GA Project Wild Teacher Resource Guide: Introduction to Georgia’s Natural History

Georgia Department of Natural Resources Wildlife Resources Division Second Edition

TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION ------2 Prehistoric Georgia ------3 Physiographic Regions ------4 MOUNTAINS ------5 CUMBERLAND PLATEAU ------6 Caves ------6 Key Plants and Animals ------7 RIDGE AND VALLEY ------8 Etowah River ------8 Key Plants and Animals ------8 BLUE RIDGE ------10 Cove Forests ------10 Key Plants and Animals ------11 PIEDMONT ------13 Flint River ------13 Rock Outcrops ------14 COASTAL PLAIN ------16 Longleaf Pine-Wiregrass Community ------16 Key Plants and Animals ------17 Carolina Bays ------18 Key Plants and Animals ------19 MARITIME ECOREGIONS ------22 Beaches ------23 Dunes ------23 Maritime Forest ------24 Salt Marshes ------24 Reefs ------26 Key Animals ------26 REFERENCES ------29 WEB RESOURCES ------30 SPECIES FACT SHEETS WEBLINKS ------30 APPENDICES ------31 Exotic Plants ------31 Georgia State Symbols ------31 Citizen Science Activities ------31 Curriculum Aids ------32 Schoolyard Habitats ------32 Special Thanks ------32 Georgia’s Physiographic Regions ------33 Colonial Coast Birding Trail ------34 Georgia’s River Basin Map ------35 Georgia’s Protected Animals ------36 Georgia’s Protected Animals------37

Edited and Updated September 2019 1

INTRODUCTION This guide is a supplement to the Project animals. This guide seeks to introduce some Wild K-12 Activity Guide (PW) and includes of the important plants and animals, not to Georgia’s natural history information. The replace existing guides. PW curriculum primarily deals with environmental issues from across the United CHANGING HABITATS States. Walking through a cove forest in the This guide seeks to provide a basic mountains, floating down the Altamaha introduction to key habitats and wildlife for River by canoe, or wandering the Spanish- each physiographic region within Georgia, moss draped hammock forests on Sapelo provide references for further study, field Island, one may get a sense of permanence trip sites, and PW activities that can be and stability. This sense is largely an adjusted to add local information and flavor. illusion as every habitat experience subtle Hopefully this guide helps to generate a and sometimes more obvious changes greater knowledge and appreciation of through time. These changes result from Georgia’s diverse and increasingly internal and external processes. threatened habitats. It is only a deep Internal processes such as plant growth, concern and commitment to these wild death, and replacement (called natural places that will ensure their existence for succession), are constantly at work, subtly future generations to enjoy. changing every habitat, whether a rock outcrop or a mature forest. Habitats often GEORGIA OVERVIEW progress towards a theoretical “climax” Georgia is the largest state east of the stage, where the species composition Mississippi River, with a land area of 37 remains relatively stable over long periods million acres, and is home to over 10 million of time. If one walks into a forest and the people. This number is expected to increase under-story saplings are the same species as by 37% over the next 25 years. the dominant canopy trees, one is witnessing The state of Georgia is also home to a a forest in its climax stage. remarkably diverse collection of plants and External disturbances such as hurricanes, animals. The term “biodiversity” may droughts, lightning strikes and fires can inspire images of Australian coral reefs and interfere with plant succession, setting back Brazilian rain forests, but for certain taxa, the successional clock. In some habitats, the southeastern United States ranks high in external disturbances occur with enough the world, and certainly within the United frequency that the climax stage is never States for sheer number of species. Georgia reached. For example, the long-leaf pine is home to 975 vertebrates (ranks 2nd in the forests of the coastal plain are fire- nation), of which 63 are found only in maintained ecosystems, which are rapidly Georgia (endemic species). Georgia replaced by hardwoods if fire is suppressed. provides habitats for 62 endangered species. On a much broader time scale, Georgia’s Georgia ranks among the highest of all habitats are also changing due to states for amphibian (80 species), freshwater hemispheric and global climate changes. fishes (265), and crayfish (70) diversity, and The most obvious example is the oscillating is in the top 10 for reptile (84) and vascular climate associated with the Ice Ages over plant diversity (3,600 native plant species). the last 2 million years. Many excellent field guides are available that provide detailed information on the identification and life history of plants and

Edited and Updated September 2019 2

PREHISTORIC GEORGIA (Smilodon fatalis) prowled the landscape as Georgia’s landscape at the peak of the well. In a relatively short period of time last major ice age (20,000 years ago) would between 12,000 to 9,000 years ago, 35 to 40 be unrecognizable to a modern observer. Ice species of large mammals went extinct. The ages have occurred about every 100,000 cause of this extinction is still debated today. years for the last 2 million years in the However, the arrival of Paleo-Indian northern hemisphere. A combination of hunters, approximately 12,000 years ago, three distinct cycles in the earth’s rotation probably played a major role in their and orbit seem to cause these predictable extinction. climatic fluctuations. Whatever the cause, Parallel tales can be told of early human ice ages dramatically changed the face of arrival on other continents, such as South North America, beyond the actual extent of America and Australia, where large mammal ice, which reached only as far south as New extinctions followed close on the heels of York State. human hunters. During the ice ages a northern forest of Jack Pine (Pinus sylvestris), Red Pine RECENT HABITAT LOSS (Pinus resinosa) and Spruce (Picea sp.) Recent challenges to wildlife are easier found refuge in the southern Appalachians, to see and understand than prehistoric pushed from its’ northern range by vast climate change and Paleo-Indian hunting. sheets of ice, that in places reached 2 miles Rapidly expanding human populations exert thick. Between 14,000 and 11,000 years ago increasing pressure on wildlife habitat as the climate moderated, the landscape throughout the state. This growing pressure changed, becoming closer in appearance to raises concern for the survival of plants and modern Georgia. animals that are dependent on the varied A closer look however would reveal natural landscapes of the Southeast. remarkably different fauna. Mastodons Habitat provides vital benefits for (Mammut sp.) grazed in pine grasslands and wildlife including space, food, water, and spruce forests along the Atlantic coasts, with shelter. Changes in natural habitats may 400-pound Shasta Giant Ground-sloths render them unsuitable for wildlife. For (Nothrotheriops shastensis), and Giant example, impounding rivers to make lakes Beaver (Castoroides ohioensis) the size of alters natural water flow, temperature, and Black Bear. Predators such as the Dire sediment levels and habitat for many Wolf (Canis dirus), American Lions freshwater species. Wetland draining in the (Panthera leo), American Cheetahs past destroyed about 50% of North (Miracinonyx sp.), and Saber-toothed Cats America’s wetlands (about 23% of Georgia’s), and threatened the habitat of about 70% of endangered species. The rate of loss has decreased in recent years thanks Mastodon to conservation efforts. Water pollution in the form of sediment and chemical pollutants also threaten native species.

Edited and Updated September 2019 3

One of including three mountain regions, the Georgia’s piedmont, coastal plain, and maritime. Each most ecoregion is defined by its underlying damaged geology, plants, soil types and topography. habitats is the These physical factors in conjunction with bottomland climate (long term weather patterns) and hardwood local disturbances (storms, fires and floods), forest. determine the types of habitats that develop Seventy- in each region. The central role of soils, seven percent climate and natural disturbance will be of bottomland revisited again and again, as these three hardwood factors determine what plants and animals forests have become established in any given habitat. been cleared This guide starts in the mountains and over the last 2 moves to the coast, as if one were hiking centuries, from the mountains of northwest Georgia to leading to the Ivory-billed the sea. This cross-section of Georgia recent Woodpecker would be wedge shaped, with the high extinction of tumbled rocks of the mountains gradually three of five softening to the rolling piedmont, and then bird species dropping to the essentially flat coastal plain that depend exclusively on this habitat. and ocean (see page 5). North America’s largest woodpecker I. (Ivory-billed – Campephilus principalis), North America’s only native parrot III. Physiographic (Carolina Parakeet – Conuropsis II. Regions carolinensis), and the Bachman’s Warbler (See page 33 for a (Vermivora bachmanii) have all become more detailed extinct. The brilliant Prothonotary IV. map) Warbler (Prothonotaria citrea) and skulking Swainson’s Warbler (Lymnothlypis swainsonii) remain, although Fall Line both are species of concern due to habitat loss. V. PW Activities: Oh Deer! Tracks, What’s that Habitat? Habitat Circles VI.

GEORGIA’S PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS From the southern terminus of the Appalachian Mountains to the barrier islands, Georgia includes a wide range of habitats and landscapes. This diversity I. Cumberland Plateau IV. Piedmont supports the vast array of plants and animals II. Ridge and Valley V. Coastal Plain that make the state unique. This guide III. Blue Ridge VI. Maritime divides Georgia into six ecoregions,

Edited and Updated September 2019 4

MOUNTAINS Physical Landscape Typically, rainfall increases in The mountains of North Georgia only mountainous areas as air masses cool and cover 9% of the state’s area, yet they contain release moisture as they rise and pass over a significant portion of animal and plant mountains. For this reason, one can see diversity. Georgia’s mountains are ancient, clouds that seem perched on mountaintops, formed from rocks between 200 million and while the valleys are sunny. one billion years old. The Rocky As elevation increases the average Mountains, Andes, and Himalayas are mere temperature decreases. For every 6,000 feet children in comparison. Geologic evidence of elevation gained, the climate changes as if suggests that the entire Appalachian chain one moved 1,000 miles north. A state like has emerged and eroded several times, a Georgia gains a broader diversity of plants slow but dramatic story of repeated and animals because of the mountains, continental collisions and mountain which house species that would otherwise building, followed by gradual erosion. live far to the north. Geologists estimate that between 5 and 10 Georgia’s mountains can be divided into miles of vertical rock have been eroded from 3 distinct regions based on geologic history. the Appalachians and washed into the sea. These regions are the Cumberland Plateau of Some of this material now forms the northwest Georgia, the Ridge and Valley piedmont, coastal plain and maritime ecoregion of north-central Georgia and the regions. Blue Ridge ecoregion of northeast Georgia. Forests probably covered Georgia’s mountains for the last 2 million years. Trees Mountain Sites to Visit: provided organic material for soil Rome-Floyd E.C.O. Center production and root systems to stabilize that Rome (706) 622-6432 soil. Montane forests offer many examples of plants stabilizing and gradually altering Smithgall-Woods Conservation Area, their environment. Helen (706) 878-3087

Variations in elevation, slope and aspect Elachee Nature Center, Gainesville create changing temperature and moisture (770)-535-1976 patterns that produce many distinct microclimates in mountainous regions. These microclimates dramatically increase habitat diversity, allowing for specialized plants and animals to become established in local areas. Cross-section of Georgia

