.25 HF 20 20 10 1 A A A B P P M S P 2003 3140 1 95 0.3 492.9 499.25 HF 10 10 10 1 AAAH H S S 2003 3141 2 1 2.2 492.9 499.25 HF 30 20 10 1 NNNN 2003 3141 2 2 7.0 492.9 499.25 HF 20 20 20 1 NNNN 2003 3141 2 3 6.6 492.9 499.25 HF 20 20 20 1 NNNN 2003 3141 2 4 3.9 492.9 499.25 HF 20 20 10 1 NNNN 2003 3141 2 5 1.0 492.9 499.25 HF 30 10 10 1 NNNN 2003 3141 2 6 1.3 492.9 499.25 HF 20 20 10 1 NNNN 2003 3141 2 7 2.8 492.9 499.25 HF 30 20 10 1 NNNN 2003 3141 2 8 8.7 492.9 499.25 HF 30 30 10 1 NNNN 2003 3141 2 9 1.3 492.9 499.25 HF 20 20 10 1 NNNN 2003 3142 1 1 56.9 515.8 501.95 HF 80 50 20 1 L A A B P M PPPPP P 2003 3143 1 1 29.0 460 490 SC 60 50 20 1 LAAMPMPPPP 2003 3143 1 2 10.3 460 490 SC 40 40 20 1 LLLBHPPPSP 2003 3143 1 3 1.2 460 490 SC 20 20 10 1 AAAB SSSP 2003 3143 1 4 0.6 460 490 SC 20 20 10 1 AAAH MS 2003 3144 2 1 14.1 510 480 SC 40 20 20 1 NNNN 2004 3000 1 1 8.9 490 510 HF 40 40 10 1 A L L M P S S S P 2004 3000 1 2 6.5 490 510 HF 40 40 10 1 ALLBHSPPP 2004 3000 1 3 5.1 490 510 HF 40 30 10 1 1 AAAHPHP P S 2004 3000 1 4 3.5 490 510 HF 40 20 10 1 A L L H M P P 2004 3000 1 5 2.3 490 510 HF 30 30 10 1 AAAU MP P P 2004 3000 1 6 1.1 490 510 HF 20 20 10 1 A L L H SPSSP 2004 3000 1 7 1.1 490 510 HF 20 10 10 1 AHHHPHS P 2004 3000 1 8 0.6 490 510 HF 30 20 10 1 AAAMSHPPP 2004 3000 1 9 0.8 490 510 HF 20 20 10 1 AAAU HP P P 2004 3000 1 10 0.7 490 510 HF 30 20 10 1 A A A M PSSP PSP 2004 3000 1 12 1.0 490 510 HF 30 20 10 1 AAAUP P SM

162 Table B.1: Continued. Year PD FS Count Weight (g) Easting Northing Collection type Length (mm) Width (mm) Thickness (mm) Flake Broken Flake Frag Flake Shatter Bifacial tool Unifacial Tool Expedient Tool Core Other Fauna Coverage Marine Cortex Cortex Dorsal Staining Black Black-gray White-gray White Brown Red-brown Yellow-brown Yellow Pink Corroded 2004 3000 1 13 0.6 490 510 HF 20 20 10 1 AAAU HPH 2004 3000 1 14 0.7 490 510 HF 20 20 10 1 AAAH GP P 2004 3000 1 15 0.5 490 510 HF 20 20 10 1 A A A B G P P 2004 3000 1 16 0.4 490 510 HF 20 10 10 1 A L L U S H S P 2004 3000 1 17 0.3 490 510 HF 20 10 10 1 A L L B SSSS 2004 3000 1 18 0.6 490 510 HF 30 20 10 1 A A A B PSSP PS 2004 3000 1 19 0.5 490 510 HF 20 20 10 1 AAAH S P P S S 2004 3000 1 20 0.3 490 510 HF 20 10 10 1 A A A B P H P P H 2004 3000 1 21 0.2 490 510 HF 20 20 10 1 A A A B P M S 2004 3000 1 22 0.4 490 510 HF 20 10 10 1 A L L B P G P 2004 3000 1 23 0.4 490 510 HF 20 10 10 1 ALLBSM 2004 3000 1 24 0.3 490 510 HF 20 10 10 1 AAAH P S S P S 2004 3000 1 25 0.3 490 510 HF 20 10 10 1 AAAUPMP 2004 3000 1 26 0.2 490 510 HF 10 10 10 1 A A A B P G P P P 2004 3000 1 27 0.2 490 510 HF 20 10 10 1 A A A B S H P P P 2004 3000 4 11 1.1 490 510 HF 20 20 10 1 NNNN 2004 3000 4 28 0.1 490 510 HF 10 10 10 1 NNNN 2004 3001 2 1 20.1 490 510 HF 40 30 20 1 NNNN 2004 3001 2 2 0.4 490 510 HF 20 10 10 1 NNNN 2004 3001 2 3 0.4 490 510 HF 20 10 10 1 NNNN 2004 3002 1 1 10.7 491.25 510 HF 40 40 10 1 LAAUPMPPPP 2004 3002 1 2 7.9 491.25 510 HF 50 30 10 1 LLLUHHPPP 2004 3002 1 3 2.3 491.25 510 HF 40 30 10 1 AAAUPHH P P P 2004 3002 1 4 1.4 491.25 510 HF 30 20 10 1 AAAH C 2004 3002 1 5 1.6 491.25 510 HF 40 20 10 1 AAAHPHH P P P 2004 3002 1 6 0.7 491.25 510 HF 30 20 10 1 A A A B S M P 2004 3002 1 7 0.7 491.25 510 HF 20 20 10 1 A A A B H H 2004 3002 1 8 0.6 491.25 510 HF 20 20 10 1 A A A M P S P H P 2004 3002 1 9 0.6 491.25 510 HF 20 20 10 1 A A A M P H P P S 2004 3002 1 10 1.0 491.25 510 HF 20 20 10 1 A H M H SSSS 2004 3002 1 11 0.5 491.25 510 HF 30 20 10 1 AAABPHP 2004 3002 1 12 0.4 491.25 510 HF 20 10 10 1 A L L B P M P 2004 3003 2 1 3.8 491.25 510 HF 30 20 10 1 NNNN

