IAI WORKING PAPERS 16 | 06 - MARCH 2016 ISSN 2280-4331 | ISBN 978-88-98650-85-9 © 2016 IAI European Union |Migration |Refugees |Border management approaches tomigrant crises. paradigm could contribute tomore resilient andrights-based governance strategies inspiredbythehuman security policy-making. Thelastsection explores whether migration increased securitisation of themigration question inEuropean discusses some of thetriggers that have recently prompted an interdependence betweensecurity andmigration. It also discursive practices that have recently reinforced thecomplex governance, thispaper explores some of thepolicies and neighbours. Focusing on the EU approach to migration from theneedtocontrol migration flows from its southern with governance and humanitarian dilemmas stemming In the wake of the Arab uprisings, the EU has been confronted ABSTRACT by Tamirace Fakhoury A European Perspective in theWake of theArab Uprisings: Migration andSecurity Tangled Connections between keywords IAI WORKING PAPERS 16 | 06 - MARCH 2016 ISSN 2280-4331 | ISBN 978-88-98650-85-9 © 2016 IAI 2 Hindu 1 political consequences for theMediterranean region. the so-called Arab Spring hasdegenerated into awinter carryingheavy socio- Five years aftertheonset of theArab uprisings, adominating question iswhether Introduction by Tamirace Fakhoury* A European Perspective Security intheWake of theArab Uprisings: Tangled Connections betweenMigration and in theWake of theArab Uprisings: AEuropean Perspective Tangled Connections betweenMigration andSecurity . * Berkeley. in of California at University sessions summer the in alecturer and Byblos, in (LAU) University migrant crisesfrom afar. Second, public andpolicy “discursive acts”within on its instruments of cooperation with its southern neighbours tomanagethe border management. In addition totightening border controls, theEUhasdrawn governments have adopted policy instruments tyingmigration governance to dynamic combining policy anddiscursive dimensions. First, theEUandEuropean The nexusbetweenmigration andsecurity hasbeenconsolidated through adual or hasdeveloped within asecurity-orientated framework. response to migrant crises in the wake of the Arab uprisings has been securitised policies. Rather, thepaper seekstoilluminate anunderstandingof how theEU’s zone. The aim is not to carry out a cursory analysis of EU’s migration and refugee paper looks at thecurrent migration-security nexusintheEuro-Mediterranean Focusing on EU’s approach to migration in the wake of the Arab uprisings, the relationship betweenmigration, state borders andsecurity tothefore. Mediterranean countries either in transition in or distress have brought theuneasy world spellbound. Against this backdrop, human flows totheEUfrom southern have emergedasadverse outcomes of theuprisings that hadoriginally left the (IS), the“unravelling of thestate” informer autocracies andforced displacements Paper produced within the framework of the New-Med Research Network, March 2016. March Network, New-Med of the framework Research the within produced Paper Tamirace Fakhoury is Assistant Professor of Political Science at the Lebanese American American Lebanese at the Science of Political Professor Assistant is Fakhoury Tamirace

The The into awinter”, in now turned has “Arab Achcar, spring Gilbert with Vidya Venkat interview , 23 December 2014, http://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/article6716540.ece. 2014, December , 23 1 Theascent of theIslamic State IAI WORKING PAPERS 16 | 06 - MARCH 2016 ISSN 2280-4331 | ISBN 978-88-98650-85-9 © 2016 IAI 3 linked migration control to“region-building” intheMediterranean. governments have constructed theissue of migration into asecurity threat, In regardtoEurope, aplethora of writings hasexplored how theEU andEU terror, hasbeenrepresented asanon-traditional security threat. governance; afterthisevent thequestion of migration, linked totheglobal waron a threat totheircohesion. The9/11watershed wasaturningpoint for migration debate iswhether migration constitutes anassetor aliability tohostsocieties and discourses have been divided on the externalities of migration. Acontentious DIIS Policy Briefs Policy States”, DIIS in European Arab Uprisings and the EU”, cit. the and Uprisings Arab 4 3 2 through thelens of policies andspeechactsisnothingnew. The securitisation of migration or its deliberate transformation into asecurity issue securitisation 1. EUmigration governance strategy andtheparadigm of knowledge,” and sociocultural discoursesthat have entrenched what Huysmans calls a“security with andpre-empt migratory pressures.Second, I explore some prevalent policy external policy instruments that theEUandgovernments have adopted todeal The paper isstructured asfollows. Thefirstsection discussessome internal and attention from migrants’ protection tostates’ interests. practices, thenexusbetween migration andsecurity hasbeentightened, deviating a the widerEuropean public spherehave reinforced thequestion of migration as in theWake of theArab Uprisings: AEuropean Perspective Tangled Connections betweenMigration andSecurity 42, No. 4(2016), 606-624. p. 42, of Ethnic Journal Studies and in Migration countries”, Mediterranean Southern with Relations 5 , Vol. 38, No. 5 (December 2000), p. 757. p. 2000), , Vol. No. 5(December 38, Studies Market 64DCB709BCA6%7D1211PSx2.pdf. December 2011, http://static.sdu.dk/mediafiles//4/C/9/%7B4C9C235E-D187-4287-AF65- Analyses Center for in Mellemøststudier Neighbourhood’”, ‘a Changing with to Cope Learning could contribute toarights-based response tomigratory movements. explores whether alternative practices inspiredfrom thehuman security paradigm for thetangled relationships betweenmigration andsecurity. Thelastsection new challenges totheEU. Mapping thesechallenges, Iargue, iskey toaccounting societal cohesiveness. Third,Idebate why recent displacement crises have posed

