A BRIEF HISTORY OF DISCOVERY IN THE GULF OF CALIFORNIA © Richard C. Brusca Vers. 15 April 2016 (All photos by the author, unless otherwise indicated)

Eleven thousand years ago, in a period FIRST DISCOVERIES of cooler climate, native people looking north from the shores of the upper Gulf Native Americans have visited and lived would have seen piñon pine-juniper along the shores of the Sea of Cortez for woodlands and Joshua trees (Yucca the past 10,000 to 13,000 years, and brevifolia) on the Tinajas Altas Mountains, perhaps much longer. Here they found an 30 miles northwest of the desert landscape abundance of shellfish and finfish, easily of El Pinacate. [Endnote 1] In the lowlands, harvested by fishing and during the twice- these species were replaced by Sonoran daily low tides, and sea turtles they Desert species around 10,000 years ago, captured in shallow waters or on the beach when the piñons, junipers, and Joshua trees during their nesting period. Even in the arid migrated north and up in elevation. Ancient Northern Gulf region they found pure fresh shell middens (at least 4,000 years in age, water in the Colorado, Sonoyta and and probably much older) inform us that Concepción Rivers, and in the pozos native people exploited coastal shellfish at (artesian springs) that well up through least from Bahía Adair to the Guaymas area cracks in the soil all along the NW coast of for food and jewelry, some of which was Sonora, fed by fresh ground waters. Along traded far and wide, reaching northern the coast of the Gran Desierto de Altar of Arizona and California with regularity, and Sonora many of these pozos are even traveling as far inland as Colorado and surrounded by large beds of crystallized Oklahoma. [Endnote 2] salt, a commodity that further enhanced the value of their visits. And there is good evidence that the Seri People (Comcaac) of San Esteban Island, and native people of the Baja California peninsula, ate sea lions.

Native American Midden at Estero Morua, near Puerto Peñasco, Sonora

To these first explorers and collectors of the Gulf’s rich biodiversity, the northern coast of Sonora must have been important beyond imagination. There was reliable freshwater, a predictable and virtually Salina Grande, on the upper Sonoran coast; inexhaustible food supply, and shells and a huge salt flat in which are found artesian salt for trading. And the seafood varied springs (pozos) through the year, due to the high seasonal

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turnover of coastal life in the subtropical Pacific Panama, influenced European Upper Gulf. exploration in the region for the next 150 years. It was the search for pearls, and While Native Americans were exploring belief in a sea passage through North and living in the northern Gulf of California, America to connect the Pacific and Atlantic and before the first Europeans ever laid Oceans (the fabled “Strait of Anián”), that eyes on this region, the Old World had drove Cortés to two more explorations of generated many chapters of history. The the Pacific coast, including a failed attempt Roman Empire flourished and died, the to colonize Baja California in 1535 (the Dark Ages came and went, epidemics of the same year the first Spanish Viceroy, plague, syphilis, and St. Vitus' dance Antonio de Mendoza, arrived in Mexico). In ravaged Europe, alchemists searched in addition, before Cortés, an influential tale of vain for the Philosopher’s Stone and the adventure titled Las Sergas de Esplandián Elixir of Life, the great cities of Europe were (“The Exploits of Esplandián”) described founded, Jesus, Mohammed, and Attila the California as a “golden island, not far from Hun lived and died, the fields of the Garden of Eden, peopled by black, mathematics, medicine, and astronomy golden-armed women of Amazonian were developed, China invented strength and courage.” newspapers, porcelain, and gunpowder, India invented chess and the decimal Although Cortés laid this romantic legend system, Notre Dame and St. Peter’s to rest in 1535 when he crossed from cathedrals were built, Chaucer, Dante, mainland Mexico to southern Baja Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Botticelli, California, he never saw the Northern Gulf. Hieronymus Bosch, Marco Polo, Instead, he assigned to his deputy, Copernicus, and Martin Luther enlightened Francisco de Ulloa, the sailing expedition humankind, the Inquisition cast its dark that reached the uppermost Gulf (on shadow, Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain September 27, 1539), and Ulloa was the had enough faith in a young Italian explorer first European to set eyes on this region. named Christopher Columbus to finance his Ulloa named the Gulf "El Mar Vermejo" (the four voyages of discovery to the New World, Vermilion Sea), after the color of the water, and the pocket handkerchief was invented. from suspended sediments discharged from [Endnote 3] Meanwhile, back in the the Colorado River. Shortly thereafter, Western Hemisphere, the Aztec, Toltec, Ulloa seems to have come to his political Olmec, Maya, and Inca civilizations rose senses and changed this to Mar de Cortés. and fell, only the Maya surviving today with [Endnote 4] Ulloa and Francisco Preciado, a semblance of their ancient culture. All of who accompanied him, both left written this, before any but Native American eyes records of their discovery of the Colorado were cast upon the Sea of Cortez. River Delta and peninsular nature of Baja California. They saw not another living soul EUROPEANS IN THE GULF REGION in the delta region, and Ulloa wrote, “I do not believe that such a land can be The Spaniards began their exploration of inhabited.” the Gulf of California just 13 years after Hernán Cortés marched into the great Aztec Ulloa’s expedition comprised three city of Tenochtitlán (in November of 1519). ships—the Trinidad, Santa Agueda, and Cortés sent exploring ships to the Gulf in Santo Tomás—the last being lost early in 1532 and 1533 and, although both the voyage. Ulloa was clearly an over- expeditions met with disaster, the second achiever, and he actually sailed the entire returned with reports of natives wearing coast of the Baja California Peninsula, thus pearl ornaments. This report of pearls from becoming the first European to prove that it the southern Gulf, combined with earlier was not an island. By 1539 Ulloa rounded reports of Pearls from the Caribbean and

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Cabo San Lucas and entered the Pacific, Mendoza sent Hernándo de Alarcón to the and in December of that year he made it to head of the Gulf, in support of the land Bahía Magdalena where he was wounded expedition of Francisco Vásquez de in a fight with Indians. He made landfall on Coronado. Both the Alarcón-Coronado Isla Cedros in January of 1540, naming this Expedition and the de Niza expedition large island in honor of the junipers (and explored well beyond the head of the Gulf. pines) on the highest crests, but his destiny Alarcón not only reached the Colorado after that remains a mystery. Presumably, River Delta, but he traveled upriver in he died and his ship went down in the longboats as far as the Gila River, rugged waters of the northwestern coast of reconfirming the peninsular character of Baja California. However, there are Baja California. However, Alarcón's persisting stories suggesting that he discoveries also seem to have eluded most managed to return to mainland Mexico, and of the cartographers of the sixteenth even to Europe, although these are hotly century. [Endnote 6] At the same time that contested (see Garrahy and Weber, 1971, Alarcón was exploring the delta region, the for an interesting review of this subject). first European visited the Sierra Pinacate lava fields – the Spanish explorer Melchior As fate would have it, Ulloa’s discovery Díaz. If Díaz had climbed to the top of the that Baja was not an island did not reach Sierra Pinacate in 1540, and the temptation most European cartographers (or was to do so would have been strong (it’s the obscured by misunderstanding), and Baja highest point in the area), he too might have California continued to be depicted as an realized that Baja was not an island. There island on most the early maps of North seems to be no record of such a sighting; America. However, Domingo del Castillo’s however, Díaz did reach the Colorado River map of 1541 used Ulloa’s information, where he found a cached letter left by showing the Colorado River and Punta Alarcón noting he had passed that way. Eugenio (where the map ended), and Judging from Díaz’s notes, he probably seems to have been the first map to use the discovered the Cerro Prieto hot springs name “California.” [Endnote 5] From 1620 during his journey. through the early 1700s various maps appeared showing California as either a In 1591 missionaries of the Society of peninsula or an island. For the most part, Jesus (Jesuits) entered Sinaloa and began the Dutch geographers got it right. Some their northward advance. For the next 177 cartographers offered maps in either style, years this Catholic order dominated most of so consumers could choose for themselves the exploration and documentation of the what to believe! In 1746, the Jesuit Gulf of California and surrounding territory, Provincial Escobar sent Father Fernando until the order was expulsed from the Consag to map the northern Gulf, and it was Spanish colonies in 1767. Father Eusebio the results of this expedition, when sent to Francisco Kino arrived in Mexico from Spain Spain, that finally led King Ferdinand VIII to in 1681. He tried to missionize Baja issue a formal decree that California was a California without success, and then moved peninsula, and not an island. A Jesuit map on to Sonora. His work represented the of 1767 incorporates the findings of Kino, final phase of missionization in northwestern Ugarte, and Consag. Mexico. His northernmost settlement was San Javier del Bac, near Tucson. Today The same year that Ulloa sailed into the one can view the skeletal remains of Father northern Gulf, the Viceroy of New Spain, Kino at the handsome domed crypt in the Antonio de Mendoza, sent Fray Marcos de town of Magdalena de Kino, near the church Niza on an overland expedition to the of Santa Maria Magdalena. Although there region. The very next year (1540), is some evidence that Kino himself might prompted by de Niza’s and Ulloa’s reports, have established a chapel at this site

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(perhaps in the 1690s), the existing church he felt strongly that Lower California must dates to 1830s and has been reworked not be an island at all, but a peninsula. several times. Thus grew his passion to find a land route to Lower California, leading to his many Aside from his missionary work, Kino’s expeditions through the Gran Desierto, other great contribution was his exploratory along the Camino del Diablo, and finally and cartography skills. He re-discovered down the Colorado River. that Baja California was a peninsula and not an island (Francisco Ulloa had discovered Kino twice traveled to the lowermost this in 1539, Melchior Díaz proved it again Colorado River, in 1701 and 1702. On the in 1540, and Juan de Oñate again in 1604, first journey he crossed the river 25-30 but their writings went largely unnoticed). miles below the Colorado-Gila junction, and His maps of northwestern Mexico and on the second he traveled down to tidewater southwestern USA (the Pimería Alta region) on the river’s eastern shore. He was the were the most accurate made to date, and first European to cross that river, and his they can still be used with good precision. 1702 journey gave him certainty that Lower His expeditions to the Lower Colorado River California was not an island, but a and the Sierra Pinacate relied on the peninsula. From these two trips came one springs at Quitobaquito (now in Organ Pipe of Kino’s most famous maps of the Pimería Cactus National Monument), as well as Alta region and Lower California. Native other, smaller springs and tinajas that his Americans, of course, had known for Indian guides led him to. He made four thousands of years that Baja was a expeditions into the Pinacates: October peninsula and not an island. 1698, March and April 1701, and November 1706. [Endnote 7]

