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Differential Livelihood Adaptation to Socio-Ecological Change in Coastal Bangladesh

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Differential Livelihood Adaptation to Socio-Ecological Change in Coastal Bangladesh Differential livelihood adaptation to socio-ecological change in coastal Bangladesh Sonia Ferdous Hoque Submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy University of Leeds Sustainability Research Institute (SRI) School of Earth and Environment September, 2016 The candidate confirms that the work submitted is her own, except where work which has formed part of jointly-authored publications has been included. The contribution of the candidate and the other authors to this work has been explicitly indicated below. The candidate confirms that appropriate credit has been given within the thesis where reference has been made to the work of others. This copy has been supplied on the understanding that it is copyright material and that no quotation from the thesis may be published without proper acknowledgement. The right of Sonia Ferdous Hoque to be identified as Author of this work has been asserted by her in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. © 2016 The University of Leeds and Sonia Ferdous Hoque Parts of this thesis are in the process of being published in international journals Chapter 5 and parts of Chapter 6 are in the paper under review as: Hoque, S.F., C.H. Quinn, and S. Sallu. 2016. Resilience, political ecology and well-being – An interdisciplinary approach to understanding socio-ecological change in coastal Bangladesh. Ecology and Society. Chapter 7 and parts of Chapter 6 are in the paper under review as: Hoque, S.F., C.H. Quinn, and S. Sallu. 2016. Differential livelihood adaptation to socio- ecological change in coastal Bangladesh. Regional Environmental Change. These papers are based on the findings of this PhD research. As the first author, I designed the research, collected the data, analysed it and wrote the manuscript on my own. The co- authors are my PhD supervisors, who revised and provided feedback on earlier drafts of the papers. ii Acknowledgements I would like to thank the University of Leeds for awarding me the prestigious Leeds International Research Scholarship (LIRS) that sponsored the full-tuition fees and stipend for my 3-years full-time doctoral studies and the School of Earth and Environment for providing the Sustainable Research Institute (SRI) bursary that supported my fieldwork expenses. Moreover, the Research and Training Support Grant (RTSG) enabled me to attend two conferences, where I could share my research findings. This PhD has been made possible by the constant guidance and support of my two supervisors, Dr. Claire Quinn and Dr. Susannah Sallu. Claire has been my primary and only supervisor during the first two years of my study, when I designed my research proposal and conducted my fieldwork. Although Susie joined in the third year, she has given very important inputs in developing my results chapters and writing papers for publications. Their timely feedback and constant encouragement helped me keep up my morale throughout the journey. I’m extremely grateful to the two local key persons, F.M. Parvez and Saifullah Shohag, in the two study sites for providing contextual information about the sites, helping me in recruiting respondents for the field exercises and supporting me in doing the households surveys. My childhood friend, Sadequa, arranged excellent accommodation facilities at her village home (Mithakhali) and helped me network with some knowledgeable people in the village. I would like to thank my college friend, Afzal Hossain, and colleagues, G.M. Parvez and Tushar, for serving as my research assistants and taking notes during group exercises. I’m immensely grateful to the hundreds of respondents who have taken their time to answer the household questionnaires and participate in the livelihood trajectory interviews. My husband, Ishtiaque Shams, has been a tremendous emotional support for me throughout this journey. Although he himself was studying at the University of Manchester, he willingly lived in Leeds with me to make my studies easier. He has been the only one to listen to me during endless moments of frustration. I would also like to mention my elder sister Samia Hoque, who encouraged me to come to UK in the first place. Last but not the least, I’m extremely grateful to my parents for giving me the best possible education and upbringing, that helped me become the person I’m today. My deepest gratitude goes to my mother, Dr. Shamim Ferdous, for going against the cultural norm at that time and educating me in an English medium school, for which I never had to face any language barriers in my tertiary education. iii Abstract Socio-ecological changes, brought about by the rapid growth of the aquaculture industry and the increased occurrence of climatic shocks and stresses, have significantly affected the livelihood dynamics of coastal communities in Asia. Empirical studies, to