163 Table B.1: Continued. Year PD FS Count Weight (g) Easting Northing Collection type Length (mm) Width (mm) Thickness (mm) Flake Broken Flake Frag Flake Shatter Bifacial tool Unifacial Tool Expedient Tool Core Other Fauna Coverage Marine Cortex Cortex Dorsal Staining Black Black-gray White-gray White Brown Red-brown Yellow-brown Yellow Pink Corroded 2004 3003 2 2 1.4 491.25 510 HF 30 20 10 1 NNNN 2004 3003 2 3 1.6 491.25 510 HF 20 20 10 1 NNNN 2004 3003 2 4 0.3 491.25 510 HF 10 10 10 1 NNNN 2004 3004 4 1 15.0 491.25 510 HF 50 40 20 1 NNNN 2004 3004 4 2 9.2 491.25 510 HF 30 20 20 1 NNNN 2004 3005 1 1 189.8 490 514 HF 170 90 40 1 LHCMPSPHPP 2004 3005 1 2 10.2 490 514 HF 50 40 10 1 LLLU PPSSPSP 2004 3005 1 3 8.7 490 514 HF 50 40 10 1 LMMUPS SPSPP 2004 3005 1 4 3.6 490 514 HF 40 30 10 1 AAAUPSSPSPPP 2004 3005 1 5 4.6 490 514 HF 40 30 10 1 AAABPHHP 2004 3005 1 6 2.1 490 514 HF 30 20 10 1 ALLBPSHPP 2004 3005 1 7 1.7 490 514 HF 30 20 10 1 A A A B G P 2004 3005 1 8 0.9 490 514 HF 30 20 10 1 AAAU MP 2004 3005 1 9 1.1 490 514 HF 30 30 10 1 AAABPMPP 2004 3005 1 10 0.8 490 514 HF 30 20 10 1 AAAU S S P S S 2004 3005 1 11 0.7 490 514 HF 20 20 10 1 A A A B M P P 2004 3005 1 12 0.6 490 514 HF 20 20 10 1 AAAHPHS P P 2004 3006 2 1 1.8 490 514 HF 20 10 10 1 NNNN 2004 3006 4 2 1.1 490 514 HF 20 10 10 1 NNNN 2004 3007 5 1 0.4 490 514 HF 30 30 10 1 NNNN 2004 3008 1 1 2.3 500 520 HF 30 30 10 1 A A A B S S S P 2004 3008 1 2 0.9 500 520 HF 20 20 10 1 A A A B C 2004 3008 1 3 1.0 500 520 HF 20 20 20 1 A M C U C 2004 3008 1 4 0.3 500 520 HF 20 10 10 1 A A A B P H H P 2004 3008 1 5 0.5 500 520 HF 20 10 10 1 A H M B S H P P 2004 3008 1 6 0.2 500 520 HF 20 10 10 1 AAAH MP 2004 3008 1 7 0.2 500 520 HF 20 10 10 1 AAAU P P PHS 2004 3008 4 8 0.2 500 520 HF 20 10 10 1 NNNN 2004 3009 5 1 1.4 500 520 HF 40 30 10 1 NNNN 2004 3010 1 1 130.7 503 497 HF 100 60 40 1 LHMMPHP SPPPP 2004 3010 1 2 16.7 503 497 HF 60 40 20 1 AAABGP 2004 3010 1 3 1.0 503 497 HF 30 20 10 1 A A A B H P S P P 2004 3011 1 1 10.7 498 500 HF 40 30 20 1 AHMUPSM

164 Table B.1: Continued. Year PD FS Count Weight (g) Easting Northing Collection type Length (mm) Width (mm) Thickness (mm) Flake Broken Flake Frag Flake Shatter Bifacial tool Unifacial Tool Expedient Tool Core Other Fauna Coverage Marine Cortex Cortex Dorsal Staining Black Black-gray White-gray White Brown Red-brown Yellow-brown Yellow Pink Corroded 2004 3011 1 2 1.0 498 500 HF 20 20 10 1 A H C C P P H 2004 3011 1 3 0.3 498 500 HF 20 10 10 1 AAAU P S S S 2004 3012 4 1 4.2 498 500 HF 40 10 10 1 NNNN 2004 3013 4 1 14.5 498 500 HF 50 40 20 1 NNNN 2004 3013 4 2 2.9 498 500 HF 20 20 10 1 NNNN 2004 3014 1 1 10.9 500 496 HF 50 40 10 1 LAAMPSSSPPP 2004 3014 1 2 10.5 500 496 HF 60 30 10 1 LHMBHHPPP 2004 3014 1 3 6.4 500 496 HF 50 30 10 1 LAAHPHSPPP 2004 3014 1 4 6.9 500 496 HF 40 30 10 1 L A A H P H H P P P 2004 3014 1 5 3.6 500 496 HF 40 30 10 1 L A A U S M 2004 3014 1 6 2.2 500 496 HF 30 30 10 1 AAAHP S S S P 2004 3014 1 7 1.2 500 496 HF 20 20 10 1 AAABPMP 2004 3014 1 8 1.1 500 496 HF 20 10 10 1 A L L U P H SPPP P 2004 3014 1 9 0.6 500 496 HF 30 10 10 1 AAAU S P M 2004 3014 1 10 0.5 500 496 HF 20 10 10 1 A A A B S S P P P 2004 3014 1 11 0.3 500 496 HF 20 10 10 1 AAAU S P S S P 2004 3014 1 12 0.2 500 496 HF 30 10 10 1 AAAU MP 2004 3014 1 13 0.2 500 496 HF 20 10 10 1 AAAU HS S S P 2004 3015 1 1 14.3 498 496 HF 50 40 20 1 AAABPMPPP 2004 3015 1 2 2.4 498 496 HF 30 20 10 1 A L L H H H P P P 2004 3015 1 3 1.2 498 496 HF 20 20 10 1 A A A B S M P P 2004 3015 1 4 0.5 498 496 HF 30 20 10 1 AAAUP S P S P P 2004 3015 1 5 0.6 498 496 HF 20 20 10 1 A A A B G P 2004 3015 1 6 1.0 498 496 HF 20 10 10 1 AHMBC 2004 3015 1 7 0.2 498 496 HF 10 10 10 1 A A A B SSSP 2004 3016 1 1 111.1 496 504 HF 110 50 30 1 LLLH SPSPSPP P 2004 3016 1 2 23.8 496 504 HF 60 60 10 1 LLLUPPHSPP 2004 3016 1 3 12.2 496 504 HF 30 30 20 1 L L L B H H P P 2004 3016 1 4 14.4 496 504 HF 50 30 20 1 A H M U P S S S 2004 3016 1 5 5.4 496 504 HF 50 30 10 1 LAABHHPP 2004 3016 1 6 0.4 496 504 HF 20 10 10 1 A A A B G P 2004 3016 1 7 0.3 496 504 HF 20 10 10 1 AHHU GP 2004 3017 DISCARDED 496 504