Michael Collyer, “Geopolitics as a Migration Governance Strategy: European Union Bilateral European Strategy: Governance aMigration as Collyer, “Geopolitics Michael Peter Seeberg, “The Arab Uprisings and the EU. EU Migration Policies towards the Mediterranean: Mediterranean: the towards Policies Migration EU. EU the and Uprisings Arab “The Seeberg, Peter Journal of Common Common of of Migration”, Journal in Securitization the Union and European “The Jef Huysmans, See, for example, Christina Boswell, “The Securitisation of Migration: A Risky Strategy for Strategy ARisky of Migration: Securitisation “The Boswell, Christina for example, See, national andsocietal security threat. In thelight of joint policy anddiscursive 2 one that represents migration asathreat tonational security and , April 2007, http://diis.dk/en/node/2267; Peter Seeberg, “The 2007,, April http://diis.dk/en/node/2267; “The Seeberg, Peter 3 Policy andpublic 5 4 , Vol. , and IAI WORKING PAPERS 16 | 06 - MARCH 2016 ISSN 2280-4331 | ISBN 978-88-98650-85-9 © 2016 IAI 4 policy. authoritarian rule while stressingthepriority todevelop acoherent EUmigration European Commission communications, for instance,applauded transitions from in the European Union”, Forum Law European Amsterdam the in in migrant or theother. discourses have entrenched abinaryperspective separating thecitizen from the have depicted migration asathreat tojobs,welfareandcohesiveness. Such important role inthelogic of securitisation. In thelastyears populist discourses The discursive representation of migration into asecurity issue plays anequally migration. aid andmobility incentives with cooperation around readmission andirregular benefit of migration management. Such initiatives link, for instance,development Global Approach toMigration (GAM, 2005).Bothpromote atrade-off logic for the with its neighbours weretheEuropean Neighbourhood Policy (ENP, 2004)andthe the Arab uprisings, key instruments that theEUhasdeveloped toregulate its ties to externalising migration control is the EU’s politics of conditionality. Prior to “The Arab Uprisings and the EU”, cit. the and Uprisings Arab “The Reports limited in scope and magnitude. 8 7 6 flows to Europe. In 2011,therevolts inTunisia,Egypt andLibya generated newmigration trendsand 2. Instruments securitising migration the recent migrant crises? and aretherenewdimensions tothemigration-security nexus inthecontext of Against this backdrop, how has the EU recast its approach to migration governance, from Syria, have constituted critical juncturesfor EUinstitutions andgovernments. Mediterranean, recent upheavals intheMiddle East,alongside massmigration Though themigration-security nexushasbeenat core of theEU’s agendainthe policies iscoupled with aneffort to govern migration from adistance. of multiple strategies. Thecontrol of migration flows through restrictive border Most works agreethat theprocess of securitising migration intheEUisaresult in theWake of theArab Uprisings: AEuropean Perspective Tangled Connections betweenMigration andSecurity 10 9 Reports Technical MEDPRO Relations?”, in Mediterranean for EU-Southern Prospects What Spring, Arab http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09662839.2015.1028191. 473-490, Security European in Mediterranean”, South the in Security and Migration, Climate, between Interactions aDistance: from Migration “Governing Geddes, Andrew pdf; http://eucenter.berkeley.edu/files/Issue_Brief_2011_Final. July 2011, Berkeley, School, Law Berkeley

Jef Huysmans, “The European Union and the Securitization of Migration”, cit.; Peter Seeberg, of Migration”, Seeberg, Peter cit.; Securitization the Union and European “The Jef Huysmans, Sergio Carrera, Leonhard den Hertog and Joanna Parkin, “EU Migration Policy in the Wake of the the in Policy Migration “EU Parkin, Joanna and Hertog den Leonhard Carrera, Sergio Prevent Migration to Controls Flow:Extraterritorial off the Taylor-Nicholson, Cutting Eleanor MPC Research Research MPC in Spring”, Arab the after “Migration Fandrich, Christine and Fargues Philippe Gemma Pinyol-Jiménez, “The Migration-Security Nexus in Short: Instruments and Actions Actions and Instruments Short: in Nexus Migration-Security “The Pinyol-Jiménez, Gemma , No. 2012/09 (2012), http://hdl.handle.net/1814/23504. (2012), , No. 2012/09 , No. 15 (August 2012), https://www.ceps.eu/node/7215. 2012), (August , No. 15 10 At the same time,theEU’s attempt to disentangle migration governance 8 Such flows, which have mainly targetedMalta and Italy, remained 7 9 Nevertheless, they posed a challenge to the EU. , Vol. 4, No. 1 (Winter 2012), p. 52, http:// 52, , Vol. p. No. 2012), 4, 1(Winter , Vol. 24, No. 3 (2015), p. p. , Vol. No. 3(2015), 24, 6 Central , IAI WORKING PAPERS 16 | 06 - MARCH 2016 ISSN 2280-4331 | ISBN 978-88-98650-85-9 © 2016 IAI 5 forcibly displacedflows into Europe hastriggered acute securitised governmental been criticised on such grounds. the Arab Spring…”, Arab cit. the , Vol. 37, 37-56. p. No. Integration 1(2015), European of Implementation”, in Journal Differential November 2015. November on 2-3 Amman in held Policy”, Neighborhood European of the Revision the and Mediterranean 14 13 12 11 amsterdamlawforum.org/article/view/255. between 2011andDecember2015. host about 3.8million Syrians, Europe received some 897,645asylum applications country. While neighbouring countries, namely Lebanon, Jordan andTurkey, daunting challenge. Around 4,200,000Syrians have beendisplacedoutside their resulting from Syria’s lethal conflict hasemergedinthisregardasaparticularly and its securitisation toanunprecedented level of complexity. Therefugee crisis Libya, Eritrea, Somalia andIraq, have taken theissue of EUmigration governance Since 2014,forced displacements, primarily from Syria but also from Afghanistan, such ascombating irregular migration and cross-border terrorism. to migration hasemphasised inthelastthreeyears key security considerations In practice, notwithstanding therhetorical shift,theEU’s regional approach dialogue on migration. to Migration andMobility (GAMM) emphasises theimportance of cross-regional a rhetoric of partnership with theArab region. Therevamped Global Approach former politics of conditionality into the “more for more” principle andemphasised to revamp theEuropean Neighbourhood Policy, for instance,theEUreframedits in theMediterranean zone from thesecurity lens isworth noting.In its attempt in theWake of theArab Uprisings: AEuropean Perspective Tangled Connections betweenMigration andSecurity 16 15 19166.2013.747909. and Security Democracy in Syria”, and http://data.unhcr.org/syrianrefugees/asylum.php. management. compliance with readmission agreements, cooperation with Frontex andborder approach. Benefits such asvisa facilitation andcircular migration schemesrequire offers some of its southern partnersfails todesecuritise the“renewed”migration formulate its policy goals inpractical terms. argue whether theEUshould renounceits normative ambitions intheregion and irregular migration. development aid,mobility andbettercoordination on asylum policies andcurbing control wasleft unaltered. TheGAMM establishes cross-sectoral linksbetween the strategy of coupling regional cooperation with extra-territorial migration 2015/75 (October 2015), http://hdl.handle.net/1814/37521. 2015), (October 2015/75 Working on RSCAS Migration”, EUI Papers in Union’s Partnership Mobility European the