Sketch of Padre Eusebio Francisco Kino, by Frances O’Brien The famous Pinacate beetle, Eleodes armata; namesake On his second expedition to the for the region. Pinacates, in 1701, from the top of the Nine years later, Padre Kino died in the Sierra Pinacate (named by him Cerro de village known today as Magdalena de Kino. Santa Clara), Kino followed the horizon with Just before his death, Kino drew a fairly his telescope, tracing the gigantic Bahía accurate map of the Sea of Cortez that Adaír stretching away to the northwest, labeled the Baja California peninsula sinking into a distant haze (at the Colorado “Penisla de California.” Kino’s map also River delta), and then rising again as the showed all the rivers of Sonora and Sinaloa Sierra Juarez range in northern Baja that flowed into the Gulf at that time, California. Although he couldn’t be certain,

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although providing names only for three, the Ríos Colorado, Mayo and Fuerte.

The Tohono O’odham (Papago) village of Sonoydag, along the Río Sonoyta, played a vital role in Jesuit expeditions. Having reliable water year round, the site became Kino’s westernmost mission, Misión San Marcelo, christened in 1698. Kino named the village Sonoyta, a name that stuck. The mission only had one padre, Father Enrique Ruhen, who was killed in the Pima Uprising in 1751. He worked at San Marcelo less The grave of Padre Enrique Ruhen, the only than 6 months before meeting his untimely Jesuit padre ever to staff the Misión San death. His marked grave still exists, about 1 Marcelo mile east of the center of Sonoyta, where a In 1721 the Jesuit priest, Juan de Ugarte small chapel has been built to commem- sailed to the head of the Gulf to again orate the Kino mission and Padre Ruhen. reconfirm the peninsular nature of Baja California. Ugarte also explored the coast of Sonora, the island of Tiburón, and the mouth of the Colorado River.

In 1746, another Jesuit, Fernando Consag (a Croatian priest at the San Ignacio Mission from 1734 to 1759) led a flotilla of four canoes, manned by soldiers and mission Indians, from Santa Rosalía to the mouth of the Río Colorado.

Sixty-five years after Kino’s death, the United States declared its independence from Britain. At about the same time, The Sierra Pinacate spread across the horizon of the Gran Desierto de Altar Captain Juan Bautista de Anza (the great Basque explorer and defender of the The mission itself was abandoned from Jesuits; son of Juan Bautista de Anza the 1706 to 1743, when it was reopened with a elder) passed just north of the Pinacates, bequest from Don José de la Puente Peña making famous the Camino del Diablo trail Castrejón y Salzines, Marqués de from Sonoyta to the present-day location of Villapuente, a Spanish nobleman. But, it Yuma, on the Colorado River. [Endnote 8] never found a Padre to oversee its work, Jesuit fathers had been passing over this and when Don José died in 1739, he left a trail for 50 years, using O'odham guides, bequest and asked that the name be and Father Kino actually left a map of it. changed to Misión San Miguel de Sonoíta. In 1810, the Mexican War of Independence (from Spain) began, and this is the date recognized by Mexico is its official Independence, although it was not until 1821 that the new nation formally declared itself a Republic.

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Kino’s beautiful mission church in San Ignacio (north of Magdalena de Kino), Sonora, still stands. Kino named it Nuestra Señora San Ignacio de Caburica.

The Misión Nuestra Señora de Loreto church in Loreto, Baja California Sur. Loreto was the first mission and capital of the Californias, and it is considered the origin of all missions of Alta and Baja California. Founded by Father Juan María de Salvatierra, who gave the first mass here in 1697. The church was built with the help of the local Guaycura Indians.

The old mission church at Mulegé, Baja California Sur, built in 1707 THE POST-SPANISH COLONIAL ERA

Due to the inhospitable terrain and Apache deprivations (which did not end until Geronimo’s capture in 1886), few European or U.S. explorers made their way to the Pimería Alta. [Endnote 9] After de Anza’s explorations, many decades passed before Europeans began to actually notice the Gulf. [Endnote 10] In 1826, Lieutenant R. W.H. Hardy, a British naval officer, reached the mouth of the Colorado River from Guaymas in a small schooner named the Bruja. Hardy recorded the two islands at

The spectacular San Javier mission church high in the mouth of the river, and had his boat the Sierra La Giganta, west of Loreto. This mission grounded for 8 days before retreating back was founded by father María Píccolo in 1699, at a into the Gulf. Frederick Reigen, a Belgian place then known by Guaycura Indians as Viggé citizen who lived in Mazatlán from 1848 to Biaundó. The church was built from 1744 to 1758 1850 and took up collecting molluscs by Father Miguel del Barco.

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throughout the Gulf, amassing one of the described by C. H. Gilbert, Chief Naturalist largest amateur collections of sea shells of on board the ship. The chief invertebrate all time – 14 tons of shells! The Reigen biologist on the Albatross expeditions was collection found its way to Liverpool, and Paul Bartsch. from there it was partly dispersed. Much of it was published upon by Philip Carpenter In 1852, the Colorado Steam Navigation (Carpenter 1857; see Hendrickx and Company was formed to carry people and Toledano-Granados 1994). [Endnote 11] goods up the Colorado River from the Sea of Cortez. Prior to this, Yuma was supplied Another serious collector of marine life in by mule train from San Diego. The the region was John Xantus (de Vesey), a Colorado River steamboat business lasted, controversial Hungarian hired by the U.S. in one form or another, for about 25 years. Coast Survey as a tidal observer stationed [Endnote 12] at the tip of the Baja California peninsula (April 1859 to mid-1861). Most of Xantus’ collections are now at the Smithsonian Institution (e.g., Jordan and Gilbert 1882). From 1888 to 1894 the French chemical engineer, Leon Diguet, studied natural history while employed by the famous Boleo Mine in Santa Rosalía. Diguet made many collections, most of which ended up at the Museum d’Histoire Naturelle in Paris. Ten marine invertebrates from the Gulf have been named in Diguet’s honor (six crustaceans, three molluscs, and one The hermit crab, Clibinarius digueti, named annelid worm), as well as two fish species. in honor of the French naturalist Leon Diguet

Two conspicuous plants that bear his name are the giant barrel cactus of Isla Santa Catalina (Ferocactus diguetii) and the bushy ocotillo of the southern Gulf coast (Fouquieria diguetii, the palo adán bush).

During the following three decades, a few ichthyologists made collections of fishes at some readily accessible sites, notably The endangered totoaba, Totoaba Guaymas and Mazatlán, that were reported macdonaldi (illustration by Alex Kerstitch) upon mainly by David Starr Jordan and colleagues (e.g., Evermann and Jenkins Daniel Trembly MacDougal (first Director 1891, Jordan 1895). Oceanographic data of Tucson’s Desert Botanical Laboratory, were recorded, and some marine organisms then of the Carnegie institution of were trawled, by the U.S. Fish Commission Washington D.C.) and his party explored steamer Albatross in the late 1880s/early the Sierra Pinacate region in 1907, but only 1890s, and again in 1911, and most of one member of the group reached the Gulf these specimens are also at the coast, the “official geographer” Godfrey Smithsonian Institution (e.g. Gilbert 1892). Sykes (Hornaday 1908). Sykes was a Aside from a brief foray in 1889, the trained civil engineer, hydrologist, and ace Albatross did not work in the Northern Gulf. geographer. His map of the Colorado River However, from the Albatross expedition Delta (Sykes 1937) is still the best that came the original description of a legendary exists. Shortly after the MacDougal fish, the totoaba (Totoaba macdonaldi), expedition, in 1909-1910, Carl Lumholtz

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explored the Pinacates and the entire upper on the beach at what is today El Golfo de Gulf coast of Sonora (See his book, New Santa Clara, finding it littered with giant Trails in Mexico, 1912). Lumholtz not only branches and trunks of cottonwood and spent time on the shores of the Upper Gulf, willow from the once great Colorado River he visited the coastal pozos and salinas, marshland. Lumholtz's travel log notes that writing, "Judging from the extraordinary "the upper part of the Gulf abounds in fish," springs I encountered on the shore of the which he and his party, on occasion, took in salt deposit, Salina Grande, near the coast, great numbers by tossing sticks of dynamite there must be a large sheet of fresh water into the water from the shoreline! underneath most of that western coastal Lumholtz spent considerable time with desert." The "sheet of water" Lumholtz the Tohono O'odham People and talked referred to is a shallow water table that with leaders of their salt expeditions – a trek probably originates with the Colorado River, that used to take them from as far away as flowing underground along the Cerro Prieto the Gila River in Arizona to the pozos, Fault Line. Some of the water could also salinas, and shores of the Upper Gulf. come from the Cabeza Prieta National Lumholtz met "El Doctor Pancho," one of Wildlife Refuge (just north of the U.S.- the last surviving Sand Papago (Areneños), Mexico border) and the westernmost region who was then living in the O'odham of the El Pinacate Biosphere Reserve settlement at Quitobaquito. The Sand (Sonora). Papagos were a hardy lot, living a nomadic lifestyle in the Gran Desierto. However, having a reliable supply of fresh water from the scattered but known pozos and tinajas, and access to the rich biodiversity of the Upper Gulf, suggests that their life might not have been so difficult. In addition to fish and crustaceans, they are known to have taken sea lions and sea turtles along the coast, as well as foraging on small game and insects, and on many coastal and inland plants of the region, including the fabled “sand food,” or "root of the sands" (Pholisma [=Ammoboma] sonorae). Pholisma sonorae, the famous O’odham “sand food” of the Altar Desert Early on, the O'odham harvested salt (Photo by Andrea DiGiulio) from the upper Gulf’s coastal salinas and traded it in Tucson to both Europeans and With a Cucupá Indian guide, Lumholtz Pima Indians. The salt trek also had a traveled southeast from the Colorado River, religious purpose. Lumholtz's description of skirting the marshes "on the edge of a great the sacred salt trek includes this colorful playa … on the eastern limit of the delta," to passage: "The party travels very silently, eventually reach the small springs at El only elderly men who have undertaken the Doctor, just north of the modern town El journey before talk, and nobody turns Golfo de Santa Clara. The "playa" Lumholtz around either on the journey out or on the referred to was no doubt the Santa Clara return. No member of the expedition can depression, which today supports the scratch himself unless he uses for the Ciénega Santa Clara, the largest remnant purpose a special implement made from a wetland of the Colorado River Delta (12,000 twig of the greasewood." [Endnote 13] hectares), recreated in recent times by diversion of agriculture wastewater from the