165 Table B.1: Continued. Year PD FS Count Weight (g) Easting Northing Collection type Length (mm) Width (mm) Thickness (mm) Flake Broken Flake Frag Flake Shatter Bifacial tool Unifacial Tool Expedient Tool Core Other Fauna Coverage Marine Cortex Cortex Dorsal Staining Black Black-gray White-gray White Brown Red-brown Yellow-brown Yellow Pink Corroded 2004 3018 1 1 64.8 495 503.5 HF 70 50 30 1 L A A U P H H P P P 2004 3018 1 2 33.5 495 503.5 HF 60 40 20 1 A L L H P P H P S P 2004 3018 1 3 33.5 495 503.5 HF 50 50 20 1 L A A B SSPPSPP 2004 3018 1 4 40.1 495 503.5 HF 70 30 30 1 LLHCPSSH 2004 3018 1 5 16.5 495 503.5 HF 80 50 10 1 LAAUPHPS 2004 3018 1 6 8.2 495 503.5 HF 40 30 20 1 A L L U M P 2004 3018 1 7 5.6 495 503.5 HF 60 30 10 1 1 AAAU HP P S 2004 3018 1 8 1.7 495 503.5 HF 20 20 10 1 A L L H H P S P 2004 3018 1 9 0.7 495 503.5 HF 30 10 10 1 A A A B G P 2004 3018 1 10 0.5 495 503.5 HF 30 10 10 1 AAAH S M 2004 3018 1 11 0.4 495 503.5 HF 20 10 10 1 AAAU H H 2004 3019 2 1 43.5 495 503.5 HF 70 40 30 1 NNNN 2004 3019 2 2 1.7 495 503.5 HF 20 20 10 1 NNNN 2004 3019 2 3 1.4 495 503.5 HF 20 20 10 1 NNNN 2004 3019 2 4 0.9 495 503.5 HF 20 20 10 1 NNNN 2004 3020 1 1 9.1 494 505 HF 50 40 10 1 AHMHMPSP 2004 3020 1 2 11.2 494 505 HF 50 30 20 1 LHCUPPSH PPPP 2004 3020 1 3 8.4 494 505 HF 40 30 20 1 A H C C PSPSP 2004 3020 1 4 8.1 494 505 HF 30 30 20 1 LLLMPH PPPPSP 2004 3020 1 5 6.7 494 505 HF 40 30 20 1 LLLH PSSPPP 2004 3020 1 6 4.0 494 505 HF 40 30 10 1 L A A H P H S P P 2004 3020 1 7 1.5 494 505 HF 40 30 10 1 1 A L L B M S P P 2004 3020 1 8 5.2 494 505 HF 40 30 20 1 1 A L L H SSPSP 2004 3020 1 9 3.1 494 505 HF 40 30 10 1 AAAU SM 2004 3020 1 10 3.9 494 505 HF 40 30 10 1 LAAUSHPPP 2004 3020 1 11 1.2 494 505 HF 30 20 10 1 AAAH MP P 2004 3020 1 12 1.4 494 505 HF 30 20 10 1 A H M H P P H S 2004 3020 1 13 2.3 494 505 HF 20 20 10 1 A L L H P S S P 2004 3020 1 14 2.5 494 505 HF 30 20 10 1 A A A B SSSP P 2004 3020 1 15 1.9 494 505 HF 30 20 20 1 A L L H P H H P P 2004 3020 1 16 1.5 494 505 HF 20 20 10 1 A H H B H S P 2004 3020 1 17 1.1 494 505 HF 20 20 10 1 AAAU S MP P 2004 3020 1 18 1.1 494 505 HF 20 20 10 1 AAAHPMP S

166 Table B.1: Continued. Year PD FS Count Weight (g) Easting Northing Collection type Length (mm) Width (mm) Thickness (mm) Flake Broken Flake Frag Flake Shatter Bifacial tool Unifacial Tool Expedient Tool Core Other Fauna Coverage Marine Cortex Cortex Dorsal Staining Black Black-gray White-gray White Brown Red-brown Yellow-brown Yellow Pink Corroded 2004 3020 1 19 0.7 494 505 HF 20 20 10 1 AAAH MS 2004 3020 1 21 0.8 494 505 HF 20 10 10 1 A A A B SSPPPPP 2004 3020 1 22 0.7 494 505 HF 20 10 10 1 A L L U H H P P P 2004 3020 1 23 1.0 494 505 HF 30 20 10 1 A A A B P M P P 2004 3020 1 24 0.8 494 505 HF 20 20 10 1 AAAU P P SMP 2004 3020 1 25 0.7 494 505 HF 20 20 10 1 AAABPMS 2004 3020 1 26 0.4 494 505 HF 20 20 10 1 AAAU S P S P 2004 3020 1 27 0.5 494 505 HF 20 20 10 1 L L L U PSSPS 2004 3020 1 28 0.5 494 505 HF 20 20 10 1 AAAU P S S S 2004 3020 1 29 0.9 494 505 HF 20 20 10 1 A H C H P H H P 2004 3020 1 30 1.0 494 505 HF 20 20 10 1 A L H B G P P 2004 3020 1 31 0.4 494 505 HF 20 10 10 1 A L L M H H P 2004 3020 1 32 0.5 494 505 HF 20 20 10 1 AAAU HH 2004 3020 1 33 0.6 494 505 HF 20 10 10 1 A L L U M P P 2004 3020 1 34 0.2 494 505 HF 20 20 10 1 AAAHPMP 2004 3020 4 20 0.8 494 505 HF 20 10 10 1 NNNN 2004 3021 5 1 1.5 494 505 HF 30 20 10 1 NNNN 2004 3022 1 1 1.9 500.2 504.2 IF 30 30 10 1 A L H H P S M P 2004 3023 1 1 4.5 500 501.3 IF 40 30 10 1 LAAHPHSPP 2004 3024 1 1 14.6 500 505 HF 60 30 10 1 L A A B M S P P 2004 3024 1 2 1.6 500 505 HF 30 20 10 1 ALLHPHSPP 2004 3024 1 3 1.3 500 505 HF 30 30 10 1 A A A B C 2004 3024 1 4 1.3 500 505 HF 30 20 10 1 AAAU HSPPP 2004 3024 1 5 0.7 500 505 HF 30 20 10 1 1 AAAU HH P 2004 3024 1 6 0.6 500 505 HF 20 20 10 1 A A A B SSSP 2004 3024 1 7 0.4 500 505 HF 20 20 10 1 AAAB PSSPP 2004 3024 1 8 0.5 500 505 HF 20 20 10 1 AAAUS P P PH P 2004 3024 1 9 0.4 500 505 HF 20 10 10 1 AAAU P P P H H 2004 3024 1 10 0.4 500 505 HF 20 10 10 1 AAAHPPSPP S P 2004 3024 1 11 0.3 500 505 HF 20 10 10 1 AAAHPPSPS S 2004 3024 1 12 0.3 500 505 HF 20 10 10 1 AAAH HHP 2004 3024 1 13 0.1 500 505 HF 10 10 10 1 AAAUPHHP 2004 3025 2 1 1.6 500 505 HF 20 20 10 1 NNNN