Assem Dandashly, “The EU Response to Regime Change in the Wake of the Arab Revolt: Wake Arab of the the in Change to Regime Response EU “The Dandashly, Assem Roundtable discussion at the international conference “New Challenges for the EU in the Arab Arab the in EU for the Challenges “New conference international at the discussion Roundtable (from April 2011 to December 2015), 2015), to December 2011 April Applications (from Asylum website: Europe: Syrian UNHCR See Sergio Carrera, Leonhard den Hertog and Joanna Parkin, “EU Migration Policy in the Wake of the in Policy Migration “EU Parkin, Joanna and Hertog den Leonhard Carrera, Sergio Peter Seeberg, “The Arab Uprisings and the EU’s Migration Policies: The Cases of Egypt, Libya, Libya, of Egypt, Cases The Policies: Migration EU’s the and Uprisings Arab “The Seeberg, Peter Mohamed Limam and Raffaella A. Del Sarto, “Periphery under Pressure: Morocco, and Morocco, Pressure: Tunisia under “Periphery Sarto, Del A. Raffaella and Limam Mohamed 13 The mobility partnerships signed with Tunisiaand Morocco have 12 Its key instrument or themobility partnership that theEU , Vol. 9, No. 1-2 157-176, p. (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/174 16 14 Since 2014,thequestion astohow tomanage Such observations have spurredanalysts to 15 11 In addition, , No. IAI WORKING PAPERS 16 | 06 - MARCH 2016 ISSN 2280-4331 | ISBN 978-88-98650-85-9 © 2016 IAI 6 european-agenda-migration/proposal-implementation-package. on Migration – Legislative documents –Legislative on Migration Economist The GuardianThe of thesecond implementation package(September 2015), Mediterranean migrant crisisfor its “non-voluntary” character.In theframework 18 17 the fore. rifts have brought thetension betweennational andsupranational governance to As theEUhaspushedfor arefugee distribution systemamong the28memberstates, member states. have furthermore triggered adivisive debate on refugee-sharing among EU The Mediterranean “migrant crises”andtheSyrian refugee influx into Europe sought toblock migration flows through building metal fences. temporarily suspendSchengen.Some countries such asSlovenia andAustria have migrant flows have prompted Sweden,Germany, France, Denmark and Austria to irregular migrants intheAegean SeaandpushthembacktoTurkey. Cross-border incomers. In February 2016,NATO’s fleet wasdeployed tointercept boats of the EU’s management of its external borders aswell as to identify andfingerprint namely GreeceandItaly, dubbed “frontliners,” establishedhotspotstoimprove for instance,reinforced theFrontex mandate. States bordering theMediterranean, emphasised tightened border controls, patrolling andsurveillance. TheEUhas, migration governance andsecurity. Forms of migration management have of a wide array of restrictive measures that have buttressed the linkages between In thelasttwo years theinflux of migrants into Europe has led totheadoption policies 2.1 Restrictive border controls, rifts over refugee distribution and reactive responses andhasconjured thethorny debate of fairresponsibility-sharing. in theWake of theArab Uprisings: AEuropean Perspective Tangled Connections betweenMigration andSecurity 20 19 No. 3 (2015), p. 266-267, p. No. 3(2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.14240/jmhs.v3i3.51. and on Human Migration United Security States”, Journal the in and United Kingdom, the 2 percent, preferring insteadtodonate humanitarian aid. the EUbetweenJanuary 2012andSeptember2014,while theUKhasonly resettled Germany andSwedenadmitted the largestnumber of resettled Syrians refugees in differences have beennoted. As the2015UNHCR resettlement data reveals, citizen welfare.With regardtoSyrian refugee resettlement, for example, stark that have criticised refugee distribution plans for impinging on sovereignty and or granting asylum, thosethat have acceptedonly alimited number, andthose have agreedtotake inamore generous refugee quota either through resettlement