III I II IV Fall Line V VI

Edited and Updated September 2019 5

CUMBERLAND PLATEAU ECOREGION Caves, Crevices and Canyons Physical Landscape The Cumberland Plateau is Georgia’s Many vertebrates also make caves their smallest ecoregion, encompassing only homes, permanently or temporarily. about 865 square miles or 1% of the state's Troglobites are animals that only live area. Located in the northwest corner of the underground, while trogloxenes are species state, this region comprises a high elevation that spend time in caves but must come to plateau that extends into both Tennessee and the surface for food. Alabama and ranges from 880 to 2,200 feet in elevation. Sand Mountain and Lookout Mountain form most of the Cumberland Plateau region in Georgia. They differ from the mountains of the Ridge and Valley by their flat tops. Both the Cumberland Plateau and the Ridge and Valley ecoregions are primarily sedimentary rock (formed by marine sediments compressing over millennia) such Cloudland Canyon as shale (formed from silt) and sandstone (formed from sand). The underlying rock of the Cumberland Plateau is limestone formed from the shells Living underground in caves generates some of marine organisms deposited in a unique adaptations among many cave prehistoric sea between 300 to 425 million dwelling creatures. Troglobites are often years ago. Limestone is a soft and porous blind and have lost skin pigmentation, so rock notorious for cave formations. Caves they appear white. They often find their form when limestone is dissolved by weak way around with extensive antennae. acids produced when rainwater combines with carbon dioxide. This process of chemical erosion created some of the deepest caves east of the Mississippi, including Ellison’s Cave, which has drops of up to 600 vertical feet. Several rivers have eroded deep canyons into the high plateau, forming impressive landforms such as Big-eared Bat Cloudland Canyon and Johnson’s Crook.

Habitat highlight: Caves More than 500 caves are known in There are several species of fish, Georgia. They are mostly found in the salamanders and crayfish that live only in Cumberland Plateau, Ridge and Valley and caves. Trogloxenes include bats, rats, and Coastal Plain ecoregions. A recent cave cave crickets (perhaps the most common survey documented 173 invertebrate species cave species). One of the most common from 47 Georgia caves, ranging from bats that roost in Georgia’s caves is the Tri- worms, to mollusks, molds and beetles. colored bat formerly known as the Eastern Pipistrelle (Perimyotis subflavus). Like all

Edited and Updated September 2019 6

Georgia bats, they are insectivores. They larger than males. Pollution and river depend on echolocation to find their food at channelization have led to decreased map night, as well as navigating dark caves. turtle populations. Populations have Disturbing bats during hibernation, or during decreased, in some states, due to collection the breeding season, can lead to high rates of for the pet trade. mortality for both adults and young. Bats often use caves as roosting sites. Although cave wildlife is fascinating, Two endangered bats are found in northwest geological formations are often the Georgia, the Gray Bat (Myotis grisescens) spectacular aspect of cave exploration. and Indiana Bat (Myotis sodalis). These Minerals deposited on the roof, walls, and species have been found in a small handful floors of caves form speleothems, such as of caves in the Cumberland Plateau. stalactites and stalagmites, which create the Historic records suggest that Golden moonscape appearance of many caves. Eagles (Aquila chrysaetos) once nested in the Cumberland Plateau. The Georgia DNR Key Plants and Animals Wildlife Conservation Section is part of a Many animals are restricted to the regional project exploring migration routes Cumberland Plateau region in Georgia. and habitat use of golden eagles in the Most of them are amphibians that live in and eastern U.S. among the canyons, cliffs and caves. The Zigzag Salamander (Plethodon dorsalis) is Other Key Species: one such creature. They live in the Northern Spring Salamander (Gyrinophilus mountain forests and are found near springs porphyriticus) and cave openings. The Tennessee Cave Northern 2-lined Salamander (Eurycea Salamander (Gyrinophilus palleucus) bislineata), resembles many other cave dwelling Cave Salamander (Eurycea lucifaga), organisms with reduced eyes and Cumberland Pond Slider (Trachemys scripta) pigmentation. The Green Salamander Southern Cavefish (Typhlichthys subterraneusis) (Aneides aeneus), one of the climbing salamanders, is well adapted for its life on the cliffs and caves, where it can compress itself into narrow crevices to avoid predators and inclement weather. Sites to Visit:

Cloudland Canyon State Park (Case Cave), Rising Fawn (706) 657-4050 Ellison’s Cave, Walker County Lookout Mountain, Lookout Mountain, (800)825-8366 Sand Mountain, Dade County Green Pigeon Mountain, Lafayette (includes one of the deepest caves in the world at 1,062 feet deep) The Common Map Turtle (Graptemys Crockford-Pigeon Mountain WMA geographica) resides only in the (706) 295-6041 Cumberland Plateau. These beautifully patterned turtles tend to live in rivers and lakes, feeding primarily on snails and crayfish. Female map turtles grow much

Edited and Updated September 2019 7

RIDGE AND VALLEY ECOREGION The Folded Hills Physical Landscape Cherokee County. The headwaters of the The Ridge and Valley ecoregion is Etowah are in the Blue Ridge ecoregion, but adjacent to the Cumberland Plateau in it flows though the Ridge and Valley. northwestern Georgia and occupies about Though small in comparison to many other 2,800 square miles, or 5% of the state’s river basins in Georgia, the Etowah river surface area. The underlying rock is system is one of the most diverse in the symmetrically folded, producing long world and one of the most imperiled. parallel valleys and ridges that are oriented Historically, 91 species of fish were found in in a northeast-southwest direction. The the Etowah. Since the late 1800’s however, ridges typically reach 1,000 to 1,600 feet in 15 species have disappeared from the elevation, while the valleys range from 600 watershed. Still, with 76 native fish species, to 800 feet. the Etowah remains one of the most The Chickamauga Valley and the Great biologically diverse river systems in the Valley are separated by the Armuchee world. Etowah River is home to more than Ridges. These three features form the three times the native fish species than the majority of Georgia’s Ridge and Valley entire Colorado River system, and more than ecoregion. The Great Valley (Coosa River twice that of the Columbia River System. Valley) seems to act like a corridor running diagonally from northwest Georgia and Other Key Species: southwest through Alabama. Cherokee Darter (Etheostoma scotti) The Coosa River Basin, which drains the Etowah Darter (Etheostoma etowahae) central valley, is one of Georgia’s most Upland combshell (Epioblasma diverse rivers. It has been called the snail metastriata) capital of the world, as 32 gastropods make Southern Clubshell (Pleurobema it their home. A total of 37 snails and decisum) (freshwater mussels) mussels have been lost since the early 20th Large-flowered Skullcap (Scuttelaria sp.) century. Researchers say that this loss is Tennessee yellow-eyed grass (Xyris sp.) considered the largest single extinction event in U.S. history. Of the mussels and snails remaining in the Upper Coosa River Basin, seven are listed as federally threatened or endangered.

Habitat Highlight: Etowah River Georgia’s rivers are the most diverse temperate freshwater ecosystems in the Cherokee Darter world. Between native fish, mussels, snails and crayfish, these rivers are unparalleled for their species diversity. Freshwater turtle PW Aquatic Activities: diversity in Georgia and Alabama is among Fashion a Fish, Riparian Retreat, Blue the highest in the world. Ribbon Niche The Etowah River offers a good example of a highly diverse Georgia river. The Etowah watershed is in central north Georgia and drains into Lake Allatoona in

Edited and Updated September 2019 8

Key Plants and Animals The Conasauga Blue Burrower lives in Biologically the Ridge and Valley complex systems of tunnels that it excavates ecoregion is more like southwest Georgia and maintains throughout its life. Because than it is to the rest of north Georgia. crayfish are aquatic organisms, at least one The Coosa River Valley allows species, of these tunnels must go below the water more typical of the Coastal Plain, to expand table. This animal is a beautiful blue color their ranges into North Georgia. with creamy white edges on its claws and Several coastal plain species reach up from legs. It is an endangered species in Georgia the Coosa Valley into North Georgia; some due to its small range size. continuously and others with disjunct populations. Pine Woods Tree Frog (Hyla femoralis), Gopher Frog (Rana areolata), Southern Hognose Snake (Heterodon Sites to Visit: simus), as well as Chicken Turtle New Echota Historic Site, Calhoun (Deirochelys reticularia), Squirrel Tree (706) 624-1321 Frog (Hyla squirella) and Oak Toad (Bufo Chickamauga and Chattanooga Nat. quercicus) extend north of the coastal plain Military Park, Fort Oglethorpe to the Coosa River Valley. (706) 866-9241 Johns Mountain WMA, Calhoun Species Highlight: Burrowing crayfish (706) 295-6041 Georgia is home to 70 species of crayfishes. Of these 70 approximately 25 are classified as burrowing crayfishes. Instead of living in open waters such as streams and lakes, these species construct complex burrows in which they spend most of their lives. They are still considered aquatic animals as they require water for survival. They accomplish this by digging down until they reach groundwater. These burrowing species typically are found in low swampy areas or along stream margins where the water table is close to the surface. Small earthen “chimneys” are often the only evidence of their presence. These chimneys are formed as they push small balls of earth out of their burrows, which can be more than 10 feet deep. They can occasionally be seen foraging around the mouth of their burrow or moving over land on warm, damp nights, possibly looking for mates. The Conasauga Blue Burrower (Cambarus cymatilis) is a burrowing crayfish known only from the Conasauga River system in northwestern Georgia. This species was first found in burrows in the rose garden of a family in Chatsworth, Georgia. It has since been found in only four additional locations.