United States. Lumholtz eventually arrived

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Sand dunes of Gran Desierto; spring blooms

Aldo Leopold and his brother explored the Colorado River delta by canoe. Leopold's often cited description of that journey was published as a short essay in A Sand County Almanac and Sketches Here and There (1949). He wrote, "On the map the Delta was bisected by the river, but in fact the river was nowhere and everywhere, El Doctor wetlands, north of the fishing for he [the river] could not decide which of a village of El Golfo de Santa Clara hundred green lagoons offered the most

Not long after Lumholtz explored the pleasant and least speedy path to the Gulf. Upper Gulf, another famous explorer, So he traveled them all, and so did we. He American Ronald L. Ives, began to divided and rejoined, he twisted and turned, adventure into northwestern Mexico. Ives he meandered in awesome jungles, he all was fascinated by historical cartography but ran in circles, he dallied with lovely and spent many years reconstructing the groves, he got lost and was glad of it, and day-by-day details of Kino’s travels. so were we." And, "Often we came upon a [Endnote 14] bobcat, flattened to some half-immersed driftwood log, paw poised for mullet. Families of raccoons waded the shallows, munching water beetles. Coyotes watched us from inland knolls, waiting to resume their breakfast of mesquite beans…" The lush cottonwood forests and wetlands of the delta seen by the Leopold brothers began a slow, sad death once construction of Hoover Dam was completed in 1935, creating a chokehold on the mighty Colorado River. Within a few decades the bobcat, beaver, mountain lion, deer, jaguar, Ciénega Santa Clara an unknown freshwater fish fauna, and most

of the rest of this rich ecosystem were gone.

One of the earliest American “oceanographic” expeditions to the Sea of Cortez was William Beebe's 1936 expedition under the auspices of the New York Zoological Society – the “Zaca,” or

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“Templeton Crocker” Expedition (Zaca was JOHN STEINBECK AND ED RICKETTS the ship, Templeton Crocker her owner). VISIT THE SEA OF CORTEZ The Zaca Expedition was, as typical of Beebe's expeditions, weak on science and In 1940, four years after the Zaca heavy on Beebe's own brand of machismo. Expedition, modern marine biology in the Beebe's narrative of the journey (The Zaca Gulf of California had its birth with the Venture, 1938) makes better reading for remarkable pioneering expedition of Ed testosterone-laden sport fishermen than for Ricketts and John Steinbeck aboard the those with a sincere interest in natural Western Flyer, a purse seiner out of history. Nevertheless, the expedition Monterey, California. [Endnote 16] The produced a large number of specimens that biology (and philosophy) of that amazing provided a source of taxonomic research voyage is chronicled in their 1941 book, Sea material for several decades (published of Cortez. A Leisurely Journal of Travel and upon by Jocelyn Crane, Steve Glassell, Research (also see Astro and Hayashi Fenner Chace, Aaron Treadwell, Elisabeth 1971, Hedgpeth 1978, Brusca 1993, Beegel Deichmann, Fred Ziesenhenne, Martin et al. 1997, Rodger 2002). It was this Burkenroad, and others). Unlike most expedition that first documented, in an expeditions, Beebe made the decision to organized way, the coastal marine life of the concentrate collecting efforts at just three Gulf. Using funds from Steinbeck's localities: Bahía Santa Inez, Cabo San successful writing career, he and Ricketts Lucas and the adjoining Arena and Gorda chartered the Western Flyer for a six-week Banks, and Clarion Island. Thus, the Zaca expedition to the Gulf. [Endnote 17] The never reached the Northern Gulf. However, Ricketts-Steinbeck Expedition’s Beebe culled some cogent information northernmost collecting sites were in the about the Sea of Cortez in 1936. His Midriff Islands, at Puerto Refugio on Isla interviews with Mexican fishermen in Baja Ángel de la Guarda, and Red Bluff Point on California indicated that upwards of 20 Isla Tiburón, barely “touching down” in the million tuna and skipjack were being caught Northern Gulf. [Endnote 18] annually along the coast of northwestern Mexico, with no apparent diminution in their numbers over the years – testimony to the highly productive waters of the region. They also encountered Japanese fishing boats in the Gulf, probably some of the first Japanese penetrations into this Sea, establishing a pattern that has persisted, episodically, ever since. Although Beebe was well aware of the beauty and diversity of life in the Sea of Cortez, he had an exploitive view of nature, and some of the most descriptive passages in his account describe shooting sharks and manta rays for sport (with rifles and pistols) from the Ed Ricketts deck of the Zaca. The last line of his book reads, "At my next formal dinner, when the The landmark Ricketts-Steinbeck voyage guests are absorbed in the delicacy of their to the Sea of Cortez had a profound impact green turtle soup, I will rejoice in the on their lives and, in stark contrast to memory of the brooding turtles of Clarion Beebe’s writing, on the American Island." [Endnote 15] environmental consciousness, and it brought an awareness of the Sea of Cortez to both the public and the scientific world.

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Their expedition collected at 24 sites and As soon as the Arizona-Sonora Desert captured approximately 500 species of Museum was founded (1952), in Tucson, marine invertebrates, 93 of which have Arizona, it began research and conservation found their way to the Smithsonian work in the Sea of Cortez. Early on, Institution and are today available in the Museum Trustee Joseph Wood Krutch and collections of the National Museum of Associate Director Lewis Wayne Walker Natural History. For more than 30 years, conducted surveys of the islands of the their expedition report was the only place Midriff Region. Much of their work was one could turn for a synoptic view of life in funded (between 1958 and 1972) by the the Sea of Cortez. [Endnote 19] Belvedere Scientific Fund of San Francisco, through the personal interest of Kenneth Bechtel. Through perseverance and political savvy, Lew Walker and Mexican mammalogist Bernardo Villa managed to

The Western Flyer in 2015. Port Townsend, Washington.

convince President Lopez Mateos to protect SINCE STEINBECK AND RICKETTS the critically important seabird breeding

Expeditions from Scripps Institution of island of Isla Rasa (in 1964), the first Oceanography, the University of California protected area to be established in the Gulf. at Los Angeles, Stanford University, the [Endnote 20] From 1960 to 1969 the San California Academy of Sciences (beginning Diego Museum of Natural History operated as early as 1888), and the University of the Vermilion Sea Field Station at Bahía de Southern California's Allan Hancock los Angeles, and in 1962 it undertook a Foundation in the 1940s and 1950s ushered major expedition in the Gulf (funded, again, in an era of organized research effort in the by the Belvedere Fund). Gulf. The expeditions and taxonomic However, despite all this previous work, publications of the once glorious but now when I arrived in the Gulf in 1969 the only defunct Allan Hancock Foundation stand compilation of information on marine above all others in documenting the invertebrates was the Ricketts and biodiversity of the Gulf (Brusca 1980a). Steinbeck volume (1941), and there were Between 1942 and 1983, the Hancock no keys to assist one in identifying the Foundation publications on Pacific marine invertebrates of the region. I realized this life produced an astonishing 22,469 pages after I began a two-year residence in of primarily invertebrate taxonomic text that Mexico working for the University of stand as a watershed in marine biodiversity Arizona’s once powerful (but now moribund) research (U.S.C. Press 1985).

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Marine Biology Program. I quickly Desarrollo (CIAD), and the Facultad de discovered that if I wanted students to know Ciencias of the Universidad Nacional what they were looking at in Gulf tidepools, I Autónoma de México (UNAM) as well as its would have to write the keys myself. Thus it Instituto de Ciencias del Mar y Limnología’s (ICML-UNAM) Mazatlán field station and Instituto de Biología (IB-UNAM). This body of work has resulted in many publications describing the fauna and environment of the region, much of it cataloged in Schwartzlose et al. (1992), Brusca (2010), Brusca et al. (2001, 2004), Thomson et al. (2000), and at http://rickbrusca.com/http___www.rickbrusc a.com_index.html/Research_files/Gulf%20B ibliography.pdf. Today, early 6,000 species of animals (macrofauna) are known from the Sea of Cortez. However, compared with Elegant tern nesting area on Isla Rasa much of the world's coastline, exploration came to be that, in 1969, I gave up my and documentation of the biodiversity of the lifestyle of chasing waves and Grateful Sea of Cortez is still in its early stages, and I Dead concerts in California and moved to estimate that about half of its fauna remains Puerto Peñasco to live on the shores of the undescribed, while the natural history of Sea of Cortez for two years. There, I most species is still unknown. designed and built a small marine lab for the University of Arizona, made countless field ENDNOTES trips throughout the Gulf, and shipped specimens of invertebrates to specialists Endnote 1. The name “Pinacate” derives around the world. Out of that emerged the from pinacatl, of the Aztec Nahuatl first edition of my “Gulf Handbook” language, which means “beetle.” In the (Common Intertidal Invertebrates of the Gulf Gran Desierto there is a large black beetle, of California; Brusca 1973; second edition the “Pinacate beetle” (Eleodes armata), that 1980b). Much of those two years was spent when threatened sticks its hind-end exploring the shores of the Gulf with J. vertically into the air and emits a foul odor. Laurens Barnard, a good friend and mentor This may be the only geographic region in who, at that time, was on loan from the the world named after a beetle! Smithsonian Institution to the University of Arizona (see Brusca 1993). El Pinacate is the largest lava desert in North America, the volcanic flows covering Since the first edtion of my “Gulf ~2000 km2. At its heart are the remains of Handbook,” knowledge of the upper Gulf the Santa Clara Shield Volcano, now rising and its biodiversity has increased as the twin Pinacate (4235 ft) and Carnegie substantially through research by scientists (4000 ft) Peaks of what is now called Sierra at the University of Arizona, Centro de Pinacate. They rise from a desert floor of Investigación Científica y de Educación ~900 ft elevation. Ives (1964) considered Superior de Ensenada (CICESE), the Batamote Hills and Punta Peñasco Universidad de Sonora (UNISON), Instituto flows as the outermost (and oldest) Tecnológico y de Estudios Superiores de activities of the Santa Clara Volcano, but Monterrey (ITESM)-Campus Guaymas, others have disagreed (regarding these as Universidad Autónoma de Baja California unrelated events). Ives claimed the Sur (UABCS), Centro de Investigaciones Batamote Hills comprised ~10 sq mi of old Biológicas del Noroeste (CIBNOR), Centro basalt from the Santa Clara event activity, de Investigación en Alimentación y