167 Table B.1: Continued. Year PD FS Count Weight (g) Easting Northing Collection type Length (mm) Width (mm) Thickness (mm) Flake Broken Flake Frag Flake Shatter Bifacial tool Unifacial Tool Expedient Tool Core Other Fauna Coverage Marine Cortex Cortex Dorsal Staining Black Black-gray White-gray White Brown Red-brown Yellow-brown Yellow Pink Corroded 2004 3025 4 1 12.3 500 505 HF 40 20 20 1 NNNN 2004 3025 4 2 0.4 500 505 HF 20 10 10 1 NNNN 2004 3026 1 1 11.6 499 505 HF 60 40 10 1 L A A H M P P P S 2004 3026 1 2 24.7 499 505 HF 70 50 20 1 L A A U P H PPSPP 2004 3026 1 3 139.8 499 505 HF 100 60 40 1 LLLH PSSPSPP P 2004 3026 1 4 7.9 499 505 HF 50 40 10 1 LAAUPSMP 2004 3026 1 5 1.9 499 505 HF 30 20 10 1 A L L H P H S P 2004 3026 1 6 3.0 499 505 HF 30 30 10 1 LAAHPMSP 2004 3026 1 7 3.1 499 505 HF 40 20 10 1 ALLH PSSS P 2004 3026 1 8 2.2 499 505 HF 30 20 10 1 AAAU SM 2004 3026 1 9 1.9 499 505 HF 20 20 10 1 A L L U P S M 2004 3026 1 10 1.6 499 505 HF 30 20 10 1 AAABMSPPP 2004 3026 1 11 1.0 499 505 HF 20 20 10 1 A L L B P H S S P 2004 3026 1 12 0.5 499 505 HF 20 10 10 1 AAABPHSPS 2004 3026 1 13 0.5 499 505 HF 20 20 10 1 A A A B P M S 2004 3026 1 14 0.1 499 505 HF 10 10 10 1 AAAH HH 2004 3026 1 15 0.3 499 505 HF 20 10 10 1 AAAU P PMP P 2004 3026 1 16 0.0 499 505 HF 10 10 10 1 A A A B C 2004 3027 2 1 42.3 499 505 HF 60 30 30 1 NNNN 2004 3027 2 2 5.5 499 505 HF 20 20 20 1 NNNN 2004 3027 2 3 2.2 499 505 HF 20 20 10 1 NNNN 2004 3027 2 4 0.5 499 505 HF 20 10 10 1 NNNN 2004 3028 2 1 369.2 449.5 499.45 IF 130 70 60 1 NNNN 2004 3029 1 1 5.5 420 466 SC 30 20 20 1 AHMB PSPPPSP 2004 3030 1 1 1.5 420 472 SC 30 20 10 1 AAAHPSSPP 2004 3031 1 1 33.6 420 479.5 SC 80 30 30 1 LLLM SSSPP P 2004 3032 1 1 4.8 420 490 SC 40 30 10 1 L A A B P H S P 2004 3033 1 1 3.1 420 494 SC 30 30 10 1 L H C U H P P 2004 3034 1 1 213.2 419.08 499.23 IF 80 60 60 1 L H L H PSSPSP P 2004 3035 1 1 23.0 492.48 477.74 IF 50 40 20 1 A A A M S P S H P P S 2004 3036 2 1 67.3 492.48 477.74 IF 70 40 20 1 NNNN 2004 3037 1 1 87.8 500.5 479.5 IF 80 70 20 1 L L L H P S S P 2004 3038 4 1 3.4 430 460 SC 30 20 10 1 NNNN

168 Table B.1: Continued. Year PD FS Count Weight (g) Easting Northing Collection type Length (mm) Width (mm) Thickness (mm) Flake Broken Flake Frag Flake Shatter Bifacial tool Unifacial Tool Expedient Tool Core Other Fauna Coverage Marine Cortex Cortex Dorsal Staining Black Black-gray White-gray White Brown Red-brown Yellow-brown Yellow Pink Corroded 2004 3039 1 1 8.5 430 470 SC 40 40 10 1 A A A M P H P S P P 2004 3039 1 2 4.1 430 470 SC 50 30 10 1 LAABPSSS 2004 3039 1 3 3.5 430 470 SC 40 20 10 1 A A A B S H P P 2004 3040 1 1 0.9 430 480 SC 20 10 10 1 AAABSSPS 2004 3041 5 1 4.1 430 480 SC 50 30 10 1 NNNN 2004 3042 1 1 1.7 430 490 SC 30 20 10 1 A L L U P P S S S 2004 3043 1 1 4.3 440 470 SC 30 30 10 1 L H M M S S P S P P 2004 3044 2 1 1.1 449.5 500 IF 20 10 10 1 NNNN 2004 3045 1 1 175.6 440 499 IF 110 60 40 1 L L H M S S P S P 2004 3046 1 1 7.2 485 500 IF 50 30 10 1 L A A U S S P S 2004 3047 1 1 17.1 483 500 IF 50 40 10 1 L A A H P H P P S 2004 3047 1 2 17.8 483 500 IF 60 50 10 1 1 L A A H P M PPPPP 2004 3048 1 1 13.2 480 490 EX 50 40 10 1 1 L A A U P S M P 2004 3048 1 2 9.1 480 490 EX 50 30 10 1 A H M M PPPSPPSP 2004 3048 1 3 0.7 480 490 EX 20 20 10 1 A A A B P G 2004 3048 1 4 0.9 480 490 EX 20 20 10 1 AAAH GP 2004 3048 1 5 0.3 480 490 EX 10 10 10 1 A A A B C 2004 3048 1 6 0.1 480 490 EX 10 10 10 1 AAAHHP PH 2004 3048 1 7 0.1 480 490 EX 10 10 10 1 A A A B S S S 2004 3048 1 8 0.0 480 490 EX 10 10 10 1 AAAHPHH 2004 3049 1 1 13.0 480 510 EX 50 50 10 1 LAABHSPPS 2004 3049 1 2 10.1 480 510 EX 40 40 20 1 ALHM PSSPSPP 2004 3049 1 3 5.8 480 510 EX 30 30 20 1 LLLB SSSPP 2004 3049 1 4 5.9 480 510 EX 50 30 10 1 LHCBMPPP 2004 3049 1 5 3.1 480 510 EX 30 30 10 1 1 AAAH HH P 2004 3049 1 6 3.3 480 510 EX 40 30 10 1 L A A M SPSPSPP 2004 3049 1 7 2.9 480 510 EX 30 30 10 1 LLLBPHSPP 2004 3049 1 8 3.4 480 510 EX 30 30 10 1 L L L U PSSPPPPPP 2004 3049 1 9 2.5 480 510 EX 30 30 10 1 A L L M SSPPPPS 2004 3049 1 10 2.4 480 510 EX 30 20 10 1 AAAHPSSP PP 2004 3049 1 11 1.6 480 510 EX 30 30 10 1 AAAU PMP 2004 3049 1 12 1.2 480 510 EX 30 20 10 1 AAAH HHP 2004 3049 1 13 1.2 480 510 EX 30 10 10 1 AAAUPSPSP PP