date, have largely provided a snapshot of the impacts and responses to a particular disturbance at a single spatial scale at a given time, often assessing the characteristics that make certain populations more vulnerable than others. To ensure equitable and environmentally sustainable livelihoods in the future, it is essential to unpack the complex social and ecological dynamics that drive long-term changes in a system’s configurations and shape the adaptive capacities of actors within the system. This study, therefore, explores the drivers, differential livelihood adaptations and well-being outcomes of socio-ecological change in coastal Bangladesh, using poverty as central lens for differentiation. The study takes a socio- ecological systems approach, whereby insights from vulnerability, resilience, political ecology, livelihoods, adaptation, poverty and human well-being are integrated into an interdisciplinary conceptual framework. A mixed methods approach was used to collect empirical evidence from two communities, both of which underwent transformations in farming systems when maintenance of the status quo through incremental adaptation was no longer feasible. Findings show that in the absence of good governance, social power resulting from high wealth status and associated political ties can steer the direction of socio-ecological change to one that is desirable for a small group of powerful stakeholders and completely undesirable for others. Differences in wealth status lead to differences in adaptive capacity; however, changes in vulnerability contexts brought about by power dynamics further exacerbate these inequalities. While resource constraints can restrict a household’s livelihood adaptation options, its adaptation space can also become narrower through negative externalities arising from the activities of other households. This can push some households towards downward trajectories, locking them in a poverty trap. In contrast, good governance and wider participation in decision making, can shift the farming system to one that is desirable for the majority of stakeholders. The study emphasises that resilience building through transformational adaptation should account for the heterogeneous values, interests and needs of different households. This can translate into more equitable adaptive capacities and prevent the system from embarking on a maladaptive trajectory in the future. iv Table of Contents Acknowledgements iii Abstract iv List of Tables x List of Figures xi Abbreviations xiii Chapter 1. Introduction 1 1.1 Research background 1 1.2 Contextual background 3 1.2.1 Climatic shocks and stresses in Bangladesh 3 1.2.2 Shrimp and prawn aquaculture in Bangladesh 5 1.3 Aims and objectives 6 1.4 Thesis structure 7 Chapter 2. An interdisciplinary approach to exploring socio-ecological change 11 2.1 Introduction 11 2.2 Vulnerability 11 2.2.1 Conceptualisation of vulnerability 11 2.2.2 Assessment of vulnerability 13 2.2.3 Research gaps 14 2.3 Resilience 14 2.3.1 Conceptualisation of socio-ecological resilience 14 2.3.2 Adaptive renewal cycle 16 2.3.3 Linking vulnerability and resilience 17 2.3.4 Critique of resilience thinking and research gaps 19 2.4 Political ecology 20 2.5 Livelihoods 23 2.5.1 Conceptualisation of livelihoods 23 2.5.2 Critique of sustainable rural livelihoods 25 2.5.3 Linking livelihoods and poverty 26 2.6 Adaptation 28 2.6.1 Conceptualisation of adaptation 28 v 2.6.2 Adaptation opportunities, barriers and limits 31 2.6.3 Research gaps 34 2.7 Poverty 34 2.7.1 Conceptualisation of poverty 34 2.7.2 Assessment of poverty 37 2.7.3 Methodological issues in multi-dimensional poverty assessment 39 2.8 Human well-being 40 2.8.1 Conceptualisation of well-being 40 2.8.2 Assessment of well-being 42 2.9 Conceptual framework 43 2.10 Conclusion 45 Chapter 3. Research methods and study sites 46 3.1 Introduction 46 3.2 Methodological approach 46 3.2.1 Ontological and epistemological stance 46 3.2.2 Case study approach 47 3.3 The case study 48 3.3.1 Bangladesh 50 3.3.2 South-western coastal region 51 3.3.3 Study sites 56 3.4 Mixed methods research 58 3.4.1 Focus group discussions 61 3.4.2 Participatory wealth ranking 61 3.4.3 Household questionnaire surveys 63 3.4.4 Livelihood trajectory interviews 65 3.5 Data analysis 67 3.5.1 Qualitative data 67 3.5.2 Quantitative data 68 3.6 Research reflections 68 3.6.1 Field work 68 3.6.2 Positionality 69 3.6.3 Ethical considerations 70 3.7 Conclusion 70 vi Chapter 4. Disaggregating households by poverty levels and comparing methods of multi-dimensional poverty assessment 72 4.1 Introduction 73 4.2 Methods 77 4.2.1 Participatory wealth ranking (PWR) 77 4.2.2 Fuzzy set analysis (FSA) 77 4.2.3 Principal component analysis (PCA) 82 4.3 Results 85 4.3.1 Participatory Wealth Ranking (PWR) 85 4.3.2 Fuzzy set analysis (FSA) 87 4.3.3 Principal Component Analysis (PCA) 89 4.4 Discussion 92 4.4.1 Methodological strengths and limitations 92 4.4.2 Comparison of asset ownership by wealth class 100 4.5 Conclusion 104 Chapter 5.
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