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parts of which are dominated by columnar radiocarbon-dated (C-14) two food shells cliffs resembling those of the Palisades of (Carditamera [=Cardita] affinis and the Hudson, or the Devil’s Postpile Phyllonotus [=Hexaplex]) erythrostomus) formation. from Estero Morua middens at calibrated ages (Stuiver and Reimer, 1993, The first extended exploration of the Radiocarbon 35: 215-230) of 1,969 YrBP Pinacates in modern times was that of the (radiocarbon age 2,010 ±55) and 2,024 MacDougal-Hornaday party of 1907, which YrBP (radiocarbon age 2,075 ±40) led to the construction of Godfrey Sykes (radiocarbon dates determined by the famous map. From this came the first University of Arizona/National Science English-language descriptions of the craters Foundation Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (Hornaday 1908), although Kino, Manje and Laboratory). The only remains from crab Salvatierra had described them more than dining at Estero Morua seem to be the large 250 years earlier, but gave no names to any claws (pincers, or chelipeds) of the blue of them. Ives (1964) calculated that Kino crab, Callinectes bellicosus; no remains of had, at least, described what today we call carapaces or the smaller walking legs have Hornaday Peak and MacDougal Crater. In been found. This suggests that the diners 1909, Carl Lumholtz (assisted by Alberto might have been ecologically aware, and Celaya) also explored the Pinacate. instead of killing the entire crab they simply broke off the claws, which would grow back, According to Ronald Ives (1935), Tohono thereby avoiding possible population O’odham legend describes in some detail declines in the estero. (Or, perhaps an eruption of volcanic ash from the breaking off the claws was simply the summits the Santa Clara Volcano. And in quickest and easiest way to consume this January 1935, violent eruptions, audible 50 crustacean’s meat!) In the past, Estero miles away, were reported from the region, Morua received freshwater via its eastern allegedly from the El Elegante Crater area arm from the Río Sonoyta, although this (this is the only report of an eruption in the river has not reached the Gulf of California Pinacates in recorded history for the region, except during flood years since before the which dates back to 1540). In 1964 Ives turn of the last century (a turn-of-the-century seems to have changed his mind about the map of the River can be found in Hornaday location of this eruption, stating the legend 1908). In addition to shellfish, the kitchen probably refers to an ash eruption at Cerro middens of Estero Morua reveal that native Colorado, which took place between 250 people were also consuming sea turtles, and 1000 years ago (he considered this the rabbits, and fish from the estero and outer youngest of the major cones in the Pinacate coast tidepools. region).

Endnote 3. On October 19, 1469, in Endnote 2. Ancient peoples who exploited Valladolid, Isabella, the future Queen of the northern Gulf's rich coastal biodiversity Castille, married Ferdinand, who would left behind huge piles of shells and other become the King of Aragon, thus laying the “kitchen refuse,” or middens. Some of foundation for the emergence of Spain as a these shell middens are miles across, and unified nation and setting the stage for the some have depths of more than one meter. country’s future greatness. By 1479 Estero Morua, near the town of Puerto Ferdinand and Isabella were firmly in control Peñasco, is encircled by nearly continuous of the monarchy of a unified Spain. There shell middens covering about 60 percent of had been a long-standing campaign to rid its shoreline, each midden containing tens Spain of the Muslim influence emanating of thousands of mollusc shells (comprising out of the Kingdom of Granada. When the more than 30 species) and pottery from at watershed year of 1492 dawned, the armies least three distinct cultures. I have of Isabella and Ferdinand conquered

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Granada and forced the last Muslim Panama (now known as the Archipiélago de foothold from the Iberian Peninsula. In that las Perlas). Millions of pearls were same year, Christopher Columbus, whose eventually taken from Caribbean waters, but explorations had been sponsored by the Pacific pearl beds were quickly Isabella, made his first landfall in the New exhausted. World, in The Bahamas. Isabella died in 1504, at the age of 53, but she had begun Perhaps the most famous pearl from those the era that was to see Spain become the years was the giant (~10 gram) La most powerful nation in Europe, if not the Peregrina (often called “The world. Just 3 years after Isabella’s death, Incomparable”). Reputedly given as a the first printed map with the name wedding gift by Philip II of Spain to his “America” on it appeared in Europe, created second wife, Mary I of England, it passed by Martin Waldseemüller (it was also the through a succession of royal hands and, in first published map to show the Pacific 1969, was sold at an auction to British actor Ocean as a separate body of water). Richard Burton, who gave it to his then wife, Elizabeth Taylor. As of 2001, she still Isabella’s deal with Columbus had been owned the jewel. that, while exploring a new route to the Orient, he would be granted authority over Endnote 4. The first name given to the Gulf all the lands he discovered, as well as 10 of California was Mar Bermejo (= Vermillion percent of the value of all goods obtained. Sea in English), by Ulloa in 1539. Soon And on the list of goods that Ferdinand and thereafter, the name was changed to Mar Isabella expected were pearls. The first de Cortés (probably by Ulloa himself, voyage of Columbus made landfalls on although this is unclear). Other Spaniards various Caribbean Islands, and he returned applied a variety of additional names to the to Spain with gold, cotton and Indians, but region, and by 1602 names such as Mar not with pearls. But on his third trip, near Rojo, Mar Roxo, Mar de la California, and the mouth of the Orinoco River (in what is Mar de la California Mediterraneano had all now Venezuela) he finally found Isabella’s appeared on the scene. Kino himself used pearls. However, Ferdinand and Isabella at least six different names on his maps of suspected Columbus of hoarding pearls for the region, between 1683 and 1710. himself and, along with his inept handling of However, by 1800 all names other then the political situation in Hispaniola, they had Golfo de California, Mar de Cortés, and Mar him being jailed and returned to Spain in Bermejo had fallen out of favor. The “z” 1500. However, Columbus was a smooth spelling (i.e., Sea of Cortez) first appeared talker and he convinced Isabella to give him in the mid-1700s in the French literature, another chance. He was released the presumably as a phonic transliteration of the following year, and he embarked on his “és” ending. The “Cortez” spelling appeared fourth and final voyage in 1502, but without in America as early as 1870, and it been finding any more pearls. But, reports of his increasing in popularity and use in recent initial discovery (and smuggled pearls sold decades. (Hernán Cortés probably never by his crew in Spain) led to a “New World spelled his own name with a “z,” although pearl rush” that lasted for the next 150 he did use several variations of his given years. The next big pearl find was by name, e.g. Hernán, Hernando, Fernando). Alonso de Ojeda, who had sailed on Columbus’s first expedition, and a then- Endnote 5. The earliest map to show Baja unknown Italian named Amerigo Vespucci. California as a peninsula might have been Next came Vasco Núñez de Balboa, who the “chart series” of Battista Agnese (1538- crossed the Isthmus of Panama in 1513 and 1548), probably capitalizing on Ulloa’s 1539 found natives on the Pacific coast wearing discovery. It was also correctly depicted on pearls from the islands in the Gulf of Sebastian Cabot’s 1544 map, and of course