See, for instance, Ian Traynor, “Pressure to resolve migration crisis could tear EU apart”, in in apart”, EU could tear crisis migration to resolve “Pressure Traynor, Ian for instance, See, Ian Traynor, “Pressure to resolve migration crisis could tear EU apart”, cit. apart”, EU could tear crisis migration to resolve “Pressure Traynor, Ian Nicole Ostrand, “The Syrian Refugee Crisis: A Comparison of Responses by Germany, Sweden, Sweden, Germany, by of Responses AComparison Crisis: Refugee Syrian “The Nicole Ostrand, European Agenda Agenda European Home Affairs: and Migration DG Commission European of the website the See 19 , 30 January 2016, http://econ.st/20xCQzk. 2016, January , 30 In May 2015,for instance,theUKcriticised theEUrelocation planover the The http://gu.com/p/4gxyt/stw. “Value The 2016, in shoppers”, also See January , 20 17 Salient divergences have emergedbetweengovernments that : http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/home-affairs/what-we-do/policies/: 18 20 theCzechRepublic, , Vol. 3, IAI WORKING PAPERS 16 | 06 - MARCH 2016 ISSN 2280-4331 | ISBN 978-88-98650-85-9 © 2016 IAI 7 ‘invading’ Europe”, Guardian The in ‘invading’ not ISIS, fighting be should http://bit.ly/1G97p2K. migrants president: AFP, also 2015, “Czech See fall”, will Breitbart in Agreement Schengen border, the our protect cannot we If bolder andmore confrontational anti-refugee politics. European states such asHungary, Slovakia and theCzechRepublic have practised halting family reunification inthe Asylum packageII.Some Central andEastern (e.g. subsidiary protection), declaringNorthern African countries assafe zones, or Examples range from introducing measures that shy away from granting asylum a more restrictive approach totherefugee crisishasbeen gradually introduced. year. In thewake of strident criticism againstherhandling of therefugee issue, Angela Merkel announcedthedecision totake around 800,000asylum seekers that movements enthusiastically welcomed inlate summer2015.At thetime,Chancellor Germany’s “partial” reversal of its initial “welcome culture” that pro-refugee social and Swedenhave toned down theirinitial politics of hospitality. Acaseinapoint is Denmark haspushed for atougher refugee policy, governments such asGermany of reactive policies over therefugee issue hassweptthrough Europe. While In addition to tightened border controls and rifts over refugee-sharing, a cascade to provide aviable solution due totheirextremely slow pace. protection have sofarnotreachedtheirdeclarednumerical target.Theyareunlikely 21 flows from adistance. cooperative instruments that have enabled theEUtoensureacontrol of migratory the inter-regional perspective, andmore specifically for the foreign policy and The migration-security nexuscannotbefully understoodwithout accounting for cloaking it in “human security” 2.2 Theinter-regional perspective: Externalising migration governance and evolved into athreat tonational borders. furthermore entrenched theperception that theinflux of migrants into Europe has Deterrence measures,such assealing migratory routes andborder detention, have rules should beapplied or notamid what hasbecome Europe’s “migrant crisis.” vulnerabilities, and stirring controversies over whether European asylum actions of EUmemberstates, stressingstates’ interests rather thanmigrants’ National riftsover the refugee question have shiftedattention totheindividual (May 2015) The EUrelocation andresettlement plansthat theEuropean Agenda on Migration refugees. Hungary, Romania andSlovakia voted againsttheEUproposal torelocate 120,000 in theWake of theArab Uprisings: AEuropean Perspective Tangled Connections betweenMigration andSecurity 23 22 eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/wn/TXT/?uri=celex:52015DC0240.

(COM/2015/240), 13 May 2015, http:// 2015, May 13 (COM/2015/240), on Agenda Migration AEuropean Commission, European Andrew Geddes, “Governing Migration from a Distance…”, cit. aDistance…”, from Migration “Governing Geddes, Andrew For an account of anti-refugee stances and policies see, for instance, Nick Hallett, “Orban: “Orban: Nick Hallett, for instance, see, policies and of anti-refugee account stances For an 21 devisesasthetwo key common responses togranting refugee 23 Widespread strategies rangefrom enhancingregional , 27 December 2015, http://gu.com/p/4fcfg/stw. 2015, , 27December 22 , 26 September September , 26 IAI WORKING PAPERS 16 | 06 - MARCH 2016 ISSN 2280-4331 | ISBN 978-88-98650-85-9 © 2016 IAI 8 Spilling over the Wall in and Migration Neighbourhood. the E.U. Territoriality (eds.), Walton-Roberts Hennebry Jenna and http://dailym.ai/1KEwm8B. Kashmira Gander, “‘Today refugees, tomorrow terrorists’: Eastern Eastern terrorists’: tomorrow refugees, “‘Today Gander, Kashmira http://dailym.ai/1KEwm8B. Mail Daily intelligence”, The in British warn crisis, migrant the amid Europe into to smuggle jihadists passports Iraqi and Syrian fake sophisticated using are “ISIS Robinson, Brookings Blog Markaz threat?”, 26 25 24 arrivals with transnational terrorism have gainedground. In thecontext of theISthreat, for example, debates andprotests linkingrefugee national security. Media accounts reflecting such discursive trendsarecountless. represented themigrant asanexternal threat towelfare,cultural homogeneity and Amid therefugee surgecrisis,policy platforms andsocial movements have one that isat oddswith “widerEUinstruments.” On therise,theyhave contributed toarenationalised conception of citizenship, It isworth notingherethat anti-immigrant feelings inEurope arenotnovel trends. to theproduction of securitised knowledge on migration in thebroader EUsphere. In addition tothepolicy path, public andpolicy discourseshave beenparamount 3. Thediscursive nexusbetweenmigration andsecurity outsourcing. action planarisesasakey illustrative example of migration governance through better cooperation andinformation-sharing on migration flows. TheEU-Turkey refugee crisis, namely Jordan, Turkey and Lebanon, stress the importance of Renegotiated ENPplanswith countries shouldering themainburdenof theSyrian at bay. neighbours, andincreasinghumanitarian andrefugee facilities tokeep migrants dialogue on the question of migration, delegating border control to southern in theWake of theArab Uprisings: AEuropean Perspective Tangled Connections betweenMigration andSecurity 27 stem massdisplacements into Europe. and capacity todeal with migratory pressuresarisesasapreventive strategy to migration from adistance.In thisview, building neighbouring states’ resilience human security modelwhile catering for its security interests –that is,controlling partnerships with thirdcountries, By donating aidanddeclaringits intent to“tackle migration upstream” through asylum” or thirdcountries become betterequipped todeal with refugee challenges. and Germany, have increasedhumanitarian anddevelopment aidsothat “first In yet anotherperspective, theEUandsome of its memberstates, namely theUK flow of refugees. membership and visa-free travel, Turkey would cooperate with the EU to stem the