Edited and Updated September 2019 9

BLUE RIDGE ECOREGION A Crumpled Landscape Physical Landscape highly diverse assemblage of plants and The Blue Ridge ecoregion includes animals. This diversity is supported by 70 much of north central and all northeastern inches of precipitation annually and a Georgia, forming some of the most dramatic temperate climate. terrain in the state. It occupies about 1,850 Georgia’s cove forests are home to square miles, or less than 5% of Georgia’s several plant species in every level of the area. The Blue Ridge is composed of highly forest. The dominant canopy trees are often metamorphosed and deformed rocks, Basswood (Tilia heterophylla), Sugar including some of the oldest rocks in the Maple (Acer saccarum), American Beech state. The rocks range from 400 million to (Fagus american) and Buckeye (Aesculus over one billion years old. The topography sp.). At higher elevations, more northerly is rugged with many steep mountains trees are found, such as Yellow Birch ranging in elevation from 1,600 to over (Betula lutea). In lower elevation coves, 4,700 feet. Brasstown Bald is Georgia’s southern species appear, such as Umbrella, highest point at 4,784 feet above sea level. Bigleaf and Fraser’s Magnolia (Magnolia An observation building at the summit offers sp.). These trees provide thick leaf litter, spectacular views of the surrounding each fall, that contributes to the rich soils of mountains, and a museum provides excellent the forest floor. natural and cultural history of the area. The Despite the varied canopy trees, the most Blue Ridge ecoregion forms the backbone of striking plant diversity is found in the the Appalachian Mountains from North herbaceous layer of the forest, which also Georgia to New York, forming the “eastern provides the wonderful spring display of continental divide,” which separates wildflowers. Species typical of watersheds draining into the Atlantic the Cove Forest include False Ocean from those draining into the Gulf of Lily-of-the-Valley Mexico. (Maianthemum canadense), Spring Beauty (Claytonia Habitat Highlight: Cove Forest caroliniana), Trout Lily Some of Georgia’s most splendid (Erythronium americanum), remnants of uncut forest reside in isolated Squirrel Corn (Dicentra mountain coves that proved inaccessible to canadensis) and Dutchman’s earlier generations of loggers. Despite the Britches (Dicentra cucullaria). mountain surroundings, the coves are still Many Trillium species are also home to some truly massive trees to present. support a wonderful plant and animal Many wildflowers bloom Yellow Lady from March until May. This diversity. A spring day is well spent in Slipper the cool understory of a Cove Forest, early spring window, between surrounded by wildflowers and being cold weather and the period serenaded by the songs of thrushes and when canopy trees leaf out, provides enough warblers. time for the herbaceous plants to rapidly Mountain Cove Forests in Georgia grow, flower and produce seeds. By the typically are located above 3,000 feet on the time late spring arrives, many of the cooler north slopes of mountains in the Blue wildflowers will have already died. Ridge. Though Cove Forests cover a tiny percent of the state, they are home to a

Edited and Updated September 2019 10

An economically important species, the in areas where people feed them, they can Wild Ginseng (Panax quinquefolius), is the become dangerous. basis of a multi-million-dollar annual harvest throughout the Appalachian : Mountains. The sustainability of the Wild PW Activities What Bear Goes Where, Limiting Factors: Ginseng harvest is in question, and ginseng How Many Bears, Raindrops and Ranges poaching has become a problem in protected areas such as the Great Smoky National Park. Wild Ginseng is a perennial herb that can live up to 60 years, developing a large Key Animals: Mountain Warblers forked taproot with many medicinal uses. The cooler climate of the mountains Concerns over the harvest of Wild Ginseng generates habitat typical of land far to the are based in part upon its slow growth, low north. Because of this pattern, the Southern reproductive rate and long-life span. Appalachians form the southern range limit The Southern Appalachians are home to of many species of plants and animals, 27 species of salamanders, more than including several breeding bird species. anywhere else in the world. Georgia’s cove The diverse habitats throughout the forests provide habitat for many of these Georgia Mountains provide nesting sites for species. Rich under-story vegetation and many colorful breeding birds, but Wood rotting fallen logs provide excellent habitat Warblers (Parulidae) are among the most for salamanders. spectacular. Though there are several Natural disturbances of the cove forests species that are year-round residents, most are generally rare and localized, and usually of Georgia’s warblers are long distance consist of high winds or insect outbreaks. migrants, leaving for the tropics each fall Though the cool humid climate led these and returning in spring. Several of the most forests to be nicknamed “asbestos forests”, spectacular warblers’ nest in the mountains fires occasionally occur during droughts. of north Georgia, including some rare Recently, human disturbances have species, such as Cerulean Warbler altered the cove forest ecosystems. (Dendroica cerulea) and Golden-winged Logging, both selective and clear-cutting, Warbler (Vermivora chrysoptera). Both has removed most of the largest trees. birds are species of concern due to recent Accidentally introduced diseases have also severe declines in their populations. These taken their toll. The American Chestnut two species raise an interesting management (Castenea dentate) has been lost to Chestnut dilemma because they require quite different Blight. Florida Dogwoods (Cornus florida) habitat. The Golden-winged Warbler is an and Eastern Hemlock (Tsuga canadensis) early-successional species, requiring trees are currently suffering from introduced recently disturbed habitat in the mountains. diseases. Historically, blowdowns and recently Georgia’s cove forests are home to the burned areas provided nesting habitat for largest land mammal, the Black Bear this bird. Today, regenerating clear-cuts can (Ursus americanus). Black bears in Georgia provide habitat for the golden-winged are primarily found in the mountains and the warbler. The cerulean warble; however, Okefenokee Swamp. They are omnivores generally nests in old forests, typically consuming a wide range of plants, animals selecting large super-canopy trees for nest and even garbage. Black bears can reach locations. almost 500 pounds but are typically much smaller. They rarely harass people although

Edited and Updated September 2019 11

These two species are linked by declining numbers, but they require different habitat, illustrating the complexity and often conflicting demands of wildlife management.

PW Activities: Changing the Land, Bird Song Survey, Migration Barriers

Tallulah Gorge

Habitat highlight: Trout Streams The cold, clear water of the mountain streams offers superb habitat for cold-water fish, such as Brook Trout (Salvelinus Sites to Visit: fontinalis) and the introduced Rainbow Fort Mountain State Park, Chatsworth, Trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). These fish (706) 422-1932 depend on the cold water because they need Sosebee Cove, Rte. 108 NE of Vogel State high levels of oxygen that only cold water Park provides. The rocks along the streambed are Brasstown Bald, (706) 896-2556 often crawling with aquatic invertebrates Vogel State Park, Blairsville, that provide the food for the growing trout. (706) 745-2628 These invertebrates typically press Tallulah Gorge State Park, Clayton themselves flat to the rocks to keep from (706) 754-7981 being swept downstream and breath with Smith-Gall Woods Conservation Area, gills until they immerge from the water as Helen (706)-878-3087 adults. The North Georgia cold mountain streams are extremely diverse and provide an important source of recreation for all fishermen and women.

Brook Trout

Edited and Updated September 2019 12

PIEDMONT ECOREGION The Foothills Physical Landscape the red hills region of the Georgia Piedmont Piedmont literally means foothills. The and is one of only 40 rivers in the United Piedmont forms a gentle “S” curve from New York State to Montgomery, Alabama, bordered to the west by the Appalachian Mountains and to the east by the flat Coastal Plain. Crystalline rocks (mostly granite) underlay the Piedmont. The low-relief landscape found in the Piedmont is a result of millions of years of erosion gradually transforming mountains into a gentle rolling landscape that is not yet flat like the Coastal Flint River Plain. The Piedmont covers about 29% of the States that stretches for over 200 miles state of Georgia (17,253 square miles) and is virtually unimpeded (without dams). typically associated with rough hilly terrain Like the Etowah River in north Georgia, in the north and gentle rolling hills further the Flint River exhibits remarkable biotic south. The Piedmont extends south from the diversity, exhibiting an abundance of mountains of north Georgia to the fall line freshwater mussel species. The Flint and ranges from 500 to 1,500 feet in originally was home to 29 mussel species, elevation. The fall line marks the boundary though recent surveys suggest that only 22 between the crystalline rocks of the northern remain. Though certainly not the most part of the state and the mostly charismatic and high-profile species, unconsolidated sediments of the coastal freshwater mussels have an interesting plain. It is thought to be the furthest inland natural history. extent of the prehistoric coastline. The fall line is often associated with waterfalls and rapids formed as rivers tumble from the Piedmont to the Coastal Plain. Early settlers would have found much of the Piedmont covered with broad- leaf hardwood trees dominated by the now rare American Chestnut (Castanea dentata). Today much of the Piedmont is Shinyrayed Pocketbook covered with pine forests, a result of silvicultural rather than natural processes. Freshwater mussels filter water through elaborate gill structures to collect oxygen Habitat Highlight: Flint River Basin and food. An intriguing aspect of Georgia The Flint River is considered the most freshwater mussels is their parasitic scenic river in the Georgia Piedmont and dependence upon fish for reproduction. Coastal Plain. The uppermost headwaters Mussel larvae must attach to the gills of originate under Hartsfield Jackson specific fish in order to survive. After International Airport. From such several weeks, they drop off, and continue inauspicious beginnings the Flint rapidly their development independently. In order forms a dramatically carved channel through to attract the required fish host within range,

Edited and Updated September 2019 13

the adult mussels produce elaborate “lures” eroded away, leaving the granite exposed at which look remarkably like the host fish. ground level. In some cases, such as Arabia Once a suitable host approaches, the mussel Mountain, the granite changed into gneiss (a expels the larvae (glochidia) into the water. metamorphic rock) due to high heat and This form of reproduction aids in mobility pressure long before the surrounding rock of an otherwise immobile species. eroded and exposed it. Sedimentation, dams, pollution and Rainwater falling on rock outcrops fill channelization threaten many species of pools of standing water. These pools are Unionoid mussels today. called solution pits and provide habitat for rare plants and animals. If rainfall is consistent these wet depressions support PW Aquatic Activities: dish gardens, a unique rock outcrop Watershed, To Dam or not to Dam, Silt: community that exhibits distinctive rings of A Dirty Word, Dam Design progressively drier habitat further from the wet center. Standing water in the center of a dish garden may contain Fairy Shrimp (Branchinella sp) and Mat-forming Quillwort (Isoetes tegetiformans), species that only occur on rock outcrop pools. Both species can survive desiccation as the outcrop pools often dry up in summer. Because of their harsh exposed environment, rock outcrops offer a good place to observe primary succession and Heggie’s Rock early soil development. The first organisms that can survive on the bare rock surface are lichens and mosses. These organisms dissolve rock with weak acids. After many years, through chemical and physical Habitat Highlight: Rock Outcrops A particularly harsh habitat type found mostly on the Piedmont is the rock outcrop. Mat-forming Quillwort Georgia boasts many rock outcrops including the largest in the world, Stone Mountain. Rock outcrops can be either Manadnocks, which rise above the surrounding Piedmont like Stone Mountain, Arabia Mountain and Panola Mountain, or they can be simple “flat-rock” or “pavement rock” outcrops, like Heggies Rock. Most outcrops are composed of granite, an igneous rock that crystallized from slow cooling magma underground (intrusive igneous rock). The molten domes of magma that cooled to form outcrops were generated from the heat and friction at the edges of colliding continental plates about 500 million years ago. The softer rock decomposition, a thin soil layer is formed. surrounding these granite domes gradually