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the superlative maps of Mercator (1569) Nuñez de Balboa was the first to discover and Ortelius (1570: Theatrum Orbis pearl grounds in Pacific Panama, in the Terrarum). However, the majority of the islands he named “Archipelago de las European maps produced before the early Perlas” (the “Pearl Islands” on modern 17th century still depicted Baja California as maps). an island, and it may have been the work of the Jesuit priest Eusebio Kino that finally Pearl beds everywhere, including in the Sea laid the issue to rest for European of Cortez, were found simply by searching cartographers. Kino was a well-trained and for piles of empty shells on the coast, left inveterate cartographer. In his very first behind by Native Americans who were more year in Mexico (1681) he produced and interested in consuming the meat of the published a comet chart to illustrate his bivalve than in harvesting the pearls they treatise, “Exposición Astronómica,” which produced. The newly discovered pearl beds were heavily harvested and quickly was published in Mexico City. This was the th first astronomical chart to be printed in the destroyed. By the latter part of the 16 Americas (as a design element, it included a century, both the “Pearl Coast” of the drawing of the Virgin of Guadalupe). Caribbean and the Pearl Islands of Pacific Panama were largely depleted. Over- harvesting, coupled with falling prices of The discovery of the Baja peninsula is often th credited to Hernán Cortés himself. pearls in Europe in the 17 century, However, reports of the peninsula also eventually led to the collapse of the New came from a group of mutineers who World pearl-fishing industry. murdered their captain and took over the th Early in the 20 century, pearl shell exploring vessel La Concepción, which harvesting (for mother-of-pearl) in Pacific Hernán Cortés had dispatched in late 1533 Panama experienced a revival, and it (the second expedition Cortés sent into the provided a steady livelihood to numerous Gulf). Fortún Jiménez was the leader, and communities scattered across the Pearl he, along with 20 of his companions, were Islands, and other islands in the Gulf of killed by natives at a place they named Chiriqui. However, by mid-century the Santa Cruz, later to be renamed La Paz. bivalves (Pinctada mazatlanica) had once The survivors told tales of pearls, quickly again been depleted and the industry spurring Cortés himself to establish a colony collapsed. at Santa Cruz (on 3 May 1535) that lasted less than two years and brought back only a There have been many hypotheses on the few pearls of inferior quality for all their origin of the name California, probably first efforts. employed in the Ulloa voyage of 1539-1540, and first appearing on a map of Castillo’s in It is worth noting that pearls played an 1541. The best explanations of the name important role in driving colonization of the are probably those of H. H. Bancroft (1884) entire New World, not just Mexico. In the and C. E. Chapman (1921), both of whom 16th century, “pearl grounds” were accept the ideas of Edward Everett Hale discovered in many areas of Central and (1862). Hale found his inspiration in a novel South America. Letters written by of chivalry called Las Sergas de Esplandian Columbus talking about pearls (especially (The Deeds of Esplandian), written by Garcí during the third voyage, 1548) circulated in Ordóñez de Montalvo. The book was based Europe, and the pearls he returned with on an earlier series of books titled Amadis drove demand for further exploration. The of Gaul, written around 1400 by the southern Caribbean region came to known Portuguese Vasco de Lobeira. Lobeira’s 4- as the “Pearl Coast,” and especially rich part novel had been widely translated and pearl beds were discovered in Colombia, read throughout Europe during a period Venezuela and the Lesser Antilles. Vasco when such romantic novels of chivalry

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strongly influenced Europeans emerging out even within distant sight of the place, which of medieval times. The Amadis and Sergas nevertheless he described as a beautiful books were popular and apparently widely and gigantic city (“bigger than the city of available in Spain just after the discovery of Mexico”) with natives wearing turquoise and the Americas by Columbus. In the Sergas pearl oyster shells. Encouraged by this novel, Esplandian was the son of the hero, report, Mendoza ordered the 30-year old Amadis, and both were with the Christian governor of the frontier province of New Emperor during a siege of Constantinople Galicia, Francisco Vásquez de Coronado, by the forces of paganism. Fighting beside north in 1540, accompanied by 330 the pagan Turks was a band of Amazon Spaniards and more than a thousand warriors led by their queen, Caláfia. These Indians. So large a force was slow on the Amazons were from “an island of bold rocks move and difficult to feed, and Coronado and crags located on the right hand of the soon split the expedition into several Indies” that abounded with gold. Caláfia, groups. Hernando de Alarcón (a political wishing to perform some grand deeds, rival of Cortés) took three vessels along the unilaterally attacked the Christians at coast with supplies, reaching the mouth of Constantinople. But, alas, she fell in love Colorado River and journeying up it a and married Esplandian’s cousin, became a distance of 85 leagues (about 250 miles), Christian, and the Island of Caláfia was well pas the junction of the Colorado and thereafter no longer populated by women Gila Rivers. Meanwhile, the main force alone. Hale’s hypothesis is that this sordid headed overland for the fabled Seven story suggested to the Spaniards, who Cities. However, the cities of Cíbola proved thought they were near the “right hand of a sad disappointment -- there were only six, the Indies” upon discovering a large island and they were small Zuni Indian villages, that consisted of bold and craggy rocks with not cities. Coronado’s expedition was rich pearl beds and rumors of gold (perhaps viewed as a failure and he died in obscurity Isla Cedros, off the west coast of in 1554. However, exploring parities sent southernmost Baja California), would out to the east and west of the main force naturally assume it to be the Island of had some good fortune. One led by López Caláfia. de Cárdenas in search of a river route to the Pacific, came to the Grand Canyon, the first Endnote 6. The Viceroy of New Spain Europeans to see it (and also the last for (Mexico), Antonio de Mendoza, was more than 200 years). Another group, responsible for much of the earliest under Melchor Díaz, reached the Lower exploration of the Californias. Explorations Colorado River at Yuma, and crossed into in New Spain by Álvar Nuñez Cabeza de California for a few days. Vaca (1528-1536) had brought reports of populous towns and precious metals Viceroy Mendoza, in 1542, also sent the (playing into the legend of the fabulous great navigator Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo to Seven Cities of Cíbola). Thus, Mendoza, in explore the west coast of California, 1539, sent a reconnaissance party, instructing him to take two ships north of including Esteván, or Estevanico (a north Punta Eugenio to see what lay beyond African slave who had been with Cabeza de Ulloa’s explorations of the outer coast. By Vaca), the Franciscan friar Marcos de Niza, September of that year, Cabrillo had and several hundred native people who discovered San Diego Bay, and from there followed the Indian road to Sinaloa. There, he continued north as far as Cape Marcos heard tales of the “Seven Cities of Mendocino (named after Mendoza, of Cíbola,” to the north. Esteván crossed the course). deserts with an advance party to reach the Pirate raids by Dutch and English Cíbola pueblos, where he was killed by the freebooters out of Bahías Pichilinque and Zuni. Marcos almost certainly did not get

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Ventana (near the modern Bay of La Paz) from Spain. The name Pimería Alta during the wars of the Reformation led referred to the “upper” or northern region of Sebastián Vizcaíno to the region in 1596, inhabitation of New Spain, primarily lured by stories of pearls. Vizcaíno went to inhabited by the northern Pima Indians great lengths to successfully win a permit (Pimans), which included the Papago – from the Viceroy of Mexico to visit Lower known since 1986 by their native name, the California, and in return, to please the Tohono O'odham. It was Kino who gave Crown, he established settlements in the the famous Santa Catalina Mountains of region—but his attempt to colonize Santa Tucson their name, in honor of the feast day Cruz, which he renamed La Paz, also failed. of Saint Catherine.

Endnote 7. On Kino’s first Pinacate When Father Kino first began his work in expedition, he saw the confluence of the Sonora (in 1687) the region now recognized Gila and Colorado Rivers (visible from the as Sonora/southern Arizona was a province top of Sierra Pinacate, or Volcán Santa known as Nueva Andalucía. The Baja Clara, as he named it). On his second and California peninsula was firmly occupied by third expeditions, he saw the land the Jesuits under Juan María Salvatierra, connection between Baja and the mainland, who first landed at Loreto in 1697 (the site realizing the peninsular nature of the former; of the first Jesuit colony on the peninsula). on these trips he also reached the Sea of Eventually, the Jesuits established 15 Cortez, on the coast of Sonora. On his missions in Baja California, five of which fourth expedition, he took “official had vineyards and produced wine. It could witnesses” to the top of Sierra Pinacate, to be said that the export trade of California prove to them the peninsular nature of Baja wine was first established by the Jesuits, for California. Kino was 61 years of age on this in 1707 Father Ugarte produced more wine fourth expedition to the Pinacates. In Kino’s than he could use at his northern mission in Historical Memoir, 1683-1711, he states, “In of Vigge Biaundo, and began exporting it to the year 1698…on the very high hill, or Mexico in exchange for other goods! ancient volcano, of Santa Clara, I descried However, the Jesuits never really became most plainly both with a telescope and self-sufficient in Lower California, and they without a telescope the junction of these relied heavily on supply ships coming from lands of New Spain with those of California, Sonora throughout their stay on the the head of this Sea of California and the peninsula. land passage which was there is thirty-five The Jesuits remained in Baja California until degrees latitude. At that time, however, I 1768, when the region was turned over to did not recognize it as such…” It took the Franciscans, who pushed north under several more years for Kino to be fully the leadership of Junipero Serra to build 21 convinced of the reality of his discovery. It new missions in Alto California, from San was not until 1747, after the voyage of Diego to Sonoma. But it was the Jesuits Father Fernando Consag through the who provided the most detailed written northern Gulf of California, that Spanish accounts of the region. For that matter, authorities publicly declared California part most of what we know about the early of the North American mainland. history of the Pimería Alta region, and Eusebio Francisca Kino (born E. F. Chini) northwest Mexico in general, comes from was born in what today is northernmost the writings of the Jesuits in the area. In Italy, in the village of Segno. As a member fact, it was a Jesuit scholar (Joseph de of the Jesuit order, he made more than 40 Acosta) who, in 1590, was the first to journeys on horseback and on foot through propose a land bridge between the Old the Pimería Alta (essentially northern World and the New World, in either the Sonora and southern Arizona) under orders extreme north or south (Huddleston 1967).