For an account of such debates, see Daniel L. Byman, “Do Syrian refugees pose a terrorism aterrorism pose refugees Syrian “Do Byman, L. Daniel see debates, of such account For an A European Agenda on Agenda Migration AEuropean Commission, European Saskia Sassen, “Anti-Immigrant Politics Along with Institutional Incorporation?”, in Margaret Margaret in Incorporation?”, Institutional “Anti-Immigrant Along with Politics Sassen, Saskia See “Value cit. shoppers”, See 24 In returnfor incentives such asspeedingup theprocess toTurkey’s , Dordrecht, Springer, 2014, p. 13-14. p. 2014, Springer, , Dordrecht, , 27 October 2015, http://brook.gs/1RH9qdX. See also Julian Julian also See http://brook.gs/1RH9qdX. 2015, , 27October 25 theEUadopts elements derived from the 26 , cit., p. 5. p. , cit., 27 In Germany, following , 27 January 2016, 2016, , 27January IAI WORKING PAPERS 16 | 06 - MARCH 2016 ISSN 2280-4331 | ISBN 978-88-98650-85-9 © 2016 IAI 9 30 29 28 http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/-10499352.html. 2015, September Independent The in refugees”, against demonstrations in slogans anti-Islam chant Europeans that took placeinEasternEurope afterthefall of theSoviet Union. post-2011 Arab countries have gone through arenotidentical tothetransitions considered thenorm intheArab region. Moreover, thepatterns of changethat neighbourhood has experienced. For many years, authoritarian resilience has been The EUhasnever beenexposedto the kindof uncertainupheavals that its southern governance crises. unfamiliar challenges because of theirconnections with broader geopolitical and of continuity intheMediterranean. Still, recent migrant criseshave introduced As underscored, EU’s security politics inmigration affairshasexhibited traits refugees evolved into adramatic European crisis? states’ andmigrants’ interests. In otherwords, why hastheinflux of migrants and the last years an “intense security focus” Central to our analysis is the question as to why migrant crises have triggered in costs of “transferring sovereignty” intimesof crisis 4. Triggers for securitisation: Geopolitical insecurities andthe thousands.” the government haspledged toreduce thenumbers of migrants tothe“tensof calling for curbing migration become mutually reinforcing. In the UK, for example, interests togainlegitimacy. Against thisbackdrop, policy andpublic discourses other, theyprovide anenablingterrainfor policy agendas inimical tomigrants’ wider public sphere,turningthequestion into apervasive societal concern. Onthe as asecurity threat. Ontheone hand,theyembedthesecurity discourseinthe Anti-liberal refugee discourses provide apowerful vector todramatize migration to which incomers threaten societal security. from the“Willkommenskultur” rhetoric inGermany toone that questions theextent the January 2016 Cologne episode, public and media debates have shifted focus in theWake of theArab Uprisings: AEuropean Perspective Tangled Connections betweenMigration andSecurity 32 31 econ.st/1OQRttH. profound impact on debating immigration. p3YHYt-6J. Knowledge Blog & Migration Politics, in immigration”, debate Beirut on 2016. 21-23Beirut January gov.uk/government/speeches/immigration-home-secretarys-speech-of-5-november-2010.

Peter Seeberg, “The Arab Uprisings and the EU’s Migration Policies”, cit., p. 172. p. Policies”, cit., Migration EU’s the and Uprisings Arab “The Seeberg, Peter Muriel Asseburg’s intervention at the conference “Arab Revolutions, Five Years “Arab On”, Revolutions, conference at the in held intervention Asseburg’s Muriel Immigration: Home Secretary’s speech of 5 November 2010 of 5November speech Immigration: Home Home Secretary’s Office, Govt UK Christina Boswell, “The net migration target may have failed, but it has shifted the way we we way the shifted but it has failed, have may target migration net “The Boswell, Christina The Economist The in aftershocks”, Cologne’s Germany, in “Refugees See 29 Though this“quantifiable” targetishardtoachieve, it hashada 31 and fuelled tensions between European 30 28 , 26 November 2015, http://wp.me/ 2015, November , 26 , 16 January 2016, http:// 2016, , 16 January 32 , https://www. , 14 10 IAI WORKING PAPERS 16 | 06 - MARCH 2016 ISSN 2280-4331 | ISBN 978-88-98650-85-9 © 2016 IAI 2009. Relations in International Transfers Sovereignty States. Politics Mediterranean in Spring”, Arab to the Response in Sanctions EU on the Perspective Juncture ACritical Spring: Not Make Does Swallow “One Drieskens, Edith and Portela Clara Boogaerts, The Daily Mail Daily The in policy”, migration its with suicide’ ‘ritual committing Union is European “The Robinson, Julian in We Quoted can’t.” them. could how integrate we imagine –Ican’t men young mostly are these and – religions and habits completely different with people 50,000 to import us forces someone have provided. lacked a supportive context that aglobal cooperation on refugee protection could a modestnumber. In theabsenceof international “burden-sharing,” theEUhas Gulf andAsia have notacceptedrefugees, theUnited States hasonly welcomed have to becontextualised in the broader international system.While states in the In yet anotherperspective, theEU’s security politics vis-à-visthemigrant crises today’s securitisation of themigration question. the lastdecadeemergenceof anti-immigrant platforms, which have facilitated 36 35 34 33 EU hastaken placeinadeliberative fashion. questioned theextent towhich policy leaders’ handling of therefugee crisisinthe about thequality of democracyinEuropean states. Some have for instance Policy decisions over refugee arrivals andgovernance have furtherfuelled debates an important role inexplainingEU’s securitised response. underlying dilemmas within theEU. Europe, rather thanconstituting awatershed crisis,unlocks andoverlaps with A question which merits furtherstudy iswhether theinflux of migrants into platforms have stressedthedisadvantages of supranational governance. displayed divergent policy preferences over theGreekdebtcrisis,andEurosceptic convergence hasbeenput tothetest.For instance,European governments have dilemmas. In thewake of the2008economic crisisandits aftershocks,EUpolicy Recent migrant criseshave furthermore overlapped with intra-EU governance actor emergesasill-prepared todeal with conflict-induced migratory movements. of transnationalised conflict andterrorism. TheEUasa global and foreign policy ethno-political conflicts playing out intheEU’s vicinity. Theyhave conjured fears Displacement flows have occurredinthecontext of dismantled state structures and in theWake of theArab Uprisings: AEuropean Perspective Tangled Connections betweenMigration andSecurity 37 the lexicon of security andcultural incompatibility tojustifynational responses. sovereignty.” relocation schemehasspurredreneweddoubts over thecostsof “transferring 2015, http://www.nationalreview.com/node/423731. 2015,