169 Table B.1: Continued. Year PD FS Count Weight (g) Easting Northing Collection type Length (mm) Width (mm) Thickness (mm) Flake Broken Flake Frag Flake Shatter Bifacial tool Unifacial Tool Expedient Tool Core Other Fauna Coverage Marine Cortex Cortex Dorsal Staining Black Black-gray White-gray White Brown Red-brown Yellow-brown Yellow Pink Corroded 2004 3049 1 14 1.8 480 510 EX 30 20 10 1 L A A B M S P 2004 3049 1 15 0.9 480 510 EX 20 20 10 1 L A A B S S S P P 2004 3049 1 16 1.1 480 510 EX 20 20 10 1 A L L B M P P P 2004 3049 1 17 0.6 480 510 EX 30 10 10 1 AAAHPSSP SP 2004 3049 1 18 0.7 480 510 EX 30 20 10 1 AAABMPP 2004 3049 1 19 0.6 480 510 EX 20 20 10 1 AAAHPSSPS PP 2004 3049 1 20 0.5 480 510 EX 20 20 10 1 AAAH HHP P 2004 3049 1 21 0.4 480 510 EX 20 10 10 1 AAAU PHP S P 2004 3049 1 22 0.8 480 510 EX 20 20 10 1 A A A B P H S P 2004 3049 1 23 0.2 480 510 EX 20 10 10 1 A A A B M P P 2004 3049 1 24 0.2 480 510 EX 20 10 10 1 AAAU P PM 2004 3049 1 25 0.1 480 510 EX 10 10 10 1 A A A B P M P 2004 3049 1 26 0.3 480 510 EX 20 10 10 1 AAABHH 2004 3049 1 27 0.2 480 510 EX 20 10 10 1 A A A B H H P 2004 3049 1 28 0.2 480 510 EX 20 10 10 1 AAAH SMP 2004 3049 1 29 0.1 480 510 EX 10 10 10 1 AAAU S M 2004 3049 1 30 0.1 480 510 EX 10 10 10 1 A A A B H P P S P 2004 3049 1 32 0.1 480 510 EX 10 10 10 1 A A A B M S 2004 3049 1 33 0.2 480 510 EX 20 10 10 1 A A A B M S P 2004 3049 1 34 0.2 480 510 EX 20 10 10 1 AAABHH 2004 3049 1 35 0.3 480 510 EX 20 10 10 1 AAAU H H 2004 3049 1 36 0.1 480 510 EX 10 10 10 1 A A A B M S 2004 3049 1 37 0.1 480 510 EX 10 10 10 1 AAAH M S 2004 3049 1 38 0.1 480 510 EX 10 10 10 1 AAAU P H H 2004 3049 1 39 0.0 480 510 EX 10 10 10 1 AAAU HH P 2004 3049 2 31 0.3 480 510 EX 20 10 10 1 NNNN 2004 3050 2 1 1.6 480 510 EX 20 10 10 1 NNNN 2004 3050 2 2 1.5 480 510 EX 30 10 10 1 NNNN 2004 3050 2 3 0.3 480 510 EX 20 10 10 1 NNNN 2004 3050 2 4 0.1 480 510 EX 10 10 10 1 NNNN 2004 3050 2 5 0.1 480 510 EX 10 10 10 1 NNNN 2004 3050 2 6 0.1 480 510 EX 20 10 10 1 NNNN 2004 3051 1 1 3.6 480 510 EX 40 30 10 1 AAAU SPSPPP

170 Table B.1: Continued. Year PD FS Count Weight (g) Easting Northing Collection type Length (mm) Width (mm) Thickness (mm) Flake Broken Flake Frag Flake Shatter Bifacial tool Unifacial Tool Expedient Tool Core Other Fauna Coverage Marine Cortex Cortex Dorsal Staining Black Black-gray White-gray White Brown Red-brown Yellow-brown Yellow Pink Corroded 2004 3051 1 2 3.7 480 510 EX 20 20 10 1 L M C H M P 2004 3051 1 3 0.7 480 510 EX 30 20 10 1 A A A B SSSP 2004 3051 1 5 0.3 480 510 EX 20 10 10 1 A A A B S S S 2004 3051 1 6 0.0 480 510 EX 10 10 10 1 A A A B H H 2004 3051 2 4 0.1 480 510 EX 20 10 10 1 NNNN 2004 3052 1 1 1.2 490 480 EX 30 20 10 1 AAAHPPPS SS 2004 3052 1 2 1.1 490 480 EX 30 20 10 1 ALLH PSSS 2004 3052 1 3 1.3 490 480 EX 20 20 10 1 A A A B P H S P 2004 3052 1 4 1.1 490 480 EX 30 20 10 1 A A A B P M P P P 2004 3052 1 5 0.8 490 480 EX 20 20 10 1 A L L H H H P 2004 3052 1 6 0.6 490 480 EX 20 20 10 1 AAAHP SHP P 2004 3052 1 7 0.5 490 480 EX 30 10 10 1 AAAHP SHP 2004 3052 1 8 0.6 490 480 EX 20 20 10 1 L A A H P S P S S 2004 3052 1 9 0.4 490 480 EX 20 10 10 1 1 AAAH SM 2004 3052 1 11 0.2 490 480 EX 10 10 10 1 A A A B S P S S 2004 3052 1 12 0.1 490 480 EX 10 10 10 1 AAAU P P M 2004 3052 1 13 1.0 490 480 EX 10 10 10 1 A A A B P S P H P 2004 3052 1 14 0.0 490 480 EX 10 10 10 1 AAABHPS 2004 3052 4 10 0.5 490 480 EX 20 10 10 1 NNNN 2004 3053 2 1 0.3 490 480 EX 30 10 10 1 NNNN 2004 3053 2 2 0.4 490 480 EX 20 10 10 1 NNNN 2004 3053 2 3 0.2 490 480 EX 20 10 10 1 NNNN 2004 3053 2 4 0.2 490 480 EX 20 10 10 1 NNNN 2004 3054 1 1 8.3 490 490 EX 50 30 10 1 AAAHP S P S P P S 2004 3054 1 2 5.1 490 490 EX 30 30 10 1 AAAUPSPPSPPPP 2004 3054 1 3 4.3 490 490 EX 30 30 10 1 A A A B PSSPPP S 2004 3054 1 4 3.6 490 490 EX 30 30 10 1 AAAH SMP 2004 3054 1 5 1.6 490 490 EX 30 20 10 1 A L L U P P P M P 2004 3054 1 7 0.9 490 490 EX 20 20 10 1 A A A B S M P 2004 3054 1 8 0.4 490 490 EX 20 10 10 1 AAAHPSSS P 2004 3054 1 9 0.2 490 490 EX 20 10 10 1 AAAHPSPP PSP 2004 3054 1 10 0.2 490 490 EX 20 10 10 1 AAAHS S S P P 2004 3054 1 11 0.1 490 490 EX 10 10 10 1 A A A B H H P P