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It took another 150 years before Vitus detailed history of preconquest Mexico was Bering (in 1741) demonstrated that the based primarily on Clavigero’s work. “bridge” was in the north, by showing how close Asia and America actually were to one Fifty-six years after Kino's death, the Jesuits another. And it took almost another paid the price of their success and were hundred years before Gallatin (1836) expelled from the New World (indeed, from provided his influential argument that all all Spanish lands) by order of King Carlos III American Indian languages had a of Spain (1767) – over 10,000 Jesuits. In “uniformity of character indicating a most of the region known today as Arizona, common origin” in Asian languages, and the task of rounding up the Jesuits fell to later (1845) that the “similarity of physical Culiacán-born Bernardo de Urrea, Captain types” further corroborated an ancient Asian of the Altar Presidio. Urrea appointed connection. Gallatin’s work set the stage for Andrés Grijalva to manage the missions what remains today the prevailing view of along the Santa Cruz River as he removed the Western Hemisphere being peopled the Jesuits. In the Pimería Alta, the Jesuits from north to south, by way of the Bering were officially replaced by the Franciscans land bridge (which was in place until about in 1768. Whereas the Jesuits were 11,000 years ago). successful entrepreneurial farmers and ranchers, the Franciscans were more Prior to 1821, scholars in the U.S. had little focused on devotional missionary work. firsthand information about the American The Franciscans never rose to the Southwest, and virtually none about the challenge of the Baja missionary work, and Pimería Alta region. It was not until the they relinquished the peninsula to the independence of Mexico (from Spain) in Dominicans in 1773. In the Pimería Alta, 1821, and the opening of the Santa Fe Trail, however, they maintained their missionary that U.S. researchers began to explore the work for over 50 years, and during that time southwest. The history of Mexico prior to sent missions to the coast of Alta California, this time was based largely on Francisco founding San Francisco in the 1770s (hence Javier Clavigero’s classic History of Mexico, the city’s name). Father Francisco Garcés published first in Italian (1780) after the founded the northernmost mission in the expulsion of the Jesuits from New Spain, American southwest, San Xavier del Bac (in and later in English (1787). Clavigero, a Tucson), dedicated in 1797 and built at the Mexican Creole who entered the Jesuit site of Kino’s original missionary outpost on order in 1748, was the most influential the banks of the Santa Cruz River. Father Mexican historian of the eighteenth century. Junípero Serra replaced the Jesuits at However, his history essentially ignored the Loreto (Baja California), and later went on to Pimería Alta region, concentrating on the build a string of missions in Alta California. Mexican highlands and barely touching on The demise of the Franciscan’s work in the Baja California. He had no personal region began in the late 1820s, when knowledge of the California’s and depended Spaniards born on the Iberian Peninsula on the reports by refugees among his fellow were expelled from Mexico. By the time of Jesuits for his information about Baja the Gadsen Purchase in 1854, most of the California. Clavigero derived the Indians of Spanish mission churches were badly eastern North America from northern deteriorated or in ruins. Europe, and those in South America from Africa by way of an alleged, now- The Jesuit and Franciscan missionaries submerged, connection between Africa and who traveled the shores of the Sea of Brazil! The same can be said of the series Cortez also left us a legacy in place names, of great books by Alexander von Humboldt and a tour around the region today is a in the early nineteenth century, whose veritable calendar of Catholic saints. At times the list of saints must have simply

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been insufficient, and the catholic explorers describe the famous tidal bore of the yielded to such names as Todos Santos, Colorado, when it washed away his camp— Las Virgenes, and Los Frailes (the rocks at “We, landsmen from the interior, and land's end, Cabo San Lucas). unaccustomed to such movements of the water, stood contemplating with The Dominicans were some of the first to astonishment the rush of the tide coming in undertake real “scientific” expeditions in from the sea, in conflict with the current of Baja California. One of their earliest the river.” Peter Skene Ogden, an scientific expeditions was led by José adventurous Canadian fur trapper with Longinos Martínez, a member of the Royal Hudson’s Bay Company, also visited the Scientific Expedition to New Spain (1785- delta in 1829/1830. 1803) who undertook the overland journey from Cabo San Lucas to Monterey (in Alta The first ferry crossing of the Colorado River California) in 1792. Martínez was a first- in southern Arizona was established at class naturalist but, although he had a Yuma by Lt. Cave Johnson Couts. He military escort on his expedition, he traveled served as part of the military escort for the without scientific colleagues (Simpson Boundary Survey Commission surveying 1961). the new border between the U.S. and Mexico after the war. Couts came to the Endnote 8. Juan Bautista de Anza was crossing in the fall of 1849 and established born (1736) in Fronteras, Sonora (of a rope ferry for military and civilian use. Basque parents) but was actually raised on Couts left the river in December 1849, and the Divisadero Ranch in the San Luis Valley the next year a commercial ferry was south of Tumacacori, after his father (Juan established by Dr. Able Lincoln. Bautista de Anza, the elder) was killed by Apaches in 1740. For many years, de Anza During Spanish colonial times, of course, served as Captain of the Tubac Presidio explorers out of Mexico crossed the river and military governor of the region. The near Yuma. The first Spaniard, Cpt. body of Juan Bautista de Anza (the Hernando Alarcon, arrived by boat in 1540. younger) is believed to reside in the Jesuit The first Spaniard to have crossed on foot church of the colonial town of Arizpe, in the was probably Melchior Diaz. Next came Valley of the Río Sonora. Padre Kino (in 1700), and later Padre Garces and Juan Bautista de Anza (who Endnote 9. G. P. Davis, Jr. (1982) first crossed the Colorado in November described an American trapper, James Ohio 1774). The depth of the river fluctuated by Pattie, who, while camped in a cottonwood season and year, from only a few feet to forest on the Colorado River south of Yuma over 30 ft during flood years (e.g., 1916). in 1827, watched a jaguar enter his camp It was not until 1915, with the completion of and eat his dry beaver skins -- clear the “Ocean to Ocean Bridge” at Yuma, that testimony to the diversity of the upper delta a highway finally spanned the lower ecosystem at that time. In 1830, Pattie (and Colorado River. Not far from the junction of his father) made several trips to the west Gila and Colorado Rivers are two granitic coast of Mexico via the Gila River and down hills that rise above the surrounding the Colorado River, through the uppermost floodplain. This was the only place where Gulf of California, then across the deserts of travelers could easily cross the lower Baja California and on into California. Colorado (the famous “Yuma Crossing”) Pattie’s writings describe a rich and prior to bridge construction. It is the site abundant river where they trapped beavers where Juan Bautista de Anza, the 49ers, “almost as fast as we could wish. We the first southern railroad, and first southern sometimes brought in 60 in a morning.” highway all crossed the river. It is also the Pattie might have been the first person to area where the first military post was

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established on the Lower Colorado River, in Chappe's group the day after the transit support of the increasing numbers of occurred, adding important corroboration to emigrants crossing to California. the observations.

Endnote 10. The first European-planned Endnote 11. One of the earliest terrestrial scientific expedition to the west coast of biological collecting expeditions made to North America was probably the 1769 northern Baja California was by I. G. French-Spanish expedition to San José del Voznesenskii, out of a Russian colony at Cabo, at the very tip of the Baja peninsula, Sitka (Alaska). Ships from the colony to record the transit of Venus (Nunis 1982). visited Isla Carmen to obtain salt for the For the Western world, the transit of Venus preservation of furs. In 1842, Voznesenskii, across the face of the Sun on June 3, 1769, a preparator from the Zoological Museum of was the premier astronomical event of the the Imperial Academy of Sciences in Saint eighteenth century (and only the third time it Petersburg, sailed to Isla Carmen and the had been documented in the scientific nearby areas of Loreto and Puerto world). It provided an opportunity to Escondido, amassing a collection of 360 accurately determine the sun’s distance land plant specimens. Voznesenskii from the earth and thus the spatial scale of continued to explore Baja California for ten the entire solar system. The Jesuit- years. Today, Voznesenskii’s plant schooled Frenchman l’Abbé Jean-Baptiste collections reside in the Komarov Botanical Chappe d’Auteroche led the scientific party, Institute of the Academy of Sciences, Saint giving his life at the primitive observatory Petersburg (formerly known as Leningrad). and mission in San José del Cabo when, despite the threat of a local plague of In 1850 the H.M.S. Herald surveyed the “epidemical distemper” (typhus), he insisted Gulf of California, but the expedition’s on remaining at the mission to complete his botanist, Berthold Seeman, left the ship in astronomical observations. The French Mazatlán to cross the Sierra Madre to plan supplanted a British plan to send the Durango. In 1867 William Gabb made an brilliant Jesuit scientist Roger Joseph overland expedition from Cabo San Lucas Boscovich; a plan that was thwarted by the to San Diego on what was to become 1767 expulsion of all Jesuits from Spanish known as the J. Ross Browne Expedition, lands. The Chappe Expedition sailed from even though Browne returned to La Paz Europe to Vera Cruz, from where they used from Bahía Magdalena, while Gabb mules to make a 27-day trek, with all their proceeded on. supplies and astronomical instruments, across central Mexico to San Blas (Nayarit). Endnote 12. In 1852, when Capt. George From San Blas, they sailed to Cabo San A. Johnson started the Colorado Steam Lucas (another 30-day leg). At Cabo San Navigation Company, the U.S. Schooner Lucas the party was hosted by the Capacity sailed into the Gulf of California Franciscan Father Juan Morán, assigned by bringing, in sections, a small side-wheel Father Serra to the Mission San José del steamer, the Uncle Sam, designed to work Cabo. Adding more romance to the story the river. The Uncle Sam was 65 ft long, was the serendipitous presence of a well- with a hull depth of 3.5 ft. However, she educated Mexican-born Spanish engineer was never able to navigate up-river as far named Don Joaquín Velásquez Cárdenas as Yuma. de León. Cárdenas was born near Mexico The next steamer put into service was the City, but in 1769 he was living in a mining General Jessup, another side-wheeler, 104 camp just 55 miles north of San José del ft long. She was powered by a 70 Cabo. Cárdenas took it upon himself to horsepower engine and designed to handle make an independent observation of the a load of 60 tons with a two-foot draft. She transit, sending his observations to