National Review Online Review National in “Counter-Narratives aCrisis”, from Stuttaford, Andrew Interview, Hannover, 1 February 2016. 1February Hannover, Interview, Contracting Contracting work, Spruyt’s Hendrik and Cooley’s Alexander by inspired is expression This For instance, the Slovak PM Robert Fico posits: “If, based on temporary or permanent quotas, quotas, or permanent on temporary based “If, posits: Fico PM Robert Slovak the For instance, For an account on the importance of temporality in explaining EU policy see Andreas Andreas see policy EU explaining in of temporality importance on the account For an , online 18 January 2016. January 18 , online , 26 January 2016, http://dailym.ai/1KBWbWO. 2016, January , 26 35 States reluctant tocomplying with thequota systemhave drawn on 33 In thisview, thequestion of temporality plays 37 Furthermore, Europe haswitnessed in , Princeton, Princeton University Press, 34 Thecontested refugee , 9 September , 9September 36 11 IAI WORKING PAPERS 16 | 06 - MARCH 2016 ISSN 2280-4331 | ISBN 978-88-98650-85-9 © 2016 IAI (2013), p. 17-31, p. (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.14240/jmhs.v1i1.6. and on Human Migration Security Journal in Perspective”, Security aHuman from aftershocks”, cit. Cologne’s Germany, in “Refugees See attacks. Cologne of the wake the in of Germany case the Nations, 1994, http://hdr.undp.org/en/content/human-development-report-1994. 1994, Nations, 38 In thewake of the1994UNDP report New Dimensions of Human Security, insights? security approach, which shiftsfocus from state toindividual protection, offer untangling of theconnection betweenhuman flows andsecurity? Doesthe human outcomes of intra-state conflicts intheEU’s neighbourhood, how probable isan Given that thesemass displacements have arisenascomplex transnational sustainable ways for refugee andhostcommunities to“coexist” ariseasanecessity. In thiscontext, desecuritising responses tomigratory movements andfinding potential of integration adaunting task. likely to exacerbate hostilities between refugee and host communities, making the stability andquality of European liberal democracies. Thesetensions arealso but also tobeinstrumentalised byright-wing agendas,posingachallenge tothe are likely notonly tospell trouble for societal cohesion within European states states’ obligations towards its own citizens andclosing its borders. Thesetensions platforms, encouragingsolidarity with refugees andthosecalling for prioritising laden” migration question hasfuelled domestic tensions betweenparties and but also for thestability of hostingstates. In several European states, the“security- migration question into asecurity threat notonly bodesill for refugee protection that hashigh priority inagenda-settingandpublic debates. Theconstruction of the have consolidated the migration question into anational andsocietal threat, one This paper has shown that restrictive policies and security-oriented discourses 5. Desecuritising migration? supranational andglobal governance. understanding of broader dilemmas arisingfrom geopolitical risksandfailing In thisview, areadingof EU’s securitised migration politics requiresan in theWake of theArab Uprisings: AEuropean Perspective Tangled Connections betweenMigration andSecurity 40 39 prosper intheircountries of origin. displacements andcreating socio-political conditions underwhich communities human security perspective requiresaddressingthedrivers that have led tomass the protection of individuals. Tackling forced migration, for instance, from a migration analysts have sought ways toreconcile migration governance with UNDP, UNDP,

For an account of internal tensions and polarisation in the public debate, see for instance for instance see debate, public the in polarisation and tensions of internal account For an Francesca Vietti and Todd Scribner, “Human Insecurity: Understanding International Migration Migration International Understanding Insecurity: Todd “Human and Scribner, Vietti Francesca Human Development Report 1994: New Dimensions of Human Security Dimensions New 1994: Human Report Development 40 38 , New York,, New United , Vol. 1, No., Vol. 1 1, 39

12 IAI WORKING PAPERS 16 | 06 - MARCH 2016 ISSN 2280-4331 | ISBN 978-88-98650-85-9 © 2016 IAI Security Dialogue Security Neighbourhood. SpillingNeighbourhood. over the Wall stressed Europe’s needfor amore acceptingdebate on migrants andmigration. as asecurity concern at bothpolicy andpublic levels. In thisregard,analysts have As thispaper hasargued, discursive practices arecrucial tothematising migration 5.1 Debates on migration approach totherecent migrant crises. perspective provide auseful entry point toinforming EU’s discursive andpolicy Notwithstanding such observations, insights derived from thehuman security Protect (R2P),have come undersevere scrutiny. interventions, human security models,basedfor instanceon theResponsibility to international response. Against thebackdrop of theIraqi (2003)andLibyan (2011) that have triggered massmigration from Syria hassofarnotbredany unified a more specific note,the attempt toaddressthe root causes of political unrest Yet this policy prescription may be criticised for its rather utopian character. On in theWake of theArab Uprisings: AEuropean Perspective Tangled Connections betweenMigration andSecurity 43 42 41 as towhy migration cannotbedrastically limited, can encourage cross-societal, inter-European debates and cross-regional debates European states and inthewiderpublic sphere.EUinstitutions andgovernments perceptions istostrengthendeliberative processes on themigration question in One potential avenue todesecuritise migration or uncouple it from threat and hastaken stockof initiatives advanced bycivic andacademic platforms. European policy-making hasdedicated due attention tosuch alternative framings far nothadany consequential policy effect. It isnotclear whether, andifsohow, in theEuropean public sphere.Yet their initiatives remainfragmented andhave so local communities andacademics have rallied for alternative discursive approaches Throughout therecent migrant crises,civil society organisations, religious actors, continent. look like intheEuro-Mediterranean space rather than strictly within theEuropean and journeys.Such debates canalso spurreflections on what fairsolidarity might movements andtheircomplex causes while sheddinglight on migrants’ narratives could, for instance, disseminate abetterunderstandingof post-2011 migratory be beneficial toa Euro-Mediterranean zone built on similar values. Such debates heraldscotland.com/opinion/14147345.display. Herald Scotland The in policy”, immigration in constraints and