171 Table B.1: Continued. Year PD FS Count Weight (g) Easting Northing Collection type Length (mm) Width (mm) Thickness (mm) Flake Broken Flake Frag Flake Shatter Bifacial tool Unifacial Tool Expedient Tool Core Other Fauna Coverage Marine Cortex Cortex Dorsal Staining Black Black-gray White-gray White Brown Red-brown Yellow-brown Yellow Pink Corroded 2004 3054 4 6 1.2 490 490 EX 30 20 10 1 NNNN 2004 3055 2 1 1.9 490 490 EX 20 20 10 1 NNNN 2004 3055 2 2 1.0 490 490 EX 30 10 10 1 NNNN 2004 3055 2 3 0.6 490 490 EX 20 10 10 1 NNNN 2004 3055 2 4 0.2 490 490 EX 10 10 10 1 NNNN 2004 3055 2 5 0.1 490 490 EX 10 10 10 1 NNNN 2004 3056 1 1 14.3 490 500 EX 50 40 20 1 A L L B SSSP 2004 3056 1 2 3.0 490 500 EX 30 30 10 1 A A A B S S S P 2004 3056 1 3 1.4 490 500 EX 20 20 10 1 AAAHPHSPPPP 2004 3056 1 4 1.4 490 500 EX 30 20 10 1 AAAU SMP P P 2004 3056 1 5 1.1 490 500 EX 30 20 10 1 AAAH HM 2004 3056 1 6 0.5 490 500 EX 20 20 10 1 AAAH HHP 2004 3056 1 7 0.2 490 500 EX 20 10 10 1 AAAHP SHP 2004 3057 1 1 9.2 490 500 EX 60 20 20 1 AAAU SPPPS S 2004 3057 1 2 7.1 490 500 EX 40 30 10 1 AAAU HS P P 2004 3057 1 3 4.9 490 500 EX 50 30 10 1 AAAMPSPHPP 2004 3057 1 4 3.2 490 500 EX 40 30 10 1 AAAHP S SPSP 2004 3057 1 5 2.1 490 500 EX 30 20 10 1 AAAHSPSSP P 2004 3057 1 6 0.4 490 500 EX 20 10 10 1 AAAU P SSSP 2004 3057 1 7 0.3 490 500 EX 20 20 10 1 AAAHP S PH 2004 3057 1 8 0.1 490 500 EX 10 10 10 1 A A A B H H P 2004 3057 1 9 0.1 490 500 EX 10 10 10 1 AAABSMP 2004 3058 2 1 0.7 490 500 EX 30 10 10 1 NNNN 2004 3058 2 2 0.1 490 500 EX 30 10 10 1 NNNN 2004 3058 2 3 0.0 490 500 EX 20 10 10 1 NNNN 2004 3058 2 4 0.0 490 500 EX 20 10 10 1 NNNN 2004 3058 2 5 0.0 490 500 EX 20 10 10 1 NNNN 2004 3059 1 1 15.5 490 510 EX 70 30 20 1 LLLBSSPSPP 2004 3059 1 2 14.2 490 510 EX 50 40 20 1 LLLUSSPSPP 2004 3059 1 3 12.2 490 510 EX 50 40 10 1 L L L B SSPPS 2004 3059 1 4 7.5 490 510 EX 40 40 10 1 A L L B P M P P 2004 3059 1 5 3.4 490 510 EX 30 30 10 1 AAAU PSSS 2004 3059 1 6 2.8 490 510 EX 30 20 10 1 A A A B SSSPP P

172 Table B.1: Continued. Year PD FS Count Weight (g) Easting Northing Collection type Length (mm) Width (mm) Thickness (mm) Flake Broken Flake Frag Flake Shatter Bifacial tool Unifacial Tool Expedient Tool Core Other Fauna Coverage Marine Cortex Cortex Dorsal Staining Black Black-gray White-gray White Brown Red-brown Yellow-brown Yellow Pink Corroded 2004 3059 1 7 2.8 490 510 EX 30 30 10 1 ALHHPHPH 2004 3059 1 8 1.6 490 510 EX 30 20 10 1 AAAHSSPPS P 2004 3059 1 9 0.8 490 510 EX 30 10 10 1 AAAH HH P 2004 3059 1 10 0.8 490 510 EX 40 10 10 1 AHCCSSH 2004 3059 1 11 0.6 490 510 EX 20 20 10 1 AAAU HHP 2004 3059 1 12 0.6 490 510 EX 30 10 10 1 AAAHSSSP P 2004 3059 1 13 0.5 490 510 EX 20 20 10 1 ALLHP SPSPP 2004 3059 1 14 0.4 490 510 EX 30 10 10 1 AAAHS S S S 2004 3059 1 15 0.4 490 510 EX 30 10 10 1 A A A B M S 2004 3059 1 16 0.4 490 510 EX 20 20 10 1 AAAU PH HP P 2004 3059 1 17 0.3 490 510 EX 20 10 10 1 AAAHPSSPSP 2004 3059 1 18 0.4 490 510 EX 20 20 10 1 AAAHSSPP SP 2004 3059 1 19 0.2 490 510 EX 20 10 10 1 A A A B S S S S 2004 3059 1 20 0.3 490 510 EX 20 10 10 1 AAAH HH P 2004 3059 1 22 0.3 490 510 EX 20 10 10 1 A A A B P M P 2004 3059 1 23 0.2 490 510 EX 20 10 10 1 AAABPSSSP 2004 3059 1 24 0.2 490 510 EX 20 10 10 1 AAAU SSPS P 2004 3059 1 25 0.1 490 510 EX 10 10 10 1 AAABHHP 2004 3059 1 26 0.1 490 510 EX 10 10 10 1 AAAU PMP P 2004 3059 1 27 0.0 490 510 EX 10 10 10 1 AAAU HH 2004 3059 1 28 0.1 490 510 EX 10 10 10 1 AAABHM 2004 3059 1 29 0.1 490 510 EX 10 10 10 1 A A A B H H 2004 3059 1 30 0.1 490 510 EX 10 10 10 1 A A A B SPPP SP 2004 3059 2 21 0.5 490 510 EX 20 10 10 1 NNNN 2004 3060 1 1 0.8 490 520 EX 20 20 10 1 AAAH MP P 2004 3061 1 1 9.2 500 490 EX 70 30 10 1 LHMHSHPSP 2004 3062 1 1 1.7 500 520 EX 30 30 10 1 A L H H SSSPP 2004 3062 1 2 1.3 500 520 EX 30 20 10 1 A L L M P P S S S 2004 3062 1 3 0.2 500 520 EX 20 20 10 1 AAAU SM P 2004 3063 5 1 2.4 500 480 EX 40 30 10 1 NNNN 2004 3063 5 2 2.5 500 480 EX 40 20 10 1 NNNN 2004 3063 5 3 3.8 500 480 EX 30 30 10 1 NNNN 2004 3063 5 4 0.9 500 480 EX 30 30 10 1 NNNN