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reached Camp Yuma in February 1854, this The last steamer to be built and put into being the fist successful and complete service was the Gila, which proved to be voyage by a powered vessel to the mouth of very successful and exceptionally fast. The the Gila from the head of the delta. She voyage form San Francisco to Yuma, was to bring military supplies to Ft. Yuma, including the up-river segment, took 12 -14 as well as provisions for the migrants days, and fares were set at $60 for cabin crossing the river region or settling into passage, or $40 for steerage. mining establishments along the lower Colorado. Shortly after the General Jessup These boats faced many challenges to began service, the company launched the navigation, not the least of which were the Colorado—later identified as Colorado No. 1 devastating tides that swept up and down to distinguish her from a later boat of the the estuary and river, and the tidal bore that same name. She made her first upward came during the spring tides. Many a ship voyage to Camp Yuma in May 1854. Next became stranded for various lengths of time came the stern-wheel surveying boat due to these factors. In September 1921 a Explorer, with which Lieutenant Joseph C. small steamer was capsized and lost (130 Ives began mapping the Colorado in the dead) due to a gigantic bore. Indians were winter of 1857-1858 (see below). She haired to take soundings on the bow of the served only one voyage up river and then boats, by means of a long peeled willow was sold to a private party. pole. Further, floodwaters were constantly changing the channels. Moving upstream, Several other boats were added to the fleet once the Colorado-Hardy junction was as the pre-Civil War business was booming. passed, and the zone of willow-cottonwood Another stern-wheeler, the Cocopah, was forests was reached, the banks became launched, followed by the Colorado No. 2 higher, the ground firmer, and river (build on the river bank opposite Camp conditions were better. Yuma). In 1857, Lieutenant Ives, of the Corps of Eventually a small shipyard was established Topographical Engineers, was directed by in the delta, at a place called “Shipyard the Secretary of War to organize an Slough,” near the Sonoran shore expedition to map the Colorado River below anchorage. It became the ultimate resting Yuma, and to determine its potential to carry place of most of the worn-out river craft. steamboat traffic. Ives ordered an iron- The great tidal range made beaching of old hulled stern-wheeler from a Philadelphia steamers a simple matter, and it also shipbuilder, just 50 ft in length and 3.5 ft in facilitated the operation of a dry dock as draft, to be built in sections and shipped to required. This whole enterprise was called san Francisco by way of the recently Puerta Isabel. Although it was in Mexican constructed Panama Railroad; from San territory, the Mexican government paid it Francisco it was shipped aboard the scant attention. schooner Monterey to the mouth of the Colorado River, arriving in November 1857. River traffic further expanded during the Assembly was completed by December 30th early 60s, with most of the freight moving and the little vessel, called the Explorer, up-river from the delta to Fort Yuma. In was launched that night. Fort Yuma was 1867, two stern-wheel steamers, the reached by Ives on January 7, 1858, Esmeralda and the Nina Tilden, were although he had to abandon the boat and brought in from San Francisco together with come overland the last 50 miles. Ives map two large barges (White Fawn and Black from those days of his exploration was the Crook). A reorganization of the company only map of the delta for the next 30 years. gave it the new name “Pacific and Colorado The official U.S. government version of Ives Navigation Company.” 1858 map was issued as U.S. Hydrographic

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Chart No. 619 (in which Ives work was was so taken by Sawyer’s stories, that he supplemented by the 1873 reconnaissance adopted many of them for his books, in of the Narragansett). which he retained the name Tom Sawyer but shaved many years off his age! At this time, the Gila River still formed the boundary between the U.S. and Mexico, as Endnote 13. Sonora and the Baja the Gadsden Purchase agreement had not California peninsula have always been “off yet been signed. The town of Yuma thus the radar screen” in Mexico City, due to lay in Mexican territory. their remoteness and perceived desolate landscape (including the socioeconomic Yuma was made an official U.S. Port of landscape). Further, for most of Mexico’s Entry in 1867. Mexico was always lenient in history the Sierra Madre Occidental its attitude toward trade and never Mountains created a barrier between established a customhouse at the mouth of Sonora and the vibrant neighboring state of the river, or at any other point south of the Chihuahua, and it was not until 1992 when boundary, though they had every right to. the “Yecora Highway” was finally

completed, that a convenient connection After ~25 years of successful river service, between these two states was established. the overland Southern Pacific railroad was Major chapters in Mexico’s history were completed and it became possible to deliver written during the early years of exploration freight to Yuma by rail from the Pacific of Sonora and the Gulf of California, Coast. Around the same time, the Laguna although most of the accounts from Dam was built, 14 miles above Yuma, northwestern Mexico at the time give no further crippling the steamboat business. At mention to such historic national events as that point, the river service ended. Puerta Father Hidalgo’s “Grito” and the start of War Isabel was dismantled in 1878. A complete of Independence from Spain (1810), list of all the boats working the river during General Agustin de Iturbide declaring this period can be found in Godfrey Sykes himself Emperor of Mexico (1822), the first 1937 monograph, “The Colorado Delta” presidential election and adoption of a (Amer. Geographical Society, Special Pub. constitution (1824), the election of Benito No. 19). An attempt to resurvey the river Juarez as president (1855), adoption of the and delta in 1891 showed that most of the second national constitution (1857), the major channels had shifted and changed French intervention of 1864-1867, the years course, as the delta was want to do. of Porfirio Diaz’ dictatorship (1876-1910), After river traffic ceased, the delta region the start of the Mexican Revolution (1910), once again became terra incognita. The and the third constitution (1917). only people trafficking the delta area were the Cucupá Indians. However, by then Endnote 14. In 1928, Ronald L. Ives made steamship traffic was building on the open the first of what would be over a hundred coast. In 1853, the steamer Independence expeditions to northwestern Mexico, was heading from ports in Central America exploring the Pinacate region and Gran to San Francisco with 359 passengers when Desierto, and publishing hundreds of she struck a reef off the Baja California articles on his historical geographic Peninsula. The steamer caught fire, and research. In many of his travels he was her engineer, Tom Sawyer, swam back- assisted by Alberto Celaya, known for his and-forth between the ship and shore skillful guiding of the Lumholtz Pinacates rescuing up to 90 passengers single- Expedition of 1909-1910 (and later a multi- handedly. When Sawyer met Samuel term comisario of the town of Sonoyta). Clemens (aka Mark Twain) in San Celaya died in 1962. Francisco 10 years later, they became drinking and story-telling friends. Clemens

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Ives took his MSc in Geomorphology from assaulting England. In this year too, the University of Colorado in 1937. He was Franklin D. Roosevelt was re-elected inducted into the army and quickly became President of the United States for the third chief of the meteorology division at Dugway term. Ernest Hemingway published For Proving Ground, Utah, in 1943. One of his Whom the Bell Tolls, Carl Sandberg earliest great adventures took place just published Abraham Lincoln: The War Years, before the bombing of Pearl Harbor. He C. G. Jung published The Interpretation of was part of a crew delivering classified Personality, Charlie Chaplin’s classic film equipment to Dutch Harbor, Alaska, when The Great Dictator premiered, and Walt their plane “disintegrated” in midair. The Disney’s Fantasia was released. Jack only survivor, he parachuted into the sea Dempsey retired from the ring. And, John and swam to Rat Island (one of the Steinbeck received the Pulitzer Prize for Aleutians) where he lived for 89 days on fish Literature for The Grapes of Wrath, which and seaweed until being rescued. When was also released as a movie this same the war was over, he went to Indiana year. The Grapes of Wrath still sells about University and earned his PhD in 200,000 copies annually! Geography. In 1968 he joined the Geography Department at Northern Arizona Endnote 17. Members of the 1940 University (Flagstaff), and after his Expedition were Ed Ricketts, John retirement he lived in Flagstaff and Tucson, Steinbeck, Carol Henning (Steinbeck’s first where he died in 1982. of three wives), Hall [Tex] Travis (engineer), Anthony Berry (Captain), Sparky Enea (Cpt. Between 1928 and 1981, Ronald Ives made Berry's brother-in-law), and Tiny Colleto excursions into northwestern Mexico nearly (crewman). Spencer Tracy was supposed every year, usually alone and with little food to join the expedition but got tied up on a or water. In all, he published an astonishing motion picture. Steinbeck paid Berry 565 articles in journals and magazines. $2,500 for the six-week charter of the Western Flyer. Endnote 15. While docked at Guaymas, Beebe and his crew stayed at the Hotel Endnote 18. The Northern Gulf Region, as Playa de Cortés, which continues to delight it is currently defined, extends from the visitors today. While Beebe was enjoying marine-influenced Colorado River Delta, the Playa de Cortés and shooting manta south to (and including) the Midriff Islands rays from the deck of Zaca, John (las Grandes Islas del Golfo), the largest Steinbeck's fourth novel, In Dubious Battle, being Islas Tiburón and Ángel de la Guarda, was published, and Steinbeck had begun and to Bahía San Francisquito (Baja work on what was to become his Pulitzer California) and Bahía Kino (Sonora). Within Prize winning novel Grapes of Wrath the Northern Gulf is the Upper Gulf of (published in 1939). California/Colorado River Delta Biosphere Reserve (the “Upper Gulf”), extending from Endnote 16. 1940 was a watershed year the delta to a line running from Punta by any measure. World War II had Pelícano, Sonora (= Roca del Toro; the “officially” begun the year before, when southern margin of Bahía Cholla and the Britain and France declared war on larger Bahía Adair, near Puerto Peñasco), Germany, which had already invaded much across the Gulf to Punta El Machorro (= of Eastern Europe. In one year, Germany Punta San Felipe), at San Felipe, Baja overran Norway, Denmark, Holland, California. Belgium, and Luxembourg. Italy and Japan decided to partner with Hitler, and the Axis Endnote 19. The year before the Ricketts- was born. By mid-year, Germany’s forces Steinbeck Expedition, The Grapes of Wrath had entered Paris and their bombers began (Steinbeck’s ninth book) was published,