Edited and Updated September 2019 14

Soil allows other tolerant plants to establish, allowing them to catch and kill live prey. such as Diamorpha (Diamorpha smallii) Talons, or sharp curved claws, are the and Sedum (Sedum pusillum), both principal weapons of the bird of prey, succulent plants (fleshy leaves that hold although a formidable hooked beak is put to moisture) well designed to withstand long good use. Birds of prey are known for their periods of dry weather. As the soil eyesight, which approaches the limits of continues to thicken, Broomsedge vision possible with the vertebrate eye. (Angropogon sp.), Sandworts The diurnal birds of prey (those that hunt (Caryophyllacea sp.) and Orange grass by day), include the hawks, eagles, falcons, (Ctenium aromaticum) can colonize the harriers and osprey. The only nocturnal rock. Confederate Daisy (Viguiera birds of prey are the owls. In Georgia there porteri), an endangered and endemic are three breeding species of owl and several species, is quick to follow. Eventually small others that winter sporadically throughout shrubs and trees will completely cover the the state. Owls’ eyes see only in black and rock outcrop. This progression from rock to white but are extremely sensitive to low forest can often be seen on a single rock light conditions, allowing them to fly outcrop transect starting on bare rock and through the woods chasing prey in the walking towards the encroaching forest at middle of the night. Owls’ hearing is acute, the outcrop’s edge. allowing them to pinpoint the location of Rock outcrop plants are vulnerable to their prey before they can even see it. Owls disturbance of vehicle and extensive foot are well known for their ability to fly almost traffic. Many of the rock outcrops in completely silent, allowing them to sneak up Georgia are or have been actively quarried on their prey without being detected. for granite, making Georgia one of the top producers of granite in the United States. PW Activities:

Owl Pellets, Birds of Prey, Quick Frozen Critters Outcrop Sites to Visit: Davidson-Arabia Mountain Heritage Area, Lithonia (770) 484-3060 Heggie’s Rock, Columbia County Piedmont Sites to Visit: (404) 873-6946 Charlie Elliott Wildlife Center, Mansfield Panola Mountain State Park, Lithonia (770) 784-3059 (770) 389-7801 Hard Labor Creek State Park, Rutledge Stone Mountain Park, Stone Mountain (706) 557-3001 (770) 498-5690 McDuffie Environmental Education Center, Dearing (706) 969-4373 Newman Wetland Center, Jonesboro (770) 603-5606 Piedmont National Wildlife Refuge, Juliette (478) 986-5441 Key Species: Birds of Prey Ocmulgee Indian Mounds National Georgia is home to 23 birds of prey Monument, Macon species. These range in size from the (478) 752-8257 x222 massive Bald Eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) to the diminutive Eastern Screech-Owl (Otus asio). Birds of prey share a suite of impressive adaptations

Edited and Updated September 2019 15

COASTAL PLAIN ECOREGION Ancient Sea Floor Physical Landscape forest was without a doubt the dominant The Coastal Plain of Georgia stretches woodland of the Southeastern coastal plain from the fall line to the Atlantic Ocean, before European settlement. covering 35,650 square miles (60% of the state). The Coastal Plain was once a sea floor and is composed mainly of unconsolidated sediments with little hard rock at the surface. Coastal Plain sediments originated in the Piedmont and even in the mountains beyond and have been deposited over thousands of years. Near the fall line the Coastal Plain can be highly dissected with river valleys ranging from 50 to 250 feet below ridge tops. It becomes nearly flat as one gets closer to the coast. The soils of the Coastal Plain tend to be sandy, a result of prehistoric oceans advancing and retreating across them. Prehistoric wave action dissolved and reduced soils to the sturdiest of substrates, quartzite or sand. The Coastal Plain typically has a moderate climate with hot humid summers and mild winters. There is an average of 51 inches of rain, which comes from both convective thunderstorms in spring and Longleaf Pine Forest summer and occasional hurricanes in fall.

Habitat Highlight: Longleaf Pine- Longleaf pine trees tend to grow widely Wiregrass Community spaced, creating an open park-like forest. The Longleaf Pine-Wiregrass Sometimes these forests appeared more like community is unique to the Coastal Plain grasslands with scattered pine trees than true and among the most endangered habitats in forests. At first glance, a Longleaf Pine- the United States. The extent of Longleaf Wiregrass ecosystem appears to be Pine (Pinus palustris) forests just 200 years composed of only two or three species, but ago were unimaginably large. It is estimated the herbaceous understory forms one of the that over 90 million acres of longleaf pine most diverse plant communities north of the forests stretched from Texas throughout the tropics. In some areas over 40 plant species Gulf Coast states, peninsular Florida, per square meter is not uncommon. Georgia and up the east coast to Virginia. Hundreds of species of grasses, legumes and Currently, only several thousand acres of other herbaceous plants grow beneath the good quality old-growth longleaf pine pines. Many of these plant species are only remain scattered throughout the southeast. found in the longleaf pine forest. Another The remaining stands of longleaf pine are defining feature of the longleaf pine forest, mostly found on private quail hunting and one that played an important role in its plantations and military land. longleaf pine

Edited and Updated September 2019 16

decline, is the forest’s dependence upon fire. the grass stage, which looks like a low In fact, fire is a crucial factor in maintaining growing bunch grass. Closer observation many plant communities and is essential to will show that the leaves are pine needles. the survival of the Longleaf Pine –Wiregrass The longleaf pine can remain in the grass community. Without fire, hardwoods grow stage for many years, awaiting a fire to clear up through the Longleaf Pine, competing for the way for its growth. The dense clusters light, nutrients and space. Fire suppression of needles protect the growth cells from this throughout much of the last century fire. After a fire burns through, clearing contributed to the decline of longleaf pine brush away from the pine seedling, the tree forests. enters the rocket stage. This involves a rapid period of growth during which the tree is vulnerable to fire. Once freed from the PW Activity: understory, the tree can continue to grow Fire Ecologies, Smoky Bear Said What? and eventually become a canopy tree. As it grows, it develops thick bark that protects it Historically fires, started by lightning from subsequent fires. strikes, swept through the understory every three to five years burning back shrubs and Longleaf Pine Sites to Visit: hardwoods. Mature longleaf pine were protected from fire by thick heat-resistant Fort Stewart, Hinesville (912) 767-8241 bark. Native Americans also burned the Tall Timbers, Thomasville (850)893-4153 understory to manage for game, and early European settlers burned to maintain good forage for cattle in forest understory. Blow downs are the chief natural cause Key Animals: Birds for mortality among mature longleaf pine The Red- trees. Older trees rise above the canopy, cockaded exposing them to direct wind. Without Woodpecker windstorms, it seems that the longleaf pine (Picoides borealis) trees show very little signs of aging and can and the Bachman’s live for many hundreds of years. Sparrow (Aimophila aestivalis) are two birds that are

Key Plants: Longleaf Pine dependant upon the The namesake of the longleaf pine forest Longleaf Pine is a tree with a fascinating natural and ecosystem. The red- cultural history. Its dependence on fire and cockaded unique growth strategy set it apart from woodpecker (RCW) most other trees. Its cultural history is as is listed as an interesting as its natural history. Much of endangered species the United States was built with longleaf Red-cockaded largely due to its pine. It is estimated that 200 billion board exclusive dependence on a diminished feet of lumber were cleared from these habitat. As habitat specialists, RCW’s southeastern forests over the last 200 years. require large old pines suffering from red- Every stage of the longleaf pine’s life heart rot, a disease that softens the wood depends on fire. The seeds require bare enough for them to drill nest holes. RCW’s mineral soil to germinate. These soils are are the only North American woodpecker to typically found after a fire has burned off the nest in living trees. This means that leaf litter. The germinated seed grows into

Edited and Updated September 2019 17 Carolina Bay building a nest hole is a difficult task that is home to more than 1,000 Carolina Bays, can take years to complete. This fact leads covering 250,000 acres. to high site fidelity in areas with cavities The unique distribution, shape and already excavated and has led managers to orientation of Carolina Bays have generated create artificial cavities for RCW’s. some interesting speculation about their Predators, such as rat snakes and other origins. Some hypothesized that meteor woodpeckers, can significantly decrease nest showers caused craters, which then filled success. In order to discourage predators with water. This dramatic origin is RCW’s often drill many small holes around supported by the similar alignment of the their nest hole to release sap making it bays, but no meteoric fragments have been difficult for snakes to get into the nest. found. A more probable hypothesis suggests that gale-force winds during the last glacial period scooped these depressions out of the sandy soil. Sandy ridges occurring on the eastern side of many Carolina Bays support this hypothesis. Whatever their origin, Carolina Bays along with cypress and gum Flatwoods Salamander trees are important inland wetlands that provide habitat for a wide range of plants and animals. Other Key Species: Underlying the Carolina Bays is a clay Sherman’s Fox Squirrel (Sciurus niger layer that keeps the water from draining shermani) The largest North through the otherwise porous soil of the American squirrel Coastal Plain. Carolina Bays tend to be Gopher Tortoise (Gopherus polphemus) isolated from other bodies of water, so their Threatened species only access to water is rainfall. Water loss Eastern Indigo Snake (Drymarchon corais) comes from evaporation and plant Threatened Species transpiration. Flatwoods Salamanders (Ambystoma cingulatum) Threatened Species

Habitat Highlight: Carolina Bays A unique wetland feature of the Southeastern Coastal Plain is the Carolina Bay. Carolina Bays are oval, or teardrop shaped wetlands oriented along a Northwest-Southeast axis and are found from Maryland south to Georgia. Some support permanent lakes while others experience more irregular water levels. Carolina Bays range from 6 to 30 feet deep and from several acres to 6,000 acres in size. Carolina Bays tend to have some peat Due to varying water levels, the vegetation development, which is a layer of partially differs dramatically from one bay to another. decomposed plant matter. Peat forms when Some are characterized by cypress forests, plant production exceeds the rate of others marsh and some shrub bogs. Georgia decomposition. Decomposition rates are slow in wetlands due to the lack of oxygen

Edited and Updated September 2019 18 in the soil. Several Georgia Bays have peat the Georgia landscape. Unfortunately, deposits over 14 feet deep, the product of wetlands are often viewed as inhospitable about 9,000 years of plant decomposition. wastelands, dominated by things that bite, Peat saturated soils tend to become sting and otherwise impede human highly acidic (pH 4.5) creating a stressful “progress”. This attitude led to a loss of environment for plants, leading to a limited more that 50% of wetlands in the U.S. and plant community. Plants that can thrive in threatened many of the unique wetlands in these oxygen poor acidic soils are called Georgia. Conservation efforts have helped hydrophilic or “water loving”. Pond decrease the rate of wetland loss. Cypress (Taxodium acendus) dominate in The benefits of wetlands are hard to bays that are flooded for extended periods, overestimate. They provide critical habitat while more irregularly flooded habitats for many plant and animal species that could maintain Blackgum (Nyssa sylvatica), Red not survive in other habitats. They are also Maple (Acer rubrum) and Pond Pine (Pinus critical for water management as they absorb serotina) as well. Pickerel Weed and store vast quantities of storm water, (Pontedara cordata) and Water Lily helping reduce floods and recharge aquifers. (Nymphoea stellata) dominate open water Not only do wetlands store water like habitat. sponges, they also filter and clean water Though it may seem counterintuitive, absorbing toxins and other pollutants. fire plays an important role in the maintenance of Carolina Bays. During dry PW Aquatic Activity: periods, peat becomes flammable, and Wetland metaphors. Marsh Activity, lightning strikes can ignite fires that burn off Pond Succession woody vegetation and layers of peat. Historically, bays probably burned about every 25 years, keeping them from growing Key Animals: Altamaha Spinymussel over with vegetation. This is a great The Altamaha Spinymussel (Elliptio example of how a disturbance regime can spinosa) is found only in the Altamaha play an important role in habitat River drainage of Georgia. This animal maintenance. reaches a length of about four inches, a Human impacts on Carolina Bays have height of nearly three inches and is dark been dramatic. Many have been drained and greenish to black in color. What makes this cut for farming and timber. Peat mining and species so interesting is the three to five, fire suppression have both led to the long spines that develop on each of its declining quality of Carolina Bays. valves (shells). The spines begin growing Carolina Bays offer an excellent place to when the mussel is a juvenile and can reach learn about the importance of wetlands in an inch or more in length. However, they often break off as the mussel gets older and many adult individuals show little evidence Alligator Snapping Turtle that a spine was ever there. It has been suggested that the spines help to anchor the mussel in the sandy habitats of the Altamaha River drainage. There are two or three additional “spinymussels” in North America but none as large and handsome as the Altamaha Spinymussel.