173 Table B.1: Continued. Year PD FS Count Weight (g) Easting Northing Collection type Length (mm) Width (mm) Thickness (mm) Flake Broken Flake Frag Flake Shatter Bifacial tool Unifacial Tool Expedient Tool Core Other Fauna Coverage Marine Cortex Cortex Dorsal Staining Black Black-gray White-gray White Brown Red-brown Yellow-brown Yellow Pink Corroded 2004 3063 5 5 2.7 500 480 EX 40 30 10 1 NNNN 2004 3063 5 6 1.5 500 480 EX 30 20 10 1 NNNN 2004 3063 5 7 1.1 500 480 EX 30 20 10 1 NNNN 2004 3063 5 8 1.0 500 480 EX 30 20 10 1 NNNN 2004 3063 5 9 1.3 500 480 EX 30 20 10 1 NNNN 2004 3063 5 10 2.0 500 480 EX 30 30 10 1 NNNN 2004 3063 5 11 1.9 500 480 EX 30 30 10 1 NNNN 2004 3063 5 12 0.6 500 480 EX 30 20 10 1 NNNN 2004 3063 5 13 0.7 500 480 EX 30 20 10 1 NNNN 2004 3063 5 14 1.6 500 480 EX 30 20 10 1 NNNN 2004 3063 5 15 0.6 500 480 EX 30 20 10 1 NNNN 2004 3063 5 16 2.2 500 480 EX 30 20 10 1 NNNN 2004 3064 1 1 14.4 510 480 EX 60 50 10 1 1 L A A B P H S P P 2004 3064 1 2 4.0 510 480 EX 40 30 10 1 L A A U S H P S 2004 3065 1 1 5.0 510 490 EX 40 30 10 1 L A A B SSPPS P 2004 3065 1 2 0.7 510 490 EX 20 20 10 1 A L H H SSPPPPPP P 2004 3065 1 5 0.1 510 490 EX 10 10 10 1 A L L H PSSSP 2004 3065 1 6 0.1 510 490 EX 10 10 10 1 AAAU HH P 2004 3065 2 3 0.2 510 490 EX 10 10 10 1 NNNN 2004 3065 2 7 0.0 510 490 EX 10 10 10 1 NNNN 2004 3065 4 4 0.1 510 490 EX 10 10 10 1 NNNN 2004 3066 1 1 2.7 500 510 EX 40 20 10 1 AAAUP PMP P 2004 3066 1 2 2.0 500 510 EX 30 20 10 1 HAAHP S S S 2004 3066 1 3 1.8 500 510 EX 30 20 10 1 ALLB SSPPSP P 2004 3066 1 4 0.2 500 510 EX 10 10 10 1 AAAH HM 2004 3067 2 1 1.3 500 510 EX 30 10 10 1 NNNN 2004 3068 1 1 4.7 510 510 EX 40 20 10 1 A A A M P S S PSPPP 2004 3068 1 2 1.8 510 510 EX 30 20 10 1 A H C C P P S S S P 2004 3068 1 3 1.0 510 510 EX 20 20 10 1 AAAHP P PH PH 2004 3068 1 4 0.9 510 510 EX 20 20 10 1 A L L H PPPP H 2004 3068 1 5 1.2 510 510 EX 20 10 10 1 A A A B G S 2004 3068 1 7 0.5 510 510 EX 20 20 10 1 L A A B H H P 2004 3068 1 8 0.4 510 510 EX 20 10 10 1 AAAH HH

174 Table B.1: Continued. Year PD FS Count Weight (g) Easting Northing Collection type Length (mm) Width (mm) Thickness (mm) Flake Broken Flake Frag Flake Shatter Bifacial tool Unifacial Tool Expedient Tool Core Other Fauna Coverage Marine Cortex Cortex Dorsal Staining Black Black-gray White-gray White Brown Red-brown Yellow-brown Yellow Pink Corroded 2004 3068 4 6 1.2 510 510 EX 10 20 10 1 NNNN 2004 3069 2 1 1.2 510 510 EX 30 20 10 1 NNNN 2004 3070 1 1 1.1 510 520 EX 30 20 10 1 AAABSSSS 2004 3070 1 2 0.8 510 520 EX 30 20 10 1 AAAB SSSP 2004 3070 1 3 0.6 510 520 EX 20 10 10 1 A L H B S S S 2004 3070 1 4 0.3 510 520 EX 20 10 10 1 A A A B G P 2004 3070 1 5 0.1 510 520 EX 10 10 10 1 AAAH HPH 2004 3070 1 6 0.1 510 520 EX 10 10 10 1 A H C B H H 2004 3070 1 7 0.1 510 520 EX 10 10 10 1 A A A B P H H P 2004 3070 1 8 0.1 510 520 EX 10 10 10 1 AAAU HHP 2004 3070 1 9 0.1 510 520 EX 10 10 10 1 A A A B SSSP 2004 3071 2 1 0.2 510 520 EX 10 10 10 1 NNNN 2004 3072 2 1 0.7 520 480 EX 20 10 10 1 NNNN 2004 3073 1 1 0.4 520 480 EX 20 20 10 1 AAAH SSPPPS 2004 3074 2 1 0.1 520 480 EX 10 10 10 1 NNNN 2004 3075 3 1 0.1 520 480 EX 20 10 10 1 NNNN 2004 3075 3 2 0.0 520 480 EX 20 10 10 1 NNNN 2004 3076 1 1 24.2 520 500 EX 70 50 20 1 LAAH SPSPSPP PP 2004 3076 1 2 0.1 520 500 EX 10 10 10 1 A A A B S S S S 2004 3077 4 1 0.7 520 500 EX 20 10 10 1 NNNN 2004 3078 1 1 13.8 520 510 EX 60 40 10 1 LAAH SSSPPPP 2004 3078 1 2 12.9 520 510 EX 70 40 10 1 LLLB SPSPS P 2004 3078 1 3 2.5 520 510 EX 30 20 10 1 A L L B P H S P P 2004 3078 1 4 1.2 520 510 EX 30 20 10 1 AAAHSSPP S 2004 3078 1 5 1.4 520 510 EX 30 20 10 1 AAAHSSSP 2004 3078 1 6 0.7 520 510 EX 20 20 10 1 A H C B PSSPS 2004 3078 1 7 0.3 520 510 EX 20 20 10 1 AAAU SSPS 2004 3078 1 8 0.2 520 510 EX 20 10 10 1 A A A B SSPS P 2004 3078 1 9 0.1 520 510 EX 10 10 10 1 AAAU S SH 2004 3078 1 10 0.1 520 510 EX 10 10 10 1 A A A B S S H 2004 3079 2 1 1.3 520 510 EX 30 10 10 1 NNNN 2004 3080 4 1 22.0 520 510 EX 70 40 20 1 NNNN 2004 3081 1 1 3.3 520 520 EX 40 30 10 1 AAAHS S S S