David Chandler, “Resilience and Human Security: The Post-Interventionist Paradigm”, in in Paradigm”, Post-Interventionist The Security: Human and “Resilience Chandler, David See for instance Christina Boswell’s argument in “Time for a frank debate on opportunities on debate opportunities for afrank “Time in argument Boswell’s Christina for instance See Territoriality and Migration in and Migration the E.U. Territoriality (eds.), Walton-Roberts Hennebry Jenna and Margaret , Vol. No. 43, 213-229. p. 3 (June 2012), , Dordrecht, Springer, 2014. Springer, , Dordrecht, 41 43 andwhether andifsohow it can , 16 December 2015, http://www. 2015, , 16 December 42 13 IAI WORKING PAPERS 16 | 06 - MARCH 2016 ISSN 2280-4331 | ISBN 978-88-98650-85-9 © 2016 IAI 20, No. 3 (2015), p. 439-444. p. No.20, 3(2015), Politics Mediterranean in Precariousness”, Mobility’s and Policies Western-centric Constraints. p. 41 and 56, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13876988.2013.849849. 41 56, p. and Analysis Policy of Comparative Journal in Policymaking”, Integration Migrant 44 policy learning on human security practices. have dealt with therefugee surge andwhether thereispotential for social and more specifically how different hoststates across bothshores ofthe Mediterranean An additional avenue istoencouragecross-regional “experience-sharing,” and enough tointegrate inEuropean societies. of dispelling the myth of refugee as a transnational terrorist or one that is not fit migratory movements, analysts have for instanceattracted attention totheurgency of refugees’ perceptions, empowerment andprotection. In thecontext of recent of migration governance from border to human security, stressing the themes EU schemescould seektoadvance research agendas that shifttheconception challenges.” can reinforce certainpolicy objectives, reifyingcertainissues as“European and Scholten have for instanceargued how “mobilizing specific types of research” on themigrant crisesandits impact on policy andpublic perceptions. Geddes Central to fostering more accepting debates is reassessing knowledge production 5.2 Knowledge production on migration of divisive policy items. they provide democratic means to channel public opinion pressure in the context While deliberative processes canhelp toreframesecurity-centred perspectives, in theWake of theArab Uprisings: AEuropean Perspective Tangled Connections betweenMigration andSecurity 46 45 Martina Tazzioli (2015). Tazzioli Martina one’s political destiny. In thecontext of political upheavals, migration isanattempt toregaincontrol over children. Others have posited a link between human agency and the migratory act. the deprivation from findingsafety zones produces alienation especially among Works have for instancediscussedrefugees’ right toseeksafer zones andhow prism through which themigration question hasbeeninterpreted intheWest. In ayet broader perspective, aplethora of research haslately questioned thesecurity migrant crisis,overlooking broader humanitarian andgeopolitical implications. predominant trendshave framedtheinflux of migrants into Europe asa European

Sarah Wolff, “Migration and Refugees in the Mediterranean: Rethinking Geopolitical Geopolitical Rethinking the Mediterranean: in and Refugees “Migration Wolff, Sarah See Wolff’s review article in which she reviews the books by A.K.M. Ahsan Ullah and (2014) Ullah Ahsan A.K.M. by books the reviews she in which article review Wolff’s See Andrew Geddes and Peter Scholten, “Policy Analysis and Europeanization: An Analysis of EU of EU Analysis An Europeanization: and Analysis “Policy Scholten, Peter and Geddes Andrew 44 An analysis of mainstreampolicy andmediaaccounts reveals that 46 , Vol. 17, No. 1(2015), , Vol. 45

14 IAI WORKING PAPERS 16 | 06 - MARCH 2016 ISSN 2280-4331 | ISBN 978-88-98650-85-9 © 2016 IAI underexplored, While theplea for aglobal refugee-sharing regimeremainscontested and offering legal protection. mechanism intheareasof resettlement, humanitarian fundingandstructures non-state actors on theprospects for animproved global “responsibility-sharing” be explored. regard, a more assertive shift from purely regional to global responses needs to responses that go beyond temporary human relief andEU-based quotas. In this European soil remainvital, it becomes imperative tosupplement themwith While humanitarian fundingandEUschemesseekingtogrant protection on states’ security andmigrants’ rights. is scholarly consensus that theyhave fallen short of strikingabalance between alleviate the migrant crises either in Europe or in third countries. Further, there measures have notprovided aviable andcoherent policy path tosignificantly devising refugee distribution quotas – are not longstanding solutions. These border protection, donating aidtobuild theresilience of thirdcountries, and refugee crisis has sofarsuggested that the“Europeanisation” model–outsourcing that confront migrants throughout theirjourney. TheEU’s handling of theSyrian capable of alleviating theprimarythreats that spurmassmigration andthose The human security modeladvocates theimportance of sustainable solutions 5.3 Global responses in theWake of theArab Uprisings: AEuropean Perspective Tangled Connections betweenMigration andSecurity 48 47 flows. between states’ obligations andmigrants’ interests inthecontext of acute refugee the lens of labouror development but also addresses thehighly delicate balance migration regime might look like, one that not only perceives migrants through The current migrant crisesariseasanopportunity toaddresswhat afairerglobal because of geopolitical challenges arisingfrom territorial proximity. mitigating thesecurity focus that EU’s regional migration governance requires normative-terrain-of-the-global-refugee-regime. Affairs the United Kingdom, and the United States”, the cit. and United Kingdom, the