Edited and Updated September 2019 19

Key Animals: American Alligator Key Plants: Pond Cypress The American Alligator (Alligator The Pond Cypress (Taxodium acendus) mississipiensis) is the largest reptile in is the dominant tree in still water wetlands. Georgia. Today it is rare for one to exceed Whereas the Bald Cypress (Taxodium 14 feet in length, but alligators have reached distichum) prefers moving water wetlands. over 19 feet. Alligators have lived mostly Both are impressive trees that can reach 150 unchanged for 180 million years, coexisting feet tall and live over 900 years. They are with and surviving the extinction of the deciduous conifers, shedding their needles in dinosaurs. Until human settlement in the late November and re-growing them in Southeast they remained the unchallenged March. Cypress require varying water levels rulers of swamps and bayous from Texas to at different stages of their life history. North Carolina. Cypress seeds need bare wet soil to Due to excessive hunting and wetland germinate, while the adults dominate in draining, American alligators were placed flooded areas where other trees cannot on the Endangered Species list in the 1970’s. survive. The most distinctive features of In the last 30 years American alligators have both Cypress species are the splaying made a remarkable comeback, and there are buttresses at their base and the cypress knees currently an estimated 2 million alligators in projecting above the ground surface. The the southeastern United States. buttresses provide structural support in the Alligators serve many important roles in muddy soils. It is thought that the knees may the swamps of Georgia. They keep rodents aid in gas exchange allowing oxygen to and other grazing species under control. reach the roots despite saturated soils. Alligators also create wallows, which stay Both species of Cypress are valuable wet even if the surrounding swamp dries timber species, and many of the state’s most out. These wallows or “gator holes” provide impressive stands have been cut. The wood watery refuges for aquatic plants and is of value due to its resistance to rot and animals that would otherwise dry up and die insect infestation. during times of drought. Key Plants: Pitcher Plants American Alligator Throughout the Coastal Plain, wherever there are bogs, wet savannas, low areas in pine flatwoods and other wetland habitats, a variety of Pitcher Plants (Sarracenia sp.) may be found. Pitcher plants are a fascinating group of plants adapted to the low nutrient soils of wetlands. In order to meet their nutrient requirements, Pitcher plants are carnivorous, feeding off a wide variety of insects. Georgia has 7 species of pitcher plants, some of which can be found in the Piedmont and Mountains, but most are restricted to the Coastal Plain. All pitcher plants are protected due to concern over PW Activity: Back from the Brink their declining populations. The Green Pitcher Plant (Sarracenia oreophila) is federally listed as an endangered species.

Edited and Updated September 2019 20

Sites to Visit: Big Hammock Natural Area, Glennville (229) 426-5267 Radium Springs, Albany (229) 317-4760 Grand Bay Wetland Center, Valdosta (229) 333-0052 Provid ence Canyon Conservation Park, Lumpkin, (229) 838-6202 Oxbow Meadows Environmental Learning Center Columbus (706) 687-4090 Okefenokee Swamp, Fargo (912) 637-5274 Magnolia Spring State Park, Millen (478) 982-1600

Pitcher Plant Bog

Pitcher plants have tube-shaped leaves (known as “the pitcher”) that form a trap when partially filled with water. Insects are lured into the pitcher with sweet nectar. A waxy layer on the inside of the pitcher, coupled with many downward pointing hairs, makes it difficult for insects to escape. Once they fall into the water, they drown and are digested by enzymes the plants produce. Building a pitcher plant bog is a fairly easy way to encourage children to observe these carnivorous plants. (See Web Resources page 30).

Other Key Species: Alligator Snapping Turtle (Macroclemys temminckii) – Our largest freshwater turtle, the Alligator Snapping Turtle is a species of concern in Georgia. It can reach 300 lbs in weight. Green Pitcher Plant Sandhill Crane (Grus canadensis) Grazing disturbance helps maintain open prairie in Carolina Bays and the Okefenokee.

Edited and Updated September 2019 21

MARITIME ECOREGION

Habitat Highlight: Barrier Islands indentation in the southeastern coastline The crown jewels of the Georgia stretching from Cape Hatteras in the north to coast are the undeveloped barrier islands. Cape Canaveral in the south, and the Due to a fascinating history of land continental shelf 70 miles offshore. ownership and farsighted conservation laws Georgia’s coastline is well protected from (The Marsh Protection Act) Georgia has the major storms, waves and currents. This least disturbed coast on the eastern seaboard. protection, coupled with a high tide range (7 Georgia’s coastline is roughly 110 miles to 9 feet), makes the daily tidal fluctuations long, stretching from the Savannah River in the most important shaping force on the the north to the St. Mary’s River in the islands. Tidal currents generally run south. The soils are typically sandy and perpendicular to the coastline, forming wide, habitat disturbances include wind, waves short islands from the sands and silts of the and tides. The Georgia coast enjoys a coastal sediments. These wide, short islands subtropical climate with long hot summers are called mesotidal islands. In sharp and mild winters during which temperatures contrast, the North Carolina coast is exposed rarely fall below freezing. The coast to the brunt of many Atlantic storms and has receives 30 to 50 inches of rain annually. a much smaller tidal range than Georgia. Thunderstorms generate most of the summer This situation generates a strong longshore rainfall as the Bermuda High Pressure current running parallel to the coast that system dominates the region keeping low- creates long narrow islands that are called pressure storms away. microtidal islands. There are eight clusters of barrier islands The tear dropped islands of the Georgia off the coast of Georgia, four of which are coast are more stable than the islands of accessible by car (Tybee, Sea, Jekyll, and St. North Carolina and have developed more Simons Islands). The remaining islands are extensive maritime forests. The islands more difficult to reach, but are worth the have been in roughly the same position for effort, because they are less developed than the accessible islands. These island clusters protect the mainland and salt marshes from the constant onslaught of wind and waves. Barrier islands are, by their very nature, in a state of constant change, reshaped by the ongoing action of wind, currents and tides. Depending on the relative strengths of these three forces, barrier islands will assume radically different shapes. Even a cursory glance at a map illustrates the Little Tybee Island difference between the barrier islands of Georgia and those of the Carolinas. Georgia’s islands are generally tear dropped the last 4,000 to 5,000 years. in shape in sharp contrast to the narrow The actual formation of Georgia’s linear islands forming North Carolina’s Barrier Islands requires a gently sloping Outer Banks. continental shelf and a rising sea level. Due to the location of Georgia in the These two parameters were met in Georgia heart of the South Atlantic Bight, a large over the last 20,000 years, as sea levels rose

Edited and Updated September 2019 22

from melting glacial ice at the end of the last Piping Plover (Charadrius melodus, an glacial period. Rising sea levels surrounded endangered species). Further evidence of and isolated existing dunes, forming islands. life includes washed up coral fragments, Sediments carried downstream settled in shells, Sand Dollars (Dendraster behind these islands to form the rich salt excentricus) and seaweed. marshes of the tidal zone. Glancing over the Atlantic Ocean itself The typical form of Georgia’s barrier often yields diving terns and pelicans, rafts islands includes a wide beach facing the of ducks and flocks of shorebirds. In winter open ocean, with slightly elevated dunes Northern Gannet (Morus bassanus) may above the high-tide line. Behind and be seen diving from up to 50 feet above the protected by these dunes is the maritime surface. Dolphins are also commonly seen at forest of the interior. Vast expanses of salt points along the Georgia Coast. marsh stretch between the islands and mainland with scattered hammock forests PW Aquatic Activity: protruding from the otherwise unbroken Kelp Help waves of saltmarsh cord grasses.

Habitat Highlight: Beaches Constant wave action prohibits the Habitat Highlight: Dunes establishment of plants along active beaches, As one walks inland from the beach and a quick glance might suggest a lifeless towards the maritime forest, one will pass boundary between sand and water. Closer through distinct vegetative zones as the observation reveals a complex reality. effects of direct wave action, salt-spray and Shorebirds continuously probing into the wind diminish. The first plants met are the sand provide evidence of an invisible host of hardiest most salt tolerant species such as invertebrates beneath the uniform sands. Sea Oats (Uniola paniculata), Prickly-pear Cactus (Opuntia sp.) and Beach Morning Piping Plover Glory (Ipomea stolonifera). These plants can survive the harsh sandy landscape. They play an important role in stabilizing the dunes with their extensive but shallow root systems. Plant cover and diversity generally increase as one moves inland from the fore dunes, across the dune meadow to the more stable back dunes. Wax Myrtle (Myrica ceriferus) shrubs will often form dense thickets on the back dunes, both stabilizing the soil and providing habitat and food for Dark cylinders reminiscent of chocolate wildlife such as wintering Yellow-rumped ice cream “sprinkles” surround the opening Warblers (Dendroica coronata). of Ghost Shrimp (Callianassa sp.) holes in During storm surges, waves may break the low tide zone. Ghost Crab (Ocypode through and obliterate the protective dunes ceratophthalmus) tracks and holes are also carrying saltwater inland. These washover evident to the careful observer. These are events can form saltpans that are highly white crabs up to 3 inches wide that resistant to plant establishment. Few scavenge along the upper beaches at night. environments exhibit such an obvious The high-tide line of seaweed and driftwood struggle between plants and natural is often hopping with Sand Fleas (Orchestia disturbances as the dunes, where plants agilis) and provides cover for the elusive