175 Table B.1: Continued. Year PD FS Count Weight (g) Easting Northing Collection type Length (mm) Width (mm) Thickness (mm) Flake Broken Flake Frag Flake Shatter Bifacial tool Unifacial Tool Expedient Tool Core Other Fauna Coverage Marine Cortex Cortex Dorsal Staining Black Black-gray White-gray White Brown Red-brown Yellow-brown Yellow Pink Corroded 2004 3081 1 2 1.3 520 520 EX 30 30 10 1 A A A B P H P S 2004 3081 1 3 1.6 520 520 EX 30 20 10 1 AAABPMP 2004 3081 1 4 0.7 520 520 EX 30 20 10 1 AAAH SPPS S 2004 3081 1 5 0.8 520 520 EX 20 20 10 1 A A A B S M P P 2004 3081 1 6 0.5 520 520 EX 20 20 10 1 AAAU SHP S 2004 3081 1 7 0.3 520 520 EX 20 20 10 1 AAAH S S S 2004 3081 1 8 0.2 520 520 EX 20 10 10 1 A A A B H H P 2004 3081 1 9 0.1 520 520 EX 20 10 10 1 A A A B P M P P P 2004 3081 1 10 0.2 520 520 EX 10 10 10 1 AAAH HH P 2004 3081 1 11 0.1 520 520 EX 10 10 10 1 A A A B SSPPS 2004 3081 1 13 0.1 520 520 EX 10 10 10 1 AAAH HH 2004 3081 2 12 0.2 520 520 EX 10 10 10 1 NNNN

176

APPENDIX C

GRAPHS OF ELEMENTAL ANALYSIS

The following graphs are the result of elemental analysis from energy dispersive spectroscopy. Figures 6.2 and 6.3 are repeated here for the ease of the reader as Figures C.1 and C.2 to show the location of the elemental analysis.

177

Figure C.1: Artifacts put into the scanning electron microscope for elemental analysis (Figure 6.2).

Figure C.2: Broken artifact put into scanning electron microscope for elemental analysis of the interior and exterior surfaces (Figure 6.3).

178 90

80 Silicon

50 s1a2 s1a3 40 Electron Count Electron

20 en yg r Ox nesium g Carbo Aluminum Sulfu Calcium

10 Hydrogen Ma Iron

.024 .249 .473 .698 .923 .148 .373 .597 .822 .047 .272 .497 .722 .946 .171 .396 .621 .846 .070 .295 .520 .745 .970 .195 .419 .644 .869 .094 .319 .543 .768 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 Energy Dispersal

Figure C.3: Elemental analysis via energy dispersive spectroscopy for Object 1.

179 90

80 Silicon

50 s2a1 s2a2 s2a3 40 s2a4 Electron Count Electron

20 r Oxygen nesium g Carbon Sulfu Aluminum 10 Calciu Iron Hydrogen Ma

Figure C.4: Elemental analysis via energy dispersive spectroscopy for Object 2.

180 90

60 Silicon

s3a1 50 s3a2 s3a3 s3a4 40 Electron Count Electron s3a5

20 Carbon Oxygen r Aluminum nesium g Calcium Sulfu

10 Hydrogen Ma Iron

Figure C.5: Elemental analysis via energy dispersive spectroscopy for Object 3.

181 90

70 Silicon

50 s4a1 s4a2 s4a3 40 s4a4 Electron Count Electron

20 r Oxygen Sulfu nesium g

10 Aluminum Iron Calciu Ma Hydrogen Carbon

Figure C.6: Elemental analysis via energy dispersive spectroscopy for Object 4.

182 90

50 Silicon s5a1 s5a2 s5a3 40 s5a4 Electron Count Electron

20 r Oxygen 10 nesium g Carbon Aluminum Sulfu Calcium Hydrogen Ma Iron

Figure C.7: Elemental analysis via energy dispersive spectroscopy for Object 5.

183

APPENDIX D

The following images are remote sensing data from Ontolo. The first three images are the remote sensing tracklines which are color versions of Figures 4.5, 4.6, and 4.8 from the text, while the last four images are the remote sensing images. The last image is the interpolated data from the sub-bottom profiler. The observed channel features are outlined in red. It should also be noted that the last two images are oriented so that North is to the left.

184

Figure D.1: Side-scan sonar tracklines of Ontolo on Figure D.2: Side-scan sonar tracklines of Ontolo on July 16, 2002 (Figure 4.5). July 17, 2002 (Figure 4.6)

Figure D.3: Side-scan and sub-bottom tracklines of Ontolo on July 15, 2003 (Figure 4.8).

185 Ontolo datum

North

Figure D.4: Side scan image from July 16, 2002.

186 Ontolo datum

North

Figure D.5: Side scan image from July 17, 2002.

187 Ontolo datum

North

Figure D.6: Side scan image from July 15, 2003.

188 Ontolo datum

North

Figure D.7: Sub-bottom image from July 15, 2003 (river channel outlined in red).

189

APPENDIX E

KRIGING MAPS

This appendix lists the kriging maps discussed in Chapter 7, in full page format.

190

Figure E.1: Kriging map of lithic counts from all collections and isolated finds, based on artifacts in a 15 m radius.

191

Figure E.2: Kriging map of lithic counts from surface collection and excavation units, based on artifacts in a 15 m radius.

192

Figure E.3: Kriging map of lithic counts from surface collection and isolated finds, based on artifacts in a 15 m radius.

193

Figure E.4: Kriging map of lithic counts from surface collection, based on artifacts in a 15 m radius.

194

Figure E.5: Kriging map of ISFI values from all collections.

195

Figure E.6: Kriging map of ISFI values from surface collection and excavation units.

196

Figure E.7: Kriging map of ISFI Values from surface collection and isolated finds.

197

Figure E.8: Kriging map of ISFI values from surface collection.

198

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BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH

Brian S. Marks grew up on a farm in the small Northern California town of Loma Rica. He developed an individual major at the University of California at Davis in underwater archaeology and received his Bachelors of Science degree in 1998. He moved from California to Tallahassee, Florida to continue studying underwater archaeology at Florida State University in 1999. At the time, this institution was the only university in the nation that offered research opportunities at submerged prehistoric human occupation sites. Brian completed his Masters of Science degree in 2002 with a thesis that developed a formula for determining past activities at prehistoric sites based on the initial survey artifacts. After graduation, Brian stayed on at Florida State University for a Ph.D. to continue research at the Ontolo site discovered in 2001. Half way through the doctoral program, his major professor and mentor, Dr. Michael Faught was not granted tenure and had to leave the anthropology department. Brian continued under the watchful eye of Dr. Rochelle Marrinan.

Brian co-authored a short paper in the Current Research in the Pleistocene with Faught in 2003, as well as contributing to several of the summer field school reports. He presented aspects of his dissertation at the Florida Anthropological Society in 2003 and the Society of Historical Archaeology meetings in 2006. During the summer of 2005, Brian taught an updated version of ANT 4133, “Introduction to Underwater Archaeology” At the time of this writing, Brian lives in North Florida with his wife and three dogs.

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