Nicole Ostrand, “The Syrian Refugee Crisis: A Comparison of Responses by Germany, Sweden, Sweden, Germany, by of Responses AComparison Crisis: Refugee Syrian “The Nicole Ostrand, Ethics & International Ethics &International Regime”, in Refugee Global of the Terrain Normative “The Betts, Alexander , Vol. http://www.ethicsandinternationalaffairs.org/2015/the- 29, No. 2015), 4(Winter 47 The EU can speed up consultative processes with global state and 48 ashiftinthisdirection hasmanifold benefits. One of themis Updated 2March 2016 15 IAI WORKING PAPERS 16 | 06 - MARCH 2016 ISSN 2280-4331 | ISBN 978-88-98650-85-9 © 2016 IAI Journal of Common Market Studies, Vol. 38, No. 5(December2000),p. 751-777 Jef Huysmans, “TheEuropean Union andtheSecuritization of Migration”, in 2013.849849 Policy Analysis, Vol. 17, No. 1 (2015), p. 41-59, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13876988. Analysis of EU Migrant Integration Policymaking”, in Andrew GeddesandPeter Scholten, “Policy Analysis andEuropeanization: An Vol. 24,No. 3(2015),p.473-490,http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09662839.2015.1028191 Climate, Migration, and Security intheSouth Mediterranean”, inEuropean Security, Andrew Geddes,“Governing Migration from aDistance:Interactions between Research Reports , No. 2012/09(2012),http://hdl.handle.net/1814/23504 Philippe Fargues andChristineFandrich, “Migration aftertheArab Spring”, inMPC International Relations, Princeton, Princeton University Press,2009 Alexander Cooley andHendrik Spruyt, Contracting States. Sovereignty Transfers in No. 1(2015),p.37-56 Revolt: Differential Implementation”, inJournal of European Integration, Vol. 37, Assem Dandashly, “TheEUResponse toRegime ChangeintheWake of theArab and Migration Studies, Vol. 42,No. 4(2016), p.606-624 Bilateral Relations with Southern Mediterranean countries”, inJournal of Ethnic Michael Collyer, “Geopolitics asaMigration Governance Strategy: European Union Paradigm”, inSecurity Dialogue, Vol. 43,No. 3(June 2012),p.213-229 David Chandler, “Resilience andHuman Security: ThePost-Interventionist eu/node/7215 Relations?”, in in the Wake of the Arab Spring, What Prospects for EU-Southern Mediterranean Sergio Carrera, Leonhard den Hertog and Joanna Parkin, “EU Migration Policy States”, inDIIS Policy Briefs, April 2007, http://diis.dk/en/node/2267 Christina Boswell, “TheSecuritisation of Migration: ARisky Strategy for European the Arab Spring”, inMediterranean Politics, online 18January 2016 Make Spring: ACritical Juncture Perspective on theEUSanctions inResponse to Andreas Boogaerts,ClaraPortela andEdith Drieskens, “OneSwallow DoesNot refugee-regime ethicsandinternationalaffairs.org/2015/the-normative-terrain-of-the-global- in Alexander Betts, “TheNormative Terrain of theGlobal Refugee Regime”, References in theWake of theArab Uprisings: AEuropean Perspective Tangled Connections betweenMigration andSecurity Ethics &International Affairs, Vol. 29,No. 4(Winter 2015),http://www. MEDPRO Technical Reports, No. 15 (August 2012), https://www.ceps. Journal of Comparative 16 IAI WORKING PAPERS 16 | 06 - MARCH 2016 ISSN 2280-4331 | ISBN 978-88-98650-85-9 © 2016 IAI in Mediterranean Politics, Vol. 20,No. 3(2015),p.439-444 Geopolitical Constraints. Western-centric Policies andMobility’s Precariousness”, Sarah Wolff, “Migration and Refugees inthe Mediterranean: Rethinking in theE.U. Neighbourhood. Spilling over theWall, Dordrecht, Springer, 2014 Margaret Walton-Roberts andJenna Hennebry (eds.),Territoriality and Migration Security, Vol. 1,No. 1(2013),p.17-31, http://dx.doi.org/10.14240/jmhs.v1i1.6 Migration from aHuman Security Perspective”, inJournal on Migration and Human Francesca Vietti and Todd Scribner, “Human Insecurity: Understanding International Rights, Safety and Identity , Basingstoke andNew York, Palgrave Macmillan, 2014 A.K.M. AhsanUllah, Refugee Politics in theMiddle Eastand North Africa. Human Uprisings, London andNew York, Rowman &Littlefield, 2015 Martina Tazzioli, files/Issue_Brief_2011_Final.pdf Migration Eleanor Taylor-Nicholson, Cutting off theFlow: Extraterritorial Controls toPrevent 176, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17419166.2013.747909 Egypt, Libya, andSyria”, inDemocracyand Security, Vol. 9,No. 1-2 (2013),p.157- Peter Seeberg,“TheArab Uprisings andtheEU’s Migration Policies: TheCasesof C/9/%7B4C9C235E-D187-4287-AF65-64DCB709BCA6%7D1211PSx2.pdf for Mellemøststudier Analyses, December2011,http://static.sdu.dk/mediafiles//4/ Mediterranean: LearningtoCope with ‘aChangingNeighbourhood’”, inCenter Peter Seeberg, “The Arab Uprisings and the EU. EU Migration Policies towards the the E.U. Neighbourhood. Spilling over theWall, Dordrecht, Springer, 2014,p.13-26 Margaret Walton-Roberts andJenna Hennebry (eds.),Territoriality and Migration in Saskia Sassen,“Anti-Immigrant Politics Along with Institutional Incorporation?”, in 2012), p.36-57,http://amsterdamlawforum.org/article/view/255 and Actions intheEuropean Union”, inAmsterdam Law Forum, Vol. 4,No. 1(Winter Gemma Pinyol-Jiménez, “The Migration-Security Nexus in Short: Instruments v3i3.51 Human Security, Vol. 3,No. 3(2015),p.255-279, http://dx.doi.org/10.14240/jmhs. Sweden, theUnited Kingdom, andtheUnited States”, inJournal on Migration and Nicole Ostrand,“TheSyrian Refugee Crisis:AComparison of Responses byGermany, Papers RSCAS,No. 2015/75(October2015),http://hdl.handle.net/1814/37521 Tunisia andtheEuropean Union’s Mobility Partnership on Migration”, inEUIWorking Mohamed LimamandRaffaella A.DelSarto,“Periphery underPressure: Morocco, in theWake of theArab Uprisings: AEuropean Perspective Tangled Connections betweenMigration andSecurity , Berkeley, Berkeley Law School,July 2011,http://eucenter.berkeley.edu/ Spaces of Governmentality. Autonomous Migration and the Arab 17 IAI WORKING PAPERS 16 | 06 - MARCH 2016 ISSN 2280-4331 | ISBN 978-88-98650-85-9 © 2016 IAI Latest IAIWORKING PAPERS in theWake of theArab Uprisings: AEuropean Perspective Tangled Connections betweenMigration andSecurity www.iai.it [email protected] F +39 T +39 Via Angelo Brunetti, 9-I-00186 Rome, Italy and otherpapers’ series related toIAIresearch projects. 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