Edited and Updated September 2019 23

constantly work to stabilize and winds and snake, which hunts rabbits and other water to destabilize. mammals across the Coastal Plain and islands. Habitat Highlight: Maritime Forest Crossing into the back dunes and beyond, one enters the realm of the maritime forest. The maritime forests of the southern coast are as unique and enchanting as any other forest in the United States. The intricately gnarled Live Oak (Quercus virginiana) cloaked in Spanish Moss (Tillandsia usneoides) and Resurrection Fern (Polypodium polypodioidies) and Live Oak and Spanish Moss surrounded by Saw Palmetto (Serenoa repens) seems to be an anachronistic remnant of a slower and quieter past. The spreading canopy of Live Oak, Southern Habitat Highlight: Salt Marshes Pine (Pinus sp), Southern Magnolia A combination of heat, biting insects and (Magnolia grandifolia) and Cabbage Palm the odor of decomposing vegetation can (Sabal palmetto) temper the harsh forces of make salt marshes a challenging habitat to wind and water that assault the dunes and enjoy in the summer. During the cooler beaches. Temperatures and winds moderate times of the year however; salt marshes are under the tree canopy, which increases great places to visit, affording good views of moisture levels and allows a dense many birds and other wildlife. understory of herbs and shrubs to develop. Georgia contains one third of the salt Spanish moss and resurrection fern are marshes along the entire eastern seaboard. both epiphytes, plants that live on other Vast expanses of marsh grasses live between plants entirely independent of the soil. the mainland and the protective barrier Typically, epiphytes require humid islands all along the Georgia coast. The lack environments where they can absorb of plant diversity belies the incredible moisture directly from the atmosphere, so biological importance of coastal salt they are more common in the humid tropics marshes. Marshes are some of the most than temperate regions. In the understory productive systems on earth, producing vast dense clusters of saw palmetto provide excellent hiding places for Eastern Bald Eagle Diamondback Rattlesnakes (Crotalus adamanteus), Georgia’s most dangerous

Key Species: Live Oak (Quercus virginiana) Georgia’s State tree, the live oak is a magnificent tree that is often characterized by a broad spreading canopy. Live oaks are evergreen broadleaf trees with a small waxy leaf that protects them from salt spray and desiccation.

Edited and Updated September 2019 24

amounts of biomass annually. They provide important habitat for a wide range of fish, Key Species: shellfish and bivalves, many of which form Cord Grass (Spartina alterniflora). important staples of the human diet. Few species can handle the Many species of birds such as Great environmental hardships of tidal life. Blue Herons (Ardea herodius), Bald Eagles Temperature, salinity and water (Haliaeetus leucocephalus), Clapper Rails levels change drastically twice a day, and (Rallus longirostris) and various ducks and there is a complete lack of oxygen in the sparrows use these coastal marshes muddy soil. Spartina is ideally adapted seasonally. Raccoons (Procyon lotor) to this life and is essentially the only regularly hunt the edges of salt marshes plant that can survive in the low marsh. leaving their characteristic handprint tracks Spartina absorbs oxygen through folds in as evidence of their nocturnal forays. its leaves, channeling it to the roots. Excess salt is secreted through pores along the leaves. Sliding a blade of grass through one’s fingers, one will wipe off a fine salty residue that the plant has emitted through its pores. Spartina plays a critical role in trapping and stabilizing sediment in the marsh. Without the grass, mud would rapidly erode. Salt Marsh and Hammock

Periwinkles (Littorina sp.) are salt- Salt marshes form behind barrier islands water snails that crawl up and down the where they are protected from the relentless Spartina, grazing on algae that grow on the wind and waves of the ocean. They also leaves. form along estuaries where rivers enter the Tidal creeks and streams meander ocean. Salinity of these marshes decreases through the marsh draining and flooding the as one moves farther inland. This salinity salt marshes twice each lunar day. Though gradient offers a wide range of habitats for tides create a harsh environment, they also plants and animals. provide the sustaining nutrients and carry Salt marshes exhibit some of the wastes from the entire system. Along these harshest environmental conditions of any channels Oysters (Crassostrea virginica), Georgia ecosystem. As the tides ebb and Ribbed Mussels (Geukensia flow, temperature, salinity and water levels demissa) and Blue Crab (Callinectes drastically change. Plants and animals must sapidus) can be found. be able to survive these environmental fluctuations if they are to last in the salt marsh. The star of the salt marsh is Cord grass (Spartina alterniflora), which is well PW Aquatic Activity: adapted to surviving the rigors of life in the Marsh Munchers, Dragonfly Pond inter-tidal zone.

Edited and Updated September 2019 25

Habitat Highlight: Live Bottom other species. Marine plants and animals Reefs rapidly colonize these artificial reefs. Probably the least known habitat in Georgia, and certainly the hardest to visit, is PW Aquatic Activity: the live bottom reef ecosystem off the Fishy Who’s Who, Fishable Waters Georgia Coast. The largest example is Gray’s Reef National Marine Sanctuary Key Animals: Manatee located 17 miles offshore from Sapelo Manatees (Trichechus manatus) are an Island. intriguing, large, endangered marine The vast majority (> 95%) of the mammals found off the Georgia coast Georgia Bight seafloor is composed of loose between March and November. It is one of sediments that provide very little habitat for only 4 Sirenians (order Sirenia) in the marine species. world, a group of aquatic mammals that are Ridges of sedimentary rock exposed on closely related to elephants. Generally, it is the sea floor form Gray’s Reef. Though found in shallow coastal waters and tidal these ridges only rise about 6 feet off the sea rivers. Manatees eat Spartina (cord grass) floor, they form a critical substrate for soft as well as other emergent vegetation. corals and sponges to grow, attracting large Manatee primarily stay in Florida though numbers of marine fish, mammals and even they do swim north to Georgia in spring and reptiles. Burrowing marine worms dig summer. They bask near the surface, through the soft rock, creating even more leading to frequent boat collisions and habitat. Due to the location of Gray’s Reef associated mortality. both tropical and temperate species are found. Temperate fish such as Sheepshead (Archosargus probatochephalus) share space with tropical reef fish, such as Angel Fish (Centropyge sp.) and Butterfly Fish (Chaetodon sp.). Several endangered species can be found at Gray’s Reef. During the calving season, Atlantic Right Whales (Eubalaena glacialis) have their young within the sanctuary and endangered Loggerhead Sea Turtles (Caretta caretta) feed on the sponges, whelks and crabs found on the West Indian reefs. Gray’s Reef is so critical for marine Manatee wildlife that it was designated a National Marine Sanctuary in 1981. Attempts have been made to increase the amount of reef habitat off the Georgia coast. Divers have long known that shipwrecks are often great places to observe marine animals PW Aquatic Activity: and plants, as the physical structure of the Mermaids and Manatees wreck provides habitat. This knowledge has led to the intentional sinking of ships, subway cars and artificial cement reef structures to provide habitat for fish and

Edited and Updated September 2019 26

Key Animals: Northern Atlantic Right Key Animals: Loggerhead Sea Turtle Whale The Loggerhead Sea Turtle (Caretta The Northern Atlantic Right Whale caretta) is the most common of 5 sea turtle (Eubalaena glacialis) is Georgia’s state species that use the coast of Georgia and is marine mammal and is the most endangered the only one that regularly lays eggs on the whale in the world. Estimates put their beaches. The other species include the population at around 350 individuals. The Leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea), right whale is a baleen whale, meaning that Kemp’s Ridley (Lepidochelys kempii), it feeds by filtering vast amount of water Green (Chelonia mydas), and Hawksbill through hundreds of baleen bristles hanging Sea Turtles (Eretmochelys imbricata). from its top jaw. Right whales generally Sea turtles have navigated the world’s feed on tiny zooplankton called calanoid oceans and beaches for more than 200 copepods off the coast of Cape Cod and million years. Despite this remarkable Nova Scotia, and do not feed during their longevity (surviving major catastrophes such southward visit to Georgia and Florida as those triggering the dinosaur extinctions), where they calf and feed. most of the world’s sea turtles are currently endangered or threatened. Loggerhead sea turtle can reach 400 lbs. in weight and nests from North Carolina to Texas. Georgia averages 2,000 nests annually between May and August. Female sea turtles usually return to the same Northern Right Whale beaches every time they nest (every 2 to 3 years after they reach 15 to 30 years old), these are often the same beaches where they The right whale received its name from hatched. whalers because of the ease and profitability Once young loggerheads make it to the of hunting them. Right whales are large and ocean, they enter the North Atlantic Gyre, a produce huge amounts of blubber. They are massive current that carries them clockwise also slow and float once they are killed. around the entire north Atlantic. During the This combination made them easy prey for first 12 years of their lives, they stay in this early hunters, and their numbers rapidly current feeding at the surface and hiding declined until they were first protected in from predators in floating mats of seaweed. 1935. When they leave the gyre, they become Today the most serious threats to the bottom feeders, eating mollusks, crabs and right whale are entanglement in fishing nets and collisions with ships. A communications network has been established to alert commercial vessels of the presence of right whales so that collisions can be averted.

Loggerhead Sea Turtle PW Aquatic Activity: Whale of a Tail, A Whale of an Issue

Edited and Updated September 2019 27

other invertebrates that they pluck from the platyrhyncos) and Hooded Merganser sea floor. (Lophodytes cucullatus). During the winter Sea turtles face many challenges animals, many more species can be found. Sea ducks including humans, predates turtle eggs. and mergansers, winter off the coast of Newly hatched young turtles must make it to Georgia, and can be viewed from beaches. the ocean, running a gauntlet of predators. These include various species of Scoter Once at sea, new predators await, and many (Melanitta sp.) and Red-breasted are caught in fishing nets or suffocated from Mergansers (Mergus serrator). Diving ingesting floating garbage. This array of ducks, or bay ducks, can also be seen along threats leads to a high mortality rate, the coast, but tend towards large inland especially early in life. Biologists estimate lakes, such as lake Seminole, where they that only about one in 1,000 eggs survive to stay in deep water, diving for fish. Bay adulthood. ducks include Scaup (Aythya sp.), Bufflehead (Bucephala albeola) and PW Aquatic Activities: Canvasback (Aythya valisineria). The Sea Turtles International, Plastic Voyages, dabbling ducks are most commonly seen, as Turtle Hurdles, Here Today: Gone they tend to stay in water shallow enough to Tomorrow “tip-up” and reach the bottom. Dabblers include Northern Shovelers (Anas clypeata), Mallard and Blue-winged Teal Key Animals: Waterfowl (Anas discors). Stiff-tailed ducks are the Though Georgia is not on a large last group and only one species makes it to migratory flyway for waterfowl, a wide Georgia: The Ruddy Duck (Oxyura variety of ducks do winter in Georgia’s jamaicensis). lakes, marshes and islands. Wintering ducks offer a great opportunity for wildlife watching, and many sites along the coast PW Activity: and inland are suitable for field trips. Only Migration Headache, No Water Off a four species of ducks’ nest in Georgia. They Duck’s Back are: Wood Duck (Aix sponsa), Mottled Duck (Anas fulvigula), Mallard (Anas Coastal Sites to Visit:

(By Car)

Colonial Coast Birding Trail

Map on page 34

Tybee Island 4-H Camp

(912) 786-5534

Skidaway Island State Park - Savannah

(912) 598-2300

Oatland Island Education Center

(912) 395-1212

Jekyll Island 4-H Center

(912) 635-4115

Harris Neck National Wildlife Refuge (912) 832-4608 (By Boat) RedheadCumberland Duck Island (912) 882-4336 Redhead Sapelo Island National Esturaine Research Reserve (912) 485-2300

Edited and Updated September 2019 28

REFERENCES

Brown, Fred. 1998. Highroad Guide to the Schoettle, Taylor. 1996. A Guide to a Georgia Georgia Mountains. The Georgia Conservancy. Barrier Island: featuring Jekyll Island, with St. Simons and Sapelo Islands. Watermarks Bryant, David. 2003. Georgia’s Amazing Coast. Publishing, St. Simons Island, GA. University of Georgia Press, Athens, GA. Seabrook, Charles. 2013. The World of the Salt Earley, Lawrence S. 1994. North Carolina Wild Marsh: Appreciating and Protecting the Tidal Places: A Closer Look. North Carolina Wildlife Marshes of the Southeastern Atlantic Coast. Resources Division, Raleigh, North Carolina University of Georgia Press, Athens, GA.

Elliott, Matt. J. 2008. Amphibians and Reptiles Sutter, Paul. 2018. Coastal Nature, Coastal of Georgia. University of Georgia Press, Culture: Environmental Histories of the Georgia Athens, GA. Coast. University of Georgia Press, Athens, GA. Edwards, Leslie. Ambrose, Jonathan. Kirkman, Katherine. 2013. The Natural Communities of Teal, John and Mildred, 1991 Life and Death of Georgia. The University of Georgia Press, a Salt Marsh. Ballatine Books. Athens, GA. Wilson, Jim. 2011. Common Birds of Coastal Godfrey, Michael A. 1982. A Sierra Club Georgia. University of Georgia Press, Athens, Naturalist’s Guide to the Piedmont. Sierra Club GA. Books, San Francisco.

Gore, Pamela J.W. and Witherspoon, William. 2013. Roadside Geology of Georgia. Mountain Press Publishing Company, Missoula, Montana.

Patrick, T., Allison, J., and Krakow G., 1995. Protected Plants of Georgia, Georgia Dept. of Natural Resources.

Protection Endangered, Threatened, Rare, or Unusual Species. 2017. Georgia Dept. of Natural Resources.

Pielou. E. C. 1991. After the Ice Age: The Return of Life to Glaciated North America. University of Chicago Press.

Wilson, James (editor) 2001. The Fire Forest: Longleaf Pine-Wiregrass Ecosystem. Natural Georgia Series. Volume 8, Number 2. Georgia Wildlife Federation.

Ray, Janisse, 2015. Ecology of a Cracker Childhood. Milkweed Editions.

Edited and Updated September 2019 29

Web Resources: Species Fact Sheets Weblinks

Atlanta Audubon Society Raptors www.atlantaaudubon.org https://georgiawildlife.com/sites/default/files/wr d/pdf/fact-sheets/raptors_2001.pdf Carolina Bays http://archive- Ruffed Grouse https://georgiawildlife.com/sites/default/files/wr srel.uga.edu/outreach/factsheet/carolinabays. d/pdf/fact-sheets/ruffed_grouse_2001.pdf html Wood Duck Cornell Lab of Ornithology web site. This https://georgiawildlife.com/sites/default/files/wr offers many excellent citizen science projects d/pdf/fact-sheets/wood_duck_2002.pdf that schools can get involved with, such as Project Feeder Watch. http://birds.cornell.edu/ Black Bear https://georgiawildlife.com/sites/default/files/wr Freshwater Mussels information and pictures d/pdf/fact- https://www.fws.gov/southeast/wildlife/mussels sheets/Bear%20Fact%20Sheet%200718.pdf

Georgia Dept. of Natural Resources Coyote www.georgiawildlife.com https://georgiawildlife.com/sites/default/files/wr

d/pdf/fact-sheets/2017_coyote.pdf Georgia Museum of Natural History https://gmnh.franklin.uga.edu Alligator

https://georgiawildlife.com/sites/default/files/wr Georgia Ornithological Society d/pdf/fact-sheets/2016_alligator.pdf www.gos.org Snake Clearinghouse for Environmental Education in https://georgiawildlife.com/sites/default/files/wr Georgia. www.eeingeorgia.org d/pdf/fact-sheets/SnakesOfGeorgiaOCS09.pdf

Journey North offers a migration program that Red-cockaded Woodpecker schools can become involved in. https://georgiabiodiversity.org/natels/profile.htm http://www.learner.org/jnorth/ l?es_id=18726&fus_tab_id=18lxt2L6XVhGaGZ

hwGpN5mLK06bcL2Vz3E__rZcWG&group=bi Pitcher plant bog instructions rd http://www.pitcherplant.com/bog_making.ht ml Spadefoot Toad https://srelherp.uga.edu/anurans/scahol.htm Real bird population data for most North American species. Stream Insects and Crustaceans https://www.usgs.gov/centers/pwrc/science/ https://adoptastream.georgia.gov/sites/adoptastre north-american-breeding-bird-survey?qt- am.georgia.gov/files/related_files/document/Ma science_center_objects=0#qt- cro_Key.pdf science_center_objects General info on a variety of species State Park website: https://georgiabiodiversity.org/ http://gastateparks.org

Edited and Updated September 2019 30

APPENDICES

Appendix A: Appendix C:

The top ten exotic invasive plants in Citizen Science Activities for Georgia: School Groups:

Chinese privet (Ligustrum sinense) Georgia Adopt-a-Stream Nepalese browntop (Microstegium Monitoring program for stream invertebrates vimineum) and water quality. Chinaberry (Melia azedarach) (404) 651-8512 Autumn Olive (Lespedeza lespedeza) https://adoptastream.georgia.gov Japanese climbing fern (Lygodium japonicum) Project Feeder Watch Kudzu (Pueraria Montana) Winter-long bird count. Starts 2nd Saturday Autumn olive or silverberry (Elaeagnus of November. Longest running citizen umbellate), science project (since 1976). Receive a Chinese tallowtree (Triadica sebifera) research kit. Data forms, posters, basic Mimosa (Albizia julibrissin). birding information. Chinese wisteria (Wisteria sinensis), https://feederwatch.org

Great Backyard Bird Count Appendix B: Collect data in mid-February to help track Georgia State Symbols population trends for common wintering species. Web site has helpful bird Reptile – Gopher Tortoise identification and bird feeding tips. For Amphibian – Green Tree Frog more information visit: Marine Mammal – Atlantic Right Whale gbbc.birdcount.org Mammal – White-tailed Deer Bird – Brown Thrasher The Birdhouse Network Game Bird – Bobwhite Quail Build bird boxes for cavity nesting species. Tree – Live Oak Bluebirds, Chickadees, nuthatches, tree Flower – Cherokee Rose swallows, titmice, wrens etc... Fish – Largemouth Bass Students can monitor nests throughout Game Fish – Brook Trout breeding season, collect data, send to Saltwater Fish – Red Drum Cornell Lab of Ornithology. Butterfly – Tiger Swallowtail For more information: Gem – Quartz https://nestwatch.org Insect – Honeybee Seashell – Knobbed Whelk Project Pigeon Watch: Wildflower – Azalea Count pigeons and record the color of Mineral - Staurolite courting pigeons. State Fossil – Shark tooth https://scistarter.org/project-pigeon-watch State Vegetable – Vidalia Onion State Fruit – Peach State Crop – Peanuts

Edited and Updated September 2019 31 Appendix D: Appendix E: Curriculum Aids Develop Schoolyard wildlife habitat

Audubon Adventures – curriculum for all There are organizations that help schools grade levels. Provides activities and develop wildlife habitats in schoolyards for materials to educators interested in exposing education and conservation. students to hands-on interactive learning about birds, habitats and conservation. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service www.atlantaaudubon.org/learning-about- https://www.fws.gov/cno/pdf/HabitatGuide birds-curriculum.html Color.pdf

Georgia Youth Science and Technology National Wildlife Federation Centers: 13 regional centers to help science http://www.nwf.org/schoolyardhabitats/ teachers https://gystc.org For funding ideas visit: https://georgiaorganics.org/for- Project Wet – schools/fundraisingandgrants Water education resources for teachers. K-12 (404) 651-8556 Special Thanks https://projectwet.georgia.gov Timothy S. Keyes for development of the

first edition. Project Learning Tree Tammy D. Hyder for editing and updating K-12 Forest education the second edition. (478) 751-3534 Chris Skelton for the Crayfish and https://www.plt.org/network/georgia Altamaha Spinymussel accounts.

Linda May, Ken Riddleberger Walter Environmental Education in Georgia Lane, and Alice Keyes for advice and Web Site. editing the first edition. Wealth of information and lesson plans. Kim Morris-Zarneke, Bruce Thomas and www.eeingeorgia.org Alycia McDonald for proofreading the

second edition.

Eric VandeGenachte for accessing

photographs.

Kitty Esco for accessing artwork.