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igniting a storm of controversy that had experiencing life without preconception and been simmering from his earlier novel In the joy of savoring each moment as it Dubious Battle. While the literary world occurs. As a natural follow-up to Cannery hailed it as a grand achievement and called Row, Steinbeck went full circle with East of Steinbeck “America's greatest living writer,” Eden (1952), also written in New York, California’s conservative and powerful which celebrates his own life growing up in agricultural community reacted violently. the Salinas Valley, his family, and the They condemned Steinbeck for his harsh fundamental human power to choose (but realistic) portrayal of corporate farms between good and evil, expressed also and the bad living conditions of migrant through the observation of tidepools in “The farmers. They branded Steinbeck an Log” portion of The Sea of Cortez. unpatriotic communist. Steinbeck even Altogether, Steinbeck published more than received death threats, and conservatives 30 books and screenplays that were burned copies of his book across the nation. adapted into as many films and TV series This public reaction struck Steinbeck deeply that received 29 Academy Award and by the spring of 1939, on the brink of nominations and a Pulitzer Prize – and despair, he declared an end to his career as which eventually won Steinbeck the Nobel a novelist. Marine biology and his friend Ed Prize for Literature in 1962. Ricketts provided a path for Steinbeck to remove himself physically and intellectually Ed Ricketts owned and operated the Pacific from the conflicts that had come to haunt Biological Laboratory, which supplied him as a novelist. biological specimens to schools and laboratories throughout the west. Ricketts Steinbeck grew up in the Salinas Valley of was a liberal-minded, intellectual California and early on developed a strong existentialist who didn't hesitate to mix fascination with the sea. In his youth he science and philosophy. He and Steinbeck took a few classes at Stanford University, developed a close friendship based on their including a summer marine biology (1923) shared fascinations of marine biology, course at Hopkins Marine Station, in literature, philosophy, women, and alcohol. Monterey, California. In part, it was his love In 1939, Ricketts published his now of the sea that drove him to move to Pacific celebrated text, Between Pacific Tides. Grove (near Monterey) in 1929, the year his Ricketts planned a series of four books on first book, Cup of Gold, was published and marine invertebrates that would cover the thus set the stage for his inevitable meeting entire Pacific coast, from Alaska to Peru with renaissance marine biologist Ed (the fourth would be a synthesis on Ricketts. northeastern Pacific littoral ecology). He had already made a collecting trip to Sitka in Steinbeck first put his friend Ed Ricketts into 1932, leading a party of friends that his writings in a short story titled The Snake included Joseph Campbell, the comparative (1935). But it was his novel Cannery Row mythologist. Also in 1939, Steinbeck and (1945), written after Steinbeck had moved Ricketts began work on a study of the to New York and was so shaken by the marine invertebrates of San Francisco Bay. death of his long-time friend that became However, that project never came to fruition the vehicle in grieving Ed's death and a way because the pursuit of a larger goal to find peace after the turbulent years intervened—the Sea of Cortez. Steinbeck had endured in California. "Doc" in Cannery Row is Steinbeck's idealized Ricketts moved from Chicago to Pacific image of Ed Ricketts and the persona Grove, California, in 1923. He had been a through which Steinbeck expresses his own student at the University of Chicago and, (and presumably Ed's) philosophy of life, although he never completed his which celebrates the wisdom of undergraduate degree, his courses and

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conversations with the pioneer ecologist W. Palythoa rickettsi (a zoanthid), Adesia C. Allee had imbued in him a view of animal rickettsi (a sea slug). communities that affected forever the way he looked at tidepools and life in general. Endnote 20. Upon his death in 1971, Lew As Ricketts traveled up and down the Walker’s ashes were scattered over Isla Pacific coast collecting tidepool animals for Rasa. his supply business, an emerging sense of community organization, influenced by Allee's views of ecology, began to permeate CITED REFERENCES AND OTHER his thinking. "Environmentalism," as we RECOMMENDED READING know it today, did not exist in the 1930s and 40s, and the field of ecology was still a fairly Allee, W. C. 1923. Studies in marine ecology: obscure scientific discipline. Ricketts' views 1. The distribution of common littoral evolved into one of the most pivotal books invertebrates of the Woods Hole region. ever written about ecology and marine Biological Bulletin 18: 167-191. biology (Between Pacific Tides, 1939). Astro, R. and T. Hayashi (eds.). 1971. Ricketts applied emerging ecological Steinbeck: The Man and His Work. principles, especially as viewed by Allee, to Oregon State University Press. the study of life in tide pools. He described Bancroft, G. 1927. Notes on the breeding how environmental conditions could be coastal and insular birds of central used to predict the presence of species, and Lower California. Condor 29:188–195. he described how communities of Bancroft, H. H. 1884. History of California, organisms function as wholes. He wrote Vol. 1. A. L. Bancroft and Co., San with an understanding of food webs that Francisco. was new to most biologists of the time. Bancroft, H. H. 1884. History of North Ricketts thus pioneered the concept of Mexican Sates, Vol. 1. A. L. Bancroft community ecology on the Pacific coast of and Co., San Francisco. America, bringing it west from his Bancroft, H. H. 1884. History of Northwest experience with Allee in Chicago (see Allee Coast, Vol. 1. A. L. Bancroft and Co., 1923; Hedgpeth 1978). Although he did not San Francisco. “discover” the phenomenon of intertidal Banks, R. C. 1962. A history of exploration zonation, Ed Ricketts was the first person to for vertebrates on Cerralvo Island, Baja codify the concept for a broad region (the California. Proceedings of the California Pacific coast of America) and to integrate it Academy of Sciences 30 (6):117–125. with a modern view of ecology. Many of his Bannon, J. F. 1955. The Mission Frontier ideas were liberally borrowed and published in Sonora, 1620-1687. U.S. Catholic upon by "degreed" scientists, such as M. History Society, NY. Doty and T. A. Stephenson. More than any Beebe, W. 1938. Zaca Venture. Harcourt, other single individual, it was the writings of Brace and Company, New York. Ed Ricketts (and stories told about him by Beegel, S. F., S. Shillinglaw and W. N. Joel Hedgpeth and John Steinbeck) that Tiffney, Jr. 1997. Steinbeck and the influenced my own earliest inclinations Environment. Interdisciplinary toward marine biology, invertebrate zoology, Approaches. University of Alabama and the Sea of Cortez. Press, Tuscaloosa, AL. Bernstein, M. D. 1964. The Mexican At least 3 species of invertebrates from the Mining Industry, 1890-1950. State Univ. Sea of Cortez have been named in honor of NY, Albany. John Steinbeck, and 5 in honor of Ed Bolton, H. E. 1919. Kino’s Historical Ricketts: Mysidium rickettsi (a mysid), Memoir of Pimería Alta; A Longiprostatum rickettsi (a flatworm), Contemporary Account of the Isometridium rickettsi (a sea anemone), Beginnings of California, Sonora, and

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Arizona. (2 Vols.). Arthur H. Clark, Brusca, R. C.. 2005. Where the Desert Cleveland, OH. Meets the Sea. Sonorensis, Winter Bolton, H. E. 1936. Rim of Christendom: A 2005. Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum, Biography of Eusebio Francisco Kino, Tucson, AZ. Pp. 20-24. Pacific Coast Pioneer. Macmillan, NY. Brusca, R. C. 2007. Father Eusebio Kino, Boorstin, D. J. 1985. The Discoverers. the Baja California Peninsula, and the Random House, New York, NY. Sea of Cortez. Sonorensis, Winter Bowen, T. 1998. Julian Hayden and the 2007. Arizona-Sonora Desert Adair Bay shell site. Kiva 64(22): 137- Museum, Tucson. Pp. 6-13. 143. Brusca, R. C. 2007. Harvesting the Sea of Bowen, T. 2000. Unknown Island. Seri Cortez. From Kino’s Era to Modern Indians, Europeans, and San Esteban Times. Sonorensis, Winter 2007. island in the Gulf of California. Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum, University of New Mexico Press, Tucson. Pp. 42-47. Albuquerque. Brusca, R. C. 2009. Seafood and the Sea Bowen, T. 2004. Cecil B. DeMille and the of Cortez. Sonorensis, Winter 2009. Tiburón Island adventure. Journal of the Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum. Pp. Southwest 46(3): 559-592. 20-29. Broyles, B. and M. P. Berman 2006. Brusca, R. C. (ed.). 2010. The Gulf of Sunshot. Peril and Wonder in the Gran California: Biodiversity and Desierto. University of Arizona Press, Conservation. Arizona-Sonora Desert Tucson, AZ. Museum Press & University of Arizona Broyles, B. and D. E. Boyer. 2011. Field Press. 336 pp. Man. Life as a Desert Archaeologist. Brusca, R. C. and G. C. Bryner. 2004. A Julian D. Hayden. Univ. Arizona Press, case study of two Mexican biosphere Tucson, AZ. reserves: the Upper Gulf of Broyles, B., G. H. Hartmann, T. E. Sheridan, California/Colorado River Delta and G. P. Nabhan and M. C. Thurtle. 2012. Pinacate/Gran Desierto de Altar Last Water on the Devil’s Highway. A Biosphere Reserves. Pp. 28-64 in n. E. Cultural and Natural History of Tinaja Harrison and G. C. Bryner (eds.), Altas. University of Arizona Press, Science and Politics in the International Tucson, AZ. Environment. Rowman and Littlefield, Brusca, R. C. 1973. A Handbook to the New York. Common Intertidal Invertebrates of the Brusca, R. C., L. T. Findley, P. A. Hastings, Gulf of California. University Arizona M. E. Hendrickx, J. Torre Cosio, A. M. Press, Tucson. van der Heiden. 2004. Macrofaunal Brusca, R. C. 1980a. The Allan Hancock Biodiversity in the Gulf of California. In Foundation of the University Southern J.-L. E. Cartron and G. Ceballos (eds.) California. Association Systematics Biodiversity, Ecosystems, and Collections Newsletter 8(1): 1-7. Conservation in Northern Mexico. Brusca, R. C. 1980b. Common Intertidal Oxford University Press. Invertebrates of the Gulf of California. Brusca, R. C. and M. Hendrickx. The Gulf 2nd Edition. University Arizona Press, of California Invertebrate Database: Tucson. The Invertebrate Portion of the Brusca, R. C. 1993. The Arizona/Sea of Macrofauna Golfo Database. Cortez years of J. Laurens Barnard. www.desertmuseum.org/center/seaofcor Journal Natural History 27: 727-730. tez/database.php Brusca, R. C. 2002b. On the Vermilion Brusca, R. C. and B. R. Wallerstein. 1979. Sea. Sonorensis, Winter 2002. Zoogeographic patterns of idoteid Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum, isopods in the northeast Pacific, with a Tucson, AZ. Pp. 2-9. review of shallow-water zoogeography

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