Artists J.B. Burch, Michael Frick, David Lanier, Richard Parks, Chris Skelton, Jennifer Smith, Mrs. Barlow, Vicky Holifield

Photo Credits Jim Allison: Carolina Bay, Marsh Hammock, Tallulah Gorge Jon Ambrose: Longleaf Pine, Cloudland Canyon

Edited and Updated September 2019 32 85¡ 84¡ 83¡ 82¡ 81¡

Charlotte 67 Level III and IV Ecoregions 68 66 35¡ Chattanooga NORTH CAROLINA of Georgia TENNESSEE 35¡ 66j Greenville 67i 66j G.E. Griffith, J.M. Omernik, J.A. Comstock, 67h 67g 66d 68d 67f S. Lawrence, and T. Foster 67i 67f 68d 2001 66g 67f 67h 67g 67f 15 10 5 0 30 60 mi 68c SOUTH CAROLINA

67 Hartwell Lake 45 68 67h 30 20 10 0 60 120 km Albers Equal Area Projection Lake Sidney Russell 67h 67g Lanier Gainesville Lake 67g Rome 34¡ Columbia

67f r 34¡ 67 67i 45a Athens ive R 45c

e e ch 45d o 45c o ah Atlanta tt J. Strom Anniston ha Thurmond C 65 GEORGIA Lake ALAB Augusta AMA 65c 65p Lake 45b Sinclair

45 33¡ La Grange 65k 63 33¡ West 65p 65p Point Macon O Lake g e ec 45h he O e 65k c 65p o Ri n ver Sa e va e nn

R a 75 i h v 65l Statesboro e R r 65c 75f iv e Columbus r 75i 65p 65k 65l 65p Vidalia 75i Savannah 75f 32¡

65d Altamaha R iver Hinesville 32¡ O 65k c m er 65 u lgee R iv 75j Troy 65l 75i 75h Walter F. George Lake Albany 65g Tifton r 75f e iv Waycross R int Brunswick Fl n Dothan 65p 65h a 75j e 31¡ 75e c

O

31¡

c

Valdosta i Lake 75g t

65 Seminole 65o n

FLORIDA a l

75e t

Tallahassee Jacksonville A 75 65 75

85¡ 84¡ 83¡ 82¡ 81¡

45 Piedmont 65 Southeastern Plains 66 Blue Ridge 68 Southwestern Appalachians 45aSouthern Inner Piedmont 65cSand Hills 66dSouthern Crystalline Ridges & Mountains 68cPlateau Escarpment 45bSouthern Outer Piedmont 65dSouthern Hilly Gulf Coastal Plain 66gSouthern Metasedimentary Mountains 68dSouthern Table Plateaus 45cCarolina Slate Belt 65gDougherty Plain 66j Broad Basins 75 Southern Coastal Plain 45dTalladega Upland 65hTifton Upland 67 Ridge and Valley 75eOkefenokee Plains 45hPine Mountain Ridges 65kCoastal Plain Red Uplands 67f Southern Limestone/Dolomite Valleys 75f Sea Island Flatwoods 65l Atlantic Southern Loam Plains and Low Rolling Hills 75gOkefenokee Swamp Level III ecoregion 65oTallahassee Hills/Valdosta Limesink 67gSouthern Shale Valleys 75h Bacon Terraces Level IV ecoregion 65pSoutheastern Floodplains and 67hSouthern Sandstone Ridges 75i Floodplains and Low Terraces State boundary Low Terraces 67i Southern Dissected Ridges and Knobs 75j Sea Islands/Coastal Marsh County boundary

Colonial Coast Birding Trail

Edited and Updated September 2019 34 Georgia's 14 River Basins

Tennessee Roane Sevier Loudon Blount Bledsoe Rhea North Carolina Meigs Monroe Swain Grundy Sequatchie McMinn Graham Jackson Hamilton Cherokee Transylvania Franklin Marion Bradley Polk Macon Tennessee Clay Dade Catoosa Fannin Towns Union Pickens Jackson Murray Rabun Whitfield Oconee Walker Gilmer White Habersham Lumpkin Chattooga Gordon Stephens Anderson Pickens Marshall De Kalb Coosa Dawson Hall Banks Franklin Cherokee Forsyth Hart Cherokee Floyd Bartow Abbeville Cullman Jackson Madison Greenwood Etowah Elbert Blount Polk Paulding Barrow Clarke South Carolina Cobb Gwinnett McCormick Haralson OconeeOglethorpe Calhoun Fulton Walton Lincoln Edgefield Douglas DeKalb Wilkes Cleburne Rockdale Greene Savannah Carroll Clayton Morgan Taliaferro Newton Mc Columbia Aiken Tallapoosa Fayette Duffie Coweta Henry Warren Clay Jasper Putnam Richmond Randolph Heard Butts Spalding Hancock Glascock Barnwell Meriwether Pike Lamar Oconee Jefferson Troup Baldwin Washington Monroe Jones Burke Allendale Chambers Upson Alabama Bibb Wilkinson Jenkins Hampton Harris Screven Talbot Crawford Twiggs Johnson Lee Emanuel Chattahoochee Peach Muscogee Taylor Ocmulgee Laurens Jasper Macon Ogeechee Houston Bleckley Treutlen Candler Effingham Russell Chattahoochee Macon Bulloch Marion Mont- Schley gomery Pulaski Toombs Evans Bullock Dooly Dodge Wheeler Stewart Flint Bryan Webster Tattnall Chatham Sumter Crisp Wilcox Telfair Barbour Quitman Altamaha Liberty Terrell Randolph Lee Ben Hill Jeff Davis Appling Long Turner Irwin Clay Calhoun Coffee Bacon Henry Dougherty Worth Wayne McIntosh Tift Satilla Early Baker Berrien Atkinson Pierce Glynn Houston Miller Mitchell Colquitt Cook Brantley Lanier Ware Seminole Thomas Suwanee Clinch Camden Decatur Lowndes Charlton Jackson Grady Brooks Echols Nassau Gadsden Leon Jefferson Hamilton Ochlockonee Madison Calhoun Baker Duval

Liberty Columbia St Mary's Wakulla Suwannee Taylor Union Gulf Franklin Florida

Map prepared by Georgia Department of Community Affairs, 2006 ²

Georgia’s Protected Animals Southern Hognose Snake (threatened) Mammals Kemp’s Ridley Sea Turtle (endangered) Alligator Snapping Turtle (threatened) Rafinesque’s Big-eared Bat (rare) Diamondback Terrapin (unusual) North Atlantic Right Whale (endangered) Mimic Glass Lizard (rare) Southeastern Pocket Gopher (threatened)

Humpback Whale (endangered) Indiana Bat (endangered) Amphibians Round-tailed Muskrat (threatened) Flatwood Salamander (threatened) Florida Panther (endangered) One-toed Amphiumid (rare) Appalachian Cottontail (rare) Green Salamander (rare) West Indian Manatee (endangered) Hellbender (threatened) Tennessee Cave Salamander (threatened) Birds Georgia Blind Salamander (threatened) Striped Newt (threatened) Bachman’s sparrow (rare) Pigeon Mountain Salamander (rare) Henslow’s Sparrow (rare) Gopher Frog (rare) Red Knot (rare)

Ivory-billed Woodpecker (endangered) Piping Plover (threatened) Fishes Wilson’s Plover (threatened) Shortnose Sturgeon (endangered) Common Raven (rare) Alabama Shad (threatened) Cerulean Warbler (rare) Spotted Bullhead (rare) Kirtland’s Warbler (endangered) Blue Shiner (endangered) Swallow-tailed Kite (rare) Bluestripe Shiner (rare) Peregrine Falcon(rare) Altamaha Shiner (endangered) Southeastern Kestrel (rare) Bluebarred Pygmy Sunfish (endangered) American Oystercatcher (rare) Blackbanded Sunfish (endangered) Bald Eagle (threatened) Blotched Chub (endangered) Wood Stork (endangered) Holiday Darter (endangered) Red-cockaded Woodpecker (endangered) Greenfin Darter (threatened) Black Skimmer (rare) Lipstick Darter (endangered) Least Tern (rare) Coldwater Darter (endangered) Gull-billed Tern (threatened) Black Darter (rare) Golden-winged Warbler (endangered) Etowah Darter (endangered) Goldstripe Darter (rare) Reptiles Rock Darter (rare) Cherokee Darter (threatened) Loggerhead Sea Turtle (endangered) Tallapossa Darter (rare) Green Sea Turtle (threatened) Trispot Darter (endangered) Spotted Turtle (unusual) Wounded Darter (endangered) Leatherback Sea Turtle (endangered) Stippled Studfish (endangered) Eastern Indigo Snake (threatened) Northern Studfish (rare) Hawksbill Sea Turtle (endangered) Flame Chub (endangered) Bog Turtle (endangered) Lined Chub (rare) Gopher Tortoise (threatened) Ohio Lamprey (rare) Barbour’s Map Turtle (threatened) Bluefin Killifish (rare) Common Map Turtle (rare) Coosa Chub (endangered) Alabama Map Turtle (rare) Suwannee Bass (rare)

Edited and Updated September 2019 36

Fishes (continued) Beautiful Crayfish (endangered) River Redhorse (rare) Lean Crayfish (threatened) Robust Redhorse (endangered) Oconee Burrowing Crayfish (threatened) Sicklefin Redhorse (endangered) Blackbarred Crayfish (threatened) Popeye Shiner (endangered) Say’s Spiketail (threatened) Burrhead Shiner (threatened) Broad River Burrowing Crayfish (threatened) Highscale Shiner (rare) Alabama Spike (endangered) Silver Shiner (endangered) Delicate Spike (endangered) Sandbar Shiner (rare) Inflated Spike (threatened) Mountain Madtom (endangered) Altamaha Spinymussel (endangered) Frecklebelly Madtom (endangered) Purple Bankclimber (threatened) Amber Darter (endangered) Upland Combshell (endangered) Tangerine Darter (endangered) Southern Acornshell (endangered) Goldline Darter (endangered) Atlantic Pigtoe (endangered) Conasauga Logperch (endangered) Cherokee Clubtail (threatened) Freckled Darter (endangered) Fine-lined Pocketbook (threatened) Dusky Darter (rare) Shinyrayed Pocketbook (endangered) River Darter (endangered) Interrupted Rocksnail (endangered) Halloween Darter (threatened) Alabama Moccasinshell (threatened) Muscadine Darter (rare) Coosa Moccasinshell (endangered) Upland Bridled Darter (endangered) Gulf Moccasinshell (endangered) Olive Darter (endangered) Ochlockonee Moccasinshell (endangered) Snail Darter (endangered) Edmund’s Snaketail (endangered) Fatlips Minnow (endangered) Southern Clubshell (endangered) Stargazing Minnow (threatened) Southern Pigtoe (endangered) Tennessee Dace (endangered) Georgia Pigtoe (endangered) Broadstripe Shiner (rare) Oval Pigtoe (endangered) Bluenose Shiner (threatened) Muckalee Crayfish (threatened) Southern Cavefish (endangered) Grainy Crayfish (rare) Sly Crayfish (rare) Invertebrates Triangular Kidneyshell (endangered) Altamaha Arcmussel (threatened) Alabama Creekmussel (endangered) Southern Elktoe (endangered) Southern Creekmussel (endangered) Fat Threeridge (endangered) Savannah Lilliput (threatened) Apalachicola Floater (rare) Rayed Creekshell (threatened) Coosawattee Crayfish (endangered) Dougherty Plain Cave Crayfish (threatened) Conasauga Blue Burrower (endangered) Dougherty Burrowing Crayfish (endangered) Tallapoosa Crayfish (rare) Chickamauga Crayfish (threatened) Etowah Crayfish (threatened) Little Tennessee Crayfish (endangered) Piedmont Blue Burrower (endangered) Chattahoochee Crayfish (threatened) Hiwassee Headwaters Crayfish (endangered) Chattooga River Crayfish (threatened)

Edited and Updated September 2019 37